A Brief Historyof Modern India

2020

Editor’s Note

Several books have been written by justly famous authors and

historians of India’s struggle for freedom which is the major

strand in any consideration of the history of Modern India.

But these volumes are extensive and in-depth studies, and

often suffer from an overemphasis on one aspect at the cost

of another. The present small effort, however, brings together

various aspects of the turbulent period (from the arrival of

the Europeans on Indian soil and the establishment of British

rule in India to the day India won independence and the years

after freedom) in a systematic and succinct manner: major

and important details and milestones are effectively discussed

while several relevant but little known details are also

highlighted.

It is not just the mainstream freedom struggle that has

been considered; the disparate efforts—small but significant—

of several groups have also been discussed. The political and

socio-economic developments that have influenced the growth

of modern India have been dealt with in independent chapters.

The endeavour has been to present complex and truly

vast material in a brief and easy-to-understand manner, and

we hope our readers find the book of use and interest.

The present edition includes chapters on the advent of

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the Europeans in India and the British consolidation of power

in India besides incorporating additional information under

several chapters. There are also chapters on the challenges

that a newly independent nation faced in the wake of a brutal

partition. The Nehruvian era is also briefly discussed. The

chapter on India after Nehru discusses various developments

under the governments that came after 1964. In the Appendices,

a survey of personalities associated with various movements

is given. Also included for easy ready reference are several

charts relating to modern India and the freedom struggle.

We are grateful for the feedback we have received from

our readers. We have incorporated many of their valuable

suggestions in the present edition.

Suggestions for improvement are welcome.

Kalpana Rajaram

November 2020

Editor’s Note

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ContentsUNIT 1SOURCES AND APPROACHES 1

Chapter 1Sources for the History of Modern India 1Archival Materials 2

Central Government Archives 2Archives of the State Governments 3Archives of Three Presidencies 4Archives of Other European Powers 4Judicial Records 5Published Archives 5Private Archives 6Foreign Repositories 6

Biographies, Memoirs and Travel Accounts 7Newspapers and Journals 8Oral Evidence 9Creative Literature 10Painting 10Summary 12

Chapter 2

Major Approaches to the History of Modern India 13Colonial Approach/ Historiography 14Nationalist Historiography/ Approach 14Marxist Historiography/ Approach 15Subaltern Approach/ Historiography 16Communalist Approach 17Cambridge School 18Liberal and Neo-Liberal Interpretations 18

Feminist Historiography 18Summary 19

UNIT 2ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AND 21CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISHPOWER IN INDIA

Chapter 3Advent of the Europeans in India 21The Portuguese in India 22

The Quest for and Discovery of a 22Sea Route to IndiaFrom Trading to Ruling 23Portuguese State 28Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals 30Decline of the Portuguese 32Significance of the Portuguese 34

The Dutch 35Dutch Settlements 35Anglo-Dutch Rivalry 36Decline of the Dutch in India 36

The English 37Charter of Queen Elizabeth I 37Progress of the English Company 38

The French 42Foundation of French Centres in India 42The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: the 44Carnatic WarsCauses for the English Success and the 51French Failure

The Danes 53Why the English Succeeded against 53Other European Powers

Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies 53Naval Superiority 54Industrial Revolution 54Military Skill and Discipline 54Stable Government 54Lesser Zeal for Religion 55Use of Debt Market 55

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Contents

Summary 55BoxesPortuguese Rise and Fall 33Formative Years of the East India Company 41Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India 47About the Goods in Trade Initially 52

Chapter 4India on the Eve of British Conquest 59Challenges before the Mughals 59

External Challenges 59Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb—An 62Internal Challenge

Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire 64Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars 65Jagirdari Crisis 65Rise of Regional Aspirations 68Economic and Administrative Problems 69

Rise of Regional States 70Survey of Regional Kingdoms 70Nature and Limitations of Regional States 73

Socio-Economic Conditions 74Agriculture 74Trade and Industry 74Status of Education 76Societal Set-up 77Developments in Art, Architecture 78and Culture

Summary 80BoxesWhy Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat? 61Causes of the Mughals’ Downfall in a Nutshell 68

Chapter 5

Expansion and Consolidation of British 82Power in IndiaThe British Imperial History 82Was the British Conquest 82Accidental or Intentional?When did the British Period Begin in India? 84Causes of British Success in India 85

Superior Arms, Military, and Strategy 85

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Contents

Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary 85Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System 86Brilliant Leadership and Support of 86Second-Line LeadersStrong Financial Backup 86Nationalist Pride 87

British Conquest of Bengal 87Bengal on the Eve of British Conquest 87Alivardi Khan and the English 88Challenges Before Siraj-ud-Daulah 88The Battle of Plassey 89Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 90The Battle of Buxar 91The Treaty of Allahabad 93Dual Government in Bengal (1765–72) 94

Mysore’s Resistance to the Company 95The Wodeyar / Mysore Dynasty 95Rise of Haidar Ali 95First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) 96Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84) 97Third Anglo-Mysore War 98Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 99Mysore After Tipu 101

Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy 102Rise of the Marathas 102Entry of the English into Maratha Politics 102First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82) 103Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05) 105Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–19) 107Why the Marathas Lost 108

Conquest of Sindh 110Rise of Talpuras Amirs 110Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh 110Criticisms of the Conquest of Sindh 114

Conquest of Punjab 114Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs 114Ranjit Singh and the English 116Punjab After Ranjit Singh 117First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46) 117Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49) 119Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars 120

Extension of British Paramountcy 120

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Contents

Through Administrative PolicyThe Policy of Ring-Fence 120Subsidiary Alliance 121Doctrine of Lapse 124

Relations of British India with 126Neighbouring Countries

Anglo-Bhutanese Relations 126Anglo-Nepalese Relations 127Anglo-Burmese Relations 127

Anglo-Tibetan Relations 129Anglo-Afghan Relations 130John Lawrence and the Policy of 131Masterly InactivityLytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve 132

British India and the North-West Frontier 133Summary 134BoxesRobert Clive 93Estimate of Tipu Sultan 100Annexation of Awadh 125

UNIT 3RISING RESENTMENT AGAINST 137COMPANY RULE

Chapter 6People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857 137People’s Resistance: Meaning 138Genesis of People’s Resistance 138

Causative Factors for People’s Uprisings 139Civil Uprisings 139

Major Causes of Civil Uprisings 139General Characteristics of Civil Uprisings 140Important Civil Uprisings 140

Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones 153Tribal Revolts 155

Different Causes for Mainland and 155North-Eastern Tribal RevoltsCharacteristics of Tribal Revolts 156Important Tribal Movements 157of the Mainland

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Contents

Tribal Movements of the North-East 167Sepoy Mutinies 169

Causes 169Important Mutinies 170

Weaknesses of People’s Uprisings 170Summary 171BoxesSome Tribal Movements after 1857 162Tribal Movements: Period, Region, Causes at a Glance 166North-East Frontier Tribal Movements: Year, 168Region, Major Causes

Chapter 7

The Revolt of 1857 174Simmering Discontent 174The 1857 Revolt: the Major Causes 175

Economic Causes 175Political Causes 176Administrative Causes 177Socio-Religious Causes 177Influence of Outside Events 177Discontent Among Sepoys 177

Beginning and Spread of the Revolt 178The Spark 178Starts at Meerut 179Choice of Bahadur Shah as Symbolic Head 179Civilians Join 180Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt 181

Suppression of the Revolt 183Why the Revolt Failed 184

All-India participation was absent 184All classes did not join 184Poor Arms and Equipment 185Uncoordinated and Poorly Organised 185No Unified Ideology 185

Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor 186Nature of the Revolt 186Consequences 189Significance of the Revolt 192

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Contents

Summary 193BoxWhite Mutiny 188

UNIT 4REFORM MOVEMENTS 195

Chapter 8Socio-Religious Reform Movements: 195General FeaturesFactors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform 195

Impact of British Rule 196Social Conditions Ripe for Reform 196Opposition to Western Culture 197New Awareness among Enlightened Indians 197

Social and Ideological Bases of Reform 198Middle Class Base 198The Intellectual Criteria 199Two Streams 200

Direction of Social Reform 201Fight for Betterment of Position of Women 202Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation 209

Summary 215

Chapter 9A General Survey of Socio–Cultural 217Reform Movements and their LeadersSocio-Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders 217

Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj 217Prarthana Samaj 222Young Bengal Movement and 223Henry Vivian DerozioIshwar Chandra Vidyasagar 224Balshastri Jambhekar 225Paramahansa Mandali 225Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule 226Gopal Baba Walangkar 228Kisan Faguji Bansod 229Vitthal Ramji Shinde 229Gopalhari Deshmukh ‘Lokahitawadi’ 230Gopal Ganesh Agarkar 230

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Contents

The Servants of India Society 231Social Service League 231The Ramakrishna Movement and 231Swami VivekanandaDayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj 235Seva Sadan 238Dev Samaj 239Dharma Sabha 239Bharat Dharma Mahamandala 239Radhaswami Movement 239Sree Narayana Guru Dharma 240Paripalana (SNDP) MovementVokkaliga Sangha 241Justice Movement 241Self-Respect Movement 241Temple Entry Movement 241Indian Social Conference 242Wahabi/Walliullah Movement 242Titu Mir’s Movement 243Faraizi Movement 243Ahmadiyya Movement 244Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the 244Aligarh MovementThe Deoband School (Darul Uloom) 246Parsi Reform Movements 247Sikh Reform Movements 247The Theosophical Movement 248

Significance of Reform Movements 249Positive Aspects 249Negative Aspects 251

Summary 252

UNIT 5THE STRUGGLE BEGINS 254

Chapter 10Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India 254Factors in the Growth of Modern Nationalism 254

Understanding of Contradictions in 255Indian and Colonial Interests

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Contents

Political, Administrative, and Economic 255Unification of the CountryWestern Thought and Education 256Role of Press and Literature 256Rediscovery of India’s Past 257Progressive Character of Socio-religious 257Reform MovementsRise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia 257Impact of Contemporary Movements 257in the WorldReactionary Policies and Racial 258Arrogance of Rulers

Political Associations Before the 258Indian National CongressPolitical Associations in Bengal 259Political Associations in Bombay 260Political Associations in Madras 260

Pre-Congress Campaigns 261Summary 261

Chapter 11Indian National Congress: Foundation and the 262Moderate PhaseFoundation of the Indian National Congress 262

Was It a Safety Valve? 263Aims and Objectives of the Congress 264

Era of Moderates (1885–1905) 264Important Leaders 264Moderate Approach 264

Contributions of Moderate Nationalists 265Economic Critique of British Imperialism 265Constitutional Reforms and Propaganda 266in LegislatureCampaign for General Administrative 268ReformsProtection of Civil Rights 268

An Evaluation of the Early Nationalists 269Role of Masses 270Attitude of the Government 270

Summary 271

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Contents

UNIT 6NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905–1918) 272

Chapter 12Era of Militant Nationalism (1905–1909) 272Growth of Militant Nationalism 272

Why Militant Nationalism Grew 272The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement 276

Partition of Bengal to Divide People 276Anti-Partition Campaign Under 277Moderates (1903–05)The Congress Position 278

The Movement under Extremist Leadership 279The Extremist Programme 279New Forms of Struggle and Impact 280Extent of Mass Participation 283All India Aspect 285

Annulment of Partition 285Evaluation of the Swadeshi Movement 285

The Movement Fizzles Out 285Movement a Turning Point 286

The Surat Split 289Run-up to Surat 289Split Takes Place 290Government Repression 291

The Government Strategy 292Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 293

The Reforms 293Evaluation 295

Summary 296BoxDifferences between Moderates and Extremists 287

Chapter 13First Phase of Revolutionary Activities 299(1907–1917)Why the Surge of Revolutionary Activities 299The Revolutionary Programme 300A Survey of Revolutionary Activities 300

Bengal 300Maharashtra 303Punjab 304

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Contents

Revolutionary Activities Abroad 304Decline 308Summary 308

Chapter 14First World War and Nationalist Response 311Home Rule League Movement 312

Factors Leading to the Movement 312The Leagues 313The Home Rule League Programme 314Government Attitude 315Why the Agitation Faded Out by 1919 315Positive Gains 316

Lucknow Session of the Indian 317National Congress (1916)

Readmission of Extremists to Congress 317Lucknow Pact between Congress and 317Muslim League

Montagu’s Statement of August 1917 320Indian Objections 320

Summary 321

UNIT 7ERA OF MASS NATIONALISM BEGINS 322(1919–1939)

Chapter 15Emergence of Gandhi 322Why Nationalist Resurgence Now 323

Post-War Economic Hardships 323Expectations of Political Gains 323for Cooperation in the WarNationalist Disillusionment with 324Imperialism WorldwideImpact of Russian Revolution 324(November 7, 1917)

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and 325Government of India Act, 1919

Main Features 325Drawbacks 327Congress Reaction 328

Making of Gandhi 329

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Contents

Early Career and Experiments with 329Truth in South AfricaGandhi’s Experience in South Africa 332Gandhi’s Technique of Satyagraha 332

Gandhi in India 333Champaran Satyagraha (1917)—First Civil 333DisobedienceAhmedabad Mill Strike (1918)— 334First Hunger StrikeKheda Satyagraha (1918)—First 335Non-CooperationGains from Champaran, Ahmedabad, 336and Kheda

Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha, and 337Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

The Rowlatt Act 337Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act— 338First Mass StrikeJallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) 339

The Hunter Committee of Inquiry 341Congress View 343Summary 344BoxTolstoy Farm 331

Chapter 16Non-Cooperation Movement and 345Khilafat AandolanBackground 345The Khilafat Issue 346

Development of the Khalifat-Non-Cooperation 347ProgrammeCongress Stand on Khilafat Question 347Muslim League Support to Congress 348

The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement 348Spread of the Movement 350People’s Response 351Government Response 353The Last Phase of the Movement 353

Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement 354Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement 355Summary 356

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Contents

Chapter 17Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, 357Revolutionary Activities and Other New ForcesSwarajists and No-Changers 357

Genesis of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party 357Swarajists’ Arguments 358No-Changers’ Arguments 358Agree to Disagree 358The Swarajist Manifesto for Elections 359Gandhi’s Attitude 359Swarajist Activity in Councils 360Constructive Work by No-Changers 362

Emergence of New Forces: Socialistic Ideas, 362Youth Power, Trade Unionism

Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas 363Activism of Indian Youth 364Peasants’ Agitations 364Growth of Trade Unionism 364Caste Movements 364Revolutionary Activity with a Turn 365towards Socialism

Revolutionary Activity During the 1920s 365Why Attraction for Revolutionary Activity 365after Non-Cooperation MovementMajor Influences 366In Punjab-United Provinces-Bihar 366In Bengal 369Official Reaction 371Ideological Rethinking 371

Summary 373

Chapter 18

Simon Commission and the Nehru Report 375Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission 375

Indian Response 376Police Repression 378

Impact of Appointment of Simon Commission 379on the National Movement

The Simon Commission Recommendations 379Nehru Report 380

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Contents

Main Recommendations 381The Muslim and Hindu Communal Responses 381Amendments Proposed by Jinnah 383Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory 384

Summary 384BoxDr Ambedkar and the Simon Commission 378

Chapter 19

Civil Disobedience Movement and Round 385Table ConferencesThe Run-up to Civil Disobedience Movement 385

Calcutta Session of Congress 385Political Activity during 1929 386Irwin’s Declaration (October 31, 1929) 386Delhi Manifesto 387Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj 387January 26, 1930: the Independence Pledge 388

Civil Disobedience Movement—the Salt 389Satyagraha and Other Upsurges

Gandhi’s Eleven Demands 389Why Salt was Chosen as the Important Theme 390Dandi March (March 12–April 6, 1930) 390Spread of Salt Law Disobedience 391Impact of Agitation 396Extent of Mass Participation 396Government Response—Efforts for Truce 397Gandhi-Irwin Pact 398Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement 399

Karachi Congress Session—1931 400Congress Resolutions at Karachi 400

The Round Table Conferences 401First Round Table Conference 401Second Round Table Conference 403Third Round Table Conference 406

Civil Disobedience Resumed 407During Truce Period (March–December 1931) 407Changed Government Attitude After Second RTC 407Government Action 408Popular Response 408

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Contents

Communal Award and Poona Pact 408Main Provisions of the Communal Award 409Congress Stand 410Gandhi’s Response 410Poona Pact 411Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits 411

Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign and thoughts on Caste 412Ideological Differences and Similarities 414between Gandhi and AmbedkarSummary 418

Chapter 20

Debates on the Future Strategy after Civil 420Disobedience MovementThe First Stage Debate 420

Nehru’s Vision 421Nehru’s Opposition to Struggle- 421Truce-Struggle StrategyFinally, Yes to Council Entry 422

Government of India Act, 1935 423Main Features 423Evaluation of the Act 425Nationalists’ Response 426

The Second Stage Debate 427Divided Opinion 427Gandhi’s Position 428Congress Manifesto for Elections 428Congress’ Performance 429

Summary 429

Chapter 21

Congress Rule in Provinces 430Gandhi’s Advice 430Work under Congress Ministries 430

Civil Liberties 430Agrarian Reforms 430Attitude Towards Labour 432Social Welfare Reforms 433

Evaluation 433Summary 434

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Contents

UNIT 8TOWARDS FREEDOM AND 435PARTITION (1939–1947)

Chapter 22

Nationalist Response in the Wake of 435World War IICongress Crisis on Method of Struggle 435

Haripura and Tripuri Sessions: Subhash 436Bose’s Views

Gandhi and Bose: Ideological Differences 440Non-Violence versus Militant Approach 440Means and Ends 441Form of Government 442Militarism 445Ideas on Economy 445Religion 447Caste and Untouchability 449Women 449Education 452

Second World War and Nationalistic Response 453Congress Offer to Viceroy 453CWC Meeting at Wardha 453

Government Attitude and Congress Ministries’ 455Resignation

Government’s Hidden Agenda 455August Offer 458

Responses 458Evaluation 459

Individual Satyagraha 459Gandhi Designates Nehru as his Successor 460Cripps Mission 461

Why Cripps Mission Was Sent 461Main Proposals 461Departures from the Past and Implications 462Why Cripps Mission Failed 462

Summary 464

Chapter 23

Quit India Movement, Demand for Pakistan, 466and the INAQuit India Movement 466

Why Start a Struggle Now 466

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Contents

The ‘Quit India’ Resolution 467Gandhi’s General Instructions to 467Different SectionsSpread of the Movement 468Extent of Mass Participation 470Government Repression 470Estimate 471Gandhi Fasts 471

Famine of 1943 472Rajagopalachari Formula 472

The Formula 472Objections 473

Desai-Liaqat Pact 473Wavell Plan 473

Why the Government was Keen on 474a Solution NowThe Plan 474Muslim League’s Stand 474Congress Stand 475Wavell’s Mistake 475

The Indian National Army and Subhas Bose 475Origin and First Phase of the Indian 476National Army

Summary 479

Chapter 24

Post-War National Scenario 481Two Strands of National Upsurge 481Change in Government’s Attitude 481Congress Election Campaign and INA Trials 483

Election Campaign for Nationalistic Aims 483Congress Support for INA Prisoners 484The INA Agitation—A Landmark on 484Many Counts

Three Upsurges—Winter of 1945–46 485Three-Stage Pattern 485Evaluation of Potential and Impact of the 487Three UpsurgesCongress Strategy 488

Election Results 488Performance of the Congress 488

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Contents

Muslim League’s Performance 489Significant Features of Elections 489

The Cabinet Mission 489Why British Withdrawal Seemed Imminent Now 489On the Eve of Cabinet Mission Plan 491Cabinet Mission Arrives 491Cabinet Mission Plan—Main Points 491Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause 493Main Objections 493Acceptance and Rejection 494

Communal Holocaust and the Interim Government 495Changed Government Priorities 495Interim Government 495Obstructionist Approach and Ulterior 496Motives of the LeagueBirth and Spread of Communalism in India 497Characteristic Features of Indian Communalism 497Reasons for Growth of Communalism 498Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory 504

Summary 508BoxWavell’s ‘Breakdown Plan’ 494

Chapter 25

Independence with Partition 510Attlee’s Statement of February 20, 1947 510

main points of Attlee’s Statement 510Why a Date Fixed by Government for Withdrawal511Congress Stand 511

Independence and Partition 511Mountbatten as the Viceroy 512Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947 512Indian Independence Act 514Problems of Early withdrawal 515

Integration of States 515Inevitability of Partition 516

Why Congress Accepted Partition 516Gandhi’s Helplessness 519

Summary 519BoxPlan Balkan 515

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Contents

UNIT 9INDIA UNDER BRITISH RULE: 520GOVERNANCE AND OTHER ASPECTSChapter 26Constitutional, Administrative, and Judicial 520DevelopmentsContentsConstitutional Development between 1773 521and 1858

The Regulating Act of 1773 521Pitt’s India Act of 1784 522The Act of 1786 523The Charter Act of 1793 523The Charter Act of 1813 523The Charter Act of 1833 524The Charter Act of 1853 525The Act for Better Government of India 1858 526

Developments after 1858 till Independence 526Indian Councils Act 1861 526Indian Councils Act 1892 527Indian Councils Act 1909 527Government of India Act 1919 528Simon Commission 530Government of India Act 1935 530

Evolution of Civil Services in India 532Cornwallis’ Role 532Wellesley’s Role 533Charter Act of 1853 533Indian Civil Service Act of 1861 533Statutory Civil Service 534Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee 534Montford Reforms 1919 534Lee Commission (1924) 535Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule 535

Evolution of Police System in Modern India 536Military Under the British 538Development of Judiciary in British India 540

Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772–85) 541Reforms under Cornwallis (1786–93)— 541Separation of Powers

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Contents

Reforms under William Bentinck (1828–33) 542Later Developments 542Evaluation 543

Positive Aspects of Judiciary under the British 543The Negative Aspects 543

Major Changes in Administrative 543Structure after 1857

Genesis of Administrative Changes: 543New Stage of Colonialism

Administration: Central, Provincial, Local 544Central Government 544Provincial Government 546Local Bodies 547

Summary 551

Chapter 27

Survey of British Policies in India 553Administrative Policies 553

Divide and Rule 553Hostility Towards Educated Indians 553Attitude Towards the Zamindars 554Attitude Towards Social Reforms 554Underdeveloped Social Services 554Labour Legislations 555Restrictions on Freedom of the Press 556White Racism 556

Revenue Policies 557Hastings’ System 557Permanent Settlement 558Ryotwari System 559Mahalwari System 562Overall Impact of the British Land 564revenue Systems

British Social and Cultural Policy in India 565Characteristics of New Thought 566Schools of Thought 566Indian Renaissance 567Dilemma Before the Government 567Role of Christian Missionaries 567British Retreat 568

British Policy Towards Princely States 568

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Contents

British Foreign Policy in India 569Summary 570

Chapter 28

Economic Impact of British Rule in India 571Deindustrialisation—Ruin of 571Artisans and Handicraftsmen

One-Way Free Trade 571No Steps towards Modern Industrialisation 572Ruralisation 572

Impoverishment of Peasantry 572Emergence of Intermediaries, Absentee 573Landlordism, Ruin of Old ZamindarsStagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture 574Famine and Poverty 574Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture 574Destruction of Industry and Late 575Development of Modern IndustryNationalist Critique of Colonial Economy 578

British Policies Making India Poor 579Growth of Trade and Railways to 579Help BritainOne-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy 581Effect of Economic Drain 581

Economic Issue a Stimulant to National Unrest 582Stages of Colonialism in India 582

First Stage 583Second Stage 584Third Stage 585

Summary 586BoxEconomic Drain 578

Chapter 29Development of Indian Press 587Early Regulations 587Struggle by Early Nationalists to 588Secure Press FreedomVernacular Press Act, 1878 589Repression against Nationalist 590Journalists ContinuesDuring and After the First World War 592

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Contents

During the Second World War 593Summary 593

Chapter 30Development of Education 594Under Company Rule 594

A Humble beginning by Charter Act of 1813 595Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy 595Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) 595Efforts of Thomson 596Wood’s Despatch (1854) 596

After the Crown Takeover 597Hunter Education Commission (1882–83) 597Indian Universities Act, 1904 598Government Resolution on 599Education Policy—1913Sadler University Commission (1917–19) 600Education Under Dyarchy 602Hartog Committee (1929) 602Sargent Plan of Education 604

Development of Vernacular Education 607Development of Technical Education 608Evaluation of British Policy on Education 608Summary 609BoxWardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937) 606

Chapter 31

Peasant Movements 1857–1947 610Peasantry Under Colonialism 610A Survey of Early Peasant Movements 611

Indigo Revolt (1859–60) 611Pabna Agrarian Leagues 611Deccan Riots 612

Changed Nature of Peasant Movements after 1857 613Weaknesses 613Later Movements 614

The Kisan Sabha Movement 614Eka Movement 615Mappila Revolt 615Bardoli Satyagraha 616

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Contents

The All India Kisan Congress/Sabha 617Under Congress Ministries 617

Peasant Activity in Provinces 617During the War 618Post-War Phase 619

Balance-Sheet of Peasant Movements 620Summary 521

Chapter 32

The Movement of the Working Class 622Early Efforts 622During Swadeshi Upsurge 623During the First World War and After 624

The AITUC 624The Trade Union Act, 1926 625Late 1920s 625Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) 625Under Congress Ministries 626

During and After the Second World War 626After Independence 626

Summary 626

UNIT 10INDEPENDENCE AND AFTER 627

Chapter 33

Challenges before the Newborn Nation 627First Day of Independent India 627

First Government after Independence 628Challenges 629

Radcliffe’s Boundary Award and the 629Communal Riots

Challenges before the Boundary Commission 630Regions Most Affected by Riots 631

Challenges Associated with Division of Resources 632Division of Civil Government 633Division of Finances 633Division of Defence Personnel and Equipment 634

Assassination of Gandhi 634Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Refugees 635

East Punjab 635

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Contents

Bengal 636Delhi Pact on Minorities 636Centres of Refugee Settlements in India 637

Communists and Independence 637Why Communists were Sceptical 638about IndependenceShift from Antagonistic Strategy to 639Constitutional Democracy

Chapter 34

The Indian States 640I. The Company’s Struggle for Equality from 640

a Position of Subordination (1740–1765)II. Policy of Ring Fence (1765–1813) 641

III. Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813–1857) 641IV. Policy of Subordinate Union (1857–1935) 642

Curzon’s Approach 642Post-1905 643

V. Policy of Equal Federation (1935–1947): 644 A Non-StarterVI. Integration and Merger 644

Plebiscite and Army Action 645Gradual Integration 645

Chapter 35

Making of the Constitution for India 647Background 647Constituent Assembly 650

Formation 650Two Constituent Assemblies: India and Pakistan 651Evaluation of the Assembly for India 652After Independence 653Work : Committees and Consensus 653

BoxDrafting Committee 653

Chapter 36

The Evolution of Nationalist Foreign Policy 656From 1880 to First World War: Anti-imperialism 657and Pan-Asian FeelingWorld War I 658

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Contents

1920s and 1930s—Identifying with Socialists 658After 1936—Anti-Fascism 659After Independence 659

Panchsheel and Non-Alignment 660BoxesHistorical Perspective on Panchsheel 661Five Criteria of Non-alignment 663

Chapter 37

First General Elections 665Groundwork for the Elections 665

The Election Commission 665Legislation for Polls 666

Independent India Goes to the Polls for 666the First Time

Challenges 667Parties in the Fray for the Lok Sabha 668Conduct of Elections 669Results 670

BoxFirst General Elections: Winners 671

Chapter 38

Developments under Nehru’s Leadership (1947–64) 672Political Developments 673

Debate over National Language 673Linguistic Reorganisation of the States 674Growth of Other Political Parties 676An Undemocratic Deed 681

Concept of Planning for Economic Development 681Progress of Science and Technology 683Social Developments 684

Developments in Education 684Social Change under Nehru 685

Foreign Policy 685Relations with Neighbours 686

India and Pakistan 686India and China 687India and Nepal 689India and Bhutan 689India and Sri Lanka 689

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Contents

Chapter 39

After Nehru. . . 690The Lal Bahadur Shastri Years 690 (June 1964 – January 1966)

Early Life 691Political Journey after Independence 691Economic Ideas 693Foreign Relations 697The Indo-Pak War 698Shastri’s Death 701

Indira Gandhi: the First Phase 701(January 1966 – March 1977)

Early Life 701Political Journey after Independence 702Developments in the Political System 714Socio-Economic Policies 723Tackling Economic Problems 726The Indo-Pak War of 1971 and the Birth 729of BangladeshForeign Policy and Relations with other Countries737The Smiling Buddha 739

The Janata Party Years 741(March 1977 – January 1980)

Morarji Desai the First Non-Congress 741Prime MinisterFresh State Assembly Elections 741New President of India 742Downslide of the Janata and Rise 742of Congress (I)Charan Singh the Prime Minister 744Who Never Faced ParliamentFresh Lok Sabha Elections and End of 745Janata Party RuleLegacy of the Janata Rule 745Social Changes and Movements 749

Indira Gandhi: the Second Phase 750(January 1980 – October 1984)

Economy 750Foreign Relations 751Unrest in States 753

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Punjab Turmoil and Operation Blue Star 753Legacy 756

The Rajiv Years (October 1984 – December 1989) 757Problems at the Very Outset 757The 1985 General Elections 759Tackling the Tensions in States 760Positive Steps taken on the Domestic Front 762The Negative Side 765Agrarian Unrest 768Foreign Relations 769General Elections of 1989 772

The V.P. Singh Years 773(December 1989 – November 1990)

Kashmir Situation Worsens 773Implementation of the Mandal 774Commission ReportMandal to Mandir: the Rath Yatra and 776Fall of the Government

The Chandra Shekhar Government 777(November 1990 – June 1991)

Troubled Economy 777Elections of 1991 778

The Narasimha Rao Years (June 1991 – May 1996) 779Economic Reform 779Panchayati Raj and Nagarpalika Acts 781Handling Security Issues and Space Tech 782Foreign Policy 782Negative Aspects 783Kashmir 785General Elections of 1996 786Rise of the Dalit Voice 786

Between 1996 and 1999: Three Prime Ministers 787Vajpayee’s Short-Lived Term as Prime Minister 788United Front Government: Deve 788Gowda and I.K. GujralGeneral Elections 790

NDA Years (March 1998 – October 1999) 790Pokhran II: Operation Shakti 791The Lahore Summit 792Kargil War 792

NDA: Second Stint (October 1999 – May 2004) 793Economic and Social Steps 793

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Contents

Terrorist Trouble and Relations with Pakistan 794Relations with the US 795Kashmir Elections 795The Downside 795Significance of NDA 7962004 General Election 796

The UPA Years 797(May 2004 – May 2009; May 2009 – May 2014)

UPA Government: First Term 7972009 Election and UPA Back in Power 801

The 2014 General Election 812The NDA Government (May 2014 – May 2019) 814

Digital India: a Step Forward in e-Governance 815Socio-Economic Policies and 815Programmes of ImportanceSecurity 825Foreign Relations 829Social Situation 832

General Election and Return of the NDA 836Factors behind the NDA Victory 837

APPENDICES1. Personalities Associated with Specific Movements 840

Swadeshi Movement 840Non-cooperation Movement 845Civil Disobedience Movement 849Quit India Movement 852

2. Governors-General and Viceroys of India: 855Significant Events in their Rule

3. Indian National Congress Annual Sessions 8644. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 869

(late 18th to mid-20th century)5. Famous Trials of the Nationalist Period 8766. Caste Movements 8787. Peasant Movements 8808. Newspapers and Journals 883

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