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Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number ii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number i
Viral infections and Global chanGe
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number ii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number iii
Viral infections and Global chanGe
edited by
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number iv
Cover Design WileyCover Images Vitruvian man copy iStockphotocomMads Abildgaard virus image copy iStockphotocomBaris Simsek mosquito copy iStockphotocomAntagain globe copy iStockphotocomAnton Balazh
Copyright copy 2014 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley amp Sons Inc Hoboken New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is available
ISBN 978-1-118-29787-2
Printed in Singapore
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number v
Dedicated to my Parents
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number vi
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number vii
contents
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv
About the Editor xxix
PArt I GEnErAl AsPECts 1
1 ClImAtE ChAnGE And VECtor-BornE VIrAl dIsEAsEs 3Ying Zhang Alana Hansen and Peng Bi11 Introduction 412 Epidemiology of VVD 4
121 What are VVD 4122 Temporalndashspatial distribution of VVD around the world 4123 Factors that affect the transmission 5
13 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 6131 Dengue fever 6132 Yellow fever 9133 Viral encephalitis Japanese encephalitis Murray
Valley encephalitis and West Nile encephalitis 9134 Ross River fever and Barmah Forest fever 10135 Chikungunya fever 11136 Rift Valley fever 12137 Omsk hemorrhagic fever and CrimeanndashCongo
hemorrhagic fever 1314 Invasion of nonzoonotic VVD to humans 1415 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14
References 16
2 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on VECtor-BornE ArBoVIrAl EPIsystEms 21Walter J Tabachnick and Jonathan F Day21 Introduction 2222 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 2423 West Nile virus 25
231 Influence of climate on the North American WNV episystem 26
232 Effects of future changes in climate on the North American WNV episystem 27
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24 Dengue in Florida 28241 Did climate change play a role in the reemergence
of dengue in Florida 2825 Bluetongue 29
251 Influence of climate on the European bluetongue episystem 29252 The role of climate change in the European BTV episystem 30
26 Conclusions 31 Acknowledgement 32 References 32
3 InFluEnCE oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on mosquIto dEVEloPmEnt And Blood-FEEdInG PAttErns 35William E Walton and William K Reisen31 Introduction 3632 Mosquito development 37
321 Temperature 37322 Precipitation 44323 Effects of elevated CO
2 concentration 44
324 Photoperiodic cues 4533 Blood-feeding patterns 46
331 Temperature 46332 Humidity 49333 Cumulative impact on mosquito-borne viral infections 49
References 52
4 EnVIronmEntAl PErturBAtIons thAt InFluEnCE ArBoVIrAl host rAnGE InsIGhts Into EmErGEnCE mEChAnIsms 57Aaron C Brault and William K Reisen41 Introduction 5742 The changing environment 5943 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine
encephalitis virus 6244 Rice mosquitoes pigs and japanese encephalitis virus 6345 Culex pipiens complex house sparrows urbanization and
west Nile virus 6646 Urbanization global trade and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 7047 Conclusions 71
References 71
5 thE soCIo-EColoGy oF VIrAl ZoonotIC trAnsFEr 77Jonathan D Mayer and Sarah Paige51 Introduction 7852 Historical perspective 7853 Humanndashanimal interface 7954 Surveillance 7955 Deforestation and fragmentation 8056 Urbanization 8157 Examples 82
571 Nipah virus 82572 Hendra 83
contentS ix
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573 Influenza 8358 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 humAn BEhAVIor And thE EPIdEmIoloGy oF VIrAl ZoonosEs 87Satesh Bidaisee Cheryl Cox Macpherson and Calum NL Macpherson61 Introduction 8862 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
621 The humanndashanimal relationship 89622 Migration and population movements 90623 Climate change and vectors 91
63 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92631 Individual and collective responsibility 92
64 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93641 Yellow fever (urban yellow fever sylvatic or jungle yellow fever) 94642 WNV 94643 TBE 95644 Encephalitides 95645 LAC encephalitis 95646 JE 95647 Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) 95648 EEE 95649 Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 96
65 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96651 HeV 97652 NIV 97653 SARS 97654 Influenza H1N1 97655 Influenza H5N1 98656 Travel and respiratory viral zoonoses 98
66 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98661 Waterborne zoonotic viruses 99662 Epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 100663 Prevention and control 100
67 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101671 Case study bushmeat hunting in Cameroon 101672 Epidemiology of viral zoonoses from wildlife 101
68 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103681 Communication 103References 104
7 GloBAl trAVEl trAdE And thE sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 111Brian D Gushulak and Douglas W MacPherson71 Introduction 11272 Basic principles 113
721 Extension 113722 Expression 113
73 An overview of population mobility 11374 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
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75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
contentS xi
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
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315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
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xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
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honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
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contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
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Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
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Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
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Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number ii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number i
Viral infections and Global chanGe
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number ii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number iii
Viral infections and Global chanGe
edited by
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number iv
Cover Design WileyCover Images Vitruvian man copy iStockphotocomMads Abildgaard virus image copy iStockphotocomBaris Simsek mosquito copy iStockphotocomAntagain globe copy iStockphotocomAnton Balazh
Copyright copy 2014 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley amp Sons Inc Hoboken New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording scanning or otherwise except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc 222 Rosewood Drive Danvers MA 01923 (978) 750ndash8400 fax (978) 750ndash4470 or on the web at wwwcopyrightcom Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department John Wiley amp Sons Inc 111 River Street Hoboken NJ 07030 (201) 748ndash6011 fax (201) 748ndash6008 or online at httpwwwwileycomgopermission
Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a professional where appropriate Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages including but not limited to special incidental consequential or other damages
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762ndash2974 outside the United States at (317) 572ndash3993 or fax (317) 572ndash4002
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats For more information about Wiley products visit our web site at wwwwileycom
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is available
ISBN 978-1-118-29787-2
Printed in Singapore
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number v
Dedicated to my Parents
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number vi
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number vii
contents
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv
About the Editor xxix
PArt I GEnErAl AsPECts 1
1 ClImAtE ChAnGE And VECtor-BornE VIrAl dIsEAsEs 3Ying Zhang Alana Hansen and Peng Bi11 Introduction 412 Epidemiology of VVD 4
121 What are VVD 4122 Temporalndashspatial distribution of VVD around the world 4123 Factors that affect the transmission 5
13 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 6131 Dengue fever 6132 Yellow fever 9133 Viral encephalitis Japanese encephalitis Murray
Valley encephalitis and West Nile encephalitis 9134 Ross River fever and Barmah Forest fever 10135 Chikungunya fever 11136 Rift Valley fever 12137 Omsk hemorrhagic fever and CrimeanndashCongo
hemorrhagic fever 1314 Invasion of nonzoonotic VVD to humans 1415 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14
References 16
2 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on VECtor-BornE ArBoVIrAl EPIsystEms 21Walter J Tabachnick and Jonathan F Day21 Introduction 2222 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 2423 West Nile virus 25
231 Influence of climate on the North American WNV episystem 26
232 Effects of future changes in climate on the North American WNV episystem 27
viii contentS
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24 Dengue in Florida 28241 Did climate change play a role in the reemergence
of dengue in Florida 2825 Bluetongue 29
251 Influence of climate on the European bluetongue episystem 29252 The role of climate change in the European BTV episystem 30
26 Conclusions 31 Acknowledgement 32 References 32
3 InFluEnCE oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on mosquIto dEVEloPmEnt And Blood-FEEdInG PAttErns 35William E Walton and William K Reisen31 Introduction 3632 Mosquito development 37
321 Temperature 37322 Precipitation 44323 Effects of elevated CO
2 concentration 44
324 Photoperiodic cues 4533 Blood-feeding patterns 46
331 Temperature 46332 Humidity 49333 Cumulative impact on mosquito-borne viral infections 49
References 52
4 EnVIronmEntAl PErturBAtIons thAt InFluEnCE ArBoVIrAl host rAnGE InsIGhts Into EmErGEnCE mEChAnIsms 57Aaron C Brault and William K Reisen41 Introduction 5742 The changing environment 5943 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine
encephalitis virus 6244 Rice mosquitoes pigs and japanese encephalitis virus 6345 Culex pipiens complex house sparrows urbanization and
west Nile virus 6646 Urbanization global trade and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 7047 Conclusions 71
References 71
5 thE soCIo-EColoGy oF VIrAl ZoonotIC trAnsFEr 77Jonathan D Mayer and Sarah Paige51 Introduction 7852 Historical perspective 7853 Humanndashanimal interface 7954 Surveillance 7955 Deforestation and fragmentation 8056 Urbanization 8157 Examples 82
571 Nipah virus 82572 Hendra 83
contentS ix
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573 Influenza 8358 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 humAn BEhAVIor And thE EPIdEmIoloGy oF VIrAl ZoonosEs 87Satesh Bidaisee Cheryl Cox Macpherson and Calum NL Macpherson61 Introduction 8862 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
621 The humanndashanimal relationship 89622 Migration and population movements 90623 Climate change and vectors 91
63 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92631 Individual and collective responsibility 92
64 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93641 Yellow fever (urban yellow fever sylvatic or jungle yellow fever) 94642 WNV 94643 TBE 95644 Encephalitides 95645 LAC encephalitis 95646 JE 95647 Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) 95648 EEE 95649 Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 96
65 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96651 HeV 97652 NIV 97653 SARS 97654 Influenza H1N1 97655 Influenza H5N1 98656 Travel and respiratory viral zoonoses 98
66 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98661 Waterborne zoonotic viruses 99662 Epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 100663 Prevention and control 100
67 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101671 Case study bushmeat hunting in Cameroon 101672 Epidemiology of viral zoonoses from wildlife 101
68 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103681 Communication 103References 104
7 GloBAl trAVEl trAdE And thE sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 111Brian D Gushulak and Douglas W MacPherson71 Introduction 11272 Basic principles 113
721 Extension 113722 Expression 113
73 An overview of population mobility 11374 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
x contentS
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75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
contentS xi
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
xii contentS
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
contentS xiii
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xx
315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
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honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number i
Viral infections and Global chanGe
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number ii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number iii
Viral infections and Global chanGe
edited by
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number iv
Cover Design WileyCover Images Vitruvian man copy iStockphotocomMads Abildgaard virus image copy iStockphotocomBaris Simsek mosquito copy iStockphotocomAntagain globe copy iStockphotocomAnton Balazh
Copyright copy 2014 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley amp Sons Inc Hoboken New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording scanning or otherwise except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc 222 Rosewood Drive Danvers MA 01923 (978) 750ndash8400 fax (978) 750ndash4470 or on the web at wwwcopyrightcom Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department John Wiley amp Sons Inc 111 River Street Hoboken NJ 07030 (201) 748ndash6011 fax (201) 748ndash6008 or online at httpwwwwileycomgopermission
Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a professional where appropriate Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages including but not limited to special incidental consequential or other damages
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762ndash2974 outside the United States at (317) 572ndash3993 or fax (317) 572ndash4002
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats For more information about Wiley products visit our web site at wwwwileycom
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is available
ISBN 978-1-118-29787-2
Printed in Singapore
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number v
Dedicated to my Parents
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number vi
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number vii
contents
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv
About the Editor xxix
PArt I GEnErAl AsPECts 1
1 ClImAtE ChAnGE And VECtor-BornE VIrAl dIsEAsEs 3Ying Zhang Alana Hansen and Peng Bi11 Introduction 412 Epidemiology of VVD 4
121 What are VVD 4122 Temporalndashspatial distribution of VVD around the world 4123 Factors that affect the transmission 5
13 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 6131 Dengue fever 6132 Yellow fever 9133 Viral encephalitis Japanese encephalitis Murray
Valley encephalitis and West Nile encephalitis 9134 Ross River fever and Barmah Forest fever 10135 Chikungunya fever 11136 Rift Valley fever 12137 Omsk hemorrhagic fever and CrimeanndashCongo
hemorrhagic fever 1314 Invasion of nonzoonotic VVD to humans 1415 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14
References 16
2 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on VECtor-BornE ArBoVIrAl EPIsystEms 21Walter J Tabachnick and Jonathan F Day21 Introduction 2222 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 2423 West Nile virus 25
231 Influence of climate on the North American WNV episystem 26
232 Effects of future changes in climate on the North American WNV episystem 27
viii contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number viii
24 Dengue in Florida 28241 Did climate change play a role in the reemergence
of dengue in Florida 2825 Bluetongue 29
251 Influence of climate on the European bluetongue episystem 29252 The role of climate change in the European BTV episystem 30
26 Conclusions 31 Acknowledgement 32 References 32
3 InFluEnCE oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on mosquIto dEVEloPmEnt And Blood-FEEdInG PAttErns 35William E Walton and William K Reisen31 Introduction 3632 Mosquito development 37
321 Temperature 37322 Precipitation 44323 Effects of elevated CO
2 concentration 44
324 Photoperiodic cues 4533 Blood-feeding patterns 46
331 Temperature 46332 Humidity 49333 Cumulative impact on mosquito-borne viral infections 49
References 52
4 EnVIronmEntAl PErturBAtIons thAt InFluEnCE ArBoVIrAl host rAnGE InsIGhts Into EmErGEnCE mEChAnIsms 57Aaron C Brault and William K Reisen41 Introduction 5742 The changing environment 5943 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine
encephalitis virus 6244 Rice mosquitoes pigs and japanese encephalitis virus 6345 Culex pipiens complex house sparrows urbanization and
west Nile virus 6646 Urbanization global trade and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 7047 Conclusions 71
References 71
5 thE soCIo-EColoGy oF VIrAl ZoonotIC trAnsFEr 77Jonathan D Mayer and Sarah Paige51 Introduction 7852 Historical perspective 7853 Humanndashanimal interface 7954 Surveillance 7955 Deforestation and fragmentation 8056 Urbanization 8157 Examples 82
571 Nipah virus 82572 Hendra 83
contentS ix
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number ix
573 Influenza 8358 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 humAn BEhAVIor And thE EPIdEmIoloGy oF VIrAl ZoonosEs 87Satesh Bidaisee Cheryl Cox Macpherson and Calum NL Macpherson61 Introduction 8862 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
621 The humanndashanimal relationship 89622 Migration and population movements 90623 Climate change and vectors 91
63 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92631 Individual and collective responsibility 92
64 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93641 Yellow fever (urban yellow fever sylvatic or jungle yellow fever) 94642 WNV 94643 TBE 95644 Encephalitides 95645 LAC encephalitis 95646 JE 95647 Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) 95648 EEE 95649 Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 96
65 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96651 HeV 97652 NIV 97653 SARS 97654 Influenza H1N1 97655 Influenza H5N1 98656 Travel and respiratory viral zoonoses 98
66 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98661 Waterborne zoonotic viruses 99662 Epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 100663 Prevention and control 100
67 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101671 Case study bushmeat hunting in Cameroon 101672 Epidemiology of viral zoonoses from wildlife 101
68 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103681 Communication 103References 104
7 GloBAl trAVEl trAdE And thE sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 111Brian D Gushulak and Douglas W MacPherson71 Introduction 11272 Basic principles 113
721 Extension 113722 Expression 113
73 An overview of population mobility 11374 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
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75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
xii contentS
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
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315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
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xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
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2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
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Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
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Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number ii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number iii
Viral infections and Global chanGe
edited by
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number iv
Cover Design WileyCover Images Vitruvian man copy iStockphotocomMads Abildgaard virus image copy iStockphotocomBaris Simsek mosquito copy iStockphotocomAntagain globe copy iStockphotocomAnton Balazh
Copyright copy 2014 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley amp Sons Inc Hoboken New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording scanning or otherwise except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc 222 Rosewood Drive Danvers MA 01923 (978) 750ndash8400 fax (978) 750ndash4470 or on the web at wwwcopyrightcom Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department John Wiley amp Sons Inc 111 River Street Hoboken NJ 07030 (201) 748ndash6011 fax (201) 748ndash6008 or online at httpwwwwileycomgopermission
Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a professional where appropriate Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages including but not limited to special incidental consequential or other damages
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762ndash2974 outside the United States at (317) 572ndash3993 or fax (317) 572ndash4002
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats For more information about Wiley products visit our web site at wwwwileycom
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is available
ISBN 978-1-118-29787-2
Printed in Singapore
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number v
Dedicated to my Parents
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number vi
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number vii
contents
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv
About the Editor xxix
PArt I GEnErAl AsPECts 1
1 ClImAtE ChAnGE And VECtor-BornE VIrAl dIsEAsEs 3Ying Zhang Alana Hansen and Peng Bi11 Introduction 412 Epidemiology of VVD 4
121 What are VVD 4122 Temporalndashspatial distribution of VVD around the world 4123 Factors that affect the transmission 5
13 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 6131 Dengue fever 6132 Yellow fever 9133 Viral encephalitis Japanese encephalitis Murray
Valley encephalitis and West Nile encephalitis 9134 Ross River fever and Barmah Forest fever 10135 Chikungunya fever 11136 Rift Valley fever 12137 Omsk hemorrhagic fever and CrimeanndashCongo
hemorrhagic fever 1314 Invasion of nonzoonotic VVD to humans 1415 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14
References 16
2 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on VECtor-BornE ArBoVIrAl EPIsystEms 21Walter J Tabachnick and Jonathan F Day21 Introduction 2222 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 2423 West Nile virus 25
231 Influence of climate on the North American WNV episystem 26
232 Effects of future changes in climate on the North American WNV episystem 27
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24 Dengue in Florida 28241 Did climate change play a role in the reemergence
of dengue in Florida 2825 Bluetongue 29
251 Influence of climate on the European bluetongue episystem 29252 The role of climate change in the European BTV episystem 30
26 Conclusions 31 Acknowledgement 32 References 32
3 InFluEnCE oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on mosquIto dEVEloPmEnt And Blood-FEEdInG PAttErns 35William E Walton and William K Reisen31 Introduction 3632 Mosquito development 37
321 Temperature 37322 Precipitation 44323 Effects of elevated CO
2 concentration 44
324 Photoperiodic cues 4533 Blood-feeding patterns 46
331 Temperature 46332 Humidity 49333 Cumulative impact on mosquito-borne viral infections 49
References 52
4 EnVIronmEntAl PErturBAtIons thAt InFluEnCE ArBoVIrAl host rAnGE InsIGhts Into EmErGEnCE mEChAnIsms 57Aaron C Brault and William K Reisen41 Introduction 5742 The changing environment 5943 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine
encephalitis virus 6244 Rice mosquitoes pigs and japanese encephalitis virus 6345 Culex pipiens complex house sparrows urbanization and
west Nile virus 6646 Urbanization global trade and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 7047 Conclusions 71
References 71
5 thE soCIo-EColoGy oF VIrAl ZoonotIC trAnsFEr 77Jonathan D Mayer and Sarah Paige51 Introduction 7852 Historical perspective 7853 Humanndashanimal interface 7954 Surveillance 7955 Deforestation and fragmentation 8056 Urbanization 8157 Examples 82
571 Nipah virus 82572 Hendra 83
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573 Influenza 8358 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 humAn BEhAVIor And thE EPIdEmIoloGy oF VIrAl ZoonosEs 87Satesh Bidaisee Cheryl Cox Macpherson and Calum NL Macpherson61 Introduction 8862 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
621 The humanndashanimal relationship 89622 Migration and population movements 90623 Climate change and vectors 91
63 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92631 Individual and collective responsibility 92
64 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93641 Yellow fever (urban yellow fever sylvatic or jungle yellow fever) 94642 WNV 94643 TBE 95644 Encephalitides 95645 LAC encephalitis 95646 JE 95647 Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) 95648 EEE 95649 Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 96
65 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96651 HeV 97652 NIV 97653 SARS 97654 Influenza H1N1 97655 Influenza H5N1 98656 Travel and respiratory viral zoonoses 98
66 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98661 Waterborne zoonotic viruses 99662 Epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 100663 Prevention and control 100
67 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101671 Case study bushmeat hunting in Cameroon 101672 Epidemiology of viral zoonoses from wildlife 101
68 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103681 Communication 103References 104
7 GloBAl trAVEl trAdE And thE sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 111Brian D Gushulak and Douglas W MacPherson71 Introduction 11272 Basic principles 113
721 Extension 113722 Expression 113
73 An overview of population mobility 11374 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
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75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
contentS xi
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
contentS xiii
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
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315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number iii
Viral infections and Global chanGe
edited by
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number iv
Cover Design WileyCover Images Vitruvian man copy iStockphotocomMads Abildgaard virus image copy iStockphotocomBaris Simsek mosquito copy iStockphotocomAntagain globe copy iStockphotocomAnton Balazh
Copyright copy 2014 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley amp Sons Inc Hoboken New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording scanning or otherwise except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc 222 Rosewood Drive Danvers MA 01923 (978) 750ndash8400 fax (978) 750ndash4470 or on the web at wwwcopyrightcom Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department John Wiley amp Sons Inc 111 River Street Hoboken NJ 07030 (201) 748ndash6011 fax (201) 748ndash6008 or online at httpwwwwileycomgopermission
Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a professional where appropriate Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages including but not limited to special incidental consequential or other damages
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762ndash2974 outside the United States at (317) 572ndash3993 or fax (317) 572ndash4002
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats For more information about Wiley products visit our web site at wwwwileycom
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is available
ISBN 978-1-118-29787-2
Printed in Singapore
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number v
Dedicated to my Parents
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number vi
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number vii
contents
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv
About the Editor xxix
PArt I GEnErAl AsPECts 1
1 ClImAtE ChAnGE And VECtor-BornE VIrAl dIsEAsEs 3Ying Zhang Alana Hansen and Peng Bi11 Introduction 412 Epidemiology of VVD 4
121 What are VVD 4122 Temporalndashspatial distribution of VVD around the world 4123 Factors that affect the transmission 5
13 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 6131 Dengue fever 6132 Yellow fever 9133 Viral encephalitis Japanese encephalitis Murray
Valley encephalitis and West Nile encephalitis 9134 Ross River fever and Barmah Forest fever 10135 Chikungunya fever 11136 Rift Valley fever 12137 Omsk hemorrhagic fever and CrimeanndashCongo
hemorrhagic fever 1314 Invasion of nonzoonotic VVD to humans 1415 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14
References 16
2 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on VECtor-BornE ArBoVIrAl EPIsystEms 21Walter J Tabachnick and Jonathan F Day21 Introduction 2222 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 2423 West Nile virus 25
231 Influence of climate on the North American WNV episystem 26
232 Effects of future changes in climate on the North American WNV episystem 27
viii contentS
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24 Dengue in Florida 28241 Did climate change play a role in the reemergence
of dengue in Florida 2825 Bluetongue 29
251 Influence of climate on the European bluetongue episystem 29252 The role of climate change in the European BTV episystem 30
26 Conclusions 31 Acknowledgement 32 References 32
3 InFluEnCE oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on mosquIto dEVEloPmEnt And Blood-FEEdInG PAttErns 35William E Walton and William K Reisen31 Introduction 3632 Mosquito development 37
321 Temperature 37322 Precipitation 44323 Effects of elevated CO
2 concentration 44
324 Photoperiodic cues 4533 Blood-feeding patterns 46
331 Temperature 46332 Humidity 49333 Cumulative impact on mosquito-borne viral infections 49
References 52
4 EnVIronmEntAl PErturBAtIons thAt InFluEnCE ArBoVIrAl host rAnGE InsIGhts Into EmErGEnCE mEChAnIsms 57Aaron C Brault and William K Reisen41 Introduction 5742 The changing environment 5943 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine
encephalitis virus 6244 Rice mosquitoes pigs and japanese encephalitis virus 6345 Culex pipiens complex house sparrows urbanization and
west Nile virus 6646 Urbanization global trade and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 7047 Conclusions 71
References 71
5 thE soCIo-EColoGy oF VIrAl ZoonotIC trAnsFEr 77Jonathan D Mayer and Sarah Paige51 Introduction 7852 Historical perspective 7853 Humanndashanimal interface 7954 Surveillance 7955 Deforestation and fragmentation 8056 Urbanization 8157 Examples 82
571 Nipah virus 82572 Hendra 83
contentS ix
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573 Influenza 8358 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 humAn BEhAVIor And thE EPIdEmIoloGy oF VIrAl ZoonosEs 87Satesh Bidaisee Cheryl Cox Macpherson and Calum NL Macpherson61 Introduction 8862 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
621 The humanndashanimal relationship 89622 Migration and population movements 90623 Climate change and vectors 91
63 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92631 Individual and collective responsibility 92
64 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93641 Yellow fever (urban yellow fever sylvatic or jungle yellow fever) 94642 WNV 94643 TBE 95644 Encephalitides 95645 LAC encephalitis 95646 JE 95647 Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) 95648 EEE 95649 Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 96
65 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96651 HeV 97652 NIV 97653 SARS 97654 Influenza H1N1 97655 Influenza H5N1 98656 Travel and respiratory viral zoonoses 98
66 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98661 Waterborne zoonotic viruses 99662 Epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 100663 Prevention and control 100
67 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101671 Case study bushmeat hunting in Cameroon 101672 Epidemiology of viral zoonoses from wildlife 101
68 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103681 Communication 103References 104
7 GloBAl trAVEl trAdE And thE sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 111Brian D Gushulak and Douglas W MacPherson71 Introduction 11272 Basic principles 113
721 Extension 113722 Expression 113
73 An overview of population mobility 11374 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
x contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number x
75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
contentS xi
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
xii contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xii
124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
contentS xiii
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xiii
1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xx
315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
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xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number iv
Cover Design WileyCover Images Vitruvian man copy iStockphotocomMads Abildgaard virus image copy iStockphotocomBaris Simsek mosquito copy iStockphotocomAntagain globe copy iStockphotocomAnton Balazh
Copyright copy 2014 by John Wiley amp Sons Inc All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley amp Sons Inc Hoboken New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic mechanical photocopying recording scanning or otherwise except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc 222 Rosewood Drive Danvers MA 01923 (978) 750ndash8400 fax (978) 750ndash4470 or on the web at wwwcopyrightcom Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department John Wiley amp Sons Inc 111 River Street Hoboken NJ 07030 (201) 748ndash6011 fax (201) 748ndash6008 or online at httpwwwwileycomgopermission
Limit of LiabilityDisclaimer of Warranty While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a professional where appropriate Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages including but not limited to special incidental consequential or other damages
For general information on our other products and services or for technical support please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762ndash2974 outside the United States at (317) 572ndash3993 or fax (317) 572ndash4002
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data is available
ISBN 978-1-118-29787-2
Printed in Singapore
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Dedicated to my Parents
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number vi
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number vii
contents
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv
About the Editor xxix
PArt I GEnErAl AsPECts 1
1 ClImAtE ChAnGE And VECtor-BornE VIrAl dIsEAsEs 3Ying Zhang Alana Hansen and Peng Bi11 Introduction 412 Epidemiology of VVD 4
121 What are VVD 4122 Temporalndashspatial distribution of VVD around the world 4123 Factors that affect the transmission 5
13 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 6131 Dengue fever 6132 Yellow fever 9133 Viral encephalitis Japanese encephalitis Murray
Valley encephalitis and West Nile encephalitis 9134 Ross River fever and Barmah Forest fever 10135 Chikungunya fever 11136 Rift Valley fever 12137 Omsk hemorrhagic fever and CrimeanndashCongo
hemorrhagic fever 1314 Invasion of nonzoonotic VVD to humans 1415 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14
References 16
2 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on VECtor-BornE ArBoVIrAl EPIsystEms 21Walter J Tabachnick and Jonathan F Day21 Introduction 2222 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 2423 West Nile virus 25
231 Influence of climate on the North American WNV episystem 26
232 Effects of future changes in climate on the North American WNV episystem 27
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24 Dengue in Florida 28241 Did climate change play a role in the reemergence
of dengue in Florida 2825 Bluetongue 29
251 Influence of climate on the European bluetongue episystem 29252 The role of climate change in the European BTV episystem 30
26 Conclusions 31 Acknowledgement 32 References 32
3 InFluEnCE oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on mosquIto dEVEloPmEnt And Blood-FEEdInG PAttErns 35William E Walton and William K Reisen31 Introduction 3632 Mosquito development 37
321 Temperature 37322 Precipitation 44323 Effects of elevated CO
2 concentration 44
324 Photoperiodic cues 4533 Blood-feeding patterns 46
331 Temperature 46332 Humidity 49333 Cumulative impact on mosquito-borne viral infections 49
References 52
4 EnVIronmEntAl PErturBAtIons thAt InFluEnCE ArBoVIrAl host rAnGE InsIGhts Into EmErGEnCE mEChAnIsms 57Aaron C Brault and William K Reisen41 Introduction 5742 The changing environment 5943 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine
encephalitis virus 6244 Rice mosquitoes pigs and japanese encephalitis virus 6345 Culex pipiens complex house sparrows urbanization and
west Nile virus 6646 Urbanization global trade and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 7047 Conclusions 71
References 71
5 thE soCIo-EColoGy oF VIrAl ZoonotIC trAnsFEr 77Jonathan D Mayer and Sarah Paige51 Introduction 7852 Historical perspective 7853 Humanndashanimal interface 7954 Surveillance 7955 Deforestation and fragmentation 8056 Urbanization 8157 Examples 82
571 Nipah virus 82572 Hendra 83
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573 Influenza 8358 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 humAn BEhAVIor And thE EPIdEmIoloGy oF VIrAl ZoonosEs 87Satesh Bidaisee Cheryl Cox Macpherson and Calum NL Macpherson61 Introduction 8862 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
621 The humanndashanimal relationship 89622 Migration and population movements 90623 Climate change and vectors 91
63 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92631 Individual and collective responsibility 92
64 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93641 Yellow fever (urban yellow fever sylvatic or jungle yellow fever) 94642 WNV 94643 TBE 95644 Encephalitides 95645 LAC encephalitis 95646 JE 95647 Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) 95648 EEE 95649 Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 96
65 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96651 HeV 97652 NIV 97653 SARS 97654 Influenza H1N1 97655 Influenza H5N1 98656 Travel and respiratory viral zoonoses 98
66 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98661 Waterborne zoonotic viruses 99662 Epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 100663 Prevention and control 100
67 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101671 Case study bushmeat hunting in Cameroon 101672 Epidemiology of viral zoonoses from wildlife 101
68 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103681 Communication 103References 104
7 GloBAl trAVEl trAdE And thE sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 111Brian D Gushulak and Douglas W MacPherson71 Introduction 11272 Basic principles 113
721 Extension 113722 Expression 113
73 An overview of population mobility 11374 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
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75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
xii contentS
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
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315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
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xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
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2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
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Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
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Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
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Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number v
Dedicated to my Parents
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number vi
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number vii
contents
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv
About the Editor xxix
PArt I GEnErAl AsPECts 1
1 ClImAtE ChAnGE And VECtor-BornE VIrAl dIsEAsEs 3Ying Zhang Alana Hansen and Peng Bi11 Introduction 412 Epidemiology of VVD 4
121 What are VVD 4122 Temporalndashspatial distribution of VVD around the world 4123 Factors that affect the transmission 5
13 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 6131 Dengue fever 6132 Yellow fever 9133 Viral encephalitis Japanese encephalitis Murray
Valley encephalitis and West Nile encephalitis 9134 Ross River fever and Barmah Forest fever 10135 Chikungunya fever 11136 Rift Valley fever 12137 Omsk hemorrhagic fever and CrimeanndashCongo
hemorrhagic fever 1314 Invasion of nonzoonotic VVD to humans 1415 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14
References 16
2 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on VECtor-BornE ArBoVIrAl EPIsystEms 21Walter J Tabachnick and Jonathan F Day21 Introduction 2222 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 2423 West Nile virus 25
231 Influence of climate on the North American WNV episystem 26
232 Effects of future changes in climate on the North American WNV episystem 27
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24 Dengue in Florida 28241 Did climate change play a role in the reemergence
of dengue in Florida 2825 Bluetongue 29
251 Influence of climate on the European bluetongue episystem 29252 The role of climate change in the European BTV episystem 30
26 Conclusions 31 Acknowledgement 32 References 32
3 InFluEnCE oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on mosquIto dEVEloPmEnt And Blood-FEEdInG PAttErns 35William E Walton and William K Reisen31 Introduction 3632 Mosquito development 37
321 Temperature 37322 Precipitation 44323 Effects of elevated CO
2 concentration 44
324 Photoperiodic cues 4533 Blood-feeding patterns 46
331 Temperature 46332 Humidity 49333 Cumulative impact on mosquito-borne viral infections 49
References 52
4 EnVIronmEntAl PErturBAtIons thAt InFluEnCE ArBoVIrAl host rAnGE InsIGhts Into EmErGEnCE mEChAnIsms 57Aaron C Brault and William K Reisen41 Introduction 5742 The changing environment 5943 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine
encephalitis virus 6244 Rice mosquitoes pigs and japanese encephalitis virus 6345 Culex pipiens complex house sparrows urbanization and
west Nile virus 6646 Urbanization global trade and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 7047 Conclusions 71
References 71
5 thE soCIo-EColoGy oF VIrAl ZoonotIC trAnsFEr 77Jonathan D Mayer and Sarah Paige51 Introduction 7852 Historical perspective 7853 Humanndashanimal interface 7954 Surveillance 7955 Deforestation and fragmentation 8056 Urbanization 8157 Examples 82
571 Nipah virus 82572 Hendra 83
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573 Influenza 8358 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 humAn BEhAVIor And thE EPIdEmIoloGy oF VIrAl ZoonosEs 87Satesh Bidaisee Cheryl Cox Macpherson and Calum NL Macpherson61 Introduction 8862 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
621 The humanndashanimal relationship 89622 Migration and population movements 90623 Climate change and vectors 91
63 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92631 Individual and collective responsibility 92
64 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93641 Yellow fever (urban yellow fever sylvatic or jungle yellow fever) 94642 WNV 94643 TBE 95644 Encephalitides 95645 LAC encephalitis 95646 JE 95647 Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) 95648 EEE 95649 Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 96
65 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96651 HeV 97652 NIV 97653 SARS 97654 Influenza H1N1 97655 Influenza H5N1 98656 Travel and respiratory viral zoonoses 98
66 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98661 Waterborne zoonotic viruses 99662 Epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 100663 Prevention and control 100
67 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101671 Case study bushmeat hunting in Cameroon 101672 Epidemiology of viral zoonoses from wildlife 101
68 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103681 Communication 103References 104
7 GloBAl trAVEl trAdE And thE sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 111Brian D Gushulak and Douglas W MacPherson71 Introduction 11272 Basic principles 113
721 Extension 113722 Expression 113
73 An overview of population mobility 11374 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
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75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
contentS xi
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
contentS xiii
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xx
315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
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xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
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contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number vi
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number vii
contents
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv
About the Editor xxix
PArt I GEnErAl AsPECts 1
1 ClImAtE ChAnGE And VECtor-BornE VIrAl dIsEAsEs 3Ying Zhang Alana Hansen and Peng Bi11 Introduction 412 Epidemiology of VVD 4
121 What are VVD 4122 Temporalndashspatial distribution of VVD around the world 4123 Factors that affect the transmission 5
13 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 6131 Dengue fever 6132 Yellow fever 9133 Viral encephalitis Japanese encephalitis Murray
Valley encephalitis and West Nile encephalitis 9134 Ross River fever and Barmah Forest fever 10135 Chikungunya fever 11136 Rift Valley fever 12137 Omsk hemorrhagic fever and CrimeanndashCongo
hemorrhagic fever 1314 Invasion of nonzoonotic VVD to humans 1415 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14
References 16
2 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on VECtor-BornE ArBoVIrAl EPIsystEms 21Walter J Tabachnick and Jonathan F Day21 Introduction 2222 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 2423 West Nile virus 25
231 Influence of climate on the North American WNV episystem 26
232 Effects of future changes in climate on the North American WNV episystem 27
viii contentS
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24 Dengue in Florida 28241 Did climate change play a role in the reemergence
of dengue in Florida 2825 Bluetongue 29
251 Influence of climate on the European bluetongue episystem 29252 The role of climate change in the European BTV episystem 30
26 Conclusions 31 Acknowledgement 32 References 32
3 InFluEnCE oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on mosquIto dEVEloPmEnt And Blood-FEEdInG PAttErns 35William E Walton and William K Reisen31 Introduction 3632 Mosquito development 37
321 Temperature 37322 Precipitation 44323 Effects of elevated CO
2 concentration 44
324 Photoperiodic cues 4533 Blood-feeding patterns 46
331 Temperature 46332 Humidity 49333 Cumulative impact on mosquito-borne viral infections 49
References 52
4 EnVIronmEntAl PErturBAtIons thAt InFluEnCE ArBoVIrAl host rAnGE InsIGhts Into EmErGEnCE mEChAnIsms 57Aaron C Brault and William K Reisen41 Introduction 5742 The changing environment 5943 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine
encephalitis virus 6244 Rice mosquitoes pigs and japanese encephalitis virus 6345 Culex pipiens complex house sparrows urbanization and
west Nile virus 6646 Urbanization global trade and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 7047 Conclusions 71
References 71
5 thE soCIo-EColoGy oF VIrAl ZoonotIC trAnsFEr 77Jonathan D Mayer and Sarah Paige51 Introduction 7852 Historical perspective 7853 Humanndashanimal interface 7954 Surveillance 7955 Deforestation and fragmentation 8056 Urbanization 8157 Examples 82
571 Nipah virus 82572 Hendra 83
contentS ix
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573 Influenza 8358 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 humAn BEhAVIor And thE EPIdEmIoloGy oF VIrAl ZoonosEs 87Satesh Bidaisee Cheryl Cox Macpherson and Calum NL Macpherson61 Introduction 8862 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
621 The humanndashanimal relationship 89622 Migration and population movements 90623 Climate change and vectors 91
63 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92631 Individual and collective responsibility 92
64 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93641 Yellow fever (urban yellow fever sylvatic or jungle yellow fever) 94642 WNV 94643 TBE 95644 Encephalitides 95645 LAC encephalitis 95646 JE 95647 Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) 95648 EEE 95649 Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 96
65 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96651 HeV 97652 NIV 97653 SARS 97654 Influenza H1N1 97655 Influenza H5N1 98656 Travel and respiratory viral zoonoses 98
66 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98661 Waterborne zoonotic viruses 99662 Epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 100663 Prevention and control 100
67 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101671 Case study bushmeat hunting in Cameroon 101672 Epidemiology of viral zoonoses from wildlife 101
68 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103681 Communication 103References 104
7 GloBAl trAVEl trAdE And thE sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 111Brian D Gushulak and Douglas W MacPherson71 Introduction 11272 Basic principles 113
721 Extension 113722 Expression 113
73 An overview of population mobility 11374 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
x contentS
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75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
contentS xi
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
xii contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xii
124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
contentS xiii
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xiii
1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xiv
167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
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315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
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xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
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honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number vii
contents
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
Contributors xxv
About the Editor xxix
PArt I GEnErAl AsPECts 1
1 ClImAtE ChAnGE And VECtor-BornE VIrAl dIsEAsEs 3Ying Zhang Alana Hansen and Peng Bi11 Introduction 412 Epidemiology of VVD 4
121 What are VVD 4122 Temporalndashspatial distribution of VVD around the world 4123 Factors that affect the transmission 5
13 Association between climatic variables and emerging VVD 6131 Dengue fever 6132 Yellow fever 9133 Viral encephalitis Japanese encephalitis Murray
Valley encephalitis and West Nile encephalitis 9134 Ross River fever and Barmah Forest fever 10135 Chikungunya fever 11136 Rift Valley fever 12137 Omsk hemorrhagic fever and CrimeanndashCongo
hemorrhagic fever 1314 Invasion of nonzoonotic VVD to humans 1415 Implications and recommendations for prevention and control 14
References 16
2 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on VECtor-BornE ArBoVIrAl EPIsystEms 21Walter J Tabachnick and Jonathan F Day21 Introduction 2222 The complex factors influencing mosquito-borne arbovirus episystems 2423 West Nile virus 25
231 Influence of climate on the North American WNV episystem 26
232 Effects of future changes in climate on the North American WNV episystem 27
viii contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number viii
24 Dengue in Florida 28241 Did climate change play a role in the reemergence
of dengue in Florida 2825 Bluetongue 29
251 Influence of climate on the European bluetongue episystem 29252 The role of climate change in the European BTV episystem 30
26 Conclusions 31 Acknowledgement 32 References 32
3 InFluEnCE oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on mosquIto dEVEloPmEnt And Blood-FEEdInG PAttErns 35William E Walton and William K Reisen31 Introduction 3632 Mosquito development 37
321 Temperature 37322 Precipitation 44323 Effects of elevated CO
2 concentration 44
324 Photoperiodic cues 4533 Blood-feeding patterns 46
331 Temperature 46332 Humidity 49333 Cumulative impact on mosquito-borne viral infections 49
References 52
4 EnVIronmEntAl PErturBAtIons thAt InFluEnCE ArBoVIrAl host rAnGE InsIGhts Into EmErGEnCE mEChAnIsms 57Aaron C Brault and William K Reisen41 Introduction 5742 The changing environment 5943 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine
encephalitis virus 6244 Rice mosquitoes pigs and japanese encephalitis virus 6345 Culex pipiens complex house sparrows urbanization and
west Nile virus 6646 Urbanization global trade and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 7047 Conclusions 71
References 71
5 thE soCIo-EColoGy oF VIrAl ZoonotIC trAnsFEr 77Jonathan D Mayer and Sarah Paige51 Introduction 7852 Historical perspective 7853 Humanndashanimal interface 7954 Surveillance 7955 Deforestation and fragmentation 8056 Urbanization 8157 Examples 82
571 Nipah virus 82572 Hendra 83
contentS ix
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number ix
573 Influenza 8358 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 humAn BEhAVIor And thE EPIdEmIoloGy oF VIrAl ZoonosEs 87Satesh Bidaisee Cheryl Cox Macpherson and Calum NL Macpherson61 Introduction 8862 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
621 The humanndashanimal relationship 89622 Migration and population movements 90623 Climate change and vectors 91
63 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92631 Individual and collective responsibility 92
64 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93641 Yellow fever (urban yellow fever sylvatic or jungle yellow fever) 94642 WNV 94643 TBE 95644 Encephalitides 95645 LAC encephalitis 95646 JE 95647 Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) 95648 EEE 95649 Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 96
65 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96651 HeV 97652 NIV 97653 SARS 97654 Influenza H1N1 97655 Influenza H5N1 98656 Travel and respiratory viral zoonoses 98
66 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98661 Waterborne zoonotic viruses 99662 Epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 100663 Prevention and control 100
67 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101671 Case study bushmeat hunting in Cameroon 101672 Epidemiology of viral zoonoses from wildlife 101
68 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103681 Communication 103References 104
7 GloBAl trAVEl trAdE And thE sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 111Brian D Gushulak and Douglas W MacPherson71 Introduction 11272 Basic principles 113
721 Extension 113722 Expression 113
73 An overview of population mobility 11374 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
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75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
xii contentS
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
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315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
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xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
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2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
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Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
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Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
viii contentS
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24 Dengue in Florida 28241 Did climate change play a role in the reemergence
of dengue in Florida 2825 Bluetongue 29
251 Influence of climate on the European bluetongue episystem 29252 The role of climate change in the European BTV episystem 30
26 Conclusions 31 Acknowledgement 32 References 32
3 InFluEnCE oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on mosquIto dEVEloPmEnt And Blood-FEEdInG PAttErns 35William E Walton and William K Reisen31 Introduction 3632 Mosquito development 37
321 Temperature 37322 Precipitation 44323 Effects of elevated CO
2 concentration 44
324 Photoperiodic cues 4533 Blood-feeding patterns 46
331 Temperature 46332 Humidity 49333 Cumulative impact on mosquito-borne viral infections 49
References 52
4 EnVIronmEntAl PErturBAtIons thAt InFluEnCE ArBoVIrAl host rAnGE InsIGhts Into EmErGEnCE mEChAnIsms 57Aaron C Brault and William K Reisen41 Introduction 5742 The changing environment 5943 Deforestation and the epizootic emergence of venezuelan equine
encephalitis virus 6244 Rice mosquitoes pigs and japanese encephalitis virus 6345 Culex pipiens complex house sparrows urbanization and
west Nile virus 6646 Urbanization global trade and the reemergence of chikungunya virus 7047 Conclusions 71
References 71
5 thE soCIo-EColoGy oF VIrAl ZoonotIC trAnsFEr 77Jonathan D Mayer and Sarah Paige51 Introduction 7852 Historical perspective 7853 Humanndashanimal interface 7954 Surveillance 7955 Deforestation and fragmentation 8056 Urbanization 8157 Examples 82
571 Nipah virus 82572 Hendra 83
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573 Influenza 8358 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 humAn BEhAVIor And thE EPIdEmIoloGy oF VIrAl ZoonosEs 87Satesh Bidaisee Cheryl Cox Macpherson and Calum NL Macpherson61 Introduction 8862 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
621 The humanndashanimal relationship 89622 Migration and population movements 90623 Climate change and vectors 91
63 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92631 Individual and collective responsibility 92
64 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93641 Yellow fever (urban yellow fever sylvatic or jungle yellow fever) 94642 WNV 94643 TBE 95644 Encephalitides 95645 LAC encephalitis 95646 JE 95647 Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) 95648 EEE 95649 Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 96
65 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96651 HeV 97652 NIV 97653 SARS 97654 Influenza H1N1 97655 Influenza H5N1 98656 Travel and respiratory viral zoonoses 98
66 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98661 Waterborne zoonotic viruses 99662 Epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 100663 Prevention and control 100
67 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101671 Case study bushmeat hunting in Cameroon 101672 Epidemiology of viral zoonoses from wildlife 101
68 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103681 Communication 103References 104
7 GloBAl trAVEl trAdE And thE sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 111Brian D Gushulak and Douglas W MacPherson71 Introduction 11272 Basic principles 113
721 Extension 113722 Expression 113
73 An overview of population mobility 11374 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
x contentS
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75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
contentS xi
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
xii contentS
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
contentS xiii
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xx
315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
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xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
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honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
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contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
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Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
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Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
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Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
contentS ix
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573 Influenza 8358 Conclusion 84
References 84
6 humAn BEhAVIor And thE EPIdEmIoloGy oF VIrAl ZoonosEs 87Satesh Bidaisee Cheryl Cox Macpherson and Calum NL Macpherson61 Introduction 8862 Societal changes and the epidemiology of viral zoonoses 89
621 The humanndashanimal relationship 89622 Migration and population movements 90623 Climate change and vectors 91
63 Viral zoonoses and human societal values 92631 Individual and collective responsibility 92
64 Human behavior and the epidemiology of vector-borne viral zoonoses 93641 Yellow fever (urban yellow fever sylvatic or jungle yellow fever) 94642 WNV 94643 TBE 95644 Encephalitides 95645 LAC encephalitis 95646 JE 95647 Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) 95648 EEE 95649 Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) 96
65 Human behavior and the epidemiology of respiratory viral zoonoses 96651 HeV 97652 NIV 97653 SARS 97654 Influenza H1N1 97655 Influenza H5N1 98656 Travel and respiratory viral zoonoses 98
66 Human behavior and the epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 98661 Waterborne zoonotic viruses 99662 Epidemiology of waterborne viral zoonoses 100663 Prevention and control 100
67 Human behavior and the epidemiology of wildlife-associated viral zoonoses 101671 Case study bushmeat hunting in Cameroon 101672 Epidemiology of viral zoonoses from wildlife 101
68 The role of human behavior in the control of viral zoonoses 103681 Communication 103References 104
7 GloBAl trAVEl trAdE And thE sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 111Brian D Gushulak and Douglas W MacPherson71 Introduction 11272 Basic principles 113
721 Extension 113722 Expression 113
73 An overview of population mobility 11374 The dynamics of modern population mobility 114
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75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
contentS xi
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
contentS xiii
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
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315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
x contentS
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75 Human population mobility and the spread of viruses 11576 The biological aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 11777 The demographic aspects of population mobility and the spread of viruses 119
771 Elements related to the volume of travel 119772 Elements related to disparities in health practices 119773 Situations where population mobility and travel can affect
the spread of viruses 120774 Humanitarian and complex emergencies 122775 Social and economic aspects of population mobility 122776 An overview of trade 123777 Trade and the spread of viruses 124
78 Potential impact of climate change 12679 Conclusion 127
References 128
8 EFFECts oF lAnd-usE ChAnGEs And AGrICulturAl PrACtICEs on thE EmErGEnCE And rEEmErGEnCE oF humAn VIrAl dIsEAsEs 133Kimberly Fornace Marco Liverani Jonathan Rushton and Richard Coker81 Introduction 13482 Ecological and environmental changes 136
821 Deforestation 136822 Habitat fragmentation 137823 Structural changes in ecosystems 138
83 Agricultural change 139831 Agricultural expansion 139832 Intensification of livestock production 140
84 Demographic changes 141841 Urbanization 142
85 Land use disease emergence and multifactorial causation 14386 Conclusion 145
References 145
9 AnImAl mIGrAtIon And rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 151Diann J Prosser Jessica Nagel and John Y Takekawa91 Introduction 152
911 Animal migration and disease 15292 Does animal migration increase risk of viral spread 15293 Examples of migratory animals and spread of viral disease 157
931 Birds 157932 Mammals 162933 Fish and herpetiles 164
94 Climate change effects on animal migration and viral zoonoses 16695 Shifts in timing of migration and range extents 16696 Combined effects of climate change disease and migration 16797 Conclusions and future directions 169
Acknowledgements 170 References 170
contentS xi
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
xii contentS
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
contentS xiii
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
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315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
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xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
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contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
contentS xi
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10 IllEGAl AnImAl And (Bush) mEAt trAdE AssoCIAtEd rIsk oF sPrEAd oF VIrAl InFECtIons 179Christopher Kilonzo Thomas J Stopka and Bruno Chomel101 Introduction 180102 Search strategy and selection criteria 180103 The bushmeat trade 181104 Bushmeat hunting and emerging infectious diseases 181105 Risk factors and modes of transmission 183
1051 Humanndashnonhuman primate overlap 1831052 Behavioral risks 184
106 Conservation and wildlife sustainability 184107 Case study The role of the bushmeat trade in the evolution
of HIV 185108 Illegal trade of domestic animals and exotic pets 186109 Discussion and future directions 1871010 Prevention and control From supply and demand to health
education techniques 1871011 New technologies 188
10111 Laboratory tools 18810112 Surveillance tools 189
1012 Collaboration Multidisciplinary advances and next steps 1891013 Conclusion 190
Conflicts of interest 190References 190
11 BIoloGICAl sIGnIFICAnCE oF BAts As A nAturAl rEsErVoIr oF EmErGInG VIrusEs 195Angela M Bosco-Lauth and Richard A Bowen111 Introduction 195112 Bats as exemplars of biodiversity 196113 Bats are reservoir hosts for zoonotic and emerging pathogens 197
1131 Lyssaviruses 1971132 Henipaviruses 1981133 Filoviruses 2001134 Coronaviruses 2011135 Arboviruses 203
114 Contact rate as a driver for emergence of bat-associated zoonoses 203115 Potential impact of climate change on viruses transmitted by bats 205116 Conclusions 206 References 206
12 rolE And strAtEGIEs oF surVEIllAnCE nEtworks In hAndlInG EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 213Carlos Castillo-Salgado121 Introduction 214122 Global trend of viral infectious agents and diseases 214123 Recognized importance of public health surveillance 215
1231 Public health surveillance as essential public health functions and core competencies 215
xii contentS
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
contentS xiii
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
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315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
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xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
xii contentS
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124 Definition and scope of public health surveillance 216125 Key functions and uses of disease surveillance 217126 New expansion of surveillance by the IHR-2005 218127 Emergence of new global surveillance networks 218128 Global influenza surveillance and WHOrsquos pandemic influenza
preparedness framework 219129 Early warning surveillance systems 2201210 Innovative approaches for surveillance 2221211 Electronic and web-based information platforms for information
reporting sharing and dissemination 2221212 Real-time and near real-time information 2231213 New updated statistical methods for tracking viral and infectious
disease outbreaks 22312131 Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
for mapping and geo-referencing public health events and risks of national and global importance 224
1214 Using proxy and compiled web-based information from different sources 225
1215 Incorporation of publicndashprivate partnerships in surveillance activities 226
1216 Use of volunteer sentinel physicians 2261217 Improving guidelines and protocols for viral surveillance 2261218 Incorporating health situation rooms or strategic command centers
for monitoring analysis and response in surveillance efforts 2271219 Challenges of viral and public health surveillance 228
References 229
13 PrEdICtIVE modElInG oF EmErGInG InFECtIons 233Anna L Buczak Steven M Babin Brian H Feighner Phillip T Koshute and Sheri H Lewis
131 Introduction 233132 Types of models 234133 Remote sensing and its use in disease outbreak prediction 235134 Approaches to modeling and their evaluation 241135 Examples of prediction models 244
1351 Rift Valley fever 2441352 Cholera 2451353 Dengue 246
136 Conclusion 250References 250
14 dEVEloPmEnts And ChAllEnGEs In dIAGnostIC VIroloGy 255Luisa Barzon Laura Squarzon Monia Pacenti and Giorgio Palugrave
141 Introduction 256142 Preparedness 258143 Challenges in diagnosis of emerging viral infections 259144 Approaches to the diagnosis of emerging viral infections 260
1441 Specimen collection 2611442 Viral culture 262
contentS xiii
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
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315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
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xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
contentS xiii
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1443 Viral antigen detection 2621444 Molecular detection 2631445 Viral serology 2651446 Metagenomics and virus discovery 2651447 POC testing 267
145 Conclusions 267Acknowledgement 268References 268
15 AdVAnCEs In dEtECtInG And rEsPondInG to thrEAts From BIotErrorIsm And EmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 275Stephen A Morse and Angela Weber151 Introduction 276152 Emerging reemerging and intentionally emerging diseases 276153 Bioterrorism 278154 Viruses as bioweapons 279155 Impact of biotechnology 282
1551 Mousepox virus 2821552 Influenza A 2831553 Synthetic genomes 283
156 Deterrence recognition and response 2841561 Deterrence 2841562 Laboratory Response Network 2841563 Advances in diagnostics 2871564 Point-of-care diagnostics 2871565 PCR 287
157 Public health surveillance 2881571 Passive surveillance 2881572 Active surveillance 2891573 Syndromic surveillance 2891574 Detection of viral infections 289
158 Conclusion 291References 291
16 molECulAr And EVolutIonAry mEChAnIsms oF VIrAl EmErGEnCE 297Juan Carlos Saiz Francisco Sobrino Noemiacute Sevilla Veroacutenica Martiacuten Celia Perales and Esteban Domingo
161 Introduction Biosphere and virosphere diversities 298162 Virus variation as a factor in viral emergence
a role of complexity 299163 High error rates originate quasispecies swarms 300164 Evolutionary mechanisms that may participate in
viral disease emergence 302165 Ample genetic and host range variations of fMDV
a human epidemic to be 304166 The arbovirus host alternations high exposure to environmental
modifications 307
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
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2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
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27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
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2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
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315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
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xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
xiv contentS
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167 Arenaviruses As an emerging threat 313168 Conclusion 315
Acknowledgement 316References 316
17 drIVErs oF EmErGEnCE And sourCEs oF FuturE EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG VIrAl InFECtIons 327Leslie A Reperant and Albert DME Osterhaus171 Introduction 328172 Prehistoric and historic unfolding of the drivers of disease emergence 329
1721 Prehistory and before Microbial adaptation and change 3301722 Prehistoric human migrations and international travel 3301723 Domestication demographic and behavioral changes 3311724 Human settlements and changing ecosystems 3321725 Ancient and medieval times Commerce warfare poverty
and climate 3331726 Recent past and modern times Technology and industry 334
173 Proximal drivers of disease emergence and sources of future emerging and reemerging viral infections 334
174 Further insights from the theory of island biogeography 338References 339
18 sPIlloVEr trAnsmIssIon And EmErGEnCE oF VIrAl outBrEAks In humAns 343Sunit K Singh181 Introduction 343182 Major anthropogenic factors responsible for spillover 344183 Major viral factors playing a role in spillover 347
1831 Reassortment 3471832 Recombination 3471833 Mutation 348
184 Intermediate hosts and species barriers in viral transmission 349185 Conclusion 349
References 349
PArt II sPECIFIC InFECtIons 353
19 nEw EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG rEsPIrAtory VIrusEs 355Fleur M Moesker Pieter LA Fraaij and Albert DME Osterhaus191 Introduction 356
1911 History 3561912 Newly discovered human respiratory viruses that
recently crossed the species barrier 357192 Influenza viruses 359
1921 Transmission of avian influenza to humans 3601922 Clinical manifestations 3611923 Diagnosis 3611924 Treatment prognosis and prevention 361
193 Human metapneumovirus 3621931 Epidemiology 363
contentS xv
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1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xvi
2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
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243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xviii
27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xix
2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xx
315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
contentS xv
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xv
1932 Clinical manifestations 3631933 Diagnosis 3631934 Treatment prognosis and prevention 363
194 Human coronaviruses SARS and non-SARS 3631941 The SARS-CoV outbreak 3641942 Clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV 3651943 Diagnosis of SARS-CoV 3651944 Epidemiology of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651945 Clinical manifestations of non-SARS coronaviruses 3651946 Diagnosis of non-SARS coronaviruses 3661947 Treatment prognosis and prevention 366
195 Human bocavirus 3661951 Epidemiology 3661952 Clinical manifestations 3661953 Diagnosis 3671954 Treatment prognosis and prevention 367
196 KI and WU polyomaviruses 3671961 Epidemiology 3671962 Clinical manifestations 3671963 Diagnosis 3671964 Prognosis 368
197 Nipah and hendra viruses 3681971 Outbreaks 3681972 Clinical manifestations and prognosis 3681973 Diagnosis 3681974 Treatment and prevention 369
198 Conclusion 369199 List of abbreviations 369 References 370
20 EmErGEnCE oF ZoonotIC orthoPox VIrus InFECtIons 377Tomoki Yoshikawa Masayuki Saijo and Shigeru Morikawa201 Smallpox a representative orthopoxvirus infection The eradicated
non-zoonotic orthopoxvirus 3772011 Clinical features 378
202 Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses 3792021 Cowpox 3802022 Monkeypox 383Acknowledgement 387References 387
21 BIoloGICAl AsPECts oF thE IntErsPECIEs trAnsmIssIon oF sElECtEd CoronAVIrusEs 393Anastasia N Vlasova and Linda J Saif211 Introduction 393212 Coronavirus classification and pathogenesis 397213 Natural reservoirs and emergence of new coronaviruses 399214 Alpha- beta- and gamma coronaviruses cross-species transmission 404
2141 Alpha-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 4042142 Beta-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 405
xvi contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xvi
2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xvii
243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xviii
27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xix
2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xx
315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
xvi contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xvi
2143 Gamma-coronaviruses cross-species transmission 407215 Anthropogenic factors and climate influence on coronavirus diversity
and outbreaks 407216 Conclusion 410
References 410
22 ImPACt oF EnVIronmEntAl And soCIAl FACtors on ross rIVEr VIrus outBrEAks 419Craig R Williams and David O Harley
221 Introduction 420222 History of mosquito-borne epidemic polyarthritis
outbreaks in australia and the pacific 420223 RRV transmission cycles have a variety of ecologies 421224 Typical environmental determinants of RRV activity 422225 Social determinants of RRV disease activity 423226 A Conceptual framework for understanding the influence
of environmental and social factors on RRV disease activity 4232261 Climatic and other variables pathway a 4252262 Vertebrate host reservoirs pathway b 4252263 Mosquito vectors pathway c 4262264 Human behavior and the built environment pathway d 4262265 Climatic influences on mosquitoes pathway e 4262266 Climatic influences on housing and human behavior pathway f 4262267 Climatic influences on immune function pathway g 426
227 Climate Change and RRV 427228 Conclusion 427
Acknowledgement 428References 428
23 InFECtIon PAttErns And EmErGEnCE oF orsquonyonG-nyonG VIrus 433Ann M Powers231 Introduction 433232 History of outbreaks 434233 Clinical manifestations 435234 Epidemiology 435235 Factors affecting emergence 437
2351 Etiologic agent viral genomics and antigens encoded 4382352 Transmission parameters 4392353 Zoonotic maintenance 4392354 Environmental influences 440
236 Conclusion 440 References 441
24 ZoonotIC hEPAtItIs E AnImAl rEsErVoIrs EmErGInG rIsks And ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE 445Nicole Pavio and Jeacuterocircme Bouquet241 Introduction 446242 HEV biology and classification 446
contentS xvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xvii
243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xviii
27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xix
2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xx
315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
contentS xvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xvii
243 Pathogenesis in humans 4492431 Acute hepatitis 4502432 Chronic hepatitis 4502433 Fulminant hepatitis 4502434 Neurologic disorders 451
244 Animal Reservoirs 4512441 HEV in pigs 4512442 Prevalence of HEV in wild animals 4522443 Prevalence of HEV in avian rats and rabbits 452
245 Zoonotic and Interspecies Transmission of HEV and HEV-like viruses 454246 HEV in the environment 456247 Climate change and impact on HEV exposure 457248 Prevention 458249 Conclusion 458 Acknowledgement 459 References 459
25 ImPACt oF ClImAtE ChAnGE on outBrEAks oF ArEnAVIrAl InFECtIons 467James Christopher Clegg251 Introduction 467252 Natural history of arenaviruses 468253 Predicted climate changes 470254 Arenaviral diseases and climate change 471
References 473
26 EmErGInG And rEEmErGInG humAn BunyAVIrus InFECtIons And ClImAtE ChAnGE 477Laura J Sutherland Assaf Anyamba and A Desiree LaBeaud261 Introduction 478262 Bunyaviridae family 478
2621 Hantavirus 4792622 Nairovirus 4802623 Orthobunyavirus 4812624 Phlebovirus 482
263 Climate Change and Bunyaviridae Climatic influences on transmission cycles and subsequent risk for transmission of bunyaviruses 4822631 Arboviral bunyaviruses 4822632 Non-arboviral bunyaviruses 484
264 Disease spread due to growing geographic distribution of competent vectors 4852641 Physical movement of vectors 4852642 Expansion of suitable range 485
265 Using climate as a means for outbreak prediction 4862651 Climatic influences 4862652 Risk mapping and predictions 487
266 Future problems 489References 489
xviii contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xviii
27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xix
2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xx
315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
xviii contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xviii
27 EmErGInG trEnd oF AstroVIrusEs EntErIC AdEnoVIrusEs And rotAVIrusEs In humAn VIrAl GAstroEntErItIs 495Daniel Cowley Celeste Donato and Carl D Kirkwood271 Introduction 496272 Emerging trends in rotaviruses 497
2721 Rotavirus classification 4972722 Epidemiology of human rotaviruses 4982723 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 4982724 Genomic diversity of rotaviruses 4992725 Rotavirus vaccines and the impact of vaccine
introduction on the burden of rotavirus disease 4992726 Globally emerging rotavirus genotypes 500
273 Emerging trends in enteric adenoviruses 5012731 Adenovirus classification 5012732 Epidemiology of enteric adenoviruses HAdV-F40
and HAdV-F41 5022733 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5022734 Diversity and evolution of enteric adenoviruses 5032735 Emerging human enteric adenovirus species 503
274 Emerging trends in astroviruses 5042741 Astrovirus classification 5042742 Epidemiology of HAstVs 5052743 Clinical symptoms and pathogenesis 5052744 Diversity and evolution of HAstVs 5062745 Emerging HAstV species 507
References 508
28 EmErGInG humAn noroVIrus InFECtIons 517Melissa K Jones Shu Zhu and Stephanie M Karst281 Introduction 517282 Norovirus epidemiology 518283 Features of norovirus outbreaks 519284 Clinical features of norovirus infection 521285 Host Susceptibility 522286 Effect of increased size of immunocompromised population 522287 Effect of globalization of the food market on
norovirus spread 523288 Effect of climate change 525
References 525
29 EmErGEnCE oF noVEl VIrusEs (tosCAnA usutu) In PoPulAtIon And ClImAtE ChAnGE 535Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas and Ana Vazquez 291 Introduction 536292 TOSV 536
2921 Virus properties and classification 5362922 Clinical picture and geographical distribution 5372923 Phylogenetic studies distribution of genotypes 538
contentS xix
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xix
2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xx
315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
contentS xix
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xix
2924 Ecology 5392925 Laboratory diagnosis 5412926 Prevention of transmission and treatment 542
293 USUV 5422931 Virus properties and classification 5422932 History and geographical distribution 5432933 Ecology vector host and incidental host 5432934 Pathology 5442935 Laboratory diagnosis 5452936 Phylogenetic studies 5462937 Treatment prevention and surveillance 549
294 Conclusions 550Acknowledgement 550References 550
30 BornA dIsEAsE VIrus And thE sEArCh For humAn InFECtIon 557Kathryn M Carbone and Juan Carlos de la Torre301 Introduction 558302 Long-standing controversy around BDV as a human pathogen 559303 A negative is impossible to prove but do we have enough evidence
to stop looking 560304 Recent improvements in testing for evidence of BDV in
human samples 5623041 Serology 5623042 Nucleic acid tests 563
305 The possibilities for clinical expression of human BDV infection are myriad and almost impossible to predict 563
306 Epidemiology the ldquonewrdquo frontier of human BDV studies 565307 Where do we go from here 566
Acknowledgement 568References 568
31 tICk-trAnsmIttEd VIrusEs And ClImAtE ChAnGE 573Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Zdenek Hubaacutelek and Ivo Rudolf311 Introduction 574312 Ticks in nature 575313 Family Flaviviridae 576
3131 Tick-borne encephalitis virus 5763132 Louping ill virus 5793133 Powassan virus 5813134 Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus 5823135 Kyasanur Forest disease virus 582
314 Family Bunyaviridae 5833141 Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus 5833142 Henan virus 5883143 Bhanja virus 5893144 Keterah virus 590
xx contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xx
315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
xx contentS
Chapter No 1 Title Name SinghComp by EAravally Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094620 AM Stage Printer Page Number xx
315 Family Reoviridae 5903151 Colorado tick fever virus 5903152 Kemerovo virus 5903153 Tribeč virus 591
316 Family Orthomyxoviridae 5913161 Thogoto virus 5913162 Dhori virus 592
317 Other tick-transmitted viruses 592318 Conclusions 592
Acknowledgements 594References 594
32 thE tICkndashVIrus IntErFACE 603Kristin L McNally and Marshall E Bloom321 Introduction 604322 Viruses within the tick vector 605
3221 Impact of virus infection on ticks 6053222 Impact of the tick vector on viruses 6053223 Tick immunity 6073224 Other mediators of immunity 608
323 Saliva-assisted transmission 609324 Summary and future directions 611
3241 Generation of tick cell lines 6113242 The role of endosymbionts and coinfections 6113243 Tick innate immunity 6113244 Identification and characterization of viral SAT factors 6113245 Viral persistence in tick vectors 6123246 The impact of climate change on tick vectors
and tick-borne diseases 612Acknowledgements 612References 612
Index 617
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxi
xxi
foreWord
Tropical viruses especially vector-borne and zoonotic viruses contribute a huge although often hidden proportion of the worldrsquos burden of human infectious diseases Yet despite their importance these viruses are often severely neglected by the scientific community and global health policy makers For instance in the recently released Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study (Murray et al 2012) only two vector-borne viral diseases (ie yellow fever and dengue) and one zoonotic viral infection (ie rabies) are listed by name Together dengue yellow fever and rabies cause roughly 40000 deaths annually (Lozano et al 2012) but the actual number of deaths and disability resulting from vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses is undoubtedly much greater if we also consider other flaviviruses such as Japanese encephalitis and West Nile virus as well as important alpha viruses such as Ross River Chikungunya and Orsquonyong-nyong virus among others
Dr Sunit Singhrsquos edited volume on these and related viral infections are a welcome addition to the biomedical literature He and his colleagues have focused on the tropical viral infections that seldom get adequate attention relative to HIVAIDS hepatitis and influenza yet these are infections that in many respects may be almost as important His book emphasizes unique aspects of these viral diseases and their etiologies including the important influence of climate change as well as nonintuitive elements including socio-economics human behavior travel and animal and human migrations The book really gets to the key elements of what helps to promote the emergence of vector-borne and zoo-notic viruses and then perpetuate them in an endemic area
While the viruses and their diseases emphasized in ldquoViral Infections and Global Changerdquo are typically thought of as the major purview of low- and middle-income coun-tries we are seeing increasingly their emergence in wealthy countries Important examples include Chikungunya in southern Europe dengue in Singapore and coastal Brazil and most recently a potentially serious dengue threat to the southern United States Dengue type 2 has emerged in Texas while dengue type 1 is now in Florida setting up a possible scenario for dengue hemorrhagic fever one day appearing on the Gulf Coast of the United States (Hotez and Ryan 2010) These viruses will receive increasing attention in the com-ing decade and in this sense the current volume is ahead of the curve
I wish to congratulate Dr Singh and his colleagues for this important and timely volume on vector-borne and zoonotic viral infections It will benefit both medical and grad-uate students interested in medical virology as well as senior investigators working in this important but often neglected area
rEFErEnCEs
1 Murray CJL Vos T Lozano R et al 2012 Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions 1990ndash2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2197ndash2223
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
xxii FoReWoRD
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094624 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxii
2 Lozano R Naghavi M Foreman K et al 2012 Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010 a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 380 2095ndash2128
3 Hotez PJ Ryan ET 2010 Gulf Coast must remain vigilant for new health threat Houston Chronicle July 17 2010
Peter Hotez MD PhD FASTMH FAAPDean National School of Tropical Medicine
Professor Pediatrics and Molecular Virology amp MicrobiologyHead Section of Pediatric Tropical Medicine
Baylor College of Medicine Houston TX USATexas Childrenrsquos Hospital Endowed Chair of Tropical Pediatrics Houston TX USA
Director Sabin Vaccine Institute Texas Childrenrsquos Hospital Center for Vaccine Development Houston TX USA
President Sabin Vaccine Institute Washington DC USABaker Institute Fellow in Disease and Poverty Rice University Houston TX USA
Co-Editor-in-Chief PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiii
xxiii
Preface
Global changes have important health-related consequences The emergence and reemergence of viral infections depend on the interaction between global changes and viruses andor their reservoirs Increased morbidity and mortality from emerging and reemerging viral outbreaks affect the growth of nations adversely in terms of economy and medical costs Global changes may affect the health of human beings through the direct impact of changing environment which may alter the geographic distribution andor transmission dynamics of viruses It is important to recognize complex factors that play a role in the distribution and transmission of viruses Climate change as well as other factors that contribute to the emergence and reemer-gence of viral outbreaks such as social and demographic factors geographical variables global trade and transportation land-use patterns animal and human migration and public health interventions affect the transmission and geographical distribution of viral infections Population growth changes in human behavior livestock and agricultural farming practices disturb the ecosystem and increase the risk of outbreak of viral infections
It is important to study the effect of global changes on viral infections including the eco-logical and environmental factors and influences of extreme weather fluctuations on viral outbreaks The ease of international travel facilitates further the spread of viral infections globally Systematic increases in mean temperature and precipitation resulting in greater humidity have facilitated the spread of many vector-borne viral diseases Most vector-borne viral infections exhibit a distinct seasonal pattern which suggests their relation with changes in weather conditions Rainfall temperature and other climatic variables affect both the vec-tors and the viruses in several ways High temperature can affect (increase or decrease) vector survival rate depending on the vector its behavior ecology and many other factors However viral infections that may be transmitted to humans from animals (zoonoses) continue to cir-culate in nature Zoonotic viruses spread from animals to humans by broadening their host range which increases their speed of transmission The growing need to feed an increasing population has led to the adoption of intensive farming practices which has led to close contact between farmworkers and animals Animals contained in small areascages enable viruses to infect large numbers of animals at a single site which might result into the gener-ation of virulent forms through mutation or recombination processes
In order to understand the mechanisms of the spread of viruses and strategies to deal with such outbreaks we must understand the whole ecosystem in which diverse species such as humans bats and livestock coexist
This book has been divided into two parts Part I focuses on the general aspects of viral infections and global change Part II deals with specific viral infections and their interrela-tionships with global change This book is primarily targeted toward virologists environ-mentalists ecologists health-care workers clinicians microbiologists and students and research scholars of veterinary medicine human medicine or biology wishing to have an overview of the role of global changes and viral infections I hope that this book will serve as a useful resource for all those who are interested in the field of viral infections I am
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
xxiv PReFAce
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094625 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxiv
honored to have had a large panel of international experts as chapter contributors whose detailed knowledge has greatly enriched this book
We have so far conducted our studies related to wildlife animal and human viral infections separately We should focus on a ldquoone-healthrdquo approach to understand the complex interactions of the system (humans wild animals livestock production and the environment) as a whole The influence of global changes on the emergence and reemer-gence of vector- and non-vector-borne viral infections the challenges associated with disease surveillance strategies early detection of viral outbreaks and international policy implications on human health are all major areas of investigation for infectious disease experts in the future
Sunit K Singh
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxv
contribUtors
Assaf Anyamba Universities Space Research Association and Biospheric Science Laboratory NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt MD USA
Steven M Babin Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Luisa Barzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Peng Bi Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
Satesh Bidaisee Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Marshall E Bloom Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Angela M Bosco-Lauth Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Jeacuterocircme Bouquet UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA 94706 Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Richard A Bowen Colorado State University Fort Collins CO USA
Aaron C Brault Division of Vector-Borne Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Anna L Buczak Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kathryn M Carbone Division of Intramural Research NIDCRNIH Bethesda MD USA
Carlos Castillo-Salgado Department of Epidemiology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Baltimore MD USA
Bruno Chomel Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
James Christopher Clegg Les Mandinaux Le Grand Madieu France
Richard Coker Communicable Diseases Policy Research Group (CDPRG) Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Faculty of Public Health Mahidol University Bangkok Thailand
Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health National University of Singapore Singapore
Daniel Cowley Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
xxv
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
xxvi contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvi
Jonathan F Day Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
Esteban Domingo Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Celeste Donato Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Agustiacuten Estrada-Pentildea Department of Parasitology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Miguel Servet Zaragoza Spain
Mari Paz Saacutenchez-Seco Farintildeas Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Brian H Feighner Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Kimberly Fornace Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Pieter LA Fraaij Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Brian D Gushulak Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Alana Hansen Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
David O Harley National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Zdenek Hubaacutelek Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
Melissa K Jones Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Stephanie M Karst Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
Christopher Kilonzo Department of Population Health and Reproduction School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Carl D Kirkwood Enteric Virus Group Murdoch Childrens Research Institute Royal Childrenrsquos Hospital Parkville VIC Australia
Department of Microbiology La Trobe University Bundoora VIC Australia
Phillip T Koshute Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
A Desiree LaBeaud Childrenrsquos Hospital Oakland Research Institute Center for Immunobiology and Vaccine Development Oakland CA USA
Sheri H Lewis Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel MD USA
Marco Liverani Department of Global Health and Development London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London UK
Calum NL Macpherson Department of Microbiology School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Windward Islands Research and Education Foundation Grenada West Indies
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
contRIBUtoRS xxvii
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxvii
Cheryl Cox Macpherson Bioethics Department School of Medicine St Georgersquos University Grenada West Indies
Douglas W MacPherson Migration Health Consultants Inc Qualicum Beach BC Canada
Veroacutenica Martiacuten Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Jonathan D Mayer Department of Epidemiology Geography and Global Health University of Washington Washington DC USA
Kristin L McNally Laboratory of Virology Division of Intramural Research National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases National Institutes of Health Rocky Mountain Laboratories Hamilton MT USA
Fleur M Moesker Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Shigeru Morikawa Department of veterinary science National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Stephen A Morse Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Jessica Nagel US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
Albert DME Osterhaus Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Center Rotterdam The Netherlands
Monia Pacenti Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Sarah Paige University of Wisconsin Madison WI USA
Giorgio Palugrave Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Microbiology and Virology Unit Padova University Hospital Padova Italy
Nicole Pavio UMR 1161 Virology ANSES Laboratoire de Santeacute Animale Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology INRA Maisons-Alfort France
UMR 1161 Virology Ecole Nationale Veacuteteacuterinaire drsquoAlfort Maisons-Alfort France
Celia Perales Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Centro de Investigacioacuten Biomeacutedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaacuteticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd) Barcelon Spain
Ann M Powers Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fort Collins CO USA
Diann J Prosser US Geological Survey Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Beltsville MD USA
William K Reisen Center for Vectorborne Diseases and Department of Pathology Microbiology and Immunology School of Veterinary Medicine University of California Davis CA USA
Leslie A Reperant Department of Viroscience Erasmus Medical Centre Rotterdam The Netherlands
Ivo Rudolf Institute of Vertebrate Biology vvi Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Masaryk University Faculty of Science Department of Experimental Biology Brno Czech Republic
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
xxviii contRIBUtoRS
Chapter No 1 Title Name ltTITLENAMEgtComp by ltUSERgt Date 25 Sep 2013 Time 094647 AM Stage ltSTAGEgt Page Number xxviii
Jonathan Rushton Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health Group Royal Veterinary College Hatfield Hertfordshire UK
Linda J Saif Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
Masayuki Saijo Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Juan Carlos Saiz Departamento de Biotecnologiacutea INIA Ctra Coruntildea Madrid Spain
Noemiacute Sevilla Centro de Investigacioacuten en Sanidad Animal Instituto Nacional de Investigacioacuten Agraria y Alimentaria Valdeolmos Madrid Spain
Sunit K Singh Laboratory of Neurovirology and Inflammation Biology Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) Hyderabad India
Francisco Sobrino Centro de Biologiacutea Molecular ldquoSevero Ochoardquo (CSIC-UAM) Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientiacuteficas (CSIC) Campus de Cantoblanco Madrid Spain
Laura Squarzon Department of Molecular Medicine University of Padova Padova Italy
Thomas J Stopka Department of Public Health and Community Medicine Tufts University School of Medicine Boston MA USA
Laura J Sutherland Case Western Reserve University Cleveland Ohio USA
Walter J Tabachnick Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory Department of Entomo-logy and Nematology University of Florida Vero Beach FL USA
John Y Takekawa US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Vallejo CA USA
Juan Carlos de la Torre IMM-6 The Scripps Research Institute La Jolla CA USA
Ana Vazquez Laboratory of Arbovirus and Imported Viral Diseases Virology Department National Center of Microbiology Institute of Health ldquoCarlos IIIrdquo Ctra Pozuelo-Majadahonda Madrid Spain
Anastasia N Vlasova Food Animal Health Research Program The Ohio State University Wooster OH USA
William E Walton Department of Entomology and the Center for Disease Vector Research University of California Riverside CA USA
Angela Weber Division of Foodborne Waterborne and Environmental Diseases National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Atlanta GA USA
Craig R Williams Sansom Institute for Health Research University of South Australia Adelaide SA Australia
National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health The Australian National University Canberra ACT Australia
Tomoki Yoshikawa Department of Virology I National Institute of Infectious Diseases Tokyo Japan
Ying Zhang Discipline of Public Health The University of Adelaide Adelaide Australia
School of Public Health China Studies Centre University of Sydney Sydney Australia
Shu Zhu Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology University of Florida College of Medicine Gainesville FL USA
