96p. 20036. Teacher) (052)Discuss the conceptual differences between religious law and secular law, and the process and extent to which each might be changed Compare and contrast the

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Nucho, Leslie S., Ed.; Hurd, Robert, Ed.Arab World Almanac 1993.AMIDEAST, Washington, DC.ISSN-1047-711XJul 9396p.AMIDEAST, 1100 17th St., N.W., Washington, DC20036.Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (ForTeacher) (052)

MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.Cultural Differences; Curriculum Enrichment;*Democracy; *Females; Foreign Countries; HighSchools; *Islamic Culture; Maps; Social Studies*Arab States; *Asia (Central)

This document is a collection of three lessons toassist high school teachers in introducing the Arab world to theirclassrooms. The intended purpose of the lessons is to promote breatercross cultural awareness, understanding of the interdependence ofpeoples and nations, and appreciation for the different approachesother cultures may choose in trying to solve the social, economic,political, and environmental problems that everyone share. The threelessons contained in this document are: (1) Women and the Family inthe Arab World; (2) Central Asia, Past and Present; and (3)Government and Democracy in the Arab World. Each lesson includeslesson objectives, classroom exercises and activities, and suggestedbackground references. The first lesson includes a background essayon women and the family, an essay on the veil and one comparingmarriage and family law in the United States and the Arab world, anda short story. Statistical charts on urbarization, labor, education,and literacy also are included in this lesson. The second lesson hasa background essay on Central Asia and an essay on the Aral Sea incrisis. Three charts are included: (1) Cyrillic and Arabic alphabets;(2) land and population in Central Asia; and (3) steps toenvironmental crisis in Central Asia. Maps show trade routes andCentral Asia today. The last lesson includes a background essay ongovernment and democracy in the Arab world, individual countryprofiles, and perspectives on democracy in the Arab world. A timelineshows the course of reform in Algeria, Jordan, Kuwait, and Yemen.(DK)

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ARAB WORLD ALMANAC1993

Editors

Leslie S. NuchoRobert Hurd

Research AssistantBridget McNamer

ffil)AMIEE4g

Washington, DC

Permission is granted for the reproduction of Arab World Almanac for classroom use.

AMIDEAST is registered as a private, nonprofit organization under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code.Donations to AMIDEAST are tax deductible.

Direct all inquiries to: Arab World Almanac, AMIDEAST, 1100 17th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036.Telephone (202) 785-0022

Copyright ® 1993 by AMIDEASTexcept 'The Aunt of Rafiq" Reprinted from Women and the Family in the Middle East: New Voices of Change, editedby Elizabeth Warnock Fernea, Copyright 1985. Reprinted by Permission of the editor and University of Texas Press.

Printed in the United States of AmericaISSN: 1047-71IX

Table of Contents

Introduction 1

Women and the Family in the Arab World

Lesson Objectives 4Classroom Exercises and Activities 4-7Women and the Family in the Arab World (background essay) 8-11The Veil in the Arab World (essay) 12-14Marriage and Family Law in the United States and Arab World (essay) 15-16Urbanization and Labor, Education and Literacy (statistical charts) 17-18The Aunt of Rafiq (short story) 19-22Suggested Background References 23

Central Asia, Past and Present

Lesson Objectives 26

Classroom Exercises and Activities 26-28Central Asia, Past and Present (background essay) 29-34Cyrillic and Arabic Alphabets (chart) 35

Trade Routes (map) 36

Central Asia Today (map) 37Land and Population in Central Asia (chart) 38The Aral Sea in Crisis (essay) 39Steps to Environmental Crisis in Central Asia (chart) 40Suggested Background References 41

Government and Democracy in the Arab World

Lesson Objectives 44

Classroom Exercises and Activities /M 17Government and Democracy in the Arab World (background essay) 48-53

Individual Country Profiles 54-57The Course of Reform: Algeria, Jordan, Kuwait, Yemen (timeline) 58-61Perspectives on Democracy in the Arab World 62-64Suggested Background References 65

Individual Country Maps and Statistics 66-84

Evaluation Form 85-86

Introduction

Arab World Almanac was first produced in 1989to assist high school teachers in introducing theArab world to their classrooms. Since then,Arab World Almanac has covered a variety oftopics, including colonialism, the impact of theGulf war, the Arab world in the two world wars,and the Islamic resurgence. AMIDEAST hopesthat the regional focus of Arab World Almanacwill contribute to a greater understanding of theglobal community. Its intended purpose is topromote greater cross-cultural awareness, under-standing of the interdependence of peoples andnations, and appreciation for the differentapproaches other cultures may choose in tryingto solve the social, economic, political, andenvironmental problems that we all share.

In producing Arab World Almanac, AMIDEASTis indebted to the members of our advisorycommittee selected especially for this publica-tion. They are: H. Thomas Collins, Codirector,Project LINKS, The George Washington Univer-sity, Washington, DC; Elizabeth Fernea, Profes-sor, The University of Texas, Austin, TX; JamesE. Hill, Social Studies Department Chair, Up-land High School, Upland, CA; Ann Z. Kerr,Outreach Consultant, Los Angeles, CA; WilliamMiller, Social Studies Program Manager, Louisi-ana Department of Education, Baton Rouge, LA;Philip Stoddard, Consultant, Bethesda, MD;Jonathan Swift, Global Education ProgramDirector, Stevenson High School, Livonia, MI;and Richard Wilson, Secondary Social StudiesCoordinator, Montgomery County Public

Schools, Rockville, MD.

Initially, Arab World Almanac was produced.threetimes an academic year. Beginning with this volume,AMIDEAST will publish all three lessons once a yearin a single issue. We hope that this new format willprovide teachers with greater flexibility in incorporatingthese materials into their lesson plans throughout the

school year.

AMIDEAST brings to Arab World Almanac more thanforty years of experience in the Middle Fast and NorthAfrica. Founded in 1951, AMIDEAST is the leadingprivate, nonprofit American organization involved ineducational and cultural exchange between the UnitedStates and the Arab world. Today, AMIDEAST servi-ces include public outreach activities, educationaladvising, education and training program administra-tion, and technical assistance.

Headquartered in Washington, DC, AMIDEAST main-tains offices in Bahrain, Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Leba-non, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, West Bank and GazaStrip, and Yemen. AMIDEAST's activities are financedthrough contract fees for services rendered, grants forspecial projects, and corporate and individual donations.

AMIDEAST would like to hear your comments andopinions about Arab World Almanac. We would appre-ciate it if you would take the time to fill out theevaluation form at the end of this book. Arab WorldAlmanac is a resource for teachers, and we value tea-chers' comments in determining our future efforts.

1

Women and the Familyin the Arab World

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ARAB WORLD ALMANAC 1993

Lesson PlanWomen and the Family in the Arab World

In the Arab world, the extended family is thebasic unit of social organization and hasbeen of fundamental economic and politicalimportance in the past as well as today. Ahost of factors associated with a rapidlygrowing and developing society is exertingpressure on the traditional family roles andstructure, including the role of women.

Historically, Arab women have been thecenter of the family unit--the hub aroundwhich all of its economic, personal, andpolitical activities revolved. Their domainwas a private, domestic one with public lifeviewed as a man's territory. Sinceindependence earlier this century, Arabcountries have developed rapidly, undergoinga magnitude of social, economic, andpolitical change in the course of a singlegeneration that occurred in the West overtwo hundred years. Educational opportunitiesproliferated, and at least basic education isnow compulsory for both boys and girls;opportunities for secondary and highereducation are available to both men andwomen. Increasing literacy rates and theacquisition of technical skills have enabledgreater numbers of Arab women to enter theformal labor force, and in some countries,inflation and rising costs of living have madeit imperative for women to work to helpsupport their families.

In the prmess, the traditional divisionsbetween public and private spheres of lifehave become blurred. The role and vitality ofthe extended family, and with it the role ofwomen, is the subject of ongoing debate.Some feel that the phenomenon of women inthe formal labor force is destructive to thefamily unit; others argue the importance ofparticipation by both men and womcn in theformation of a better future. Related to thisdebate is the application of Islamic lawregarding marriage and divorce, inheritance,and child custody, which is adhered to inmost Arab countries even though secular lawgoverns othcr aspects of society.

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In spite of the transformation that manyaspects of Arab society has undergone, thefamily structure and its role in societyrernaifts intact. In many cases, the familyunit h actually been strengthened, and itcontinues to bc one of the few institutions onwhich individuals feel they can depend inthe midst of change and uncertainly.

Lesson Objectives

After completing this lesson, studentsshould be able to:

Discuss the extended family structureand thc traditional roles of men andwomen in the Arab world

Identify some of the factors that havebrought more Arab women into theformal labor force

Explain some of the positions in thedebate over the rights and roles ofwomen and postition of the extendedfamily

Discuss the conceptual differencesbetween religious law and secular law,and the process and extent to which eachmight be changed

Compare and contrast the developmentof women's rights in the United Statesand in the Arab world over time

Explain the significance of veiling anddiscuss the extent to which it ispracticed in the Arab world

Compare and contrast the issues andperspectives concerning women andiamily in the Arab world with those inthe United States

Classroom Exercises and Activities

Distribute copics of the essay "'v.. menand Family in the Arab World." You maywant to F ghlight words with which studentsmy be unfamiliar and have them review ordefine film terms before reading the essay,or discuss nem using contextual clues. Thefollowing 'reussion questions focus on theessay's main tnemes and fuither the lessonobjectives outlined above.

1. Discuss the role of the extended familyin the Arab world and the functions itserves. Which of these functions areprovided by public or nonfamily privateinstitutions in the United States? Which doyou think is more dependablefamily ornonfamily providersarid why? Wouldyou answer the same for the United Statesand the Arab world? Explain your answer.

2. A few highly publicized incidents havegiven the phrase "maintaining familyhonor" a violent and vengeful connotation.Are there ways this philosophy could havea more positive influence? (Students mightconsider such issues as crime rates, childabuse, rape, etc., the incidenzes of whichare significantly lower in the Arab worldthan in the United States.) To what extentdo American families practice a similarphilosophy?

3. Discuss the various perspectives in thedebate concerning the position of womenin Arab society. To what extent are theseviewpoints similar to or different fromthose represented in the United States?(Students may want to think about thesignificance of "family values" as an issuein the 1992 presidential campaign.) Whatwould you say arc the major differencesbetween this issue in the United States andin the Arab world?

4. Explain the relationship in the Arabwoad between industrialization andurbanization, economic pressures, labormigration, and the changing role ofwomen. Do you think that a questioning ofthe role of women in society would haveoccurred even if these pressures had notdeveloped? Students may want to explore

comparisons with thc struggle for women'srights in the United States and theconditions which precipitated it at variousstages.

5. In some "modernization" theories, socialscientists maintain that only when people'sprimary loyalty or allegience is transferredfrom the family to the state can modern-ization occur. Discuss the merits of thispremise, In what regard would you agreewith it? Disagree with it? Give examplesfrom Arab, American, and other societiesto support your answers. A tangentialdiscussion might revolve around thedefinitions and goals of "modernization"and whether there can be different butequally valid paths to these ends.

6. The essay describes some of the waysthat the Arab family has adapted inresponse to other changes in society. Canyou identify similar examples of suchadaptation in the United States? (Studentsmight consider frontier life during theperiod of western expansion, the worldwars, the Great Depression, etc.)

Before distributing to students the shortessay on veiling which begins on page 13,show them the picture on page 12 and askthem to describe the lifestyle and attitudesthey would expect of a women dressed thisway. This can be done in the form of agroup discussion, or alternatively, studentscan write their thoughts in a list or a shortcharacter sketch. Then distribute the essay.

1. Discuss thc significance of the veil asdescribed in the essay and the differentmessages its wearers might be sending. Towhat extent does the range of possibilitiesdiffer from those identified by studentsbefore they had read the essay? Is thereany way to know by sight alone which ofthese characteristics might apply to aparticular women? What does this suggestabout stereotypes?

2. Discuss how social attitudes dictatingdress have evolved in the United States.

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Teachers are encouraged tophotocopy any or all compo-nents of Arab World Almanac'or classroom use.

5

aanr


The statistics on urbanizationand education have beencompiled from data publishedby the World Bank. Statisticsfor Palestinians in the WestBank and Gaza were notavailable; those for Israelinclude Arab-Israelis.

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Are men and women expected to cover thesame or different parts of the body? Howdo today's fashions differ from those of20, 50, and 1l)0 years ago? Give examplesof how styles have become more revealingand less revealing.

3. The essay states that the veil, as aphysical barrier between men and women,reflected and promoted restrictions on theinteraction of men and women in society.Think about the social limitations that existin American society. Are there thingswhich are considered acceptable for mento do but not women? Vice versa? Discussthe similarities and differences betweenArab and American societies in thisregard. Does the absence of a physicalmanifestation of social limitations makethem any less real?

4. In Arab countries where women arecovered most extensively, what is the mostcommon mode of dress for men? Howsimilar or different is it from women'sdress? Discuss possible reasons fordressing this way that would apply to bothmen and women.

Ask students to read the essay on"Marriage and Family Law in the UnitedStates and the Arab World" which begins onpage 15. Then discuss the questions below.

1. Explain, in your own words, the sourceof laws pertaining to women in theAmerican legal system and in Islamic law.At the time the United States Consitutionwas adopted, in which legal system didwomen hold greater recognition andstatus?

2. American laws pertaining to womenwere developed over more than a centuryand continue to be enacted and revised. Towhat extent does this seem to behappening in Islamic law? Discuss theprocess of change in secular law versusreligious law; why is it more difficult tochange religious law?

3. Issues that, on the surface, have little todo with women or the family can

ultimately effect them. For example, in theUnitcd States, legislation concerningwomen stemmed from concerns raisedover such issues as the debate over slaveryand conditions in the workplace. In theArab world, discuss the extent to whichattitudes and laws concerning womenmight be affected by such issues as theIslamic resurgence, calls for popularparticipation in the political process, andthe worldwide recession.

Statistics for various Arab countries aswell as several other countries for purposesof comparison are listed on pages 17 and 18;these include statistics for urbanization,women in the formal labor force, women ineducation, and literacy rates. Distribute thetable to students and ask them to graphicallyrepresent the statistics in the form of barcharts or graphs. You might consider havingeach student do this for a single country, andthen display all charts together.

1. In general, what appears to be therelationship between changes inurbanization, women in the labor force,and Women in education? Do you think therelationship is a causitive or interdependentone? Explain your answer.

2. "Formal" labor is defined as personswho perform work for pay or profit; whohold a job but were absent due to illness,injury, vacation, or other reasons; or whoare unemployed but actively seeking workfor pay or profit. "Nonformal" laborconsists of people who contribute toeconomic activity but whose services arenot reported in surveys or censuses; itmight include agricultural workers, pettytraders, and certain service providers.Examine the statistics for women in thelabor force. What kinds of employment doyou think have been counted? What kindsmight have been omitted? How would youexpect the figures to change if nonformallabor were included? Do you think themagnitude of change in the Arab countrieswould be greater or smaller than in theWestern countries for which figuresappear? Explain your answers. (It isgenerally accepted that female participationin the labor force of most Middle Eastern

countries is possly underestimated.Students might want to consider some ofthe reasons for this.)

3. Examine the statistics for education.(Students can be asked to calculate diepercent change at the primary andF,..,conclary levels for each country.) Ingeneral, at which level has change beenthe greatest? Has it been more significantfor females alone, or for male and femalescombined? Has the degree of change beenmore significant in the Arab countries orin the Western countries listed? What doesthis suggest about the pace of change inthe Arab world today?

4. Look at the statistics for women insecondary education. If you had only thisinformation available, what might youconclude about women's access toeducation? How would your conclusionsbe affected by learning: that in many ofthese countries, education for both malesand females is compulsory only throughthe junior high level; that in manyuniversities, nearly as many women asmen are enrolled? Now look at the overall(total) participation rates for secondaryeducation. Does this information change

your conclusions at all? Students might wantto discuss the differing conclusions to bedrawn from selective use of statistics.

On pages 19-22 is reproduced a shortstory in translation on which the followingquestions are based.

1. Discuss the main character's variousfamily roles and relationships as portrayedin the story. Would you characterize theserelationships as traditional or not? Explainyour answers.

2. In what ways has the protagonistrejected the traditional roles, activities, andexpectations of women in Arab society? Inwhat ways does she accept them? Discussthe internal struggle this causes. Whatwould it take to make her happy?

3. Does the aunt of Rafiq have more thanone allegiance? If yes, what are they?Does she feel any conflict between them?

4. Do you think the aunt of Rafiq wears aveil? Cite details from the story to supportyour answer.

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"The Aunt of Rafiq" isreprinted, with permission,from Women and ehe Familyin the Middle East. ElizabethFernea, ed. Austin: Universityof Texas Press, 1985.

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ARAB WOW) ALMANAC 1993

Elizabeth Fernea Is professorof English and Middle Easternstudies at the University ofTexas, Austin. She has writtenextensively on issues con-cerning women and the familyIn the Middle East, and she Isalso a noted filmmaker on thissubject.

1. Sumeria was located Inwhat Is today Iraq.

2. Most Arabsabout90%are Muslim, but therearc significant Christian andJewish communities in severalArab countries.

8

Women and the Familyin the Arab Worldby Elizabeth Fernea

The position of women in Arab society isthe subject of much discussion within theregion as well as in Western countries.However, women's position cannot beconsidered in isolation, for women, likemen, are perceived primarily as members ofa group rather than as isolated individuals.In many ways, their welfare, rights, andresponsibilities arc related to the welfare,rights, and responsibilities of the group towhich they belong. The primary group towhich Arab women belong is the family.Hence, it should come as no surprise thatthe primary demands of Arab feministgroups are not for greater freedoms forwomen as individuals, but to equalize orameliorate their position within the family.

"Family" can mean different things indifferent societies. In the West, "family" isunderstood as one or two parents and theirchildren. The Arabic word for family, ahl orahila, is a more comprehensive term thatincludes grandparents, uncles, aunts, andcousins, many of whom may even livetogether. The Arab family is also patrilineal,a form of social organization found inprobably 80-90% of human societies andone that appears in the Middle East as earlyas 3000 BC in ancient Sumeria.1 This meansthat the name of the child and theinheritance pass through the male line. It isthe extended family unit, together with theArabic language and the religion of Islam,which serve as constants in the midst of thegreat diversity which otherwise existsamong the Arab countries.2

In the Arab world today, the issue of thefamily is not a narrow "people's" issue,separate from economic and politicalmatters, as it tends to be in Western society.Rather, it is of fundamental economic andpolitical importance, for the extended familyremains not only the basic unit of social

2

organization, but the focus of social changecurrently in progress throughout the region.Some Arab leaders and scholars view thefamily as an indispensable social institutionunder siege; others believe it to be outdatedand repressive. However, none can deny thecentral role it plays in shaping their society.For thousands of years in most societiesaround the world, the family has representedthe economic center of daily life, in termsof both production and consumption. Thefamily group has been the basic means ofsocial organization in bedouin, rural, andurban societies in the Arab world,performing many of the functions nowexpected of national governments in theWest.

In the past, and still to a great extent today,the family provided economic and emotionalsupport to its members, which might consistof groups as small as twenty or as large astwo hundred. The family unit was constantlychanging and evolving, as it was expectedthat each individual member would marryand begin a family of his or her own.Through this family structure, through thefamily's customs and social mores, anindividual "inherited" his or her religion,class, and cultural identity.

The family served as an employmentbureau, insurance agency, childcare center,family counseling service, matchmaker, resthome, bank, pension plan, home for thehandicapped (including the mentally ill), andhostel in time of economic need. Men andwomen both remained members of theirnatal families for all of their lives, evenafter marriage. A divorced woman returnedto her natal family, which was responsiblefor her support until remarriage. A divorcedman returned to his natal family, and hisparents cared for his children. In exchangefor these services, individual familymembers were expected to place the group'ssurvival and prosperity above their personalaspirations and desires, especially at the

time of marriage, and to uphold thereputation of the family by behavingproperly and "maintaining the familyhonor."

This, of course, was the ideal. In everydaylife, ideals are not always realized. Somerebeled and refused to marry the personchosen for them by their family. Othersrefused to take in divorced relatives,sometimes because of poverty, sometimesout of spite. Maintaining the family honorhas sometimes resulted in tragedy. And,caring for the handicapped and elderly putconsiderable stress upon the youngermembers of a family. Unfortunately, it hasoften been these exceptions, rather than thegeneral rules, that have been highlighted inWestern media.

The institution of the family has persistedbecause it fills real needs for people, peoplefor whom no other institution exists. Theshift that took place in the West, theassuming of economic and socialresponsibilities first by the religioushierarchy and then by the secular state, hasnot taken occured in the same manner in theArab world. Therefore, any change in theplace and function of the family in the Arabworld has far-reaching implications, for itinvolves not only the extent to which certainresponsibilities should or will be passedfrom the family to the state, but thedefinition of basic individual rights: those ofwomen, men, and children. The status ofwomen is not an isolated issue but rather thecore of the whole matter, for women havealways been seen as the center of the familyunit, the hub around which all its economic,personal, and political activities revolves.

Before discussing the current status of Arabwomen one must first examine theirtraditional role within the family and explainhow recent changes in Arab society haveaffected this position. Historically, theprimary role of Arab women, like that ofWestern women, has been a domestic one.But in the Arab world, there was a muchstricter segregation of the sexes that dividedthe society into the spheres of family andoutsiders.

The home was considered a woman'sdomain, with domestic responsibilities suchas the preparation of food andmostimportantlythe bearing and rearing ofchildren. A woman was expected to "easethe burden" of her husband, who providedfor all. The home was the center of familylife, which often included religious life.Public affairs in commerce, education,religion, and politics were men's affairs.Male dominance also extended into theprivate sphere; a man not only provided forthe family, but he was the undisputed headof household and was responsibile forprotecting the family's honor and reputation.

Within the last two hundred years, thetraditional mles and responsibilities of menand women have been challenged. The1950s saw the rise of movements toestablish independent nation-states. By 1962,nearly twenty states existed in the area ruledearlier as territories first by the OttomanEmpire and then the European colonialpowers.' These new nations sought to enterthe world economy, to industrialize, and toprovide greater political, social, andeconomic opportunities for citizens. Changesthat took place in the West over the courseof two hundred years occurred in the Arabworld in just a few generations. Thetremendous expansion of educationalopportunities at all levels for both men andwomen, technological innovations,urbanization, and inflation and rising costsof living have all had an impact on the waysand means of social interaction andexpectations.

Not surprisingly, these changes have placedtremendous stress on the two mainstays ofArab society: Islam and the family.Changing economic conditions have blurredthe distinction between the traditionalspheres of family and outsider, promptingan examination and redefinition of familialroles.

One area in which the changing familystructure is reflected is employmentstatistics. Economic pressures in the non-oil-producing countries have encouragedsignificant numbers of men to work abroadin the oil-producing countries of the Gulf, or

0 LI


3. The Ottoman Empire wasthe last of the great Islamicempires. Beginning in aboutAD 1300 as a principality, itwas well on its way to be-coming a major world powerby An 1500. At its greatestextent in the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries, theOttoman Empire extendedfrom Persia (Iran) almost toVienna (Austria), across NorthAfrica to Algeria, and southalong the periphery of theArabian Peninsula.

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4. The Qur'an is the writtenrecord of what Muslims con-sider to be the final revelationfrom God through the ProphetMuhammed. The Hadith arethe compiled traditions andsayings of Muhammed.

10

as agricultural laborers in other countries. In1988, 2.5 million Egyptians alone wereworking abroad, either in Iraq or theArabian Peninsula. In many cases, thissituation created the imperative and theopportunity for more women to assumenontraditional roles and responsibilities,including that of head of household in placeof husbands and fathers working abroad forextended periods.

Greater access to education and technicaltraining has provided a growing number o:Arab women with the skills necessary forentering the formal labor force. Just fiftyycars ago, only an elite few receivedtraditional Islamic education or Westernsecular education in European missionaryschools. Today, free or highly subsidizedpublic education is available to almosteveryone in an every-growing number ofprimary and secondary schools, technicalinstitutes, and colleges and universities. Thepercentages of women at all educationallevels have risen significantly over the pastseveral decades, and in most countries,national campaigns have contributed to anincrease in the literacy rate among adultswho did not receive a formal education. Asa result, Arab women are now qualified foremployment in virtually every field. Theirexpectations for employment and a greaterrole in public life have increasedaccordingly.

These changes are not appearing in thesame form throughout the Arab world. Inthe oil-producing countries of the ArabianGulf, for example, few women work out ofeconomic necessity, and women's economicactivities are generally separate from thoseof men. In the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, andNorth Africa, rising costs of living and lowfamily incomes are encouraging more andmore women to take jobs outside the home.Some enter traditionally male-dominatedfields like law, engineering, and medicine aswell as teaching, business, and thediplomatic service, but the majorityworkas American women doin industry,shops and offices, and in the service sector.Many work not for self-fulfillment, but tohelp put bread on the table.

How has the family unit fared with womenin the workplace and many of the men awayfrom home for long periods of time? Thisissue is an extremely important one in theArab world today. Some thinkers argue, inthe press, on television, and in learnedacademic journals, that women must not beallowed to work outside the home and thatmen must reassert their role as supportersand protectors of the family. Others, equallyfervent, argue the importance ofparticipati by both men women in theformation of a better future for all; they feelthat women need to work so that the familycan stay together, whether the "family" isdefined as the nuclear family, the extendedfamily, or the ummathe Muslim family.

The debate on the family concerns not onlywomen's status, but the laws of mostIslamic countries and the issues of educationand family planning. Current national lawsin all Arab countries except Tunisia andLebanon are based in whole or in part onIslamic law, or Shari 'a, a compendium oflaws based on the Qur'an, the Hadith, andprecedent and consensus.' Family law withinthe Shari 'a controls marriage and divorce,inheritance, and child custody. Women andmen arguing for reform state that only ifwomen have equal access to divorce, childcustody, and inheritance can the traditionalfamily structure survive and become viablein modern society. Those supporting thecontinuation of traditional practices maintainthat the old laws must remain in force if theideal Islamic society is to be realized.

This debate about women's place isbasically about the role and function of thefamily in a society where the role of thestate is increasing. Family planning isobviously related to the debate. Some arguethat limiting the size of the family and thepractice of abortion is not only forbidden byGod but weakens the strength of the familyunit. Others argue that God permits familyplanning and abortion, as stated in theQur'an, when the survival of the family is atstake. And here they cite modern statisticsto support their case: a three percent annualbirth rate in Egypt and the doubling of thepopulation of Morocco in a singlegeneration.

Public education for both men and womenserves as a kind of mediator in the debateabout the family. No one argues againsteducation in the Arab world; it is a highlyrespected and desired commodity. TheQur'an itself states, "Educate your child fortomorrow." But the way in which educationis administered varies. In Saudi Arabia,women are not allowed to attend classeswith men or even have male instructors inthe room; some university classes forwomen are thus held on television. But thisis not true for other oil-producing countries,including Kuwait. Poorer countries do nothave a choice, and there, coeducation isprovided often for pragmatic rather thanidealistic reasons.

While the debate rages, of course, ordinarilypeople have to go on living. Lives areslowly changing under the impact ofindustrialization: women working outsidethe home, the rise of education and themedia, an increasing urban population,greater geographic as well as socialmobility. Some Arab and Western socialscientists see these trends as optimistic signsof modernization and Westernization, apresumed "good" in comparison with theold traditional ways. Others view thesedevelopments with alarm and fear.

In the midst of it all, the extended familystructure is still a plus for many millions ofpeople. "In times of change," one Moroccanwoman says, "I need my family more thanever. My mother takes care of my childrenso I can work, and our cousin from thecountry has come to live with us so she cango to school in the city." Many people seesocial mobility, urbanization, women


working outside the home, and education asways of improving and strengthening thefamily unit rather than weakening it.

To many observers, the Arab family seemsnot to be disintegrating, but ratherregrouping and reorganizing in answer tocontemporary needs. In places where thefamily unit itself has disintegrated, due towar, natural disasters, or economicconditions, the values and the functions ofthe family are resurfacing in different forms.Workers abroad group together on the basisof old family ties; young men entering theworkforce find jobs in the same factories orbusinesses as their sisters, cousins, oruncles. For men of elite political groups,family ties continue to be important aspolitical party bases shift. Newcomers to thecity make connections through familymembers. Men on their own in a new placemay turn to religious "brotherhoods," orgroups where, as they themselves say, they"feel like one of the family." Women whosehusbands are working abroad often formkin-like ties with neighbors.

Through its adaptations and evolution, thefamily unit has proven itself to be aninterdependent and flexible social institution.For many, it remains the best way toprovide for individual needs as well asgroup survival. If religion is viewed as thesoul of the Islamic Arab world, then thewider extended family might be seen as itsbody. And, says a Moroccan merchant, "Thegovernment may come and goSpanish,French, Moroccanbut my family has beenhere for 400 years and it is still all I canrely on."

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BEST COPY AVAILABLE12 6

Photo Courtesy of UNRWA

The Veil in the Arab WorldA veiled woman often is the first image that comesto the minds of many Americans when they think ofArab society. Yet, the extent to which veiling ispracticed and the message its wearers wish toconvey are not so often considered. The practice ofveiling is very old, predating Islam, and it is foundin some form throughout the Mediterranean world.Today, it remains strongest as a tradition in Islamiccountries, although it also serves as a symbol ofpolitical opposition.

The basic reasons for veiling in Islam are theinjunctions on modesty, as spelled out in both theQur'an and the traditions of the ProphetMuhammed. As defined in these sources, both menand women must cover specific parts of their bodiesexcept in the presence of relatives and members ofthe same sex. These areas, known in Arabic as the"awrah, are defined differently for men and

women. For men it is region of the body from theknees to the navel, and for women it is the ertirebody except the face and hands. Covering the

awrah becomes essential when an individualreaches puberty, and it is mandatory whenperforming the five daily prayers.

The degree to which women are veiled variesgreatly throughout the Arab and Muslim worlds.The most extreme examples are found in SaudiArabia and Iran. In Saudi Arabia, and to an extentthe surrounding Gulf states, women are fully veiledin black, including a face veil and gloves, so that noskin is exposed in public. In non-Arab Iran, theimage of women in black, flowing chadorspredominated during the American hostage crisisand has remained in Americans' mental image ofthe region ever since.

This degree of veiling is not found elsewhere in theArab world. Among the Arab countries borderingthe eastern edge of the Mediterranean SeaSyria,Jordan, Lebanon, and Egypttraditional women'sdress includes head scarves and ankle-lengthdresses. Western-style is also prominent, especiallyin more urban areas., In North Africa, the style,extent, and methods of veiling differ from region toregion and are oftcn influenced by neighboringBerber, Tuareg, and Sub-Saharan African cultures.Within cach of these regions, the class and status ofa woman and her family further influence thc styleand degree of veiling.


The veil also reflects Arab society's tribal heritageand patriarchal roots. Historically, men wereresponsible for providing for the members of theirtribe and family and for protecting them from harm.Any failure to fulfill these respons:Jilities dim-inished the honor of a man and 'his family as wellas their status within the tribe and clan. The loss ofhonor was an instant sign of weakness that could beexMoited by a family's enemies, potentially result-ing in the loss of property, privileges, or life.

In this social system, the protection of women wasessential. Any slight to the honor of a family'swomen damaged the honor of the family itself.Men were responsible for preserving the image andreputation of their wives and daughters, and the veilprovided a physical means of protection. It guardedwomen from men's advances and preventedimmodest displays which could compromise awoman's status. In addition, the veil supplied adegree of protection from the harsh environmentalconditions of the Arabian Peninsula, shieldingwomen from the heat of the sun and protectingthem from the cold of the night.

By erecting a physical barrier, the veil helped toinstitutionalize the social segregation of men andwomen. This segregation was also extended toother aspects of daily life, such as government,education, and commerce. For the most part, Arabwomen were restricted to a domestic role in society,although they could wield a great amount ofinfluence within this sphere.

In the last century, Arab society has undergone arapid transformation. In the process, the role ofArab women has changed, and with it so havemodes of dress, including the veil. Beginning withEuropean influence in the eighteenth and nineteenthcenturies, many women, especially in urban areas,adopted European styles of dress; some continued towear the head scarf, while others abandoned it.European fashions remain common in the majorityof Arab countries. At the same time, some womencontinue to dress in traditional styles because it isdictated by family or society. Others prefer thesecurity and modesty the veil brings. Today, manywomen working outside the home and mixing withmen in the public sector find that the veil is arecognizable sign of their respectibility and providesprotection in the workplace.


Also significant arc the growing number of womenwhose mothers and even grandmothers dressed inEuropean styles but who themselves are adoptingthe veil as a way of showing respect for theirsociety's traditions or opposition to culturalinfluence from abroad. Many of these women archighly educated professionals; their wearing oftraditional clothing does not necessarily mean thatthcy accept traditional gender roles, but rather, thatthey wish to show respect for and solidarity withtheir religious and cultural heritage.

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The veil represents a tangible form of socialetiquette which conveys a message to the membersof society. It is also a strong cultural symbol that,as we can see, has been used by differentgroups:ncluding women themselvestocommunicate different messages both within andoutside Arab society. Today, the veil's message haschanged to reflect new social conditions in the Arabworld. At the same time it continues to reflectcertain social mores and limits that are recognizedand respected by Arab society in general.

Marriage and Family Law in theUnited States and the Arab WorldThroughout the ages, the evolution of societies hasbeen accompanied by the periodic reexamination ofsocial norms and the laws governing them. Amongthe areas singled out for change has been the roleand rights of women. This has occurred in both theUnited States and the Arab world, but the processand approach has differed greatly between the twosocieties. American women, originally without anylegal rights under U.S. law, have won numerouslegal victories through legislation and judicialrulings. Arab women were guaranteed many rightsunder Islamic law that Western women would notobtain for more than a millenium, but some of theselaws have not been adapted to contemporarysituations. This is partly because the American legalsystem is based on secular law, while in the Arabworld, most of the laws related to women's issuesare based on religious doctrine.

The biggest difference between a secular and areligiously based legal system is the degree towhich laws can be changed or modified. In theAmerican legal system, laws can be updated,revised, or repealed through acts of Congress,judicial reinterpretation, or amendments to theConstitution. In comparison, Islamic law is derivedfrom what Muslims believe te be God's finalmessage to mankind and thus carries an implicationof infallibility. In most Arab countries today,secular law governs many aspects of society, butfamily and inheritance matters continue to begoverned mostly by Islamic law.'

The U.S. Constitution was adopted as the primarysource of law for the United States in 1789. Itdefined the power and responsibilities of the federalgovernment, as well as the relationship between thefederal government and the states. Individual rightswere established under the first ten amendments tothe Constitution, collectively known as the Bill ofRights. At the time of its adoption, the Constitutionand the Bill of Rights granted rights to white menalone. The movement for women's rights in thcUnited States began in conjunction with the debateover slavery, which raised many questions about thelegal rights of all persons.

Compared to the U.S. Constitution, Islamic lawlooks at first to be monolithic and unchanging. Andyet, this is not thc case. How is it that SaudiArabian authorities can stone a princess and hcr


lover to death for adultery while Muslims elsewhereexpress their horror and argue that this is not Islam?The answer lies in the fact that the application andpractice of Islamic law differ among the variousschools of law and the traditions of each country.There are seven distinct schools of Islamic law,each with its own legal specialists and code ofprecedents; each school respects the others.2

All Islamic law, as well as guides for everyday life,are drawn from the Qur'an and the Hadith. AllMuslims believe in the centrality and divinity of theQur'an, the written revelation from God transmittedto mankind through the Prophet Mohammed. TheHadith are a collection of the traditions and sayingsof the Prophet during his lifetime. Both have theirorigins in the prophetic career of Mohammed,which began in AD 610 and continued until hisdeath in AD 632.

Both the Qur'an and the Hadithbut particularlythe latter---leave room for interpretation, allowingfor the development of new approaches to Islamiclaw. Further evidence of this flexibility is thepresence of secular codes in many countries. Inmost Arab countries today, secular law has beenincorporated to regulate civil and criminal aspectsof society; Saudi Arabia, where Islamic law isapplied exclusively, is an exception. Secularinfluences are also reflected in the personal statuslaws that many Arab countries have enacted to helpadapt Islamic family law to changing times. Suchlaws have been passed in Tunisia, Algeria, andYemen, as well as non-Arab Turkey. Although thefollowing discussion focuses on a comparison ofmarriage and family law in the American andIslamic legal systems, it should be remembered thatin some Arab countries, personal status laws areused instead of Islamic law.

The American legal tradition of marriage wasinherited from English Common Law whichgoverned the American colonies beforeindependence. Under this system, a marriedwoman's legal identity existed through her unionwith her husband. This was known as the "mergerof identities." The husband became legallyresponsible for every aspect of his wife's life. Hewas her legal guardian, protector, and provider. Theownership of any property or wealth that a womanpossessed before marriage was transferred to her

13 15


husband. A married woman was unable to inheritproperty, make a will, enter into a contract, and sueor be sued. Under such restrictions, it wasimpossible for a woman to manage and operate abusiness. These laws were repealed in the mid-nineteenth century, when the Married Women'sProperty Acts were passed by various statelegislatures. The Acts allowed women to retaincontrol of their individual property after marriage,to inherit property, to sue or be sued, and to claimtheir working incoi le as their own.

American women have also gained rights in divorcewhich, like marriage laws, arc enacted at the statelevel and vary considerably. They have beenaccompanied by developments in post-divorcesettlements. The terms of the settlement are usuallyestablished by the court upon the conclusion of thedivorce, but they can also be arranged throughwritten agreements between husband and wife. Inmost cases, women are entitled to an equal portionof the property obtained by the couple during theirmarriage. Alimony and child support are alsocommonly ordered by the courts. Child custody hascome to favor American women, but in the past,men were traditionally panted custody because theywere the ones with the financial ability to supportchildren. After the passage of the Married Women'sProperty Acts, this was no longer necessarily thecase.

Under Islamic law, regulations regarding womenand marriage have remained relatively static sincetheir initial introduction. At the time of theirdevelopment in the Arabian Peninsula in the earlyseventh century, however, they were quite radical.Arab society at this time was highly patriarchal;women possessed very little status, reflected in thepractice of abandoning newborn baby girls in thedesert to prevent a drain on the family's resources.Islam transformed both the status of women and theinstitution of marriage. Women and men were givenequal duties and obligations to God, and marriagebecame a sacred institution incumbent upon allbelievers. Islam gave women status as legalpersons.

Islamic law guarantees a woman's right to ownproperty and engage in commercial activities, andshe is liable for any crimes, injuries, or breaches ofcontract that she commits. Women are also allowedto inherit wealth and property; however, the amounta woman receives is generally one-half of theamount given to a man. The justification for thisrule was that men are considered the providers ofthe family and thus required greater material wealth.

16

Islamic law regulated marriage by establishing aseries of permissible, mandatory, and prohibitedacts. Muslim men and women are forbidden frommarrying polytheists and atheists, and while Muslimmen can marry Jews and Christians, Muslim womenare allowed to marry only Muslim men to ensurethat the children will be raised as Muslims. Menwere given the right to have up to four wivessimultaneously, but only on the condition that theybe provided for equally in terms of material supportas well as affection. This law drastically changedthe pre-Islamic reality, in which men could haveany number of wives. The preservation of polygamyactually worked to some women's advantageinitially, because during the battles that marked theearly decades of Islam, men were often scarce, andpolygamy gave unmarried women and widows abetter chance for family security. Today some Arabcountries have modified thc laws regardingpolygamy. Tunisia has banned it altogether, and inEgypt, a man must get the permission of his firstwife if he wishes to marry another. In most otherArab countries, polygamy is practiced relativelyinfrequently.

Divorce is permitted under Islamic law, but it isdescribed as the worst of all actions permissible inthe eyes of God. All that is required for a man todivorce his wife is that he announcc his desire toend the marriage. In certain cases, a woman mayinitiate a divorce by returning her dowry to herhusband. She must then wait a set period of time,usually three months, before remarrying to insurethat she is not carrying a child fathered by herformer husband. At the end of the waiting period,the couple has the option of reuniting if they decidetheir divorce was a mistake. If the divorce holdsafter the waiting period, the wife may return to hernatal family. Although in theory the child remainsin the father's household, practice varies greatlyfrom country to country depending upon thechildren's age and sex. New legislation also takesinto consideration the best interests of the child.

More egalitarian divorce and child custody laws, aswell as equal share in inheritance, arc among themajor goals of many men and women alike who arepushing for change in the Arab world.

'These aspects of Islamic law are not applied to Christian andJewish citizens of Arab countries, who follow their own laws andtraditions on these matters.

2These schools of law include four in the Sunni branch of Islam(Shafi, Ilanbali, Ilanafi, and Maliki) and three in the Stn. ibranch of Islam (Jafari, Zaydi, and lhadi).

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The Aunt of Rafiq

by Daisy al-Amir, translated from Arabic by Tura Campanella

She looked out of the window at a green forest. Thelast rays of sunshine would not let the trees becomedark yet, and a total silence seemed to cover all ofthe universe as though with a smooth, unwrinkledrobe.

She sat down in the rocking chair. The chair rockedas usual but today she was not moved. The chairdid not even squeak like it usually did. Where tofind a sound in this silence?

She turned on the radio. A loud voice was speakingin a strange language. What was the announcersaying? What was his commentary on the strangemusic? Could other voices answer him? Was thereno Arab voice in this profound exile of hers?

Tonight was thc last night she would spend in thisstrange country. The mineral baths and the massagehad ended in the morning and the attendant hadsmoothed the last heavy application of black mudonto the ailing parts of her body.

The doctor said in the strange, broken language ofthis country that she needed physical, mental, andemotional rest.

"Physical rest! Mental rest! Emotional rest!!" herepeated.

She told the doctor she would be unable to obtainany of these rests that he prescribed.

"Why not?" he had asked.

She could not respond. How could she make himunderstand who she really was? How could sheexplain the responsibilities that rested on hershoulders, on her head, on her arms?

She had tried to conceal her real identity in thisstrange country, tried to disguise herself so no onewould know she was here, resting her body, hermind, and her emotions.

It was the doctor in her own country who haddecided that she was near collapse and needed aretreat where there would be no work or


responsibility, only relaxation, sleep, and a pleasantatmosphere. Her brother had nodded, but said afterdeep thought and careful consideration, "And whowill help me while she is gone'?"

The strange doctor had cominued to question her.What do you do that causes such total exhaustion,such great tension?

She had been puzzled about how to answer. Shouldshe have explained the nature of her work? Shouldshe have said that she is the sister of her brother'?In the end, she had said nothing.

When she had left to go to the strange country, herbrother had toid her not to speak of her work toanyone. "If Arab tourists recognize you," herbrother had said, "they will say, aha, the militantsbehave in a bourgeois manner even though they saythey arc the militants, the leaders, and the fighters.They will say you arc the sister of the militant, thcsister of the leader, and thc sister of the fighter.Thus you must not behave like a bourgeois."

And he continued to tell her, "Remember, thefeeling of fatigue is a bourgeois trait. The collapseof thc body in the face of responsibilities is abourgeois trait. And the frailty of nerves in face ofexhaustion and wakefulness is a bourgeois trait."

Her brother had, after all, devoted himself totally tothc cause. He had been infused with enthusiasmfrom the first moment he became aware of theconcerns of the homeland. Hc was the only son inthe family, she was the younger sister. She wasinfluenced by what he said and believed in what hedid. She was moved by his strong personality andbegan to voice his opinions and repeat what hc said.Then he began explaining the cause to her. Shesoon found herself engaged in a major militaryoperation. Her brother made her a comrade in thestruggle. This increased her commitment to thecause and she spent all her time working.

But her brother. Despite his enthusiasm and hiswork for the struggle, her brother managed to findanother comrade, a comrade of a different kind. Herbrother's new comrade entered his life through an

19

ARA13 WORLD ALMANAC 1993

easy door and became a pampered wifc. She, hissister, remained his comrade in struggle.

Other people knew this perfectly well. They knewthat she, his sister, was truly his confidant, thatevery major secret was told to her alone. Theyknew that behind her brother's unique, captivatingpersonality stood his sister--a solemn pledge to thecause, consulted before all his speeches were made,before all his policies were announced.

But women arc assumed to be tore talkative thanmen and people tried to follow her, to ask herquestions, direct and indirect. Shc had passed thetest, however, and remained steadfast, notanswering any of the tantalizing questions, until hcrbrother's supporters and followers called her thesister of men. They had honored her. They hadgiven her a rank, the rank of those who arc knownthrough their brothers!

Soon she recognized that the cause was morcimportant than all human desires and to give it totalattention she dissociated herself from the world ofwomen. No visits to the hairdresser or thedressmaker, no trips to the market or morning socialcalls. For such visits wasted time. She needed thetime for tly. cause.

When her brother's wile bore a son, Raliq, herbrother became known as the father of Rafiq. Shefound this preposterous. She also found it strangethat her brother began to spend part of his timeevaluating his son's toys, while hcr ownresponsibilities to thc cause increased. And shecame to be called the aunt of Rafiq. She was nolonger called thc sister of men. Had men suddenlybecome little children?

What if she had been called the mother of Rafiq?The idea had not occurred to her before. Sheremembered an offcr of marriage, long ago. Shehad been engaged very young to a man whom shedid not see except through the gifts that his motherand sister gave her....Then her father had decidedthat her fiance was not suitable and she hadreturned the gifts.

She had asked, "Why wasn't he appropriate? Whyhad he been appropriate at one time and not now?"

Hcr father never answered this question, neitherwhcn she asked him herself nor whcn she sought anexplanation from her mother. "Your father thinks

20

this is best for you," was all her mother would say.

She wondered what had happened to those gifts andwho was wearing thcm now.

Whenever her brother returned from a trip, hebrought gifts for his wife, his son, Rafiq, and forhis friends. For her, he always brought a bundle ofnew political books.

Once she saw her brother's wife with guests, one ofwhom was revealing the future to hcr in a cup ofcoffee. Then she gave the guest her own cup to tellher future.

In the evening her brothcr asked in disbelief, "Isthis your intellectual level? Have you stooped to thepoint of wanting to know the future from a cup ofcoffee? We make the future, we are the ones whobuild it. Do we need to look in a cup to tell us whatwe have to do, or what will happen?"

She asked once what would happen if she stocdbefore the mirror admiring herself as her brother'swife did.

Her grandfather said, "She is a wife, and mustmake herself pretty to please hcr husband. But asfor you, are you making yourself pretty to pleaseyour brother's friends? And what would people sayif one of them got interested in you?"

Hcr brothcr added, "What if, Gal forbid, onc ofthem loves you? People would say that I allowedyou to participate in a national cause in order tofind you a husband. Your prope- behavior makesyou immune to criticism and your pride in being thesister of men is enough for you." Her brother hadlaughed merrily. "Isn't that so, aunt of Rafiq?"

She went back to looking out the window. Thegreen forest surrounding the hotel was darkcr now.The sun had set some time ago. The moment of thesunset had passed and the long dark night hadarrived. She had been careful to avoid beingwatched and recognized while she was here. Butthis was hcr last night in this strange country, andshe had never explored the life of the night here.She had gotten to know the streets leading to thesanitorium, the massage room, and the room formud applications. What had she seen in this strangecountry other than the mineral baths? Even in herroom, what had she looked at other than the walls,

the ceiling, and a window overlooking the forest,green during the day, darkening at evening, andblack at night, that dreary time of her ownsleeplessness.

The bell rang, announcing the hour for dinner.Usually she did not go down the hall but ate dinneralone in her room. Tonight, however, her final nightin this strange country, she decided to go down tothe restaurant and sit at a corner table away fromthe gaze of the curious.

For the first time she approached the restaurant, abrightly illuminated room crowded with people. Theroom next to the restaurant had a sign above itsdoor in red light; "Bar," it said in many differentlanguages.

During the day the room was empty and locked.Night was another world, a new world with whichshe had not been familiar during the three weeks ofher exile. Had the long quiet nights studyingpolitical books in her room rested her and made herhappy? Was the restaurant forbidden, so she haddinner in her room? Why had the world of the nightfrightened her? Wasn't she the fighter, sister ofmen, aunt of Rafiq? Was she more courageousduring the day? Why had she eaten her lunch everyday in the infirmary restaurant, which was filledwith the old, disabled, and sick? And why had shelimited her breakfast to the mineral water from thedrinking fountain in her room?

She knew why she had kept to herself. But shecould not believe that she actually had passed threelong weeks in a medical program that claimed tohave given her rest physically, mentally, andemotionally! It was time to return home. To thecause. To the work. In her own country, nightwould connect with day once more and women andmen would be considered equally.

Men and women, men and women. She seemed tohear her brother say, "Have you forgotten that youare the sister of men, the aunt of Rafiq?"

After all of this struggle and self-denial andsacrifice, why had she still not reached the point ofbeing called by her name?

Was it not an honor to be a woman? A womanonly? Why is a woman always the sister of men,the aunt of a child....Why was she not at least thewife of a man?


She had finished eating her dinner and had notnoticed that the sweet had been placed on a plate infront of her.

She looked about the restaurant....At some tables satmen, at others women, and at a third both sexes sattogether. And she...she alone of all the people inthis room could not say, if asked, at which table shebelonged.

She kept staring at the tables. Did all the people eatthe same food? She noticed that in addition to thefood, some people had glasses of wine. Here was aworld where wine was allowed for both sexes. Hereyes searched for a waiter. She would ask him for aglass of wine. She sat glued to her chair while hereyes looked for him. She saw the waiter servingfood, chatting with the people sitting next to her,exchanging conversation with them. Occasionallylaughter arose and, sometimes, a loud burst oflaughter!

The waiter passed by. He did not seem aware of herpresence. But she had not wanted to be recognizedall during these three weeks! She had hid herselfmore years than she wished to remember so thatshc would not be noticed by others. Of course, thiswaiter did not giver her a glance. He did not eventurn his head.

A voice rang out. She realized after a moment thatit was her voice calling. The waiter came to her.She asked him for a glass of wine. He stared at herin astonishment and disapproval. She repeated herrequest.

He said, "You want wine now, when dinner isover? We are in a restaurant attached to a hospital;the time has passed for ordering wine with dinner."

He paused and pointed outside.

"The bar is on your right as you exit from the maindoor. They can serve you wine until the sun risestomorrow."

He left before hearing her reply. Had the waiterprovoked her deliberately? Did he know who shewas? Even though she had disguised herself theseweeks, that did not mean that she was nobody.There, in her own country, a thousand and oneindividuals desired to talk to her, the sister of men,to learn something about her or her affairs or theaffairs of...of...of. her brother.

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22

For the first time she asked herself to what had shededicated her life? To the cause, or to her brother?

The waiter presented her with a check. She signedit and stood up proudly, confident of her reputationin her own country. Tomorrow she would be athome, where people honored her and expected herto speak eloquently.

She walked out of the main door of the restaurant.There was the word written in numerous languagesin red light.

Music drifted out of the bar. She entered. The roomwas crowded and filled to the ceiling with smoke.

She walked among the occupied tables to a smalltable in the farthest corner. She sat down. The tableremained empty, and she was pleased that no onehad recognized her.

She wondered if she should ask for a glass of wine?Did she want red or white? Which was known togive a person more courage?

She looked around but no one was watching her.She could ask for whatever she wanted and nobodywould even give her a glance. Was that a comfort?

The light in the bar was faint and the clouds ofsmoke surrounded her. No one could sce her in thesemi-dark. Was that what she wanted? That no onewould see her?

Someone stopped by her table. He gestured towardthe empty chair. She motioned with her head thathe could help himself to the chair and he did. Hisfeatures resembled those of the natives of hercountry and so she turned her face away from him.

The fingers of your hands are lean like the fingersof a man, her brother had said. She withdrew herhands and put them in her lap. The man sitting ather table was not looking at her, but turning hishead this way an(' that. She followed his eyes to astatuesque blond girl with a beautiful face. Theblond girl was carrying a tray with glasses andbottles on it.

The sister of men looked attentively at the face ofher table companion. In it was grief an4 longing.The waitress was near the neighboring table but sheturned and laughed towards them.

The waitress came over and whispered to her tablecompanion. A word the sister of men, the aunt ofRaab did not understand, a word in the language ofthe people in this strange country. But the tablecompanion was a stranger, too; that was better.But...why was that better?

On the next round, the waitress stopped for somemoments and again on another round. Some-ninutes passed.

The table companion turned and looked at her...Shetold herself he could not have recognized her. Hewas a stranger, and he did not know that she as thesister of men, the aunt of Rafiq. He was looking at

' her directly, at her, herself.

Then he looked down at the empty table before her,and then up at her again.

His eyes asked, "Have you finished?"

And she nodded, "Yes."

Reprinted, with permission, from Women and the Family in the Middle East. Elizabeth Fernea, ed. Austin:University of Texas Press, 1985 (pp. 209-214).

04 0


Suggested Background ReferencesAbouzeid, Leila. Year of the Elephant. Translated

from the Arabic by Barbara Parmenter. Austin:University of Tcxas Press, 1989. (103 pages)

Subtitled "A Moroccan Woman's JourneyToward Independence," this novella narratesthe story of a young woman divorced by herEurocentric husband who seeks a new,independent life in the traditions of Islam.Accompanied by several short stories.

Atiya, Nayra. Khul-Khaal, Five Egyptian WomenTellTheir Stories. Syracuse: Syracuse UniversityPress, 1982. (177 pages)

A collection of five oral historiesdocumenting the lives and struggles of fiveEgyptian women. Told from a first-personperspective, the women describe theirdifficulties and triumphs, customs and socialmores, and the regular activities of daily life.

Ghalcm, Ali. A Wife for My Son. Translated from theFrench by G. Kazolias. New York: Banner Press,1988. (211 pages)

Set in modern-day Algeria, this award-winning novel narrates the story of a youngwoman forced into an arranged marriage. Itdemonstrates the pressure that society'scustoms can place on the individual, as wellas the price one pays for breaking withtradition.

Mernissi, Fatima. Beyond the Veil. London: Al-SaqiBooks, 1975. (198 pages)

A classic discussion of male-female relationsin the Muslim world. Mernissi examinestraditional sources of Islamic law regardingwomen and contrasts them with today'srealities.

Middle Eastern Muslim Women Speak. Edited byElizabeth Fernea and Basima Bezirgan. Austin:University of Texas Press, 1977. (402 pages)

An excellent collection of essays, poems,biographical sketches, and short storiesdocumenting the historical development ofMuslim women. The book's four sections

examine women during the early stages of theIslamic history, the transition to modernity,the changes created by Western colonialismand Arab nationalism, and future directions.

Shaaban, Bouthaina. Both Right and Left Handed.Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1991.(242 pages)

A compilation of interviews with womenconducted by the author, focusing on womenfrom Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, and Algeria.The women describe their personal strugglesfor equality, their relationships with men, andtheir hopes for the future.

Women and the Family in the Middle East. Edited byElizabeth Fernea. Austin: University of TexasPress, 1985. (356 pages)

A companion volume to Middle EasternMuslim Women Speak, following a similarformat wit') essays, short stories, andbiographical information. Topics includehealth and education, work, identity, andreligion and law.

Films and Videos

A Veiled Revolution. 16mm and video; 1982; 26 min.;color, Elizabeth Fernea and Marilyn Gaunt.

Analyzes the resurgence of the veil inEgyptian society, allowing women to explaintheir reasons for returning to traditionalIslamic garb.

Some Women of Marrakech. 16mm and video; 1976;52 min., color, Elizabeth Fernea and MarilynDavies.

Explores the daily lives and concerns of someurban women in Marrakech, Morocco.Personal interviews allow the women to voicetheir own opinions and ideas about theirsociety and its future.

23 23

Central Asia, Past and Present


Lesson PlanCentral Asia Past and Present

Since their independence with the dissolutionof the Soviet Union in the fall of 1991, thecountries of Central AsiaKazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkemenistan, andUzbekistanhave faced a host of challengesas they seek to define their political systems,economies, and national identities.

Like Western colonial powers elsewhere inthe world, the Russian Empire and then theSoviet Union disrupted local practices andsystems when they took control of CentralAsiathen known as Turkistan (land of theTurks)in the nineteenth century. AfterWorld War I, the Soviets split Turkistan intofive smaller republics. They mandatedRussian as the official language, changed thealphabets used to write local languages,repressed religious observance, and exploitedthe region's natural resources to the fullestextent.

Among the factors which will influence thecourse these nations ultimately take are theregion's historical links with neighboringpeoples, particularly in the Middle East.Much of Central Asia's population is Turkicand ethnically related to the Turks of Tur-key. Others are ethnically Iranian. Most ofthe Turkic and non-Turkic segments of thepopulation are Muslim; some converted asearly as the eighth century A.D. during theinitial Arab conquests of the region.Although religious observance was period-ically forbidden at various times under Rus-sian rule, the Central Asian people haveretained their Muslim identity. Today, anumber of Muslim countries are seeking tobuild ties with Central Asia on the basis oftheir common religious heritage.

Lesson Objectives

After completing this lesson, studentsshould be able to:

Name the countries of Central Asia,

26 31

locate them on a map, and explain theprocess by which they were formed

Identify the major ethnic groups thatinhabit Central Asia

Discuss the historical, cultural, and reli-gious links between Central Asia and theMiddle East

Discuss Central Asia's colonial experi-ence and compare and contrast it withthat of Arab countries

Identify the major challenges facing thenewly independent countries of CentralAsia and discuss alternative courses ofaction they might pursue

Explain the environmental disaster thatcharacterizes the Aral Sea, identify con-tributing factors, and discuss possiblesolutions

Classroom Exercises and Activities

Distribute copies of the essay "CentralAsia, Past and Present." Also distribute themap of Central Asia that appears on page37. The following discussion questions focuson the essay's main themes and further thelesson objectives outlined above.

1. Discuss the meaning of the word "geo-strategic" (students may want to look theword up in the dictionary First). In whatway might Central Asia have been geo-strategically important to the Iranian Ses-sanian Empire? To the Arabs? To theMongols? To the Russians? Has the re-gion s importance as perceived by otherschangal over time? How? Discuss thereaso' ns other countries might have forwanting to strengthen their ties with thenewly independent Central Asian states.

2. Central Asia's earliest inhabitants were

Iranian peoples, and for a long time, theregion was associated with Persia andconsidered part of the Persian world. Ex-plain the course of events that resulted inCentral Asia's predominantly Turkishnature. What do the Tajiksdescendantsof the earlier Iranian peopleshave incommon with the Iranians of today? Whatdo the Tajiks have in common with theCentral Asian Turks? Which bonds do youthink are stronger? Explain your answers.

3. Many analysts of the Soviet Unionexpected that Central Asia would be thefirst region to secede from the USSR. Inactual fact, it was the last region to acceptindependence. Discuss how Soviet policiesand practices in Central Asia might havecontributed to the reluctance of the re-gion's people to declare independence. Inwhat ways might Central Asian countriesexperience greater difficulties today thanthey did under Soviet rule? In what waysmight conditions improve?

4. Some scholars have referred to theindependence of Central Asia as the last ina series of "decolonizations" that haveoccurred in the Middle East, Asia, andAfrica. Discuss the characteristics of colo-nialism; does Russian and then Sovietcontrol of Central Asia fit this description?In what ways does the Soviet colonizationof Central Asia parallel Western Europeancolonization of the Arab world? (Thinkabout Algeria, which the French declared apart of France, and about French andBritish mandates in the Fertile Crescent.)In what ways does it differ?

5. Think about the major challenges facingCentral Asian countries today; considerpolitical, economic, and social issues.Discuss any apparent relationship betweenthe problems facing Central Asia andRussian/Soviet policies there. Alternative-ly, to what extent are these problems onesthat any newly independent country wouldface? In explaining your answers, contrastand compare the situation in Central Asiawith that of other newly independent coun-tries in other parts of the world over thepast fifty years.


Photocopy and distribute the trade routemap on page 36. The following discussionquestions are based on the map and assumethat students have read the essay "CentralAsia, Past and Present."

1. Locate the "silk roads" depicted on themap. Where did they begin? To where didthey extend? Where is Central Asia alongthis route? Explain how Central Asia'slocation along the major east-west traderoutes affected the prosperity of its people;consider economic factors as well as polit-ical, cultural, and intellectual factors.

2. Arabs and then Europeans establishedsea routes that competed with the silkroads. Locate these sea routes on the map.What appears to be the most direct routefrom China to Europe? Which route doyou think was the fastest? Consider thevarious factors that would have been in-volved in transporting cargo along the twodifferent routes. Why do you think the searoute ultimately prevailed? Discuss whatthe decline of the silk roads meant for thepeople of Central Asia.

Distribute the alphabet chart on page 35.Before discussing the questions below, askstudents to write a simple sentence in Eng-lish. Then ask them to write the same sen-tence phoenetically, using the Cyrillic andArabic alphabets. Ask students to exchangetransliterations and read each others' sen-tences. (Please note that only the indepen-dent positions of the Arabic letters has beenprovided. To write Arabic correctly, the let-ters must be connected, and their shapechanges depending on their positions in theword. This requires a knowledge of Arabicbeyond that necessary for the purposes ofthis exercise.)

1. What difficulties did you face in tryingto write and read your language using analphabet different than the one to whichyou're accustomed? Were you able toreproduce the English pronunciations ex-actly? If not, why not? Are there letters inCyrillic and/or Arabic that you mightnever use in transliterating English words?

Central Asia is not part of theArab world. However, itshares historical links with theArab world and the rest of theMiddle East, and the region'scolonial experience parallelsthat of some Arab countries.In light of current worldattention on Central Asia andthe paucity of curriculumresources on this region,AMIDEAST is devoting thisissue of Arab World Alamancto Central Asia.

Teachers may wish to refer tothe previous Arab WorldAlmanac issue on "The ArabWorld and Europe's Age ofDiscovery" for a more detaileddiscussion of the sea routesdominated by the Arabs, andto the issue on "Colonialism inthe Arab World."

Please note that in thealphabet chart, only theindependent forms of theArabic letters are provided.To write Arabic correctly, theletters must be connected, andtheir shape changes dependingon their position in the word.This requires a knowledge ofArabic beyond that necessaryfor the purposes of thisexercise.

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2. As explained in the essay "CentralAsia, Past and Present," the Soviets twicemandated a change in the alphabet used bythe Central Asians: from Arabic to Romanand then Cyrillic. What did the Sovietshope to achieve by doing this? To whatextent do you think they were successful?

3. Now that you have confronted the prob-lem of writing your language using anunfamiliar alphabet, discuss the practicaleffects for the Central Asian people of theSoviet-mandated changes in the alphabet.Think about education, media, commercialactivity, etc.

The chart on page 38 provides somebasic information about the Central Asiancountries. The exercise below is based onthis data.

1. Rank the five Central Asian states inorder of total land area (largest to small-est). Rank them in order of population. Doyou see any correlation between your twolists? Now calculate the population densityfor each country (divide the total popula-tion by the total land arca). Which countryis the most densely populated? Which theleast?

2. Consider the major natural resources ofeach country (note that agricultural re-sources are not listed, but students mightwant to keep them in mind). Which arecommercially valuable? Strategically valu-able? Discuss how the presence of thesenatural resources might affect these coun-tries in terms of their economic develop-ment, environmental conditions, politicalrelationships, etc.

3. Review the ethnic composition of eachCentral Asian countr

Documents

96p. 20036. Teacher) (052)Discuss the conceptual differences between religious law and secular law, and the process and extent to which each might be changed Compare and contrast the