04/19/23 1

AP

Ch 51-56

04/19/23 2

Animal Behavior - Ch.51

what and how an animal does something

- controlled by genes and environment - Nature v Nurture - Ridley

04/19/23 3

Types 1. Instinct = behavior that is innate, inherited, ex.

bees, human 2. Learning:

a. Imprinting = occurs over a critical, brief period of time, ex. Gosling accept any moving object as mother from day 1-3

b. Association or classical conditioning = animal learns that two or more events are connected, ex. Pavlov's dogs

c. Trial-and-error (Operant conditioning) = animal connects behavior with positive or negative response. Ex. Mice- B.F. Skinner

3. Habituation = learned behavior that allows the animal to disregard meaningless stimuli.

4. Insight = ability to approach new situations and figure how to deal with them, involves reasoning

04/19/23 4

Misc

Taxis = automatic movement in response to a stimuli, moths & light

Kinesis = change in activity rate because of a stimulus (non-directional)

Migration = long-distance, seasonal movement of animals

04/19/23 5

Fixed Action Pattern (FAP) – (p.1121)a type of behavior directly linked to a simple stimulus, usually carried to completion (stickle back will attack anything red)

04/19/23 6

Communication

Chemical = pheromones, these trigger behavior, ex. mating

Visual = displays of aggression, displays of courtship

Auditory = Sounds, ex. whales, frogs, birds Tactile = Touching, dances – honeybee waggle,

p1124

Foraging Behaviors Herds, flocks, and schools provide several

advantages: Concealment, vigilance, defense, attacking

04/19/23 7

04/19/23 8

Ch 52 - Ecology

study of interactions between living things and their environment

What does this tell us? Why important?

04/19/23 9

“Ways to study ecology”

Organism = look at the way the organism survives, interacts

Population = individuals of the same species in the same area

Community = all populations interacting in the same area Ecosystem = interaction of biotic (living) & abiotic (non-

living) factors - abiotic = temp, water, sun, wind, rocks Biosphere = all regions of the earth that contain living

things Habitat = specific place where an organism usually lives Niche = resources in the environment used by an

organism

04/19/23 10

Biomes = divisions of biosphere, divided mostly by climate, climograph, p1166-1171

Tropical rain forest - high temp & rainfall, tall trees form a canopy?: stratified, diverse

Savannas/grasslands - grass, big climate changes, prairies, zebra

Temperate deciduous forests - warm summers, cold winters, and moderate precipitation. Deciduous trees, small mammals

Deserts - hot and dry, few plants, cacti, lizards Chaparral – shrubs, usually dry Taiga - coniferous forest (pines), winter is cold with

snow, bear Tundra- ground freezes, permafrost, grasses, foxes,

cold

04/19/23 11

04/19/23 12

04/19/23 13

Fresh water biomes - ponds, lakes, streams, and rivers photic (light) vs aphotic zones , thermoclines eutrophic (shallow, high nutrient) vs. oligotrophic (deep ,

O2 rich)

Water

04/19/23 14

Marine biomes - estuaries (oceans meet rivers), intertidal zones (oceans meet land), coral reefs, deep oceans (benthic), p1160

04/19/23 15

Ch 53- Population Ecology

study of the growth, abundance, and distribution of populations, deals with:

1. population size - limited 2. density (spacing)/distribution - p1175-

6 – high usually bad3. age structure- p1192, baby booms4. survivorship curves (mortality)-

p1178, effects repro. rates

04/19/23 16

04/19/23 17

Population growth:

Biotic potential = max. growth rate of a population under ideal conditions (unlimited resources, no growth restrictions)

Factors that contribute to the biotic potential of a species: Age at reproductive maturity Clutch size (# of offspring at each reproductive

event) Frequency of reproduction Reproductive lifetime & survivorship

04/19/23 18

Carrying capacity = max. number of individuals of a population that can be sustained by a particular habitat 

Limiting factors = factors that prevent a population from attaining its biotic po tential. 2 types1. Density-dependent = influence population more because of size, ex. food, space, disease2. Density-independent = independent of the density, ex. Natural disasters and extremes of climate

04/19/23 19

04/19/23 20

Growth of a population: r = births - deaths / N r = growth rate, N = original pop. size - when r is at its max. = intrinsic rate of growth - if r = 0 = zero pop. Growth Exponential growth = rate is greater than 0, plot of

exponential growth rises quickly, J-shaped curve, p 1182

Logistic growth = limiting factors restrict the pop. size to the carrying capacity, forms S-shaped, or sigmoid curve, p 1183

- these can change with time, p1189 ex. crab, hare and lynx

04/19/23 21

04/19/23 22

04/19/23 23

1. r-selected species = rapid growth, quickly reproduce, then die, (many offspring, small, mature quick, no parent care)

2. K-selected species = pop. size remains constant (at carrying capacity, K). (small # of larger offspring, extensive parental care)

- humans, but we are growing exponentially right now, why?

→ Incr. food supply, less disease, better medicine, more habitat

2 life-history strategies

04/19/23 24

Ch 54-55- Ecosystems

examine the production/utilization of energy - organisms are organized into groups called trophic levels

that reflect their main energy source 1. Primary producers = autotrophs, convert sun into chemical

energy 2. Primary consumers, or herbivores, eat the primary

producers. 3. Secondary consumers, or 1° carnivores, eat primary

consumers 4. Tertiary consumers, or 2° carnivores, eat secondary

consumers. 5. Detritivores= decomposers -energy by consuming dead

organisms →Ecological pyramids show the relationship between trophic

levels, biomass, energy, numbers, etc. p1229

04/19/23 25

04/19/23 26

04/19/23 27

Ecological efficiency = amount of energy at one trophic level that is transferred to the next level → Efficiency ≈ 10%, so 10% of energy of one level is transferred to the next level. So 90% is consumed by the activities of each organism, or transferred to detritivores,

Food chain = chart of who eats whom, p1205 Food web = expanded, more complete version of a

food chain, shows interactions of all the major plants/animals in the ecosystem, p1206

04/19/23 28

Keystone Species – (p.1208) exert control on community structure not by numbers, but by their pivotal ecological role.04/19/23 29

04/19/23 30

Symbiosis

species that live together during a portion of their lives, p.1202-1203

1) Mutualism = both species benefit, ex. lichen, acadia tree and ants, +/+

2) Commensalism- one species, benefits, other is unaffected, barnacle, +/o

3) Parasitism- parasite, host is harmed, tapeworm, +/- or -/-

04/19/23 31

Coevolution

evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species

toxic chemicals produced in plants that discourage herbivores

camouflage- color, pattern, shape, or behavior that enables an animal to blend in with its surroundings

warning coloration - warns predators that they sting, bite, taste bad

mimicry - when species resemble one another

04/19/23 32

04/19/23 33

Ecological Succession p.1212

community is gradually replaced by another community with different species called the climax community

How? - natural disaster, soil changes, light amount, crowding

primary = nothing there to start secondary – something there - The plants/animals that are first to colonize

= pioneer species

04/19/23 34

Biogeochemical Cycles

flow of elements from the environment to living things and back

Hydrologic or water cycle- water from evaporation & transpiration, flows into the land, why import/ how impact? p1232

Carbon cycle- carbon from CO2 and fossil fuels, gets used by plants and animals, released as CO2 or burned, why import?, p1232

04/19/23 35

04/19/23 36

Nitrogen cycle- comes from air, into soil, N fixed into NH3, back into air, why import? p1233

Nitrogen fixation: N2 to NH4+ by bacteria (in soil and roots)

Nitrification: NH4+ to NO2 and NO3 by bacteria. Denitrification: bacteria change back to N2   Phosphorus cycle -erosion of rocks puts P in water and

soil, plants absorb, P is released when die and decomposed,

import?, p1233

04/19/23 37

04/19/23 38

Human Impact on the Biosphere

1. Greenhouse effect- burn fossil fuels & forests, increases CO2, thus more heat is trapped in the atmosphere. Result = global temps are rising, could raise sea levels (melt ice caps)

2. Ozone depletion- ozone absorbs UV radiation and prevents it from reaching surface of the earth where it would damage the DNA of organisms. CFCs in aerosols break down ozone

  3. Acid rain- burning of fossil fuels releases pollutants

that contain SO2 and NO2. These react with water, and produce sulfuric and nitric acid. This kill plants and animals

04/19/23 39

4. Deforestation= cutting of forests causes erosion, flooding, and changes in weather, increases CO2, adds to the greenhouse effect

5. Pollution= Some toxins, such as DDT, concentrate in plants and animals. As one organism eats another, the toxin becomes more concentrated = biological magnification, p1238

04/19/23 40

04/19/23 41

Introduced species p.1249

new species added to a new area http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/invbio_plan_report_home.html

often done to control other pests, ex. gypsy moth – What problems do these cause?