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ENVIRONMENT BUSINESS
PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
Advances in technology streamline business processes
Business systems technology has advanced just as significantly allowing finance
and accounting organizations to streamline their business processes with improved cycle
times, reduced costs, and automated controls that ensure compliance. Many leading E&P
companies are automating processes now to achieve a lower cost, flexible cost structure
that positions them to scale operations without adding headcount once drilling activity
increases with economic recovery. Accounts payable (AP) is a major cross-functional
process that can be dramatically transformed through IT automation.
Engaging in a comprehensive business process analysis provides insight into how to
improve processes from a student-centric perspective. By doing so, institutions often find
that they can improve service levels with the same or fewer resources. Business process
analysis and reengineering does not necessarily result in technology changes, acquisitions
or further automation. It simply focuses on increasing efficiency, effectiveness and
establishing goal oriented processing. “At the heart of reengineering is the notion of
discontinuous thinking – of recognizing and breaking away from outdated rules and
fundamental assumptions that underlie operations.” (Hammer, 1990)
Business process review and reengineering is ideally an on-going process. However, due
to resource and time resource constraints, it is often something that is undertaken when
change must occur to resolve a critical situation. Regardless of when the activity is
undertaken, the focus should be on the following:
Aligning existing policies and procedures (formal and informal) with the process
and in support of student success;
A holistic approach that involves all process stakeholders (including students) in
constructive inquiry;
Gaining a complete understanding of the service area where the process resides;
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Reviewing the technology that supports the process;
Identification of improvement opportunities, especially high-impact
improvements yielding the greatest improvement in processes;
When improvement opportunities are identified; offering quick and tangible
results; and making sure to communicate changes and results to all stakeholders.
The greatest challenges faced by an institution engaging in business process
reengineering are a lack of sustained administrative commitment, the setting of an
unrealistic scope and expectations, a culture that is resistant to change, inadequate
resources dedicated to the process and an unpredictable external environment (Malhotra,
1998; Balzer, 2010). Included below are guidelines to help ensure the success of a
business process reengineering initiative.
Business process analysis and reengineering begins with planning and activities that
include the creation of a project team and project sponsorship. It is critical to have project
participants from administration, operations, and information technology working as a
team towards a common goal. While team composition can vary based on a best match
for an institution’s culture and organizational structure, the team should include a person
or people who fit the following roles (McDonald, 2010):
Process manager
Process owner
Process users
Skeptics
Facilitator
Technology expert
A starting point for all business process analyses is to ask why a specific process is being
used. A key consideration is whether the process is tied to any state, federal or other
regulation or internal policy that mandates the process to be performed in a particular
way. Further analysis should map how that process moves through the institution. For
example, with document retention practices, many institutions discover they have a
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difficult time parting with various forms, even though the data contained on the form has
been processed in the student information system. Institutions often cite both external and
internal requirements for retaining the documents. The reality is that few state regulations
or professional association guidelines require institutions to keep many documents, and
perhaps none at all, once they have been processed. Often internal practice is based on
assumptions of requirements that are no longer are in effect.
Management is an art and some extent a technology, as it is means by which the
desired goals of an enterprise are achieved. Management functions in an organization
include planning, organizing, staffing, motivating, and controlling activities of the
organization. It is art of carrying on business. It involves directing and controlling an
organization and steering it toward achieving its objectives. The term of management
technology implies technology used to manage organizations or certain functions.
Management of technology is an interdisciplinary field that integrates science,
engineering, and management knowledge and practices. Technological changes in the
twentieth century have significantly influences employment patterns and social change.
The rapid change in technology combined with consumers’ particular needs and
demands. Such luxury has fortunately become affordable because of advances in
technology. The process of technology innovation is a complex set of activities that
affected to the business activity.
TECHNOLOGY
Technology is about application of tools, methods and techniques to improve production
and processes. Nothing is as obvious as technology, whether in households or Businesses.
The intensity and type of technology use varies depending on the type of economic
activities an enterprise is involved in. There will be no point of analysing every single
technology available in all industries and their applications.
Technology can be defined as all the knowledge, products, processes, tools, methods
and system employed in the creation of goods or in providing services. In simple terms,
technology is the way we do things or is the practical of knowledge, a mean of aiding
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human endeavor. It is common to think of technology in terms of hardware, such as
machines, computers, or slightly advanced electronic gadgets. However, technology
embraces a lot more than just machine. There are several technological entities besides
hardware, including software and human skills or brain ware.
The technologies that exist in a business are the technological assets of that business.
These assets may therefore include hardware, software, brain ware and know-how. They
constitute the collective knowledge and technical capabilities of organization, including
its people, equipment, and systems.
The most important concept for an enterprise to monitor is: Technology life cycle.
For any product or technology there is a finite life, it may be measured in decades or even
centuries but eventually it gets old and something comes along to replace it. It is obvious
with some of today's computer and communication technologies this life cycle is very
short and may be measured in months rather than years.
In the early days of a new technology
In the early days of a new technology there is enormous potential for application. No one
knows quite what to do with it and they may try things which turn out to be impossible.
This phase is characterized by lots of experimenting around the technology and its
applications. People take risks because the stakes are low no one knows quite what the
future will hold, and the markets for the new applications don't exist they are just made
up of people who are interested in the new thing. But gradually these experiments begin
to converge around what they call a 'dominant design' something which begins to set up
the rules of the game. This can apply to products or processes; in both cases the key
characteristics become stabilized and experimentation moves to getting the bugs out and
refining the dominant design.
For example, in the chemical industry we have moved from making soda ash (an essential
ingredient in making soap, glass and a host of other products) from the earliest days
where it was produced by burning vegetable matter through to a sophisticated chemical
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reaction which was carried out on a batch process (the Leblanc process) to the current
generation of continuous processes which use electrolytic techniques and which
originated in Belgium where they were developed by the Solvay brothers. Moving to the
Leblanc process or the Solvay process did not happen overnight; it took decades of work
to refine and improve the process, and to fully understand the chemistry and engineering
required to get consistent high quality and output.
As the technology matures still further so this incremental innovation becomes more
significant and emphasis shifts to factors like cost which means efforts within the
industries which grow up around these product areas tend to focus increasingly on
rationalization, on scale economies and on process innovation to drive out cost and
improve productivity.
Technology assessment
Technology assessment is the study and evaluation of new technologies. It is based on the
conviction that new developments within, and discoveries by, the scientific community
are relevant for the world at large rather than just for the scientific experts themselves,
and that technological progress can never be free of ethical implications. Also,
technology assessment recognizes the fact that scientists normally are not trained ethicists
themselves and accordingly ought to be very careful when passing ethical judgment on
their own, or their colleagues, new findings, projects, or work in progress.
Technology assessment assumes a global perspective and is future oriented rather than
backward-looking or anti-technological.
Scientific research and science
"Scientific research and science based technological innovation is an indispensable
prerequisite of modern life and civilization. There is no alternative.
For six or eight billion people there is no way back to a less sophisticated life
style"(Summer, 1999). Technology assessment considers its task as interdisciplinary
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approach to solving already existing problems and preventing potential damage caused by
the uncritical application and the commercialization of new technologies. Therefore any
results of technology assessment studies must be published, and particular consideration
must be given to communication with political decision makers.
Technology must connect with customer needs to satisfy those needs and achieve
social goals and technology is the engine of economic growth. This statement is
illustrated in the Fig. 1 The spinning out Technology.
Society needs
Market needs
Technology conversion
Technology creation or acquisition
Production
The customer
Standard of living, social and environmental
issues
Figure 1. Spinning out Technology
National competitiveness requires the establishment of a sound economic system, strong
technological capabilities, and the ability to trade with other nations. Creating a national
competitive strategy depends on the harmonious integration of economics, technology,
and trade systems. Industry competitiveness is dependent on the intersection of these
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three major system. The integration of the economic system, technological capabilities
and trade fosters sustainable economic growth is illustrated in the Fig. 2
Technology Capabilities
Economic System Trade
Competitive Enterprises
Sustainable Economic
Growth
Figure 2. Technology and Sustainable Growth
Many new technology concepts have failed because product developers sought to adapt
new product concepts to similar technology rather than the other way around.
Implementation in technological context is generally taken to be concerned with the
issues of developing, applying and utilizing new technologies at the level of enterprise.
The technological improvements based on technological knowledge alone commonly
take place in advance of scientific understanding.
The changes of “technology system” affecting several branches of the economy, as well
as giving rise to entirely new sectors. This system bring the “techno-economic paradigm”
changes in technology system are so far-reaching in their effects that they have major
influence on the behavior of entire economy.
Techno-economic paradigm :
Is technology system, combination of interrelated product and process, technical,
organization and managerial innovations, embodying a quantum jump in potential
productivity for all or most of the economy and profit opportunities
Paradigm change is precisely a radical transformation of the prevail engineering and
managerial for best productivity and most profitable practice in almost any industry.
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To be found of all in the dynamics of relative cost structure of all possible inputs to
production.
LINKING TECHNOLOGY AND BUSINESS STRATEGIES
Business success depends on the products or services brought to the market.
Organizations that know how to link their technology strategy will be more competitive
in the global market. The first step toward integrating business and technology strategies
is to get the business and technical sides of corporate management to agree on a common
set of priorities. Usually the business side perceives technology is a subset of business,
while technologies perceives business as a subset of the general technological ascent of
human being, as shown in the Fig. 3. On the other side, technology is a subset of business
enterprise. Market demographics influence the success of the business. Therefore,
business tend to identify technologies relevant to creating business opportunities that
satisfy market demands. On the other side, technology, through its role in the ascent of
human beings, is the influencing factor in creating business, and business becomes a
subset of technological advances that create significant opportunities for companies. For
optimal results both sides must be integrated into one organizational strategy. In
conclusion that integrating technology strategy and business strategy can be thought of
two sides of coin, while either side is worthless without the other.
Companies that have a one-eye view toward business-oriented function, such as
finance, accounting, marketing, and sales, may face technical obsolescence or miss out on
potential growth and profitability. Similarly, companies that focus entirely on
technological development without effective strategy for exploiting the technology in the
timely manner may not be able to sustain profitability. Management must be able to align
its technology and business strategies to focus on achieving its goals and objectives.
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Market Opportunity Core demographics technology Business view of Technology view of Technology business
Figure 3. Framework for formulation of business and technology strategies Source : Mitchell, 1992
According to Mitchell (1992), the technical community tends to hold the view that
technical achievements by peers around the world often provide a more reliable to the
future than do formally documented business forecast. The business-planning community
usually looks at markets and other external trends as a more obvious and direct source of
business opportunity. These two perspectives need to be reconciled. The importance of
the linkage between the goals and objectives of the corporation and its technological
strategy in the broad consensus and understanding must exist between business and
technical managers throughout a company.
Number of question should be consider are :
To what extent is technology relevant to business ?
Which business strategies require technology ?
Where will we get the technology ?
What are our core technologies for the business ?
In which technologies should we focus our research effort ?
What new strategies options will technologies provide ?
Business Technology “Ascent of man”
Technology Business
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In responding these questions, a company can develop relationships among its
high-level strategies, its lines of business, and the technologies that are needed to achieve
business goals. To answered the strategic questions some consideration as following as:
Most formal strategic planning processes start with a common series of
analyses that deal with the primary factors affecting the business. Typically,
studies of the external environment, including customer, market and other
trends, identify potential opportunities. To the extent that technology is a
critical element in the environment, a key attribute of major competitors, or a
strategic strength or weakness of business entity being examined, it should
emerge naturally from these analyses.
It is clearly stated that numerical goals are unambiguously and uniquely aligned
with strategies and implementation plans, making identification of needed
technology relatively trivial. In practice, overall business objectives and
strategies are often written broadly, and typically aspirations for growth, new
markets and revenues must be further specified by plans formulated. The same
is usually true goals for cost, quality, productivity, and customer support.
There are in general three different sources of technology available to business
operations within large corporations: within the business operation; from the
corporate or other company laboratories; from outside the corporation. Strategic
planning for technology takes a qualitative advance at this stage, when it
becomes apparent that the range technical strategies open to the cooperation
depends directly on the state of technical knowledge in-house.
The choice of core technologies can be critical in determining precisely how the
business will be able to compete. The most direct way to identify core
technologies is by asking technical staff is operations to determine which
internal skills and disciplines are essential to the growth strengthened technical
capability leads to improved business performance. Particular emphasis should
be given to those areas where called key and pacing technologies.
Having identified which technologies the corporation needs, we may rationally
approach the determination of strategy for corporate laboratories by asking, “In
which few technical areas shall we focus our research effort?” These core areas
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maybe chosen to complement, extend, or lead technical activity in operations,
but must contain sufficient resources to explore and develop new technology to
the point where it can be picked up by business operations for commercial
exploitation.
If the strategic area is well chosen, it will not only support the stated strategy of
business operations, but will, in addition, result in a continuous stream of
benefits to the corporation, from applications only dimly perceived at the
outset. It may even provide opportunities to extend or change existing business
strategies. Positioning the laboratories strategically in appropriate core
technologies requires considerable management skill and judgment. Choosing
the right areas to establish technical excellence implicitly opens up future
business opportunities. There are two fundamental problems in making the case
for strategic positioning. The first concerns the language used to communicate
the purpose of the work to senior management and the second problem
concerns appropriate financial justification.
Technology Strategy
Linking technology and business stratgies is a demanding task that has central importance
is strategy formation. Technology is a critical source to achieve and sustain competitive
advantage, the ability to incorporate technology into a business strategy can make the
difference between a winning or a losing stategic alternative. The role of technology has
become so pervasive in the business world that it is appropriate to say there is hardly any
significant industry that can be classified as low-technology. In fact, technological forces
are resructuring industries and defining new ways to compete. Managers are confronted
with the demanding task of accelerating the speed at which innovations in new products
and processes are translated into profitable commercial ventures.
Though there are many studies that analyze the process and sources of innovation, the
disruptions introduced by new technologies, the concept of core competencies, the
strategic management of technology or human issues related to technology, there is less
documentation on how to develop a startegic plan that integrates technology into business
12
strategy of a firm (Hax and Majluf, 1998)). The methodology is consistent with the
strategic planning framework and is further illustrated by applying it to a start-up
company or industry.
The guiding framework for identifying the relevant focuses of analysis in the
development of functional strategy in the value chain. The firm’s activities gouped into
six major areas for strategic functional analysis as follows as :
Financial strategy
Human resources strategy
Technology strategy
Procurement strategy
Manufacture strategy
Marketing strategy
A framework for the development of Technology Strategy :
The formation of technology strategy takes place at all the key hierarchical levels of the
firm: corporate, business, and functional.
First, top managers have decide as part the corporate strategy of the firm, what role is to
be played by technology in advancing the firm’s competitive capabilities, the amount of
resources to be allocated to technology, and the aggresiveness the firm will use in the
innovative processs and imbedding technology into the firm’s products and processes.
Corporate attention is required since frequently a given technology is shared by several
businesses and affects various managerial functions. Therefore, its strategic development
cannot be tottaly decentralized at the business and functional levels. The elements of
corporate strategy that communicate more pointedly to the technological requirements are
mission of the firm --- particularly the statement of unique competencies---and the
corporate strategic thrusts---an expression of the primary issues the firm has to address in
order to establish a strong competitive position.
Secondly, technology strategies are formulated at the business level. During the process
of business strategy formation we need to define the technological support required to
create or reinforce the competitive advantage sustained by each business unit. This is
supplied by mission of the business and their respectives strategic action programs.
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Obviously, a technology strategy cannot be created in isolation from the corporate
objectives and the businesses it is intended to support.
Finally, at the technology level residues the task of interpreting all the requirements
emerging from corporateband business levels, which will become the critical inputs for
shaping the technology strategy of the firm. At this stage it is also necessary to identify
the portfolio of specific technologies the firm will be using in supporting its business
strategies. This leads to the definition of the strateguc technology units (STUs), the
central focus of attention in the development of technology strategy. The STU identifies
the skills or disciplines that are applied to a particular product or process in order to gain
technological advantage. The STUs should contain all the core technologies used now or
needed in the future across the whole organization.
The STUs are critical to the execution of the technology environmental scan and internal
scrutiny, the next taxts in the planning process. The environmental scan is aimed at
obtaining an understanding of the key technology trends, assessing the attractiveness of
each STU, and identifying technological opportunities and threats. This form of analysis
we refer to as technology intelligence. Its purpose is to generate all the relevant
information concerning the current and future state of development of the technology
function. It is not only the existing managerial practice and state of technological
progress that are important to detect.
Business Process Technology
The customer demand translates directly or indirectly into the need to manufacture the
product. Business processes are chains of corporate activities and their network-like
relationship directed at the corporate objects ’product’, ‘order’ and ‘resource’. The
relationship between business processes is like the relationship between customers and
suppliers. The business process is a set of activities designed to yield a result that is of
use to company’s customers.
To make the product we need two distinct elements:
a. Materials and components parts : materials planning systems are concerned
with planning the procurement and availability of these materials in a way that reconciles
14
the potentially conflicting requirements of end-customer demand and the necessity of
organizing the flow materials to minimize or optimize the investment in inventories
b. Manufacturing or assembly capacity : production capacity is means of
concerting the materials into intermediate component part or the end product. This
involves balancing workload and capacity, and is no use if the necessary materials are not
available. This should be have the whole manufacturing planning system, which therefore
includes the materials planning system.
Several variables of overall manufacturing environment:
Whether to make to stock or to make to order
Whether or not demand forecasting is needed to supplement firm customer
orders through the planning horizon
Whether components are sources in-plant, in-company, or externally;
Whether the end product is shipped to third parties or whether it is for
consumption within a finished product in other factories or departments
within the organization.
Among the major variables we should noted:
The manufacturing process may produce one product, or it may produce
many products
The product technology may simple or it may be complex
The products may be standard products, they may be original equipment
manufacturer products tailored to customer specification, or they may be
specifically manufactured to customer specification
The products may be produced in volume, or small to medium-sized
batches, or they may be unique one-off products
The manufacturing resource may be organized in different ways or as a
collection of process-related work centers through which work may pass
in many different sequences depending upon individual product structures.
Within the major resource centre the nature of the work associated with
different products maybe similar or homogenous, or it may differ widely
from one product specification to another.
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THE STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS
It is part and parcel of the much wider strategic planning process for the entire
business. The manufacturing operation exists to satisfy customer demand. Correctly
planned and operated, it will be a major contributor to customer satisfaction or delight. A
workable guide to the strategic planning process, with emphasis on the manufacturing
operation, as follows as “
1. Profiles of market requirements and achieved performance
2. Basic information by product family
3. Competitive edge by product family
4. Current performance by product family
5. External opportunities and threats
6. Assessment of the current manufacturing strategy
7. Identifying policy area needing change or improvement and identifying possible
strategic options.
Process control management
The major constraints on making the product are:
1. Product technology; the lower level or component parts or materials content of the
end product
2. Process technology; the manufacturing operation involved in converting the
component parts or materials into the end product. This is also the value-adding
process
3. Production capacity.
These are the basics at the heart of manufacturing equation. How they are welded
together by system to address the key variables of manufacturing environment is what
determines whether or not that system has a fit with the manufacturing environment.
To recap, the major divergences are:
Whether the products being manufactured are runners, repeaters or
stranger;
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Whether scheduling is rate-based or order-based, and in the case of order-
based scheduling whether the system is driven by conventional master
schedule or alternative driver;
The degree of customer options or feature dependency in the product
structure;
The presence or absence of finished inventories;
Whether or not a JIT system is in use;
At the other end of spectrum, to what extent the many problem associated
with jobbing shop environment have to be addressed.
The requirements for qualification of processing technology, the process operations or
process diagram should be noted, including monitoring and control of suitable process
parameters and product characteristic, the approval process and equipment, as
appropriate, suitable maintenance of equipment to ensure continuing process capability.
PROCESS ELEMENTS The enormous variety of process technologies from one industry to another, many of the
key elements of manufacturing competitiveness are inherent within the process itself such
as :
technological lead time
process cost
quality loss or process scrap
Minimizing all three is the key to competitive manufacturing strategy, and should form
the objectives against which choices of process technology are evaluated. Most formal
strategic planning processes start with a common series of analyses that deal with the
primary factors affecting the business. Technology is a critical element in the
environment, a key attribute of major competitors, or strategic strength or weakness of
the business.
The concept of actively using a structured process for technology strategy and
management is an important one. The business success and production process
technology by the technical complexity of product and processes itself. Technology
strategy must be a consistent part of overall business strategies. The interaction of
17
business and technology strategies as shown in the Figure 5, while the integrating
technology and business strategies as shown in the Figure 6.
Figure 5. Interaction Technology and Business strategy
Source : S. Bhalla, The Effective Management of Technology, Battle
Press, 1987.
Research Strategy
Commercial
Financial
Human Resources
& Organization
Technology
Business Strategy
Technology Strategy
Technology Forecasting
Technology Audit
Technology Monitoring
Technology Diffusion
R & D Planning
Technology Assessment
Engineering &
Manufacturing Technology
18
Figure 6. Integrating Technology and business strategies
Source: S. Bhalla, The Effective Management of Technology. Battelle Press, 1987.
The effective adoption of technology requires that knowledge flow from source to
receiver. Technology effectiveness depends on how successfully this process is
implemented. Business decisions for acquisition and exploitation of technology
determine the success of the organization. The technological environment including
executive leadership, technology strategy, organization structure, technology culture, and
people, affective on the business activity.
The executive leadership : technology as a top priority is appreciated and
managed as a key factor in the overall business strategy, involvement
and participation.
Technology strategy : corporate strategy, goals, deployment
Organization structure : organization chart, teamwork
Technology culture and people : culture, learning organization, communication,
management of change, recruiting, training, empowerment, and reward system.
To develop a full understanding of the future business environment that is, the customers,
suppliers, competitors, demand for product, industry financial ratios, and economic
Business Segmentation
(1)
Technology Segmentation
(2)
Strategic Audit
(3)
Strategic Controlling
(11)
Business Environmental
Scan (4)
Technology Environmental
(5)
Impacted Businesses
(6)
Impacted Technologies
(7)
Implementation (10)
Generation of Alternative Strategies
(8)
Selection of Strategies
Resource
Allocation (9)
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trends. At the same time it is also important to develop a similar understanding of
technology environment, including patents, key technologies, centers of research
excellence and capability, levels of funding, the potential for break through, and barriers
to technologies deployment.
Specify Technology Strategy
Specifying for technology development and the use is important because it deals with the
conversion of the information and concept developed into realistic plants and actions as
shown in the Figure 7. In the ASSETS (assess, specify, select, execute, transfer) is
technology strategy, its specifications address the four main elements which support the
firm’s basic business strategy: customers, competitive approach, investments and
organizational culture. The strategy provide guidelines (criteria) for selecting and
implementing specific actions (tactics). This involves the simple act of answering
question such as :
What technologies to develop, license, or buy
Whether to seek technology leadership
How to protect property rights
How to capture economic returns.
Technology strategy must be consistent part of overall business strategies.
The setting of technology strategy is constrained by unique company character and needs, such as
provided by top management.
A critical factor in developing strategy is to evaluate the company’s position with respect
to the competition, however the evaluation of competitive position in the technological
environment is difficult. This can be done by analysis of the competitor and more
specialized approaches such as patent trend analysis.
The technology strategic guidance forms the basis for development of an investment
program including R & D as one of the possible actions.
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Business Objectives Resources
Competitive Position
Figure 7. The ASSETS process
The boxes with circled numbers identify steps in strategy development; the boxes with uncircled
numbers identify steps in strategy implementation
The business environment in processing technology can be summarized as in the outline for
technology plan.
The outline for technology plan for developing processing technology strategy requires
the components :
I. CURRENT STATUS
A. Product performance
B. Technology and market assessment
C. Customers
1. Customer health
2. Future outlook
Specify Technology
Strategy
(2)
Assess Current Situation
(1) Select Technology
Portfolio
(3) Execute Technology Investment
Transfer Result for
Deployment
(4) (5)
Secure Long – Term
Positions
(6)
Company Strengths
Market Needs
Approaches Criteria
Organizational Systems
Plans
Projects
Results
Trends
Concepts
Adjustments Operational
Assets
External Environment
Business Environment
Application Targets
Returns and
Impacts
21
3. Current and future needs
D. Competitive analysis
E. Technological strengths and weaknesses
F. Existing, key and emerging technologies
II. FUTURE EXPECTATIONS
A. Technology environment
B. Product and Process trends
C. Competition potential
D. Capabilities needed
E. Problems and opportunities created
III. BASIC TECHNOLOGY STRATEGIES
A. Improvements in the technological base
B. New technology acquisition targets
C. Technical deployment risk
D. Application timing
IV. LONG-TERM RESOURCES NEEDED
A. Capital and financial investments
B. Resource allocation guidelines
V. MEASURES OF SUCCESS
A. Quantitative
B. Qualitative
C. Milestone and go/no-go decisions
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Lessons from Operation Management. International Journal of Operations &
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