9 Interest Groups: Getting Their Share and More
Informing Elites: Interest groups provide expertise on a variety of issues. They even supply witnesses and testimony to lawmakers who are making new policy. 9 Learning Objectives Interest groups play a key role in our democratic government. The interest group system is designed to represent narrow interests and constituencies. In this chapter, we will consider how interest groups organize in Washington, and who some of the key leaders and followers are. Then, we will look specifically at Washington lobbyists and the power of PACs, or political action committees. We will examine how interest groups lobby the bureaucracies and courts. Finally, we will explore the idea of politics as interest-group conflict. Explain the origins, functions, strengths, and weaknesses of the interest group system in America 9.1 Characterize the interests represented by organized interest groups lobbying in Washington 9.2 9 Learning Objectives Explain how interest-group leaders create and build organizations 9.3 Describe the overall environment of lobbyists in Washington, and identify the main activities of lobbyists 9.4 9 Learning Objectives Outline the development, role, and structure of political action committees 9.5 Assess the relationships between interest groups and bureaucratic agencies, and identify ways in which interest groups seek to influence the federal court system 9.6 9 Learning Objectives Evaluate the different positions on the consequences of interest groups for American democracy 9.7 Interest-Group Power 9.1 Electoral Versus Interest-Group Systems
Checking Majoritarianism Concentrating Benefits While Dispersing Costs Origins of Interest Groups Protecting Economic Interests Advancing Social Movements Seeking Government Benefits Responding to Government Regulation People dont organize just because its efficient. Especially in politics, organization is a means of gaining power. It is how certain interests and constituencies get their fair share and sometimes more in our society. In other words, interest groups are organizations that seek to gain by influencing government policy. While we often hear political leaders speak disdainfully of interest groups, their existence is protected by the First Amendment of the Constitution, which recognizes the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. In this section, we will consider the different types and roles of interest groups today. Interest-Group Power 9.1 Electoral Versus Interest-Group Systems
Checking Majoritarianism Concentrating Benefits While Dispersing Costs Origins of Interest Groups Protecting Economic Interests Advancing Social Movements Seeking Government Benefits Responding to Government Regulation Lets compare the interest-group system to the electoral system. In the electoral system, individual voters influence government policy only indirectly through elections. In contrast, the interest-group system is organized to represent specific economic, professional, ideological, religious, racial, gender, and issue constituencies. This system offers citizens another, more direct way to participate in our government by joining interest groups organizations that pressure government to advance their interests. Furthermore, the interest group system provides an important check on majoritarianism, or the tendency of democratic governments to allow the interests of the majority to prevail over those of minorities. In fact, a key role of interest groups is allow special interests to be heard above the roar of the majority. Interest-Group Power 9.1 Electoral Versus Interest-Group Systems
Checking Majoritarianism Concentrating Benefits While Dispersing Costs Origins of Interest Groups Protecting Economic Interests Advancing Social Movements Seeking Government Benefits Responding to Government Regulation Interest groups operate by seeking benefits for a concentrated number of members, while dispersing the costs of those benefits to all taxpayers, none of whom feel the pinch of those added costs acutely enough to organize a protest against them. This would be fine if such activity stayed small, but over time, as more groups seek to both concentrate benefits and disperse costs, a condition known as organizational sclerosis results. This is when there are so many subsidies, benefits, regulations, protections and special treatment for organized groups that work, productivity, and investment all slow down. So where did these sclerosis-inducing interest groups come from? They have been around since the founding of our country. James Madison saw them as a necessary evil in politics. Madison believed such factions were a natural product of human nature, and had to be endured. He identified economic interests as being the most heavily involved in the political process. Madison identified them as a landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests. Interest-Group Power 9.1 Electoral Versus Interest-Group Systems
Checking Majoritarianism Concentrating Benefits While Dispersing Costs Origins of Interest Groups Protecting Economic Interests Advancing Social Movements Seeking Government Benefits Responding to Government Regulation Another role of interest groups is to advance the cause of social movements. Social movements are organized movements of people often just ordinary people who make collective claims on others. Such movements are often directed against perceived elites, and involve a sense that those represented by the social movement are being unjustly deprived of a right, a good, or a service. Social movements, as represented by interest groups, seek to change the law to guarantee rights, goods, or services, as the civil rights movement did for African Americans. Often, interest groups seek specific government benefits for their constituencies. Different veterans groups have sought increased benefits and services for veterans, just as the American Association of Retired Persons has done for senior citizens. These days, even government interest groups such as the National League of Cities seek increased federal benefits for their members. Finally, some interest groups seek a reduction in governmental regulation, while others seek an increase in regulation. 9.1 Democracy for the Many During the 1960s, the civil rights movement brought effective protest to new heights, as you can see from this photograph showing masses of protestors in Washington, D.C. The civil rights movement provides inspiration for todays protestors. The First Advocacy Group
9.1 The First Advocacy Group This photograph shows members of the Grand Army of the Republic. This was a fraternal organization of Civil War veterans. They lobbied Congress for voting rights for black veterans and veterans pensions, and influenced both political appointments and elections. 9.1 9.1Which interests are most frequently engaged in attempting to influence government? Now that weve briefly discussed interest groups, can you answer this question? Factions Economic interests Social movements All of the above 13 9.1 9.1Which interests are most frequently engaged in attempting to influence government? As James Madison noted, economic interests are most frequently involved in the political process. Factions Economic interests Social movements All of the above 14 The Organized Interests in Washington
9.2 The Organized Interests in Washington To appreciate the role of interest groups in Washington, you need merely to consider this number: one million. Thats how many nonprofit organizations there are in the United States, and several thousand of those organizations have at least one registered lobbyist in Washington. Trade and professional organizations make up the bulk of those registered organizations, but there are many other types of interest groups at work in our nations capital, such as: unions farm organizations womens organizations religious groups. Other types of interest groups busy in Washington include: public-interest groups single-interest groups ideological groups environmental groups education lobbies government lobbies. Business and Trade Organizations Professional Associations Organized Labor Farm Organizations Womens Organizations Religious Groups Public-Interest Groups Single-Issue Groups Ideological Groups Environmental Groups The Organized Interests in Washington
9.2 The Organized Interests in Washington Without question, the most prevalent type of interest represented in Washington is economic. Business and trade organizations fill more than half of the Washington offices occupied by interest groups, and altogether these organizations account for about 75 percent of all the reported lobbying expenditures. However, professional organizations give business and trade organizations a run for their money. Three of the largest organizations include the American Bar Association, the American Medical Association, and the National Education Association. Labor organizations have seen membership shrink especially in the private sector in recent years, but they remain a major political force in Washington. In addition to lobbying for policy changes, labor organizations are major fundraisers for political parties and candidates. Business and Trade Organizations Professional Associations Organized Labor Farm Organizations Womens Organizations Religious Groups Public-Interest Groups Single-Issue Groups Ideological Groups Environmental Groups 9.2 Where Unions Survive This photograph shows a recent demonstration by union members. The number of unionized private sector workers in the United States has declined dramatically in the last half century, as manufacturing and skilled trades have moved away from the United States. The bulk of union membership is in the new generation of unions, like the Service Employees International Union, which has heavy membership in health care and among government employees. 9.2 FIGURE 9.1: Going Public: Unions and the American workforce
Public employee unions, including teachers unions and the National Education Association, have remained strong over recent decades,while union membership in the private sector has declined. 9.2 TABLE 9.1: Major Organized Interest Groups, by Type
This table breaks down the major organized interest groups by type. The Organized Interests in Washington
9.2 The Organized Interests in Washington Farmers only make up three percent of the workforce today compared to 25 percent in the 1930s. Yet, in the form of large agricultural producers and corporate food processors, they remain politically strong. There are large, comprehensive groups such as the American Farm Bureau Federation and smaller, more specialized groups such as the National Milk Producers. Womens groups have their roots from before the Civil War, with the anti-slavery movement. Later, they became linked with the temperance and prohibition movements. In recent decades, the womens movement has focused on equal rights, inspired by the civil rights movements of the 1960s. The largest of the groups is the National Organization for Women. Religious groups have long been involved in the American political scene. They were deeply involved both in the abolitionist movement before the Civil War and the civil rights movement of the 1960s. Today, they generally fall into either the liberal camp of the National Council of Churches and Anti-Defamation League of Bnai Brith, or the conservative camp of the Christian Coalition, commonly called the religious right. While officially nonpartisan, the Christian Coalition has become well known for its voter guides, which point out the candidates stands on issues. Business and Trade Organizations Professional Associations Organized Labor Farm Organizations Womens Organizations Religious Groups Public-Interest Groups Single-Issue Groups Ideological Groups Environmental Groups The Organized Interests in Washington
9.2 The Organized Interests in Washington Organized Labor Farm Organizations Womens Organizations Religious Groups Public-Interest Groups Single-Issue Groups Ideological Groups Environmental Groups Education Lobbies Government Lobbies The constituencies of public-interest groups can be quite broad consumers, voters, reformers, or even the public as a whole. Public-interest groups generally push for greater government regulation of consumer products, public safety, campaign finance reform, and the like. Three of the best-known organizations are Common Cause, Public Citizen, and the Consumer Federation of America. As their name suggests, single-issue groups focus their attention on a single cause often quite loudly. Among the loudest of the single-issue groups have been those organized either in support of or in opposition to abortion rights. Other single-issue groups include Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) and the National Rifle Association (NRA). Ideological groups appeal to the passions of people who identify either with the liberal or conservative platforms. These groups track legislation and rate members of Congress according to their degree of liberalism or conservativeness. One prominent ideological group is People for the American Way, a liberal-leaning organization formed in the entertainment industry. 9.2 TABLE 9.2: Under the Influence?: Ideological Interest-Group Ratings for U.S. Senators and Objective D-Nominate Scores These lists show how some ideological interest groups rate members of Congress according to their votes on various issues. Activity: Discuss the importance of interest groups in politics today. Ask the students if they identify with any groups. Are they members of any groups? Are they represented by any groups whether they are members or not? Ask students if they think that interest groups are good or bad for American democracy. The Organized Interests in Washington
9.2 The Organized Interests in Washington Environmental organizations have been around for a long time. The Sierra Club was founded in 1892, and other environmental organizations have followed. Among the more prominent groups are the League of Conservation Voters and the National Resource Defense Council. These groups tend to believe either that environmental regulations should protect the environment for human use or that environmental regulations should protect nature because of the innate value of nature itself. Educational organizations such as colleges and universities also lobby Congress on issues involving student financial aid or research funding. In fact, higher education spends more than $100 million a year on lobbying. Even the government lobbies the government. The increase in federal grant monies has led local and state governments to send lobbyists to Washington to secure their share or to push for other changes in policy and regulations. Organized Labor Farm Organizations Womens Organizations Religious Groups Public-Interest Groups Single-Issue Groups Ideological Groups Environmental Groups Education Lobbies Government Lobbies 9.2 FIGURE 9.2: Lobbying isnt just for bigcorporations its also for big education This figure shows the large amount of money that many public and private colleges spend on lobbying in Washington. In 2010, these institutions spent more than $107 million on lobbying. 9.2 FIGURE 9.3 Lobbying for Football
As you can see, the Bowl Championship Series spent more than half a million dollars on lobbying in 2010 through 2011, mainly to keep Congress from involvement in the setup of the college football postseason. 9.2 Protest as Art Creative protests can capture the attention of the media. Here, a People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) member protests, in creative makeup, the caging and treatment of animals by performance circuses. 9.2 9.2Which organizations tend to represent broader, more general constituencies? All interest groups represent constituencies but there are differences. Lets review what weve learned about interest groups with this question. Public-interest groups Single-interest groups Business and trade organizations Environmental groups 27 9.2 9.2Which organizations tend to represent broader, more general constituencies? Public-interest groups tend to represent larger constituencies, such as consumers. Public-interest groups Single-interest groups Business and trade organizations Environmental groups 28 Leaders and Followers 9.3 Interest Group Entrepreneurs
No organization can last long without adequate leadership. Yet, over time, the leaders of an organization may find that their goals differ from those of the rank-and-file membership of their group. In this section we will examine how well organization leaders represent the views of their members. Interest Group Entrepreneurs Marketing Membership Organizational Democracy and Leader/Member Agreement Class Bias in Membership Leaders and Followers 9.3 Interest Group Entrepreneurs
Interest group entrepreneurs are the people who create organizations and recruit and retain members. The greatest challenge these leaders face is in overcoming the so-called free-rider problem. Free riders are people who benefit from an organizations efforts but do not contribute anything to help cover costs. To increase paid membership, interest group entrepreneurs must appeal to peoples sense of obligation or offer tangible benefits of membership, such as magazine subscriptions or discounts. How an interest group entrepreneur markets membership will vary depending on the size and nature of the organization. Smaller, more specialized organizations may appeal to potential members sense of duty and commitment to the cause. People are also more likely to feel they can make a difference in a smaller organization. Larger groups, such as the American Automobile Association, may have to rely entirely on benefits such as the discounts and travel tips the AAA offers members. Interest Group Entrepreneurs Marketing Membership Organizational Democracy and Leader/Member Agreement Class Bias in Membership Leaders and Followers 9.3 Interest-Group Entrepreneurs
Although they seek to influence our democratic government, interest groups themselves do not generally run as a democracy. A small group of leaders may determine the direction of the entire organization. Members who dont like that direction can drop out, but they usually cant directly challenge the leadership. An exception to this rule is single-interest groups, which rely on the intensity of their members beliefs. While many people a majority of the U.S. population, in fact belong to at least one organization, membership is definitely linked to socioeconomic status. The middle and upper classes are well represented by interest groups, but the same cannot be said for Americans who fall into the lower socioeconomic classes. This raises questions about over- and under-representation of values. Interest-Group Entrepreneurs Marketing Membership Organizational Democracy and Leader/Member Agreement Class Bias in Membership 9.3 9.3Interest group entrepreneurs of which type of organizations are more likely to need tangible benefits to attract members? Can you answer this question about marketing and membership? Single-issue groups Business and trade organizations Religious groups Public-interest groups 32 9.3 9.3Interest-group entrepreneurs of which type of organizations are more likely to need tangible benefits to attract members? Organizers of broad public interest groups are more likely to have to offer tangible benefits, such as magazine subscriptions or discounts, to attract paid members and avoid the free-rider problem. Single-issue groups Business and trade organizations Religious groups Public-interest groups 33 The Washington Lobbyists
9.4 The Washington Lobbyists Who Are the Lobbyists? The Think Tanks Regulation of Lobbies Tightening Lobby Regulations The Fine Art of Lobbying Public Relations Access Information Grassroots Mobilization Protests and Demonstrations Coalition Building Campaign Support Lobbying Ethics Washington is crowded with lobbyists. By some estimates, more than 15,000 people in Washington fit the definition of lobbyist. These numbers suggest that there are at least 28 lobbyists for every member of Congress! In this section we will look at who lobbyists are and what they do. The Washington Lobbyists
9.4 The Washington Lobbyists Who Are the Lobbyists? The Think Tanks Regulation of Lobbies Tightening Lobby Regulations The Fine Art of Lobbying Public Relations Access Information Grassroots Mobilization Protests and Demonstrations Coalition Building The goal of the lobbyist is simple: to influence the making and enforcing of laws. Generally, we think of two types of lobbyists. One type is employed directly by specific interest groups, and spends all his or her time on that groups agenda. The other type is the independent fixer who offers to influence government policies for a price. Many of these lobbyists are former government officials, such as former members of Congress or White House officials, who use their connections to get things done for clients. In contrast to the lobbyist for hire are the think tanks. These organizations are non-profit, tax-free policy planning organizations that focus on policy development rather than on lobbying. Yet certain think tanks, such as the Brookings Institution, the American Enterprise Institute, the Center for American Progress, and the Heritage Foundation, are quite influential on the policy stage. By law, they must refrain from direct lobbying or risk their tax-free status, but they do make policy recommendations. Washington lobbyists are not free to do whatever they want. They are regulated, primarily through disclosure. The Regulation of Lobbying Act requires lobbyists to file expenditure reports. However, the definition of lobbying is unclear, making this law difficult to enforce. To fix this, there have been some attempts to tighten lobby regulations, including proposals to curtail gifts by lobbyists to members of Congress, including paid vacations and dinners. 9.4 TABLE 9.3: Money Talks: Top Lobbying Spenders, 1998-2013
This table shows the top spenders in the lobbying world. Direct spending on lobbying (not including campaign contributions) amounts to more than $1 billion a year. The Washington Lobbyists
9.4 The Washington Lobbyists Regulation of Lobbies Tightening Lobby Regulations The Fine Art of Lobbying Public Relations Access Information Grassroots Mobilization Protests and Demonstrations Coalition Building Campaign Support Lobbying Ethics The term lobbying has its roots in the lobbies of legislative chambers, where those wanting to influence policy waited for lawmakers. Any activity intended to influence a government decision maker is a form of lobbying. Lobbying activities fall into seven categories: public relations access information grassroots mobilization protests and demonstrations coalition building campaign support Interest groups spend a lot of time creating a favorable image of themselves to the public, and lobbyists can be crucial to these public relations campaigns. These campaigns may include expensive ads by oil companies or press releases intended to attract earned media, or news stories in the media. Another key function of lobbyists is providing their clients access to important decision makers. Lobbyists may spend a lot of money to attend fundraisers for members of Congress just to build relationships with those members Some lobbyists provide technical expertise or political information. Members of Congress cant possibly be fully informed on all of the issues they vote on. So they rely on lobbyists to provide background before a vote. The Washington Lobbyists
9.4 The Washington Lobbyists Regulation of Lobbies Tightening Lobby Regulations The Fine Art of Lobbying Public Relations Access Information Grassroots Mobilization Protests and Demonstrations Coalition Building Campaign Support Lobbying Ethics Another form of lobbying is through grassroots mobilization. Organized interests may get their members or constituencies to reach out to lawmakers and encourage them to vote a certain way. Often this spontaneous contact means a rash of identical letters. Even so, lawmakers dare not ignore a flood of mail. Interest groups may pressure lawmakers by organizing a protest or demonstration about a certain issue or bill. These events often get covered by the media, generating more interest in the issue. The Washington Lobbyists
9.4 The Washington Lobbyists Regulation of Lobbies Tightening Lobby Regulations The Fine Art of Lobbying Public Relations Access Information Grassroots Mobilization Protests and Demonstrations Coalition Building Campaign Support Lobbying Ethics If mail campaigns and protests dont work, interest groups may turn to coalition building with other interest groups in order to increase their power. For example, the National Organization for Women, the League of Women Voters, and NARAL Pro-Choice America may join forces on an issue. Lawmakers listen, especially when campaign support is involved. As the costs of campaigning increase, lawmakers rely more heavily on interest group contributions. Organized interests are happy to help; not only do contributions buy access, they help elect people who are friendly to the groups interests. Though sometimes those contributions cross the line, experienced lobbyists avoid offering money for a vote. While some may think that lobbying ethics is a contradiction in terms, careful lobbyists avoid the impression of a direct exchange. 9.4 9.4Lobbyists are allowed to provide decision makers with all of the following except what? Lobbyists are regulated to prevent unduly influencing government. By process of elimination, can you answer this question? Technical expertise Important access Contributions in exchange for a vote Lavish vacations and meals None of the above; all activities are legal 40 9.4 9.4Lobbyists are allowed to provide decision makers with all of the following except what? While lobbyists can and do provide campaign contributions, they may not do so in exchange for a specific vote on an issue. Technical expertise Important access Contributions in exchange for a vote Lavish vacations and meals None of the above; all activities are legal 41 PAC Power 9.5 Distributing PAC Money Payback
With all the money they raise, organized interests need a convenient way to get it in the hands of the right people. Political Action Committees, or PACs, offer such a vehicle. Distributing PAC Money Payback PAC Power 9.5 Distributing PAC Money Payback
PACs are started by companies, labor unions, trade associations, ideological groups, and other organizations in order to raise and distribute significant amounts of campaign cash in amounts much larger than what is given through individual contributions. The PACS of corporations and other economic interests almost always go to incumbents, regardless of party. PAC organizers know that incumbents are rarely defeated, and that these relationships are worth cultivating. Issue-oriented PACS, however, give to candidates whose record or platform aligns most closely with the interests of the organization. Labor-backed PACs almost always give to Democrats. Neither lobbyist nor lawmaker likes the term payback. Both sides suggest that PAC money merely buys a chance to talk, as opposed to buying support outright. That said, the pattern of contributions by major industries aligns closely with the voting records of congressional representatives who accepted PAC money. Distributing PAC Money Payback 9.5 TABLE 9.4: Deep Pockets: The Big Money PACs in 2011-2012
This table shows how interest-group PAC contributions account for about 35 percent of House campaign contributions and 20 percent of contributions to Senate campaigns. 9.5 9.5Corporate-backed PACs tend to contribute overwhelming to which of the following? PACs use campaign money to gain influence with decision makers. Can you answer this question? Democrats. Republicans. Challengers. Incumbents. 45 9.5 9.5Corporate-backed PACs tend to contribute overwhelming to which of the following? Corporate-backed PACs know that incumbents rarely lose, and they strategically cultivate these relationships. Democrats. Republicans. Challengers. Incumbents. 46 Lobbying the Bureaucracy and the Courts
9.6 Lobbying the Bureaucracy and the Courts Given the sheer number of lobbyists in Washington, it likely comes as no surprise to hear that the lobbying doesnt stop once a bill has been passed. That bill still has to be implemented, and the bureaucrats who work at government agencies have a fair amount of latitude in determining how a bill will be implemented. In this section we will examine the different ways in which lobbyists work with the bureaucratic system and even the courts. Iron Triangles and Issue Networks Agency Capture Revolving Doors Lobbying the Courts 9.6 FIGURE 9.4: A Guide to the Fine Art of Lobbying
This figure shows how interest groups seek to influence public policy both directly through lobbying and campaign contributions (inside strategy) and indirectly through public relations efforts to mold public opinion (outside strategy). Lobbying the Bureaucracy and the Courts
9.6 Lobbying the Bureaucracy and the Courts Relationship building is serious business in Washington. Interest groups maintain relationships with departments and agencies that serve their members or regulate their industries. Likewise, bureaucracies seek relationships with key power brokering interest groups that can pressure Congress to increase an agencys authority. And both these groups want to be close to the congressional committees that oversee legislation on issues of concern to both interest groups and administrative agencies. The place where these interests connect is called an iron triangle, a reference to the quite stable relationship among the three parties. Often, they serve to scratch each others backs. Iron triangles tend to exist in specialized policy areas where there is little conflict. But when diverse interests are at stake, conflict often results. Then iron triangles give way to larger issue networks, which may include larger coalitions of interest groups. When these relationships become too cozy, however, we may see what is called agency capture. This is when the needs of all parties are met except, perhaps, those of the public. Lawmakers get re-election support, agencies get their budget, and interest groups get their preferred regulation or other results. But social scientists will point out that the public may be ignored, as it has at times with the Federal Communications Commission and the Securities and Exchange Commission. Iron Triangles and Issue Networks Agency Capture Revolving Doors Lobbying the Courts 9.6 FIGURE 9.5: Its All Connected: An Example of an Iron Triangle
This figure shows how the iron triangle approach provides a convenient way to look at the interrelationship among interest groups, executive agencies, and congressional committees. As this example shows, veterans interest groups work closely with both the Department of Veterans Affairs (executive agency) and the House Veterans Affairs Committee. Lobbying the Bureaucracy and the Courts
9.6 Lobbying the Bureaucracy and the Courts In Washington, its fairly common for people to switch jobs, often trading one sector of the iron triangle for another. In the field of agriculture, for example, a person might move from a corporate job with, say, Pillsbury or General Mills, to the staff of an interest group such as the American Farm Bureau Federation. Once that person gains additional expertise and politically valuable contacts, he or she might move to the staff of a House or Senate committee that has jurisdiction over agriculture, such as the House Agricultural Committee. Critics call this movement a revolving door, and they save their harshest comments for former members of Congress who become lobbyists and then charge clients major fees while they schmooze with their former congressional colleagues. Iron Triangles and Issue Networks Agency Capture Revolving Doors Lobbying the Courts Lobbying the Bureaucracy and the Courts
9.6 Lobbying the Bureaucracy and the Courts It can seem hard to get away from lobbying; even the courts are not immune. Interest groups frequently use litigation as a means to influence government policy and regulations. They may file litigation directly themselves, or supply legal support to individuals, or they might file amicus curie (friend of the court) briefs in cases in which they are interested. The largest and most powerful interest groups have entire legal departments at their disposal. The American Civil Liberties Union often files lawsuits on behalf of criminal defendants. And the NAACP used litigation to fight discrimination in the years leading up to the civil rights movement. Iron Triangles and Issue Networks Agency Capture Revolving Doors Lobbying the Courts 52 9.6 9.6Which term isreserved for a broader, more inclusive arena of players working on a particular cause? Before we move on, lets review these terms. Iron triangle Iron network Amicus curiae Revolving door 9.6 9.6Which term is reserved for a broader, more inclusive arena of players working on a particular cause: Iron networks feature more and varied parties working together or in conflict on a particular cause or issue. Iron triangle Iron network Amicus curiae Revolving door Politics as Interest-Group Conflict
9.7 Politics as Interest-Group Conflict In some ways interest groups, not individuals, are the main participants in American politics. After all, the only way individuals participate in politics is through voting, and that can be considered indirect. From this perspective, can be viewed as a struggle among different interest groups over government policy. In this section we will consider this idea. Pluralism and Democratic Politics Balancing Group Power Interest Group 9.7 FIGURE 9.6: Balancing Act: Understanding the Interest-Group Model
This figure shows how, according to pluralist theorists, policy in a democracyresults from various special-interest groups reaching equilibrium. The groups reach equilibrium when they arrive at a compromise that requires all parties to give up something but gives all parties something they want. Politics as Interest-Group Conflict
9.7 Politics as Interest-Group Conflict So how are individuals protected in a system that is defined by struggle among different groups? The answer lies in the concept of pluralism. Pluralism is the idea that democracy is preserved through individuals membership in interest groups that compete and compromise over government policy and resources. Individuals are players in this system even influential players but only insofar as they are members of groups. In pluralism, public policy is the equilibrium reached in the struggle among groups, and government is merely the referee. Of course, pluralism assumes that compromises can be reached and power shared among competing interest groups. Surely no single group could become so powerful that it would be unwilling to compromise at all. Maybe, but this belief assumes that interest groups will check each others influence and that this system of countervailing power will protect the interests of the public in general. It also assumes that there is overlapping individual membership among interest groups, and that such overlap will moderate demands. Finally, any belief in the natural balance of group power assumes that radical interest groups will be checked by large yet unorganized latent interest groups perhaps all Americans who oppose radical or extreme politics. Pluralism and Democratic Politics Balancing Group Power Interest Group Politics as Interest-Group Conflict
9.7 Politics as Interest-Group Conflict How democratic are the theories of pluralism and politics as interest-group conflict? There are some problems with this idea. True democratic theory suggests that public policy is the rational choice of individuals with equal influence, who consider their needs while maintaining a regard for others. There isnt much room for pluralism, with its notions of individual influence through group membership, in traditional democratic theory. In fact, critics argue that interest groups today dominate the political scene and hog access to governmental power thus limiting individual participation in government. Pluralism also assumes that group membership enhances an individuals influence on policy. Yet, as we discussed earlier, interest groups themselves are rarely organized as democracies. Finally, pluralism assumes that power will balance out among the different interest groups, but we have certainly seen imbalances in power. What do you think? Does pluralism enhance individuals participation in our democracy, or hamper it? Pluralism and Democratic Politics Balancing Group Power Interest Group 9.7 9.7The assumption that interest groups will balance each other out is called: How well do you understand the balancing act of the interest-group model? Do you recall the answer to this question? Countervailing Power. Overlapping Group Membership. Latent Interest Groups. Pluralism. 59 9.7 9.7The assumption that interest groups will balance each other out is called: The idea that interest groups will check and balance each others power assumes the presence of countervailing power. Countervailing power protects the interests of all. Countervailing Power. Overlapping Group Membership. Latent Interest Groups. Pluralism. 60 9 Discussion Question What did you learn in this chapter aboutinterest groups and lobbying that you didnot know previously?Did you find anyaspects of lobbying shocking or disturbing?