9 - Chapter 3 - Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind

8/20/2019 9 - Chapter 3 - Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind

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Consciousness, modern psychologists believe, is anawareness of ourselves and our environment.

Forms of Consciousness

B i l l L i n g / D i g i t a l V i s i o n / G e t t y I m a g e s

C h r i s t i n e B r u n e

S t u a r t F r a n k l i n / M a g n

u m P h o t o s

A P P h o t o / R i c a r o M

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Selective Attention

Our conscious awareness processes only asmall part of all that we experience. Weintuitively make use of the information we

are not consciously aware of.


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Inattentional Blindness

Inattentional blindness refers to the inabilityto see an object or a person in our midst.Simons & Chabris (1999) showed that half ofthe observers failed to see the gorilla-suited

assistant in a ball passing game.

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Change Blindness

Change blindness is a form of inattentional blindness in which two-thirds of individualsgiving directions failed to notice a change in the

individual asking for directions.

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Sleep & Dreams

Sleep – the irresistible tempter to whom weinevitably succumb.

Mysteries about sleep and dreams have just started

unraveling in sleep laboratories around the world.


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Biological Rhythms and Sleep

Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and includesleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it

can be altered by artificial light.

Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland

and increase (evening) it at nightfall.


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Measuring sleep: About every 90 minutes, we

pass through a cycle of five distinct sleep stages.

Sleep Stages

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Awake but Relaxed

When an individual closes his eyes but remainsawake, his brain activity slows down to a large

amplitude and slow, regularalpha waves (9-14 cps). Ameditating person exhibits an alpha brain activity.


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During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain enters a

high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form calledtheta

waves (5-8 cps). A person who is daydreaming shows

theta activity.

Sleep Stages 1-2

Theta Waves


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During deepest sleep (stages 3-4), brain activityslows down. There are large-amplitude, slowdelta

waves (1.5-4 cps).

Sleep Stages 3-4


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Stage 5: REM Sleep

After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), thesleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage1. Although still asleep, the brain engages in low-

amplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps) much like awake-aroused state.

A person during this sleep exhibits

Rapid Eye Movements (REM)

and reports vivid dreams.


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90-Minute Cycles During Sleep

With each 90-minute cycle, stage 4 sleep decreasesand the duration of REM sleep increases.


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Why do we sleep?

We spend one-third of ourlives sleeping.

If an individual remainsawake for several days,immune function andconcentration deteriorates

and the risk of accidentsincreases.

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Sleep Deprivation

1.Fatigue and subsequent death.

2.Impaired concentration.

3.Emotional irritability.

4.Depressed immune system.

5.Greater vulnerability.


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Accidents

Frequency of accidents increase with loss of sleep


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Sleep Theories

1.Sleep Protects: Sleeping in the darkness whenpredators loomed about kept our ancestors out ofharm’s way.

2.Sleep Helps us Recover: Sleep helps restore andrepair brain tissue.

3.Sleep Helps us Remember: Sleep restores andrebuilds our fading memories.

4.Sleep may play a role in the growth process: Duringsleep, the pituitary gland releases growth hormone.Older people release less of this hormone and sleepless.


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1.Insomnia: A persistent inability to fallasleep.

2.Narcolepsy: Overpowering urge to fallasleep that may occur while talking orstanding up.

3.Sleep apnea: Failure to breathe whenasleep.

Sleep Disorders


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Children are most prone to:

Night terrors: The sudden arousal from sleep

with intense fear accompanied by physiologicalreactions (e.g., rapid heart rate, perspiration)which occur during Stage 4 sleep.

Sleepwalking:A Stage 4 disorder which is

usually harmless and unrecalled the next day. Sleeptalking:A condition that runs in families,like sleepwalking.

Sleep Disorders


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Dreams

The link between REMsleep and dreaminghas opened up a newera of dream research.


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What We Dream

1.Negative Emotional Content:8 out of 10 dreams

have negative emotional content.

2.Failure Dreams: People commonly dream aboutfailure, being attacked, pursued, rejected, orstruck with misfortune.

3.Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking, sexualdreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in10; and in women 1 in 30.

Manifest Content: A Freudian term meaningthe story line of dreams.


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Why We Dream

1.Wish Fulfillment: Sigmund Freud suggestedthat dreams provide a psychic safety valve todischarge unacceptable feelings. The dream’s

manifest (apparent) content may also havesymbolic meanings (latent content) that signifyour unacceptable feelings.

2.Information Processing: Dreams may help sift,

sort, and fix a day’s experiences in ourmemories.


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Why We Dream

3.PhysiologicalFunction: Dreamsprovide the sleeping

brain with periodicstimulation to developand preserve neuralpathways. Neural

networks of newbornsare quicklydeveloping; therefore,they need more sleep.


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Why We Dream

4.Activation-Synthesis Theory: Suggests that the brain engages in a lot of random neuralactivity. Dreams make sense of this activity.

5.Cognitive Development: Some researchersargue that we dream as a part of brainmaturation and cognitive development.

All dream researchers believe we need REM sleep. Whendeprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep,we show increased REM sleep calledREM Rebound.


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Dream Theories

Summary


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Hypnosis

Hypnos: Greek god of sleep

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A social interaction inwhich one person (thehypnotist) suggests toanother (the subject)

that certainperceptions, feelings,

thoughts, or behaviorswill spontaneouslyoccur.


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Facts and Falsehood

Those who practice hypnosis agree that its powerresides in the subject’s openness to suggestion.

Can anyone experience hypnosis? Yes, to some extent.

Can hypnosis enhance recall of

forgotten events? No.


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Facts and Falsehood

Can hypnosis be therapeutic?Yes. elf!suggestion

can heal too.

Can hypnosis alleviate pain?Yes. "ama#e can

do that too.

Can hypnosis force people to act

against their $ill?No.


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Explaining the Hypnotized State

1.Social Influence Theory: Hypnotic subjects maysimply be imaginative

actors playing a socialrole.

2.Divided Consciousness Theory:Hypnosis is aspecial state ofdissociated (divided)consciousness (Hilgard,1986, 1992). (Hilgard, 1992)

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Both Theories

M i m i F o r s y t h


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Drugs and Consciousness

Psychoactive Drug:A chemical substance thatalters perceptions and mood (affects

consciousness).


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Dependence & Addiction

Continued use of apsychoactive drugproducestolerance.

With repeatedexposure to a drug,the drug’s effect

lessens. Thus it takes

greater quantities toget the desired effect.


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Withdrawal & Dependence

1.Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug(after addiction), users may experience theundesirable effects of withdrawal.

2.Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to afeeling of physical pain, intense cravings

(physical dependence), and negative emotions(psychological dependence).


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Misconceptions About Addiction

1.Addictive drugs quickly corrupt.

2.Addiction cannot be overcome voluntarily.

3.Addiction is no different than repetitivepleasure-seeking behaviors.

Addiction is a craving for a chemical substance,despite its adverse consequences (physical &

psychological).


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Psychoactive Drugs

Psychoactive drugs are divided into three groups.

1.Depressants

2.Stimulants

3.Hallucinogens


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Depressants

Depressants are drugs that reduce neural activityand slow body functions. They include:

1.Alcohol2.Barbiturates

3.Opiates


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Depressants

1.Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, andmemory…and increases aggressiveness whilereducing self awareness.

Drinking and Driving

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Depressants

2.Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity ofthe central nervous system, reducing anxiety

but impairing memory and judgment.

Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are someexamples.


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Depressants

3. Opiates: Opium and itsderivatives (morphine

and heroin) depressneural activity,temporarily lesseningpain and anxiety. They

are highly addictive.

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Stimulants

Stimulantsare drugs that excite neural activity andspeed up body functions. Examples of stimulantsare:

1.Caffeine

2.Nicotine

3.Cocaine

4.Ecstasy

5.Amphetamines

6.Methamphetamines


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Caffeine & Nicotine

Caffeine and nicotine increase heart and breathing rates and other autonomic functions to

provide energy.

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Why Do People Smoke?

1.People smoke because it is socially rewarding.

2.Smoking is also a result of genetic factors.

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Why Do People Smoke?

3.Nicotine takes awayunpleasant cravings(negativereinforcement) by

triggeringepinephrine,norepinephrine,dopamine, and

endorphins.4.Nicotine itself isrewarding (positivereinforcement).


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Cocaine

Cocaine induces immediate euphoria followed by a crash.Crack, a form of cocaine, can be smoked. Other forms of

cocaine can be sniffed or injected.

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Ecstasy

Ecstasy orMethylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is astimulant and mild

hallucinogen. It produces aeuphoric high and can

damage serotonin-producingneurons, which results in apermanent deflation of moodand impairment of memory.


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Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens arepsychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs thatdistort perceptions andevoke sensory images in

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Hallucinogens

1.LSD: (lysergic acid diethylamide) powerfulhallucinogenic drug that is also known asacid.

2.THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol): is themajor active ingredient in marijuana (hempplant) that triggers a variety of effects,including mild hallucinations.

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Drugs

Summary


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Influences on Drug Use

The graph below shows the percentage of US high- school

seniors reporting their use of alcohol, marijuana, and

cocaine from the 70s to the late 90s.


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Influences on Drug Use

The use of drugs is based on biological, psychological,and social-cultural influences.


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Marijuana Use

The use of marijuana in teenagers is directly related

to the “perceived risk” involved with the drug.

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Influence for Drug Prevention andTreatment

1.Education about the long-term costs

2.Efforts to boost people’s self-esteemand purpose

3.Attempts to modify peerassociations and teaching refusal

skills


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After a close brush withdeath, many peoplereport an experience of

moving through a darktunnel with a light at theend. Under the influenceof hallucinogens, othersreport bright lights atthe center of their field

of vision.

Near-Death Experiences

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9 - Chapter 3 - Consciousness and the Two-Track Mind