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"ontents
$refa%e &ii$refatory Note to the 'e%ond (mpre))ion
*iiiA%+nowledgement) *&
#art $ne% #ro&e(s and )*e+,tions
-hat i) Literature. (/ George Orwell0) 0A Hanging0, and 0Mi%hael
La+e De)%ribe)0 12 O)%ar -ilde3 0The Ballad of !eading Gaol0 45
-hat i) !eali)m. //6 Arnold Bennett3 The Old Wives' Tale /47
-illiam Burrough)3 The Naked Lunch 264 The !eali)ti% Tradition 288
Two #ind) of Modern 9i%tion 51 "riti%i)m and !eali)m 62
: The No&el and theNouvelle Critique 64 "on%lu)ion to $art
One 4:
#art To% Meta.hor and Meton(
;a+ob)on0) Theory 42/ Two Type) of Apha)ia 442 The Metaphori%
and Metonymi% $ole) 415 Drama and 9ilm 86 $oetry, $ro)e and the
$oeti% 887 Type) of De)%ription 12
4 The E*e%ution) !e&i)ited(:
28 The Metonymi% Te*t a) Metaphor :11 Metaphor and "onte*t l
l1
#art Three% Modernists Anti(odernists and
#ost(odernists
;ame) ;oy%e (/6/ Gertrude 'tein r552 Erne)t Hemingway
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#refa+e
The fir)t part of thi) boo+ %on)ider) )ome fundamental ?ue)tion)
of
literary theory and %riti%al pra%ti%e, illu)trated by referen%e
to a widerange of modern te*t)@ ?ue)tion) )u%h a), what i)
literature, what i)reali)m, what i) the relation)hip between form
and %ontent inliterature, and what prin%iple) underlie the
&ariety of literary form),and the %hange) in literary fa)hion,
in the modern era. To an)wer )u%h?ue)tion), it i) argued, we need a
%omprehen)i&e typology of literarydi)%our)ethat i), one %apable
of de)%ribing and di)%riminatingbetween all type) of te*t without
preudging them< The )e%ond part ofthe boo+ de)%ribe) and
e*plore) a theory of language upon whi%h )u%ha typology may be
ba)ed!oman ;a+ob)on0) di)tin%tion betweenmetaphor and metonymyand
applie) it to the analy)i) of a number of
)hort te*t), in%luding tho)e e*amined in $art One< (n $art
Three, thetheory i) applied to a more di)%ur)i&e and hi)tori%al
)tudy of the wor+of parti%ular writer), or )%hool) and generation)
of writer), in the
modern period Dra(a and 8i(
-hen ;a+ob)on )ay) that drama i) e))entially 0metaphori%0 he i)
%learlythin+ing of the generi% %hara%ter of dramati% art a) it ha)
manife)tedit)elf throughout the hi)tory of %ulture< Ari)ing out
of religiou) ritualin whi%h a )ymboli% )a%rifi%e wa)su7stituted for
a real one drama i)%orre%tly interpreted by it) audien%e a) being
analogou) to rather thandire%tly imitati&e of reality, and ha)
attained it) highe)t a%hie&ement)in %la))i%al Gree%e, in
Eliabethan England, in neo%la))i%al 9ran%eby being poeti%, u)ing a
language with a builtCin empha)i) on pattern)of )imilarity and
%ontra)t %ontra)t being a +ind of negati&e )imilarity
8/ Meta*hor and Meton$m$
illu)ion, but of bringing into a )ingle frame of referen%e a
%on)tellationof e&ent) )ay, Oedipu)0) birth, hi) +illing of an
old man, )ol&ing of ariddle, marriage that were not %ontiguou)
in )pa%e or time but%ombine on the le&el of )imilarity the old
man i) the )ame a) the father,the wife i) the )ame a) the mother,
the )on i) the )ame a) the hu)bandto form a me))age of tragi%
import< Eliabethan drama i) moreob&iou)ly narrati&e than
Gree+ tragedy that i), more linear or)yntagmati% in it)
%on)tru%tion but it) mo)t di)tin%ti&e formal feature,the double
plot, i) a de&i%e of )imilarity and %ontra)t< The two plot)
of
Aing Lear and the %omple* pairing and %ontra)ting and di)gui)ing
of%hara%ter) in that play i) a %la))i% e*ample of )u%h dramati%
)tru%ture,whi%h generally ha) the effe%t of retarding, or
di)tra%ting attentionfrom, the %hronologi%al )e?uen%e of
e&ent)< (n the )torm )%ene ofLear,for in)tan%eone of the
pea+) of 'ha+e)peare0) dramati%a%hie&ementthere i) no linear
progre))3 nothing happen), really,e*%ept that the %hara%ter) uggle
with )imilaritie) and %ontra)t)3between the weather and human life,
between appearan%e) andrealitie)< And it i) not only inLear that
the %hain of )e?uentiality and%au)ality in 'ha+e)pearean tragedy
pro&e) under )%rutiny to be%uriou)ly in)ub)tantial< 'tephen
Booth ha) %on&in%inglydemon)trated how the opening of
amletplunge) u) immediately intoa field of parado*e) and
nonC)e?uitur) whi%h we )truggle in &ain tounite into a %oherent
pattern of %au)e and effe%then%e, perhap), theea)e with whi%h Tom
'toppard grafted on to it hi) more e*pli%itlyab)urdi)t and
metaphori%al(osencrant and 2uildenstern -re ead6&(t i)
demon)trable that the plot of Othello allow) no time in
whi%hDe)demona %ould ha&e %ommitted adultery with "a))iobut
thatanomaly doe)n0t matter, and i) indeed rarely noti%ed in the
theatre3 theplay i) built on %ontra)t)Othello0) bla%+ne)) with
De)demona0)whitene)), hi) ealou)y again)t her inno%en%e, hi)
nai&ety again)t
(ago0) %unningnot %au)eCandCeffe%t< Othello0)
)elfCu)tifying)olilo?uy, 0(t i) the %au)e, it i) the %au)e, my
)oul0 =, ii, i %arrie) abitter irony, for there i) no %au)e3 not
only i) De)demona inno%ent, but(ago0) mali%e ha) no real moti&e
that i) why it i) )o effe%ti&e &odernists, Anti'odernists
and Post'odernists
I attended the e+t,res of the e*+eent )6 B6 B,rg,( ,nti
SenatorM+"arth ended his ten,re6 I i(agined NK o,d &,rn6
Misera&est,dents drifting in the has oo5ed at one another6
In ess than a (onth or5ing da and night I rote a &ad nove6I
ent to s+hooHNK Mi+higan Ber5eeH(,+h of the ti(e6 I had
itt gidd +onversation fo,r or five nights a ee5 in a ho(ose*,a
&ar inAnn Ar&or6I read iterar revies the a .eo.e s,+5
+and6#ersona reationshi.s ere (ore i(.ortant to (e than anthing
ese6I had a fight ith a .oerf, fat (an ho fe on ( fa+e and as
i((ova&e6I had .ersona reationshi.s ith foot&a .aers
FaJJ (,si+ians ass-
&andits n(.ho(ania+s non-s.e+iaiJed degenerates and
n,(ero,seish .re(edi+a st,dents6
I had .ersona reationshi.s ith thirt-five rhes,s (on5es in
ane*.eri(ent on (on5e addi+tion to (or.hine6 The 5ne (e as one
hoshot ree5ing +ra. o,t of +ages ith a hose6>1
The 0)tory0 hardly the right word, but there i) no other
%ontinue) inthe )ame mode3 bald )tatement) of fa%t whi%h appear to
ha&e nothing to
%onne%t them e*%ept that they belong to the life of the narrator
in the16:), and )eem to ha&e been )ele%ted at random from hi)
totale*perien%e< There i) a +ind of re%urrent themethe
politi%alimpoten%e of the 16:)but mo)t of the )tatement) made
ha&enothing to do with it< (t0) a &ery ri)+y pro%edure,
but it wor+) be%au)eof the %a)ual brillian%e of the writing and
be%au)e the writer per)uade)u) that the di)%ontinuity of hi) te*t
is the truth of hi) e*perien%e< 0(u)ed to thin+ that )omeday (
would write a fi%tional &er)ion of my)tupid life in the
fiftie),0 )ay) the narrator at one point, and theimpli%ation i)
that the raw ingredient) of that life heaped in front of
u)%on)titute a more authenti% re%ord than would be any
wellCmadeno&el66C Hemingway, Men Without Women I1/8J
Harmond)worth, 14/
pp< 6C5
in New Uor+ in 155 and the )e%ond &er)ion, entitled 9ohn
Thomas and
Lad$ 9ane wa) publi)hed in London by Heinemann in 14
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