85 CREUSABRO DUAL - abraservice.com · 10 ↙ CREUSABRO ®® 4800 ℗ CREUSABRO 4800 ℗ ↘ 11 Comparing the different thermal cutting processes — Hardness alteration in (H.A.Z.)

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3 CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗

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CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ ↘ 3

CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗

4 General information4 Concept & features4 Chemical analysis5 Mechanical properties

6 Cutting processes6 Oxy-gas8 Plasma9 Laser cutting10 Comparing the different thermal cutting12 Shearing12 Punching13 Water jet cutting

14 Welding14 Preliminary welding precautions16 Selection of welding process18 The three types of applicable welding consumables 19 Welding consumable selection21 Basic rules to limit the risk of cold cracking25 Preheating temperatures27 Protection of welds against wear28 Welding thin plate29 Stud welding30 Heterogeneous welding assembly

32 Machining32 Drilling34 Milling36 Counterboring & countersinking38 Tapping

40 Forming40 Bending43 Rolling45 Hot bending & rolling

4 ↙ CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ ↘ 5

General Information

Concept & features

Better than only hardness, CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ offer an exceptional upper wear resistance from + 40 up to 45 % compared with 400 HB, water quenched steel, maintaining in the same time an easier processing aptitude. Thanks to different chemical composition dedicated to each thickness range CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ implements several metallurgical concepts which are more efficient than simple hardness:

→ Work-hardening and Cr Mo micro-carbides, basis of CREUSABRO ® concept ;

→ TRIP* effect coming from originally CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ development ;

→ Reinforcement of the structure with Titanium carbides.

The intentionally limited hardness of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ at delivery condition facilitates in a significant proportion the different processing operations such as: cutting, machining and transformation (bending & rolling).

CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ is suitable against all types of abrasion phenomenon like sliding, impact, dry or wet environment, including high temperature (< 450 °C th < 20 mm) and (< 350 °C th > 20 mm) in continuous operating condition.

Chemical analysis

Mechanical properties

C S P Mn Ni Cr Mo Ti

≤ 0.20 ≤ 0.005 ≤ 0.018 ≤ 1.60 ~ 0.20 ≤ 1.90 ≤ 0.40 ≤ 0.20

Hardness

(HB)

Yp

(MPa)

UTS

(MPa)

E

(%)

KCVL -20 °C

(J / cm²)

Elasticity Module

(GPa)

370 900 1 200 12 45 205

Guaranteed values (as supplied)

— Hardness : 340 / 400 HB

Mechanical properties at high temperature

Surface work hardening in service

+ 70 HB in servicewith substantial hardenning

1 400

1 200 30

1 000 25

800 20

600 15

400 10

200 5

100 200 300 400 500 600


ACIER 400 HBtrempé eau

HB

UTS (MPa) E (%)

Temperature (°C)

Time

400

360

430


Cutting processes— CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ can be cut with all thermal processes:Oxy-gas, Plasma & Laser. Technical working conditions are closeto usual condition used for low carbon & low alloyed steel.

— Whatever the thermal cutting process chosen T° of plate must be at a minimum workshop of ≥ 10 °C. In winter period that can signify plates must be stored in the workshop several days before any cutting operation.

— High mechanical properties of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ do not allow any mechanical cutting processes such as, shearing or punching operations, for th around 12 mm and up.

Oxy-gasType of Gas

— All usual gas types are suitable: Acetylene, Propane, Natural gas, Tetrene, etc…

— Acetylene gives a stronger warm up power which allow to increase cuttingspeed and reduce oxygen consumption.

— Tetrene limits adherence of oxide on the cut edges.

Advice for obtaining quality profiled parts

Plate preheating T°

Plate thickness (mm) preheating Temperature (°C)|*|

3 - 60 Without preheating

61 - 150 Preheating > 150 °C

|*| Depending on design complexity

Supplemental advice

— Reduce the cutting speed in angular curve & rounded cornerespecially for thick thickness.

— For cutting of complex shapes, cut internal holes first and after cut the external edges of the piece. Such a sequence results in reduced distortion of the piece and limits the risk of cracking in case of straightening.

— For cutting complex designs, speed must be reduced when cutting direction changes, this increases correlatively contact time with flame and then increases the depth of Heat Affected Zone (H.A.Z.).

— CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ chemical composition contains a significant % of Cr & Mo which are limiting this negative effect, but don’t cancel it totally.

Other cutting parameters

— The nozzle diameter choice related to outflow & pressure is done accordingto the technical table provided by the cutting machine supplier for low carbon& alloyed steel.

— In the case of a chamfering operation of a thick thickness (a blade for example),thickness to consider is the section to cut and not the nominal thickness of plate.

section thickness

plate thickness

1

2

4

3

— In case of cutting job th > 25 mm, it is imperative not only to adjust cuttingparameters (reduce significantly cutting speed), but also to proceed to a pre-heating,measured in between 160 / 180 °C. Piece and drop off must be covered,up to complete cooling down, in order to limit cracks risk due to oxygas.

— Even for th < 25 mm considering ambient T° of workshop, it could be necessaryto warm up plate with torch or warm up the design on cutting bed without oxygen,before to proceed to final cutting operation.


Laser cutting

This solution is particularly adapted for cutting plate.

→ High precision and conformity of cutting ;

→ No deformation of the piece after cutting ;

→ Insignificant H.A.Z. ;

→ No excess material at root or metal drops underneath ;

→ Direct welding without edge dressing ;

→ Lower heating zones in the case of cutting small pieces.

— Operational capacities of current machines allow plates up to 20 mm to be cut.

Plasma

— CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ plasma cutting process is more advantageous than oxygen cutting considering the following points:

→ For plate thickness < 30 mm, cutting time is halved compared with oxy-gas ;

→ Post deformation is reduced ;

→ For thin plates, there is an absence of slag sticking to cut edges ;

→ Smaller heat affected zone, enabling arc welding to be carried out directly on the edges after simple edge brush cleaning.

— As with flame cutting, a preheating at 150 °C is requiredto cut plate thicknesses higher than 60 mm.

Note: Use of nitrogen as a plasma carrier gas is preferable to argon+ hydrogen mixture, not only because of the lower cost of nitrogen itself,but also because of the reduced risk of cracking in H.A.Z. of the edges(the presence of hydrogen could eventually sensitise this zone).


Comparing the different thermal cutting processes

— Hardness alteration in (H.A.Z.) Vickers micro hardness readings (under a load of 300 gr) performed in H.A.Z. of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ plates 12 and 25 mm thick.

Oxy-gas

Plasma

Thickness = 12 mm

Nozzle 10 x 25 (propane)Cutting speed: 400 mm / min

Arc voltage 130 V. Intensity: 130 ACutting speed: 1 600 mm / min

Arc voltage 140 V. Intensity: 200 ACutting speed: 850 mm / min

Nozzle 25 x 50 (propane)Cutting speed: 360 mm / min

Thickness = 25 mm

1 2 2.5

Hardness Hv 0,3 kg

1 2 2.5

500

400

300

200

Hardness Hv 0,3 kg


400 HB500

400

300

200

Hardness Hv 0,3 kg Hardness Hv 0,3 kg

Distance from cut edge (mm)


1 2 2.5



1 2 2.5

500

400

300

200

500

400

300

200


400 HB

Laser

Laser power: 85 %Cutting speed: 1 100 mm / min

Comments

— Laser cutting alters very slightly the edge of the piece.

→ Hardness around 480 HV 0.3 in quenched supercritical* area on a very small depth (0.3 mm) ;

→ Insignificant softening in H.A.Z. sub-critical area**.

— For a 25 mm thick plate in CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗, plasma and especially oxygen cutting induce a rather small softening in sub-critical area, with a hardness drop down to around 320 HV 0.3.

— For identical cutting parameters, 400 HB water quenched steel exhibita stronger hardness drop, down to about 220 HV 0.3 (100 HV 0.3 lowerthan CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ and for a much wider affected zone:

In terms of wear resistance there is an obvious advantagein favour of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗.

*Supercritical area: part of H.A.Z. where temperatures induced by thermal cycle

are carried beyond the isotherm, of temperature of point AC3 of steel considered.

**Sub-critical area: part of H.A.Z. where temperatures induced by thermal cycle

are carried out below the isotherm of temperature of point AC1 of considered steel.


1 2 2.5

500

400

300

200

Hardness Hv 0,3 kg


Shearing— Shearing of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ is possible for plate thicknessup to 12 mm max.

— The high mechanical properties of this steel grade necessitate useof high quality shear blades. Blades should be properly sharpened and fixedin blade-holders.

Adjustment

— Cutting angle between the fixed lower blade and the mobile higher bladewill have to lie between 3° and 5°.

— Blade clearance:Plate Thickness:3 - 6 mm: x = 0.06 e7 - 12 mm: x = 0.08 e

Punching— Punching of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ is possible for plate thicknessup to about 12 mm max.

Specific recommendations

— Use punches as short as possible. The tools punch and die bolster have to be outof tool steels offering the best compromise between wear resistance and toughness.

— The distance between holes shall not be smaller than the side or diameterof the holes Perforation diameter (or their side) shall not be less than 1.5 timesthe plate thickness.

x

Water jet cutting

— This cold cutting process is ideal to produce small pieces from plates.

— No microstructure change will occur in the thickness and on the edge of the piece. Hardness and consequently wear resistance will remain completely homogeneous throughout the whole piece.

— Nevertheless, productivity of water jet remains rather low.


Welding— The adjustments of its chemical analysis confer to CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗

an excellent behaviour against abrasion. Welding, however, requires to take someprecautions and to follow particular recommendations.

— Cold cracking is the main risk during welding of this type of material.It can occur immediately and up to 72 hours after the end of welding.It may occur by the interaction of three metallurgical parameters:

→ Creation of a brittle structure (fresh martensite) in the H.A.Z. or in welded metal ;

→ Creation of residual stresses of welding, related on the shrinking of steel during the solidification of the molten metal and also due to the differences in thermal expansions;

→ Possible hydrogen introduction into the sensitive zone of the weld (H.A.Z., weld metal).

— The whole of the recommendations of this guide make it possible to act onthese three parameters, for all welding conditions, processes and operationalparameters, to make reliable the operations of welding.

Preliminary welding precautions

→ Plate temperature > 10 °C

→ Avoid condensation

→ Reduce cooling rate of H.A.Z.

→ Weld on dry plate

→ Moisture is a possible source for hydrogen introduction

→ At each extremity of tack welding turn back to eliminate any weld volcano (significant criteria to star bead crack)

→ Protect plate against negative action of wind and rain

→ Do not vibrate the plate (graving) during an operation of welding

→ Grind to white all surfaces in contact with weld metal

→ Remove any residual oxides, slag, impurity possible source of H2 and inclusions

→ Clean up welding areas. remove grease, slag, dust…

→ Remove H.A.Z. of flame cut chamfers

→ Ask & control H2 level in each weld product

→ Whatever the weld consumable max: 5 ml / 100 gr

→ Reduction of welding stress.

→ Maximum gap between plates in position: 2 mm.

→ Minimum length of tack welding: 30 mm.

→ Always grind and clean any weld defect (settle risk of crack propagation)

max. 2 mm

min.30 mm


Selection of welding process

— Classical welding processes can be used for CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗.The choice depends on manufacturing parameters.It is also necessary to take account of the risks induced by each technique.

Stick electrode (SMAW) MAG flux cored wire (FCAW) MAG plain wire (GMAW) Submerged arc (SAW) Flux cored without Gas (Inner shield)

Carrying out Easy Strongly advise against

the use of this process

for CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ weldingProcess Manual Manual (possibly automatic) Manual (possibly automatic) Automatic

Welding environment Any type Any type Better in workshop Better in workshop

Position Multi-positions Multi-positions 3G and 2G → Skilled welder 1G (Flat) (Eventually 2G)

Deposit rate Carrying out speed Low Medium Medium High

H2 introduction High → Imperative stove drying Low Very low → Safer process Very high

→ Imperative flux stove drying

Special recommendations Repairs and small assemblies All assemblies medium thickness → Any types of assembly

→ Big combined thicknesses

→ High stressed structure

→ Big assemblies

→ Very long welds

→ Ideal for high thicknesses


Welding consumable selectionLow alloyed C / Mn welding rods Example of usable products

European standard AWS Supplier Trademark

Stick electrodes

(SMAW)

EN 499

E42 4B x 2H5

A5-1

E7016 ou E7018

BTW, ESAB, SAF,

OERLIKON, LINCOLN

FOX EV50,

OK 48-04 / 0K 48-00

TENACITO 38R,

SAFER NF58,

SAFDRY NF58,

CORNAC 49C,

EMB Sahara.

MAG

Flux cored wire

(FCAW)

EN 758

T42 3B x H5

A5-20

ER 71 T5

ESAB, LINCOLN

OERLIKON, SAF

BTW

OK 15.00, MC 710

H, FLUXOFIL 31,

SAFDUAL 31,

UNION B055Kb.

MAG Plain wire

(GMAW)

EN 440

G423 x G x Si

A5-18

ER 70 S4

ou ER 70 S6

BTW, ESAB,

LINCOLN,

OERLIKON, SAF

EMK7-SG2-H,

OK 12-51, LNM 27,

CARBOFIL 1, NIC 70-S

Submerged arc

(SAW)

Wire: S 1

Flux: SA AB H5

A5-17

Wire: EM12K

Flux: F6.A4.EL12

ou F7.A4.EM.12

ESAB, SAF,

LINCOLN

Wire: OK Autrod12-10,

AS26, AS35,

Lincoldweld 860 / 882.

Flux: OK Flux 10-71,

AS72, AS72, L-61, L-60

The three types of applicable welding consumables— According to the type of welding structure, thickness and environment conditions,it exist several metallurgical solutions for the welding of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗.

Use of low alloyed C/Mn metal

Mechanical

properties

Ys ~ 460 MPa / UTS ~ 550 MPa

Choice criteria → When high mechanical properties of welds is not requested

→ When welds are not much exposed to wear

→ When one wishes is to limit preheating temperatures

Advantages → Decrease welding stresses and cold cracking risk

→ Make easier manufacture

Use of high alloyed C / Mn metal

Mechanical

properties

Ys ~ 690 MPa / UTS ~ 800 MPa

Critères de choix → When weld shall be submitted to high tensile strength. ex: high loads, fatigue cycles

→ When welds are exposed to wear

Disadvantages → Increased cold cracking sensitivity due to increased welding stresses

→ More severe welding conditions (ex: Preheating)

Use of stainless welding product, austenitic or austeno-ferritic type

Mechanical

properties

Ys ~ 460 MPa

UTS ~ 600 MPa

→ High toughness

equivalent to those of low alloyed C.Mn

Choice criteria → In case of massive welds and therefore highly stressed structures

→ For high combined thicknesses

→ Difficult welding environments (on site welding)

→ High wear resistance (work hardening)

Advantages → No preheating required

→ Less severe welding conditions

Disadvantage → Expensive welding products


High alloyed C / Mn – high yield strength metal Example of usable products


Stick electrodes

(SMAW)

EN 759

E69 B H5

A5-5

E 9 018 à E12 018

BTW, ESAB,

OERLIKON, SAF,

LINCOLN

SH N 12 K100,

OK 75.75, SAFDRY 80,

TENCACITO 80,

CORNAC 85 EMB

Sahara

MAG

Flux cored wire

(FCAW)

A5-29

E 90 T5 à E110 T5

ESAB, SA,

OERLIKON.

OK 15.27, P2 6148,

SAFDUAL 270,

FLUXOFIL 42.

MAG Plain wire

(GMAW)

EN 12354 G (69-89) A5-28

ER 90 S6 à ER 110 S6

BTW, SAF UNION X90,

NIC 85 / 88

Submerged arc

(SAW)

Wire: S 3

Flux: SA FB H5

A5-23

F10 à 12

A8-EC-F5

ESAB, BTW,

OERLIKON

Wire: Fluxocolor 42,

Union Ni Mo Cr,

OK Autrod 13-43.

Flux: Fluxocolor 42,

Union Ni Mo Cr,

OK Autrod 13-43.

Case of stainless welding products, 307 types Example of usable products


Stick electrodes

(SMAW)

EN 1600

E 18 8 Mn B 12

A5-4 E308 Mo BTW, ESAB,

METROD, LINCOLN

OK 67.45,

Thermanit XW,

Armet-1,

Metmax 370R,

Jungo 307

MAG

Flux cored wire

(FCAW)

EN 12072

G 188 Mn

A5-9

ER 307 Si

BTW, SANDVIK,

METROD, LINCOLN

OK 67.45,

Thermanit XW,

Armet-1,

Metmax 370R,

Jungo 307

— Note: For the processes requiring the use of gas (FCAW, GMAW),the choice of gas will be done in agreement with the wire supplier.

Basic rules to limit the risk of cold cracking

The cold cracking sensitivity during welding is led by following parameters:

→ Stresses generated by weld shrinkage ;

→ Generation of brittle H.A.Z. ;

→ Introduction of hydrogen from environment or welding products.

— There are means of action to limit the risk of cracking:

Parameters Stress level H.A.Z. H2

Influential factors → Combined thicknesses

→ Mechanical properties

of welding products

→ Combined thicknesses

→ Heat input

→ Process

→ Welding product

Action means → Preheating

→ Control of welding

sequences

→ Choice of welding

product

→ Preheating

→ Postheating

→ Preparation

of welding area

→ Postheatinge

→ Control of welding

product

←H2→

Risk of cold cracking

↑H.A.Z.↑

← Stress Stress →


Combined thickness

— Its influence on the weldability of the welded structure is very important asit will fix the stress level as well as the heat flow speed through the H.A.Z. However,this is only an estimative approach and some structures should be overestimated.

Some example of combined thickness calculation

e2

th1

th1

th2

th2

th1

th2

th1

th2

th1

th1

th2

th2

Cth. = th1 + th2

Cth. = th1 + th2

Cth. = th1 + th2

Cth. = 2 x th1 + th2



Cth. = 2 x th1 + th2 + th3 or 2 x th2 + th1 + th3

Cth. = 2 x th1 + 2 x th2when i < 3 x th2

th1

th2

i

th1

th3

th2

Heat input

— This parameter represents the quantity of heat introduced during welding.Heat input is connected to intensity (I), voltage (U) and welding speed (v).It can be calculated with following formula:

Es (Kj / cm) =

— Heat input will influence:

→ Bead shapes and dimensions ;

→ Deposit rate (productivity) ;

→ H.A.Z. cracking sensitivity.

Thermal cycle

Sketch of typical thermal cycle

60 x U x l

1 000v (cm / min)

Number of passes

Temperature

Max. interpasstemperature

Postheatingtemperature

Preheatingtemperature

Roomtemperature

Soudage Phase 2Phase 1

Phase 1 : PreheatingPhase 2 : Postheating


Phase 1: Preheating

— It varies with:

→ heat input ;

→ combined thickness ;

→ welding process (influence of hydrogen).

Phase 2: Postheating

— Postheating consists in maintaining the weld, after welding, at a temperature, just above preheating temperature.

→ Never post-heat a weld, which has not been pre-heated.

Welding sequences

— The mode of filling of chamfers and the order of the achievementsof the welds in an assembly have a direct effect on creation of residual stressesand thus on cracking.

— A plate which will not be able to deform during welding inevitablywill induce strong residual stresses in the area of welded joints(ex: high thicknesses, excessive dimensions and fastening).

— It is thus recommended as well as possible to let degreesof freedom to the assemblies.

— It is not recommended to perform a stress relieving at high temperatureunder risk to lose the abrasive properties of the CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗.

Cases of cross weld

1

2

Case of repair in the middle of plate

Preheating temperatures

Case of low alloyed C & Mn welding products

Welding processes Heat input (kJ / cm) Pre and postheating conditions

Combined thickness (mm)

30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Semi-automatic

under gas

15

30

Manual welding

Stick electrode

10

20

Automatic

submerged arc

20

30

Without preheating, plate temperature > 10 °C

With slight warming at 75 °C

With pre/postheating at 150 °C

2

1

3

4

R = 250 mm


Case of high alloyed C & Mn welding products

— Due to the fact of richer chemistry and high mechanical properties:

→ The level of stresses is higher ;

→ The cracking sensitivity of the weld metal is higher.

Consequently, an adapted pre/postheating table shall be applied.


Combined thickness (mm)20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Semi-automatic

under gas

15

30

Manual welding

Stick electrode

10

20

Automatic

submerged arc

20

30





Case of stainless welding products, 307 types

— This method is an efficient solution in case of massive structurewith strong fastening and for difficult welding environments(on field welding, low temperatures, humidity…)

→ Apply preliminary recommendations ;

→ Preheating is not required.

Special applications: Protection of welds against wear

Use of very hard welding products for covering passes

Stick electrode MAG - Plain wire MAG – Flux cored

OERLIKON CITODUR 400 B CARBOFIL A500 FLUXOFIL 54

SAF SAFER 345B NIC535 SAFDUAL 53

LINCOLN KD62

BTW THYSSEN 350 ROSA UNION A350 IG

FOXDUR 350 IG

UNION BO350

Operating conditions

— Those materials may crack during welding as they are much more sensitivethan CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗. Supplier recommendations should by applied.*

— A very simple solution consists in orientating weld positionin order to avoid direct contact of weld metal with abrasive.

Recommended solutions


Recommended welding sequences

Welding thin plate

— As well as for thick plates, special attention shall be paid for face preparation (scale grinding…)

— In case of structures completely made of thin plates, it is advised to control heat input (< 1.3 kJ / mm). Too voluminous Welding beads have a tendency, to increase stresses due to shrinkage, or to create a H.A.Z. throughout the whole plate thickness.

— Welding sequences shall be carefully selected to ensure a privileged direction for shrinkage. Welding passes shall be done in order to limit deformations and welding stresses.

— Welding product shall have preferably moderate mechanical properties and GMAW process shall be preferably used (GS2 wire).

— During manufacture of pre-assemblies, added pieces should be preferably welded before final welding.

Welding sequences discouraged

31 2

5

4

6

5 6

1

34

2

Note : – When welding with GMAW a wire speed lower than 4.5 m / min can guarantya heat input lower than 1.3 KJ / mm (wire Ø 12 / 10) – When a good fusion is required (risk of sticking, when spray GMAW is used),we suggest to use 10 / 10 mm (the use of a pulsed arc can ensure a better flexibilityin term of welding parameter choice).

Stud welding— It is recommended to use studs in mild steels S235 J2 or ST 37 (A350 LF1 grade).

Precautions

— In order to guarantee good quality of welds, it is necessary:

→ To grind and to center punch the position where the stud must be welded ;

→ To keep welding gun perpendicularly to the surface on which the stud has to be welded ;

→ To check for the good selection of welding parameters by carrying out five preliminary flash welds followed by a pull-off test according to NFA 89020-2 specification (+ XPA 89022, performance classes) ;

→ To check periodically for current operational parameter during manufacturing


Heterogeneous welds

Case of welding with a steel lower alloyed than CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗

— Welding conditions of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ shall be applied.

— The choice of welding product is function of expected wear resistance.If wear resistance is not a major concern, one must select a welding productwith mechanical properties close to those of the lowest alloyed steel.

— Examples:CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ + S355 → welding product low alloyed C / MnCREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ + S690 → welding product C / Mn 690 MPa type

Note: Use of stainless welding product, austenitic or austeno-ferritic,remains possible and do not change above conditions.

Case of welding with an over alloyed steel

— Welding parameters must be those of the more sensitive steel.

— Welding regulations remain identical but the choice referential becomesthe over alloyed grade (Combined thickness calculation, Welding sequences,Preheating, etc…

— The choice of a welding product is still depending on service conditionsbut it is always recommended to use a low alloyed welding product when possible.

— Examples:CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ + CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ → Low alloyed C / Mn welding productCREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ + 25CrMo4 → Welding product 25CrMo4 type or low alloyed C / Mn

Note: Welding with stainless steel is also possible; some preheatingprecaution should be taken if the steel grade is a highly alloyed.

— A typical example which illustrates is that of bucket teeth weldingor a bucket attack blade welding.

— These pieces are generally casted in grade 35CrMo4 or othervery quenching steels. Welding conditions are thus more penalizingthan those of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗.

— In this case, a maximum dilution of the molten metal is advised to avoid any crack. That means a low welding speed, a low amperage. Welding product may be E 7018 / ER 70 type or E 11018 / ER 110 type.

— Preheating has to be made according to high alloyed steel characteristics.To limit these stresses, the following range is proposed:

Sequence for welding tooth adaptor on bucket blade

1 or 2 beads

Caution:Stop the beads before chamfer area in order to avoid overload of stress in H.A.Z.

Complete filling with balanced procedure

1 or 2 beads

1 23 4


Quality of tool

— High-speed steel of current use, HSS, are perfectly suitable.

Examples

AFNOR DIN EN.ISO AISI

AR.2.9.1.8 S.2.9.1.8

Werkstoff 1.3247

HS 2.9.1.8 AISI M42

Example of trademarks: Guhring, Outillage Vadium, Cleveland…

Cutting parametersindicative

Quality Ø (mm) Cutting speed

(m / min)

Rotation speed

(tours / min)

Feed (mm / tour)

HSSCO

AR.2.9.1.8

(M42)

5 15 - 20 950 - 1 250 0,07

10 13 - 17 415 - 540 0,09

15 12 - 15 255 - 320 0,10

20 11 - 14 175 - 220 0,12

25 9 - 12 115 - 150 0,15

30 8 - 10 85 - 105 0,20

— Based on this table, most closely corresponding rotation speed and feedper revolution should be chosen, in absence of machine tool regulation parameters.

Lubrification

— Lubrication shall be done with 10 % diluted soluble oil.Abundant flow (around 1 l / min flow rate) under low pressure is necessary.

Soluble oil ISO class: L-MAD 6743 / 7.

Machining— Main machining operations commonly performed on wear resistant plate are:

→ Drilling ;

→ Milling, namely execution of countersunk holes for screw heat seats ;

→ Tapping.

Thanks to its microstructure design and better homogeneity of hardness in itscross-section, CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ is readily machine-workable and provideseffective saving of machining time and reduces the frequency of tool re-sharpening,compared to ordinary 400 HB steels.

Drilling— To be performed using radial type machine tools in good condition,with automatic advance and sufficient power. Machined parts should berigidly secured to the working table.

— Pieces shall be securely fastened on the body (column)of the machine to avoid any vibration.

Tool geometry

— Classical twist drill with preferably with long helical (small helical angle)H class H according to DIN 1836.

— Short fluted portion (called short type).

— tip angle 120° ; normal grinding with taper lead angle or cross grinding.

— Tip angle 120° ; normal grinding with taper lead angle.


Milling— To be performed using powerful machine tools, in good condition,with machined parts securely clamped.

General remark

— It is recommended to removal by preliminary grinding the top of surfacehardened part of angle to a depth corresponding to pass depth, before surfacingor grooving the parts produced by oxygen cutting, to avoid premature wearof milling cutters.

Tool geometry

— Tools have to have classic geometry of milling cutter, with sufficient number or teeth.

Quality of the tools

— Two possibilities:

→ Simple machining operations like surfacing or roughing for example, can be performed with tools made of over-carburized high speed cobalt steel (HSSCO).

Examples:

AFNOR standard DIN EN.ISO AISI

AR.6.5.2.5 S.6.5.2.5 Werkstoff 1.3243 HS 6.5.2.5 M35

AR.12.1.5.5 S.12.1.5.5 Werkstoff 1.3202 HS 12.1.5.5 T15

Examples of trademarks: Coba, Fraisa…

→ Tools equipped with inserted or removable carbide tips are particularly suitable for the milling of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗. For large series these tools widely supplant the HHSCO tools for grooving and finishing operations.

↑Hardened H.A.Z.

FeedGrinded part

Selection of carbide tip quality according to the type of operation indicative

→ Removing, roughing: Carbide P10 or P20 according ISO ;

→ Finishing: Carbide K10 or K20 ;

→ Grooving (roughing and finishing): Carbide P25.

Example of trademarks: Safety, Sandvik, Seco…

Cutting parameters indicative

— HSSCO milling cutters Surfacing.

Tool Depth (mm) Cutting speed V(m / min) Feed fz(mm / tooth)

Steel HSSCO

Quality AR.12.1.5.5

(T15)

1 12 - 15 0,08

4 10 - 12 0,10

8 7 - 9 0,15

— In slab milling, feed per tooth will be smaller, however,it will not result in oversized chips provoking refusal of cutting.

Carbide tipped milling cutters

Cutting parameters in surfacing Cutting parameters in grooving

Roughing (depth: 2 mm)

Carbide tips P10 or P20

Cutting speed: 45 m / mn

Feed: 0.20 mm / tooth

Roughing

Carbide tip: P25 (with strengthening edge at 20°)

Cutting speed: 45 m / min

Speed: 0.15 mm / tooth

Finishing (depth: 0.2 mm)

Carbide tips: K10 or K20








Soluble oil 10 %, abundant flow.


Countersinking

— Machining in two stages:

→ Drilling of the bolt hole with a HSSCO type drill (M42 for example) ;

→ Machining of the countersink: → With a conical milling cutter with 3 or 4 teeth

in HSSCO type steel (T15 for example) ; → With a HSSCO type drill of required diameter

with modified tip angle, 90° for example.

Drilling operation with multiple-step twist drill

— This solution is especially interesting:Countersink is performed in one operation.Drill in HSSCO type steel.Example: AR.6.5.2.5 (M35) or AR.2.9.1.8. (M42)

Note: To optimize tool life time, it is recommended to reduce rotation speedas soon as countersunk drilling starts.

Counterboring & countersinking— Counterboring of bolt head.

Counterboring

— There are different possibilities for counterboring; hereafter we mentiontwo processes especially suitable for CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗:

→ Drill hole for bolt using a drill, then use a milling tool with 3 or 4 teeth equiped with inserted carbide tips (P25 quality according to ISO) fitted with axial pilot equivalent to diameter of hole previously drilled. Example of trademarks: Gürhing, Tivoly, Toshiba, Rito… ;

→ Machining with a surfacing milling cutter, which is equipped with carbide tips and a tool diameter smaller than that of the countersink. Machining is performed:

→ By circular interpolation (the bolt hole is previously drilled) ;

→ By helical interpolation, (the bolt hole can be drilled later).

Example of trademarks: Gürhing, Tivoly, Toshiba, Rito…

Lubrification

Soluble oil 10 %.

Ø Countersinking

Ø

Ø Counterboring

Ø


Case of large tapped holes above M30

— If such tapping has to be carried out, it is recommended, if possible, to usea threading countersink (example: Dixi cutters). Use of a CNC machine is required.

Tool quality

solid micro-granular carbides.

Example of trademarks: Outillage Vadium, Sandvik, Prototyp…

Paramètres de coupe (à titre indicatif)

— Cutting speed: ~ 200 m / minFeed per tooth: can be quite correctly assessed by following this formula.

— fz = 0.01 x D (D is the diameter in mm of the tool)

Lubrification

Soluble oil 20 %.

Tapping— Tapping of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ plates shall be only performed by machinetapping with controlled " couple " and using adapted tools.

Case of tapped holes of small or medium diameters. M30 maximum

Screw tap geometry

→ Reinforced tool (thick set) ;

→ Flutes for opened holes Helical at 25° for blind holes (3 flutesup to M12, 4 flutes above) ;

→ Thread grinding to approach angle, ca.9° ;

→ Recessed threads.

Tool quality

Cobalt over carburized high speed steel of HSSCO type or HSS.2E type.

Example of trademarks: Courcelle-Gavelle, Outillage Vadium, Prototyp…

Cutting speed

— 3 to 4 m / min.

Lubrification

— It must be managed with extreme pressure oil, continuously spraying. (class. ISO-L-MHF grade VG-15).

Special recommendations

→ Tapping drill holes should be drilled in diameter within upper limits of tolerance with allowance 0.1 to 0.2 mm depending on thread pitch ;

→ Execute small countersinking of predrilled holes.


Plate th (mm) Bending load for L = 1 m

5 70

10 130

20 250

30 370

Forming— CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ plates can be bent or rolled.

— As well as for other wear resistant materials with high mechanical properties, bending and rolling of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ plates require certain operating precautions.

— CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ can be hot formed without any significant reduction of its wear resistance properties: an extra advantageous property in special processing conditions (limited power of bending press machine,bending job at low radius).

BendingInternal radius ri for bending job (angle 90°)

Bent parallel to rolling direction perpendicular to rolling direction

Internal radius (ri) r

i ≥ 4 x th r

i ≥ 4 x th

Die opening (lv) lv ≥ 12 x th lv ≥ 12 x th

Type of press

— The classical hydraulic bending press fits perfectly for bending CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗.

— The use of a press with a manufactured bending beam is not recommended. This type of bending press obstructs the plate sliding possibilitiesduring the forming process.

Bending force

— The capacity of the machine used should be compatible with the work to be carried out. Power requested for bending is conditioned by steel tensile strength UTS, plate thickness & length and V-block opening. Rotating round rods on die are recommended to decrease bending force necessary and reduce the risk of cracking.

— Design of V Bloc has strongly evolved: removable rotating edges made with pretreated steel are fitted in a groove. These solutions improve greatly the operation of bending with a significant reduction of sliding effort. With a classical V Bloc it is always possible to experiment with edge lubrication, consequently the required bending force can be reduced by around 20 %.

Indicative values, for a 90° bent, and for a die opening lv = 12t

α0

r 0

lv

e

r i

αi

r i

NB : Lubrication (grease, graphite)of rounded edges of the die ensuresbetter sliding of the 2 sides of the bent.Consequently required bent load isreduced, it can be reduced by 20 %.

Spring back

— During the bending process the plate is bent to a given angle. When the punch is withdrawn from the plate, the bent angle will open slightly due to the elastic stresses released (see sketch below).

— This phenomenon is especially important for high yield strength steel like CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗.


RollingInternal rolling diameter

Type of rolling press

— Rolling press, pyramid type, with 3 rolls (sketch above) preliminary bendingof extremities of the plate is necessary before rolling ; it can be performedon a bending press or on an open-front forging press.

— Internal diameter: Øi ≥ 30 x th

— Th = plate thickness

Rolling press with 3 rolls with horizontal displacement of lower rolls (above example) or vertical displacement

Rolling press with 4 rolls. Main advantages: preliminary bending of both extremities without turnover of the plate, calibration after longitudinal welding.

Recommendations for bending operations

→ Plate bending temperature ≥ 10 °C (≥ 50 °F) ;

→ Absence of any scratches or cracks in deformation zone, in particular on extrados plate’s skin submitted to deformation ;

→ Rounding of the top & bottom edges submitted to tensile stress by grinding. The size of the chamfer shall be proportional to the thickness of the plate. After oxy gas cutting, any defect of cut must be removed in order to avoid any crack initiation. In the case of plates thicker than 20 mm, it is recommended to grind the entire flame cut edges ;

→ If possible, bending should be carried out across to plate rolling direction ;

→ When the pieces to be bent have been sheared (thin plates), put the bur inside the fold or grind it ;

→ Do not carry out bending in one stroke, but in several consecutive thrusts at regular and limited increments ;

→ If necessary, lubricate the mandrel and radii of support edges with graphite ; this will make the surface metal flow more easily ;

→ Avoid excessively long outside storage of plates intended to be bent. Rust can considerably alter bending capability in the smaller radius range ;

→ Staff safety: as the elastic energy accumulated in the plate is high, one should consider the possibility of a sudden break or skidding. Therefore, the operator must stand at the side of the machine, not in front of it.i.

— To achieve the angle required, it is necessary to take this spring back effect into account.

— For given steel, higher is the ri / th ratio, higher the spring back effect will be.Example, for CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ steel and for ri / th = 5, anticipate a bendingangle in the tool about 10° smaller. e

Øi


Hot bending & rolling— Hot bending can be carried out on a whole piece, if sufficiently large furnaceis available for heat treatment or, locally, we can proceed with proper heatingusing a gas burner.

— For hot rolling operations, it is necessary that whole plates are heatedin heat treatment furnaces.

ot forming of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ – application case — Hot processing can be considered, in order to obtain:

→ Small bending radius, ri < 3 x th ;

→ Small rolling diameters, Øi < 30 x th.

— Also, it can be used, if the capacity of the press or roll press is beyondthe capacity range required for the execution of the operation.

Temperature range to be observed — In order to avoid any decrease in abrasion resistance of the formed pieces,it is necessary to observe certain hot transformation temperature ranges(see table below):

Temperature en °C

Plate th (mm) Bending load for L = 1 m

+ 20 °C + 500 °C

5 70 50

10 130 90

20 250 175

30 370 260

Rolling load

— The force required for rolling is depending upon the steel tensile properties(UTS), width and thickness of plate to be rolled, rolling diameter and distancebetween contact lines on lowers rolls during rolling.

Rolling press manufacturers indicate rolling capabilities of their machinesbased on reference steel (generally S235, S355…)

For rolling of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗ plate, one should remember that the limiting thickness of cold rolling is about half that which is admissible for ordinary grade plate, S355 type.

Increase of the number of rolling sequences is recommended.

Spring-back

— As in the case of bending, a relatively high elastic limit results ina high spring-back value. In rolling, this phenomenon becomes essential, namely,if thin or medium-thickness sheets have to be formed around a large diameter,if Ø / th ratio is high. approximately when Øi / th > 150.

— In industrial practice, adjustments are done progressivelyuntil requested curved diameter is reached, controlled with a template.Here, the skills of the operator are decisive.

Recommendations for rolling

— Even if plate rolling requires smaller deformation capabilities than bending,precautions listed for bending remains the same and relevant for rolling:

→ Plate temperature ≥ 10 °C, chamfering of edges, grinding away any defect linked to oxygen cuttings are required ;

→ Rolling should be carried out in a sufficient number or forward and reverse passes with progressive force, at a properly chosen rolling speed.

1 000← Hot bending

very easy Th plates ≤ 20 mm

← Bending all thicknesses

← Cold bending area

800

600

500450400

200

10


Hot forming of CREUSABRO ® 4800 ℗

— from 450 to 500 °C for all plates thicknesses ;

— from 870 to 1 000 °C for plate thicknesses up to 20 mm, followed by air cooling,do not significantly affect wear resistance of formed components.

Recommendation for hot bending and hot rolling

— Prior to starting this type of process, it is useful to verifythat preset temperature is reached evenly in the deformation zone.A simple, but precise enough control can be made using:

→ Melting pencils (Tempistick type) ;

→ Thermocolor pencils (Thermochrom type) ;

→ Or better, with a thermocouple thermometer equipped with a contact probe (Testo type).

Remarks relative to hot rolling

— The contact of plate with rolls induces a thermal loss by conductivity.

— Rolling operation shall be performed quite rapidly:

→ Increase of thrust values ;

→ Proportional reducing the number of rolling passes.

— Hot rolling is readily performed at a temperature from 870 to 1 000 °C (1 598 to 1 832 °F).

CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ ↘ 49


50 General information50 Concept & features51 Chemical analysis51 Available plate sizes 51 General delivery condition52 Mechanical properties52 Behaviour at temperature54 Processing ability

55 Thermal cutting 55 Oxy-gas56 Plasma57 Laser cutting

58 Cold cutting

58 Water jet cutting

59 Welding59 Preliminary welding precautions60 Filler materials65 Welding conditions 70 Stud welding

71 Machining 71 Drilling73 Milling76 Counterboring & countersinking76 Tapping

78 Forming78 Bending80 Rolling83 Hot rolling


General informationConcept & features — For resistance to severe abrasive wear, it is clear that the stress-strain properties of the material (including the hardness level) and its ability of plastic deformation caused by the wear mechanism are of crucial importance. The CREUSABRO ® concept was specially designed to achieve this challenging objective and it is known as the best compromise able to advance the wear life in extreme service conditions, beyond the limits reached by conventional solutions.

— It was then decided to develop a new advanced class of steel in order to achieve a higher combination of wear resistance and good processing ability at the customer’s shop. Such compromise was finalised after an effective analysis of wear mechanisms involved in different areas of industries which experience heavy duty abrasion wear in service. The right understanding of major metallurgical factors that have important performance implications in the wear phenomenon allowed the definition of adapted chemical compositions and associated heat treatments. The successful use of the CREUSABRO ® concept for producing wear resistance steels is mainly due to the contribution of the following hardening mechanisms:

TRIP effect

— Work hardening capacity governed by a metallurgic phenomenon called TRIP effect (Transformation Induced by Plasticity). This phenomenon results from original microstructure of CREUSABRO ® material in the as-delivered state, which is a balanced mixture of Martensite, Bainite and retained Austenite (within a range of 8 % to 10 %).

Guaranteed flatness tolerance: ≤ 5 mm/m.

• Recommended size

• Possible size

Chemical composition

C Mn Ni Cr Mo S P

≤ 0.28 ≤ 1.60 ~ 0.40 ≤ 1.60 ≥ 0.20 ≤ 0.002 < 0.015

l x L (mm) →

↓ thickness (mm)

1 500 x 3 000 2 000 x 6 000 2 500 x 8 000

4 •5 - 45 • • •46 - 50 • •51 - 120 Please consult

DIN AFNOR ASTM Other standards

1543 NFA 46503 A20 Please consult

Available plate sizes

General delivery conditions— CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ is a wear resistant steel that combines extreme resistance to abrasion together with a high level of toughness. The ability of this grade to work harden offers an increase of approximately up to 45 % service life compared to conventional 500 HB materials, while maintaining easier processing abilities.

Origin of this exceptional performance

— Controlled dispersion of micro-carbides enriched with Chromium and Molybdenum

— The implementation of a new and revolutionary metallurgical phenomenon: the TRIP effect (Transformation Induced by Plasticity) transformed proceeding by spontaneous rearrangement of metallic atoms under the effect of local stress & strains and permitting a better accommodation against abrasion attack.

Hardness (HB)

Conventional 500 BHN

Water Quenched steel

with little work-hardening

properties

Prior to service

(initial hardness)

During ServiceOn entering service

550

450

500

+ 70 HBin serviceWith important work-hardening properties


Mechanical properties

Delivery hardness

— 430 HB min, 470 BHN typical value.

Toughness

— Remarkable toughness at this level of hardness — Guaranteed: KCVL - 20 °C: ≥ 40 J / cm² (≥ 23,6 ft. Lbs)— Typical value at - 20 °C: 55 J / cm² (32 ft. Lbs)

Tensile strength at 20 °C (68 °F) (indicative values)

UTS (MPa) YS (MPa) E (5d) (%)

1 630 (235 KSI) 1 250 (180 KSI) 12

Behaviour at temperature

Hot tensile strength (indicative values)

Resistance against softening effect

Coefficients of expansion - averages coefficients to 600 °C (1 110 °F)

→ 20 °C to 100 °C (68 °F to 210 °F) = 11.2 x 10-6 °C-1

→ 100 °C to 200 °C (210 °F to 390 °F) = 12.7 x 10-6 °C-1

→ 200 °C to 300 °C (390 °F to 570 °F) = 13.4 x 10-6 °C-1

→ 300 °C to 400 °C (570 °F to 750 °F) = 15.0 x 10-6 °C-1

→ 400 °C to 500 °C (750 °F to 930 °F) = 16.0 x 10-6 °C-1

→ 500 °C to 600 °C (930 °F to 1 110 °F) = 16.3 x 10-6 °C-1

→ 20 °C to 100 °C (68 °F to 210 °F) = 11.2 x 10-6 °C-1

→ 20 °C to 200 °C (68 °F to 390 °F) = 12.0 x 10-6 °C-1

→ 20 °C to 300 °C (68 °F to 570 °F) = 12.5 x 10-6 °C-1

→ 20 °C to 400 °C (68 °F to 750 °F) = 13.2 x 10-6 °C-1

→ 20 °C to 500 °C (68 °F to 930 °F) = 13.8 x 10-6 °C-1

→ 20 °C to 600 °C (68 °F to 1 110 °F) = 14.2 x 10-6 °C-1

Hardness (HB)

600

600 700

Tempering temperature (°C) (holding time 1 h)

500

500

400

400

300

300

200

200

100

100


500 HB WQ steels

UTSYSE

UTS / YS (MPa)

1 800

1 600

1 400

1 200

1 000

800

600

400

200

0 100 200 300 400 500 600

E (%)

20

10

Temperature (°C)


Processing ability

Comparison between CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ and conventional 500 HB steel

Thermal Cutting

Oxy-gasFuel gases

— Any fuel gases usually available are suitable: acetylene, propane, natural gas, tetrene, etc…

Note: Acetylene and tetrene provide a higher thermal value, which enables an increase in cutting speeds. Tetrene cutting results in reduced adhesion of oxides to the oxygen cut edges.

Advice for the production of perfectly sound components

→ Cut plate at a temperature ≥ 10 °C (50 °F) ;

→ Suitability of gas nozzle diameter according to the plate thickness to cut off ;

→ Respect cutting parameters: gas output and pressure, cutting speed etc… specified in operating table instructions

Supplemental advice

→ Reduce the cutting speed in angular curve & rounded corners especially for thick thicknesses ;

→ For cutting of complex shapes, profile internal holes first and after cut the external edges of the piece. Such a sequence results in reduced distortion of the piece and limits the risk of cracking e.g. in case re-flattening is needed.

Operation

Use property

Conventional

500 BHN steel


Bending:

Minimum bending radius

ri > 5 x th to ri > 12 x th ri ≥ 5 x th

(ri ≥ 6 x th t with the axis

parallel to the rolling

direction of the plate)

Rolling:

Minimum diameter

No concrete information Ø ≥ 40 th

Welding:

Combined thickness

(welding energy:

about 1.5 kJ/mm)

In the better instances no

preheating up to combined

thickness = 20 mm (0.8")

No preheating up to

combined thickness

= 50 mm (2")

Thermal cutting:

(oxygen cutting,

plasma…)

In the better instances,

no preheating

up to 10 mm (0.4") thickness

No preheating up to

40 mm (1.6") thickness

Machining:

Drilling, Milling…

Possible with high speed

tools HSSCO or tools with

tip in tungsten carbide

Possible with high speed

tools HSSCO or tools

with tip in tungsten carbide

Impact resistance:

Toughness KCVL

At -20 °C (-4 °F)

Typical value at - 20 °C:

32 J/cm² (19 ft.lbs)

at - 20 °C:

Garantee ≥ 40 J / cm²

à - 40 °C:

Typical value: 40 J / cm²

Wear resistance

(in average)

Approx. 5 times longer

than mild steel

Approx. 8 times longer

than mild steel

Abrasion resistance improvement + 45 / + 50 %

in favour of CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗

1

2

4

3

— CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ plate can be cut using all thermal processes i.e. oxy-gas, plasma and laser cutting. For plate thicker than 40 mm in order to avoid any edge cracking, preheat the length to be cut at approx. 150 °C (302 °F).


Plasma— Compared with classical oxy-gas, this process presents some advantages when profiling CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗:

→ For thickness of plate < 20 mm (0.8"), cutting speed is approximately doubled ;

→ Reduction of post-cutting deformation ;

→ For thin plates, no slag sticking to cut edges ;

→ H.A.Z. reduced approximately by half, enabling arc welding to be carried out directly on the edges after simple brushing ;

→ Less heating in case of small piece and then less risk of softening and drop down of wear resistance.

Note: Use of nitrogen as plasma carrier gas is preferable to argon + hydrogen mixture, not only because of the lower cost of nitrogen itself, but also because of the reduced risk of cracks in heat affected zones of edges (presence of hydrogen could possibly sensitize this zone).

Laser cutting— A particularly interesting technique for plate cutting:

→ High precision and regularity of cut ;

→ No deformation of the part after cut;

→ Insignificantly altered H.A.Z. ;

→ No burr at root or molten metal underneath ;

→ Direct welding after a simple brushing of edges ;

→ Reduced heat build up in the case of small parts.

— Operational capacities of present-day equipment allow cutting of plates thickness up to 15 mm (0.6").

0,5

1

2,5

1,5

2

10 20 30 40 500

Cutting speed (m / mm)

Thickness (mm)

Laser

Plasma

Oxygen cutting


Welding— CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ plates can be assembled using any conventional welding technology: manual welding with coated electrode, gas metal arc welding with flux cored wire, submerged arc welding.

— CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ plates can be welded without preheating for combined thickness up to 50 mm (2") There are a wide range of welding products available for welding CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗.

Preliminary welding precautions

→ Plate temperature > 10 °C

→ Avoid condensation


→ Weld on dry plate

→ Moisture is a possible source for hydrogen introduction

→ Protect plate against negative action of wind and rain

→ Do not vibrate the plate (graving) during an operation of welding

→ Grind to white all surfaces in contact with weld metal

→ Remove any residual oxides, slag, impurity possible source of H

2 and inclusions

→ Clean up welding areas. remove grease, slag, dust…

Cold cutting

Water jet cutting

— This cold cutting process is ideal to produce small pieces from plate.

— No microstructure change will occur in the thickness or on the edge of the piece. Hardness and consequently wear resistance will remain completely homogeneous throughout the whole piece.

— Nevertheless, the productivity rate of using a water jet remains rather low.


Alignment tolerances

— Fastening of welded edges should ensure compliance with alignment tolerances during all the welding operations.

Filler materialsGeneral information

— Electrodes (low hydrogen) currently used in welding of S275, S355… steel grades are suitable for assembling abrasion resistant plates.

— These products provide much softer weld beads than the plate itself. We advise, in case where designs of equipment lead to wear exposure of welded joints, to carry out protective passes using harder metals such as:

→ electrode E 13018 according to AWS A 5 - 5

→ hardfacing materials ensuring 350 to 450 HB


→ Electrodes to be dried (350 °C / 2 hrs) and stored (150 °C) according to recommendation of producer.

→ Their length should be greater than 30 mm (2 ").

→ Maximum gap between plates to weld to be 2 mm in order to limit welding stress

→ Maximum level of H2 diffusible

whatever the weld product to be 5 ml / 100 g

→ The parent metal dilution should be limited to avoid risk of weld metal deposited cracks.

2 mm max.

30 mm min.

Layer of E13018

— For MAG and Gas protected cored wire welding processes we suggest to use preferably an Argon / 18 - 20 % CO2 gas mixture (M21 mixture according to DIN).

Shielded manual welding with coated electrode

European standard DIN Specifications AWS Specifications

A 81309

E 514/3 B

DIN 1913

E 5143 B10 class

AWS A5-1

E 7016 class

or E 7018 class

— Welding materials with very low hydrogen content must be used

— Some examples of products:

→ BÖHLER: Fox EV 50 ;

→ ESAB: OK 48-04 ;

→ KLÖCKNER: Firma 5520 R ;

→ OERLIKON: Tenacito 38 R ;

→ SAF: SAFER NF 58 - SAFDRY NF 58 ;

→ UTP: 613 Kb ;

→ SMITWELD: Conarc 49 C - EMR Sahara ;

→ and any other equivalent product…

— In case of welding operation in the field, we recommend the use of Shielded Manual Arc Welding process with coated electrode packed under vacuum. When the pack is open all electrode must be consumed within the working day. Example: EMR Sahara, Safdry NF.

— In case of use solid wire, we recommend to avoid any external coating (such as borax, molykote…) which may introduce hydrogen in the weld.

→ Backward welding must be done at the end of each bead to properly fill the craters of welding pass end, and thus, avoid incipient cracks.

→ Any cracked tack weld must be seriously removed before the welding operation.


Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

European Specifications DIN Specifications AWS Specifications

A 81311

GS 2

DIN 8559

SG2

AWS A5-18

ER 70S4 class

or ER 70S6 class

A81350

TGS 51BH

TGS 47 BH

DIN 8559

SGB 1 CY 4255

AWS A-5-20

ER 71 T5 class

European Specification DIN Specifications AWS Specifications

NFA 81316

FP / F

ou B.IFB SA2.47.0302

DIN 8557

UP-Y 35 ou Y31-43S [1 à 3]

F AB

or - or 1…

B FB

AWS A5-17

Wire EM 12K

Flux F6.A4.EL 12

or Flux F7.A4.EM 12

MIG-MAG Flux core wire

BÖHLER EMK7

ESAB OK 12-51 OK 15.00

KLÖKNER VDG 15 / 60 EWB1-MF

LINCOLN LNM 27 MC710 H

OERLIKON Fluxofil 31

SAF NiC 70S Saf Dual 200

Flux core wire

ESAB OK Autrod 12-10 + OK Flux 10-71

SAF Wire AS 26 + Flux AS 72 / Wire AS 35 + Flux AS 72

LINCOLN Wire Lincolnweld 860 + Flux L-61 / Wire Lincolnweld 882 + Flux L-60

→ Some examples of products


and any other equivalent product…

Submerged Arc Welding

and any equivalent product…

Ferritic welding materials for joints exposed to wear

— These welding materials can be used only as surface-protective runs. In certain cases, according to the suppliers recommendations, preheating must be implemented.

Manual welding using coated electrode

Some examples of products:

→ BÖHLER: Fox EV 85 ;

→ ESAB: OK-78.05 ;

→ OERLIKON: Tenacito 100 ;

→ SAF: SAFER ND100 - SAFDRY ND100 ;

→ SMITWELD: Conarc 85 EMR Sahara ;

→ and any equivalent product…

GMAW

European Standard DIN Specifications AWS Specifications

A 81340

EY 89

DIN 8529

EY 89

AWS A5-5

E 12018 class

European Standard AWS Specifications

A31852

TG5 Y89

AWS A5-28

E 120 S1 class


Solid wire Core wire

BÖHLER Ni Cr Mo 90 IG

KLÖKNER EW X90

OERLIKON Fluxofil 45

SAF NiC 88

and any equivalent product…


Austenitic or austeno-ferritic material

— In case of on-site repairs when it is difficult to maintain the necessary conditions (lack of electrodes stoving, or electrode under-vacuum packing, impossibility for preheating of thick plates, very restrained assembly) austenitic welding material can be used.

— Despite the obvious security provided by such filler materials, it is strongly recommended to dry the electrodes or fluxes according to supplier requirements

Hardfacing - Welding material

— In this case, the preheating (and eventual post heating) conditions will be imposed by the welding material being more alloyed than the parent metal. Please refer to supplier’s catalogue where pre & post heating temperatures are detailed.


Manual welding

with coated electrode

GMAW

BÖHLER Fox dur 350 Dur 350 IG

COMMERCY Cydur 2

KLÖKNER Dura EA 350 Dura EA 300SG.

SOUDOMETAL Soudodur 400

ESAB OK Tubrod 1403

Welding conditions

General environment conditions

— To avoid the risk of cracks:

→ For high productive processes target a limited dilution of the parent metal ;

→ All beads should be protected from wind and rain until complete cooling down of weld has been obtained ;

→ Vibration inducing operations carried out in the vicinity of welded plates (for example chipping) have an adverse effect on soundness of welded joints and should be prohibited during welding operations.

Preheating conditions

— CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ grade can be welded with ferritic filler material without preheating, if combined thickness does not exceed 50 mm (2"). Above this combined thickness, it is recommended to respect the preheating parameters shown in following table. With stainless steel filler material no preheating required.

Welding processes Heat input (kJ / cm) Pre and post heating conditionsCombined thickness (mm)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Stick manual

arc welding

15

20

Semi-automatic

under gas

15

30

Submerged

arc welding

20

30

Without preheating

With pre / postheating at 100 °C



— Sticks or fluxes must be dried and stored according to supplier requirements. To avoid any drying of filler materials, we suggest using under-vacuum packed sticks.

→ Only welding gas free of hydrogen use preferably mixture of Argon, CO

2, O

2, He (Atal 5, Arcal 14, Arcal 21, Mi-gaz 18, Argon Mix 1,…) ;

— In the case of welding with high tensile filler materials, preheating can be necessary even for low combined thickness, because of cracking in weld metal.

— Then, it is recommended to ask the filler materials supplier for more details. For the same reasons, we suggest to avoid too much dilution with base material. For high deposition rate processes (SAW), high travel speeds are then suggested.

— The cold cracking sensitivity during welding is led by following parameters:




←H2→

Crack risk

↑H.A.Z.↑

←Stress Stress→

Determination of combined thickness (Cth.)

e2

th1 th2

th1

th1

th2

th2

th1

th2

th1

th2

th1

th2

th1

th2

Cth.. = th1 + th2

Cth. = th1 + th2

Cth. = th1 + th2





Cth. = 2 x th1 + 2 x th2if i < 3 x th2

i

th3

th2

NB: Combined thickness is the only way to assess the level of clamping of an assembly. When several plates are welded together the assembly is highly clamped, and one might over evaluate combined thickness to correctly approach the stress phenomenon.

th1


Welding with austenitic product

— In this case CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ can be welded without preheating precaution. Nevertheless, for safety consideration, a strongly fastened clamping assembly, combined th over 100 mm, a slight warming and inter pass T° 75 / 100 °C must be apply.

Limitation of welding stresses

— A proper sequence of welding operations should be followed in order to limit welding stresses:

→ Internal welding to external welding is prefered

1 23 45

6

7

6

7

5 3 1 2 4

Surface repairs in thick plates

2

1

3

4

R = 250 mm

12

3

4

— As for all the high abrasion resistance steels, it is not recommended to practice a post-welding stress relief. Indeed any softening of the CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗

base material would affect its excellent anti-abrasive properties (for your guidance, please refer to the softening resistance curve).

Welding of thin plates (thickness < 8 mm)

→ As it was defined earlier for thick plate, take care when preparing the area to be welded. E.g. grinding or brushing ;

→ When an assembly is fully made with thin plates, it is better to control the heat input (1.3 kJ / mm). The use of large beads is to be avoided as they cause distortions due to the shrinking effect through the thickness of the plates ;

→ Some care must be taken to use appropriated welding sequences. A shrinkage direction must be kept free to avoid too high stresses and distortions. Welding sequences must be optimised to weld without too much residual stress ;

→ Welding consumables must have medium mechanical properties and GMAW should be used preferably (wire grade GS2).

Remarks:

→ When welding with GMAW a wire speed lower than 4.5 m / min (14.8" / min) can guarantee a heat input lower than 1,3 kJ / mm (diameter of wire 12 / 10) ;

→ When pulsed GMAW is used, we suggest using 10 / 10 mm (0.4 / 0.4") instead of 12 / 10 mm (0.5" / 0.4") diameter wires.

Equivalent Carbon

— Equivalent carbon formulas are not applicable to CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ which is a high hardness steel grade with alloy additions.

— Equivalent carbon formulas or H.A.Z. hardness criteria have been defined for carbon manganese steels. Therefore they are inoperative on high wear resistance steels. One might, for instance, wonder of the validity of criteria such hardness in H.A.Z. lower than 350 HV when the base material itself has a hardness of 460 HV.

— Welding recommendations for CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ have been determined on specific welding tests. They have been confirmed by industrial experiments which confirm that welding of th around 50 mm without preheating is possible.


Stud welding — It is recommended to use studs in mild steels S 235 J2 (A 350 LF1) grade.

Precautions

In order to guarantee good quality of welds, it is necessary:

→ To grind and to centre punch the position where the stud must be welded ;


→ To check for the good selection of welding parameters by carrying out five preliminary flash welds followed by a pull-off test according to NFA 89020-2 specification, (+ XPA 89022, performance classes) ;

→ To check periodically for current operational parameters throughout manufacturing.

Machining— The machining operations which are commonly performed on components made of wear resistant plates are:

→ Drilling ;

→ Milling, countersinking & counterboring ;

→ Tapping.

— In spite of higher mechanical characteristics and owing to its microstructural conception CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ has a good machinability. The respect of some precautions is however necessary to obtain correct results.

Drilling— Use radial type machine-tools in good condition with automatic advance and sufficient power. Machined parts should be rigidly secured to the working table.

Tool geometry

— Twist drill with a long helical pitch (class H according to DIN 1836).

Selection of drills

→ With taper shaft if diameter allows or with drive tenon ;

→ With short flutes (called short type) if thickness allows.


Quality of tool


→ Drill made of super carburised high speed cobalt steel of HSSCO type (for small and medium holes series) ;

European specifications DIN Specifications AWS Specifications

AR 2.9.1.8 S.2.9.1.8 / Werkstoff 1.3247 M 42

Trademarks examples: Guhring, Vadium…

→ Drill made of high speed steel with tip in tungsten carbide or solid carbide drill (used for small diameters) - in that case with straight flutes. Carbide quality: K 10 - K 20 selon standard ISO. Trademarks examples: Diager, Westa, Coromant, etc…


HSSCO Drill:

Drill with tungsten carbide tip:

Drill Ø (mm) Cutting speed

(mm / mn)

Rotation speed

(rev / mn)

Feed (mm / rev)

AR.2.9.1.8 (M 42) 10 4 - 6 125 - 90 0.07

20 65 - 95 0.10

30 40 - 65 0.12

Drill Ø (mm) Vitesse de coupe

(mm / mn)

Rotation speed

(tour / mn)

Feed (mm / rev)

Carbide tip

K 20

10 18 - 22 575 - 700 0.07

20 285 - 350 0.10

30 190 - 235 0.12

— According to the table above, the rotation speed and feed must be chosen to closely match the machine capacity and available parameters.

— The use of drills equipped with a carbide tip and TiN should also be considered. As a matter of fact, these drills e.g. Diager, used with the recommended cutting-parameters allow a life span twice as long as compared to the standard carbide tip drill.

Lubrification

— 20 % soluble oil, abundant flow (10 l / min flow rate) under low pressure. Soluble oil ISO-L-MAD 6743/7 class.

Milling — To be carried out with powerful machine tools, the parts must be securely fastened.

Preparation

— Before surfacing or grooving the parts produced by oxygen cutting, it is recommended to remove by grinding the top surface of hardened part of angle to a depth corresponding to pass depth; this will enable to avoid premature wear of milling cutters.

Tool geometry

— Milling cutter with a geometry suitable for the operation to be carried out.


Quality of tool


→ The common operations as surfacing or roughing out for example can be executed with HSSCO mills (super carburized cobalt alloyed high speed steels).

→ In slab milling, feed per tooth will be smaller, however it will not result in oversized chips provoking refusal of cutting.

Trademarks example: Fraisa, Astra, Courcelle-Gavelle…

→ Tools equipped with inserted or removable carbide tips are particularly suitable for the milling of CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗. For large series, these tools widely supersede the HSSCO tools for grooving and finishing operations.

Quality of carbide tips in terms of the machining operations (for your guidance)

→ Removing and roughing: P 10 or P 20 carbide according to ISO.

→ Small surfacing: K 10 or K 20 carbide.

→ Grooving: P 25 carbide.

Trademarks examples: Sandvik, Saferty, Stellram…


HSSCO Milling cutter

→ Surfacing parameters:

Norme AFNOR Norme DIN Norme AWS

AR. 6.5.2.5 S.6.5.2.5. / Werkstoff n°1.3243 M 35

Ar.12.0.5.5 S.12.0.5.5 / Werkstoff n°1.3202 T 15

Tool Depth pass (mm) Cutting speed (m / mn) Feed per tooth

(mm/tooth)

Steel 1 10 - 12 0.08

HSS 8 % Co 4 8 - 11 0.12

Steel T15 8 5 - 8 0.12

Milling cutter with carbide tips

→ Cutting parameters in surfacing: → Roughing depth pass: 2 mm

→ Carbide tips: P 10 to P 30

→ Cutting speed: 45 m / min

→ Feed per tooth: 0.20 mm / tooth.

→ Finishing operations depth pass: 0.2 mm

→ Carbide tips: K 10 / K 20

→ Cutting speed: 70 m / min


→ Cutting parameters in grooving:

→ Roughing:

→ Carbide tips: P 25 (with strengthening edge at 20°),

→ Cutting speed: 45 m / min,

→ Feed per tooth: 0,15 mm / tooth ;

→ Finishing operations depth pass: 0.2 mm

→ Carbide tips: see above,

→ Cutting speed: 50 m / min,


Lubrification

— 10 % soluble oil or cooling by blown air for finishing passes.


Counterboring & countersinking — Use cutting mills with 3 or 4 teeth and carbide tips - Type P25 according to ISO Standard - with axial pilot the diameter of which corresponds to that of the hole.

— Example of adjustment for a counterboring at 90° in a 10 mm (0.4") hole:

→ Spindle speed: 1 500 RPM ;

→ Advance: 0.12 mm / tour ;

→ Lubrication: 10 % soluble oil - flow at about 10 l / min.

Trademarks examples: Tivoly, Fraisa, Toshiba, Rito, Westa…

Tapping— This operation can be performed only by machine tapping.

Example of tapped holes with small diameters-maximum M 15

— It is necessary to use special taps (example: TARAUD, ALLIGATOR).

Tap geometry

→ Reinforced tool (thickset) ;

→ Straight flutes (3 flutes) ;

→ recessed threads.

Preparation

— Tapping drill holes should be drilled in diameter within upper limits of tolerance with allowance 0.1 to 0.2 depending on thread pitch.

— Execute small countersinking of predrilled holes.

Quality of that kind of tap

— High speed steel HSSE. Trademark: ALLIGATOR.

Lubrification

— Continuously sprayed oil under very high pressure. Example: special oil ALLIGATOR Filoil 2.

Example of tapped holes with large diameters up to M 60

— It is necessary to use threading countersink tools (example: Dixi from Vadium). Use of a machine with numerical control is necessary. Solid carbide threading counter-sinker - K 10 or P 25 according to ISO standard (micro-granular carbide).

Cutting parameters

→ Cutting speed: about 80 m / min (262 ft / min)

→ Feed per tooth: can be quite correctly assessed by following formula: fz= 0.01 x D1(D1 is the diameter of the tool).

→ Lubrication: 20 % soluble oil.


Forming— The elaboration of CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ under vacuum and his excellent flatness confer to this grade good transformability by cold bending and rolling in spite of high tensile values (U.T.S and Y.S.).

— These high mechanical characteristics require some operative precautions to work out bending or rolling of the plates.

BendingType of Press

— The operation should be carried out on a conventional hydraulic bending press. Use of presses with folder table is strictly not recommended for CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗.

Bending effort

— The capacity of the machine used should be compatible with the work to be carried out. Power requested for bending is conditioned by steel tensile strength UTS, plate thickness & length and V-block opening.

— Design of V Bloc has strongly evolved: removable rotating edges made with pretreated steelare fitted in a groove. These solutions improve greatly the operation of bending with a significant reduction of sliding effort. With a classical V Bloc it is always possible to experiment with edge lubrication, consequently the required bending force can be reduced by around 20 %.

Capacity of Press (P)

— The capacity of the machine used should be compatible with the work to be carried out. Bending loads depend on the steel tensile strength, the thickness of the plate, the radius of the mandrel and the V-block opening.

— In the case of CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗, U.T.S. = about 1 600 MPa. (Indicative)

→ P = 200 t / m bent of the 10 mm (0.4 ") plate.

→ P = 430 t / m bent of the 20 mm (0.8 ") plate.

α0

r 0

αi

r i

Therefore, the bending of plates in CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗, requires bending presses with great capacity.

Spring-back

— Because of the relatively high Yield Point of this steel grade, one has to take in account the spring-back (opening of angle after releasing load).

— Design of tools, and especially, angle of V-block and its depth should be properly chosen (smaller V-block angle, deeper V-block).

Inside minimum bending radius Ri for 90° bending

— ri ≥ 5 x th (th = plate thickness)

(ri ≥ 6 x th, with the axis parallel to the rolling direction of the plate) — V-block width: ≥ 14 x th

— According to the equipment available, bending can be performed:

→ With mandrel with a radius matching the bending radius ;

→ Or, in case of larger radius, in several consecutive bending strokes with progressive steps.

— Here, a thrust block will allow regular folding to be obtained.


Recommendations for bending operation

— Bend plates at a temperature ≥ 10 °C ;

— Remove all gouges or scratches on the surfaces to be worked, namely on extrados surface, submitted to tensile stress ;

— Grind a chamfer on the edges outside and grind away the dross left after oxygen cutting in order to avoid incipient break off ;

— If possible, bending should be carried out with direction of the bending line cross to rolling direction of plate ;

— Do not carry out bending in one stroke but in several consecutive thrusts at regular and limited increments ;

— Lubricate the mandrel and support edges with graphite ; this will facilitate flow of the metal ;

— Staff safety: as the elastic energy accumulated in the plate is high, one should consider the possibility of the plate suddenly breaking. Therefore, the operator should stand at the side of the machine, not in front of it to avoid injury.

Rolling— Rolling of CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ can be performed on all types of roll bending machines.

Types of rolling presses

Rolling press, pyramid type, with 3 rolls

— Preliminary bending of extremities of the plate is necessary before rolling ; it can be performed on a bending press or on an open-front forging press.

Rolling press with 3 or 4 rolls

Capacity of rolling

— With CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ plates the maximum thickness which can be cold rolled is about the third of thickness allowed by the roll-machine for mild steel, S255 (A 350 LF 1) grade.

Spring-back

— As in the case with bending, the relatively high elastic limit results in a high spring-back trend. In rolling, this phenomenon becomes essential, namely if thin or medium thickness plates t < 20 mm (0.78") have to be rolled around a large diameter Ø > 1 m (3.3 ft), i.e. if the Ø / t ratio is high.

— In such cases, in order to obtain the expected diameter in the finished product, one has to process the plate in forming rolls of a considerably smaller bending radius. Here, the skills of the operator are of paramount importance.

CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ ↘ 8382 ↙ CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗

Quality of rolls

— Considering the mechanical properties of CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗, we recommend to use rolls made of a high quality grade, forged and thermally treated in order to avoid any flow marks.

Examples of steel grade:

EN Specifications DIN Specifications

34CrNiMo16 Werkstoff 1.6757

— In order not to damage rolls made of standard quality grade, we recommend the plate in CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗ is placed between two thin plates in extra mild steel.

Minimum inside rolling diameter Øi

— Conventional workshop methods:

Øi ≥ 40 x th (th = Plate thickness)

Recommendations for rolling

— The above mentioned recommendations for bending are still valid. Moreover we recommend:

→ Rolling must be carried out with a sufficient number of return passes ; → Gradual tightening ; → Suitably chosen rolling speed.

Hot rolling— This operation is only possible in the temperature range 450 °C / 500 °C.

Plate must be preheated in a furnace in order to have the perfect temperature homogeneity. The contact of plate with rolls induces a thermal loss by conductivity. The rolling operation shall be performed quite rapidly:

— Increase of thrust values- Proportional reducing the number of rolling passes.Control the temperature of plate during all the rolling operation if necessary re-heat in the furnace. T° control means:



→ With a thermocouple thermometer equipped with a contact probe (Testo type) ;

→ Infrared gun with laser measurer.

CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ ↘ 85

CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗

86 General information86 Concept & features 87 Chemical analysis87 Mechanical properties87 Dimensional range88 Behaviour at high temperature

89 Thermal cutting 90 Oxy-gas90 Plasma91 Laser cutting

93 Cold cutting93 Water jet cutting

94 Welding94 Welding test96 Fundamental rules97 Basic rules to limit the risk of cold cracking

102 Machining102 Drilling103 Counterboring104 Milling

106 Forming

86 ↙ CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ ↘ 87

General information

Concept & features — CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ is an advanced abrasion-resistant steel additionally alloyed with high titanium content (0.6 %).This innovative grade is mainly dedicated to severe sliding wear conditions in service for applications where conventional water quenched steels (500 HB, 550 HB), hardfacing plates or hard-casting parts are traditionally implemented.

— By analogy with CREUSABRO ® 8000 ℗, CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ capitalizes upon an innovative metallurgical concept, based on a specific chemical analysis. In addition, it is also produced by Oil Quenching, which reduces the level of the residual stresses that is encountered within the plate after heat treatment, compared with more drastic quenching methods (e.g. water quenching). The outstanding extra wear resistance (severe abrasion combined with high impact cycle load), is mainly due to the contribution of the following hardening phenomena:

→ An homogeneous precipitation of extra hard primary titanium carbides in the steel matrix leads to a significant improvement of the sliding wear resistance in extreme service conditions ;

→ A superficial hardening following a very efficient work hardening capability in service, governed by a metallurgic phenomenon called TRIP effect (Transformation Induced by Plasticity) ;

→ The extra ductility of residual austenite contributes to the improvement of wear life in service allowing a significant increase of potential of ductility and delay the chip removal of metallic particle from the surface submitted to abrasion.


500 HB Water quenched steel

HB

Time

550

500

450

Chemical analysis (indicative values weight %)

Mechanical properties (indicative values as delivered)

Hardness

450 - 520 HB. 490 HB (typical value)

Dimensional range

C Mn Ni Cr Mo S Ti

~ 0.40 ~ 1.30 ~ 0.45 ~ 0.70 ≤ 0.34 ≤ 0.002 ~ 0.60

Hardness (HB) UTS (MPa)

YS (MPa)

E (%) KCVL ‑ 20 °C(J / cm²)

E (GPa)

480 1 200 1 630 10 168 205

Thicknesses (mm) Formats (mm)

6 - 50 2 000 x 6 000 / 2 500 x 8 000

Other dimension please request.


Thermal Cutting— All thermal cutting processes can be used for CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗.Nevertheless, for pure performance reasons (cut quality, productivity, thermal alteration), it is preferable to use the most efficient method regarding the thickness of plate.

— The mechanical properties of CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ negate the use of any mechanical cutting process such as shearing or punching.

— In case of cutting job th > 40 mm, it is imperative to adjust cutting parameters.

— Considering ambient workshop T°, it can be necessary to slightly warmed up the plate with a torch or warm up the design of the piece to cut without oxygen before cutting.

Suggestion of cutting parameters to optimise the job:

Plate T° Thickness < 60 mm

≥ 10 °C No preheating

< 10 °C Slight warming up (40 - 60 °C)

Behaviour at high temperature

The chemical composition of CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ and especially chromium, molybdenum and huge titanium carbide content, offer a high softening resistance to the material. Such a quality allows for the use of CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ in hot service conditions, at a maximum of 450 °C (840 °F) while conventional 500 HB water quenched steels are limited to 250 °C (480 °F), before softening.

500 HB Water quenched steel

100

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

200

300

400

500

HB

°C


— In case of cutting job th > 25 mm, it is imperative not only to adjust cutting parameters (reduce significantly cutting speed), but also to proceed to a pre-heating, measured in between 160 / 180 °C. Piece and drop off must be covered, up to complete cooling down, in order to limit cracks risk due to oxygas.

— Even for th < 25 mm considering ambient T° of workshop, it could be necessary to warm up plate with torch or warm up the design on cutting bed without oxygen, before to proceed to final cutting operation.

→ Gas used: Oxygen + Propane ;

→ Propane gas pressure: 0.85 Bars ;

→ Heating oxygen pressure: 6 Bars ;

→ Cutting oxygen pressure: 6 Bars ;

→ Pitch nozzle / plate: 15 mm.

Remark

— In case of chamfering operation of thick thickness (blade for example), the th to consider is the section to cut and not the nominal th of plate.

— The choice of nozzle diameter choice related to outflow & pressure should be carried out in accordance with the technical table provided by the cutting machine supplier for low carbon & alloyed steel.


Oxy-gas— Indicative cutting parameters:

Plate thickness (mm) Nozzle diameter (mm) Cutting speed (mm / min)

10 10 x 25 350

20 25 x 40 225

30 25 x 40 190

35 25 x 40 170

40 40 x 60 185

Comment

— In case of cutting job of thick thickness necessity to apply a relatively slow cutting (as defined above) speed combined with high pressure of gas consequently generate a Heat Affected Zone (H.A.Z.).

Supplemental advice

→ Reduce the speed in case of change of cutting direction ;

→ It is imperative to profile rounded corners especially for thick thicknesses in order to limit the crack risk linked to sharp internal angles.

PlasmaDevice used

— Plasma SAF type Mecagome XY 100

Electrode

— Sharp end Tungsten

Gaz plasma

— Mix of argon + hydrogen

Indicative cutting parameters

Comments:

— This process obtains quite a clean & good quality cut.

— H.A.Z. is limited.

LaserDevice use

— Laser brand ROFINE DC 35 typendyne 890 equipped with a head with mirror focusing beam.

Power

— 3.5 KW.

Assistance gas

— Nitrogen.

Indicative cutting parameters

Thicknesses (mm) Voltage (volts) Intensity (ampere) Cutting speed (mm / min)

10 130 180 750

20 140 250 550

30 150 350 450

35 160 400 400

40 170 420 400

Thickness (mm) Laser Power (kW) Cutting speed (mm / min)

10 3.5 600

12 3.5 550


Remark

— Laser is a solution particularly adapted for CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ plate profiling.





→ Lower heating zones in the case of cutting of small pieces.

— Operational capacities of current machines allow plates up to 20 mm to be cut. However, it is interesting to notice that the quality of the cut edge (e.g. stria & delay waves) is reduced when cutting plate above < 12 mm.

Comments

→ This cutting process offers an excellent finish ;

→ The depth of H.A.Z. depth is limited.

Cold cutting

Water jet cutting

— This cold cutting process is ideal where a H.A.Z. is to be avoided.

— No microstructure change will occur through the thickness or in the cut edge.

— Hardness and consequently wear resistance will remain completely homogeneous throughout the whole piece.



Cracked Uncracked

Preheating

temperature

Input energy = 1.09 kJ / mmv [H2] = 4.4 cm3 / 100 g

150 MPa 300 MPa 550 MPa

275 °C

250 °C

225 °C

200 °C

175 °C

150 °C

Table builds according welding implant test

Welding‑Implant Test Methodology

— This type of test is one the most severe and allows the ability to validate the welding aptitude of CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗. The mix of welding grades is also particularly severe with CK 65 / CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ and WQ 450 HB / CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗.

— The tests above have been carried out in laboratory conditions, which confirms that CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ is fully weldable.

Weld

Stress

Welding— CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ welding requires the strict following of the recommendations inherent to the welding of wear resistant plate. (See EN1011-1)

— Cold cracking is the main risk during welding of this type of material.

— It can occur immediately and up to 72 hours after the completion of the welding process. It may occur by the interaction of three metallurgical parameters:


→ Creation of residual stresses of welding, related to the shrinking of steel during the solidification of the molten metal and also due to the differences in thermal expansions ;


Welding test— Table of preheating T° and T° minimal of inter pass:

Without preheating

Preheating 150 °C

Preheating 175 °C

Preheating 200 °C

Welding process Preheating condition regarding thickness (mm)

10 20 30 40 50

Stick manual

arc welding

Semi‑automatic

Submerged

arc welding



Influential factors →Influential factors

→Mechanical properties

of welding products

→Combined thicknesses

→Heat input

→Process

→Welding product

Action →Pre & Postheating

→Control

of welding sequences

→choice of welding product

→Preheating

→Postheating

→Preparation

of welding area

→Postheating

→Control

of welding product

←H2→

Risk of cracking

↑H.A.Z.↑

←Stress Stress→

Fundamental rulesTack welding

— Quality of this operation is fundamental as it conditions the quality of the following beads on top.

2 mm maxi

30 mm mini

→ Maximum gap between plates to weld 2 mm in order to limit welding stress ;

→ Their length should be greater than 30 mm ;

→ Electrodes dried (350 °C / 2 hours) and conserved (150 °C) according to recommendation of the producer ;

→ Maximum level of H2 diffusible whatever the weld product 5 ml / 100 g ;

→ The parent metal dilution should be limited to avoid risk of weld metal deposited cracks.

→ Backward welding must be done at the end of each bead to properly fill the craters of welding pass end and, thus, avoid incipient cracks.

→ Any cracked tack weld must be completely removed before the welding operation.

Basic rules to limit the risk of cold cracking— The cold cracking sensitivity during welding is caused by the following parameters:




Reference ESSAI Welded material Welding products T° preheating (°C) Bleeding

01.AB.07 CR. DUAL℗ th 20 mm

on X65 th 25 mm

C / Mn

Nertalic 70 A

160 RAS


on X65 th 25 mm

C / Mn

Nertalic 70 A

No preheating RAS


on X65 th 25 mm

C / Mn

Nertalic 70 A

No preheating RAS


on X65 th 25 mm

ER307

G18.8 Mn

No preheating RAS


on TE 450 th 12 mm

C / Mn

Nertalic 70 A

225 RAS


on TE 450 th 12 mm

C / Mn

Nertalic 70 A

200 RAS


on TE 450 th 12 mm

C / Mn

Nertalic 70 A

150 Bleeding

w+ radio RAS

Summary table of welding‑implant test


Heat input

— This parameter represents the quantity of heat introduced during welding. Heat input is connected to intensity (I), voltage (U) and welding speed (v). It can be calculated with following formula:

Es (Kj / cm) =





Thermal cycle

Sketch of typical thermal cycle:

60 x U x l

1 000v (cm / min)

Number of passes

Temperature

Maximum interpass T°

Postheating T°

Preheating T°

Room T°

Phase 1: PreheatingPhase 2: Postheating

Welding Phase 2Phase 1

Combined thickness

— The influence of combined thicknesses on the weld ability of the structure is very important as it will determine the stress levels as well as the heat flow and speed through the H.A.Z. However, this should only be used as a guide.

Some examples of combined thickness calculations

th1 th2

th2 th2

th1

th1

th1 th1

th1

th1

th2th2

th2

th2

Cth. = th1 + th2

Cth. = th1 + th2

Cth. = th1 + th2




Cth. = 2 x th1 + th2 + th3 ou 2 x th2 + th1 + th3


i

th1

th2

th3


NB: Use of stainless welding products, austenitic or austeno-ferritic, is always possible and represents the best way to bypass technical constraints. This does not change the above conditions.

Welding with an over alloyed steel

— Welding parameters employed must be those of the more sensitive steel. Welding regulations remain identical, but the choice should be according to the over alloyed grade.

→ Combined thickness calculation ;

→ Welding sequences ;

→ Preheating, etc…

— The choice of a welding product is still depending on service conditions, but it is always recommended to use a low alloyed welding product when possible.

Examples

→ CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ + CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ = Low alloyed C / Mn welding product ;

→ CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ + 25CrMo4 (case of casting tooth adaptor) = Welding product 25CrMo4 type or low alloyed C / Mn.

NB: Use of stainless welding products, austenitic or austeno-ferritic, is also possible with supplemental preheating, if the grade concerned is highly alloyed.

Phase 1: Preheating

— It varies with:

→ heat input ;





→ Never post‑heat a weld, which has not been preheated.

Welding sequences

— The mode of filling of chamfers and the order of the achievements of the welds in an assembly have a direct effect on creation of residual stresses and thus on cracking.

— A plate which will not be able to deform during welding inevitably will induce strong residual stresses in the area of welded joints (ex: high thicknesses, excessive dimensions and fastening).

— It is thus recommended as well as possible to let degrees of freedom to the assemblies.

— It is not recommended to perform a stress relieving at high temperature under risk to lose the abrasive properties of the CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗.

Heteregeneous welds, welding with a lower alloyed steel

— The basic rule remains unchanged , the welding product to be used must have the mechanical properties of the less alloyed steel.

Examples:

→ CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ + S355 = welding product low alloyed C / Mn ;

→ CREUSABRO ® DUAL ℗ + S690 = welding product C / Mn 690 MPa type*.

* Choose welding product which has the higher E %.


CounterboringCutting parameters

Cutting parameters

Quality Ø (mm) Cutting Speed V

(m / min)

Rotation speed N

(rev / min)

Feed

mm / min mm / rev

Dormer CO2 ‑ HSS 8 % Co 10 5 160 35 0.07

Nachi ‑ HSS 8 % Co 15.1 7 148 10 0.07

Nachi ‑ HSS 8 % Co 20 11 176 12 0.07

Monobloc standard 11 30 870 61 0.07

Mitsubishi TAF ‑

Carbide tips UP 20M ‑

Geometry U2

12 80 2 120 86 0.04

Safety Kk1

Tips

16.5 40 772 39 0.05

Mitsubishi TAF ‑

Carbide tips US735 ‑

Geometry

20 80 1 274 77 0.06

Quality Ø (mm) Cutting Speed V

(m / min)

Rotation speed N

(rev / min)

Feed

mm / min mm / rev

Safety Carbure type

CCMT 080304‑33 OR

14 30 869 25 0.03

Machining

Drilling Machine used

— MAZAK CTC-300C I

→ Power of spindle: 50 Cv ;

→ Max frequency: 3 800 rev / min.

Drilling Tools used

— Drill: HSS Co – Taper shank:

— Drill: carbide monobloc:

— Drill: carbide inserts:


Cutting parameters

Operation Equipment Ø (mm) pass depth

(mm)

Cutting

speed

(mm / min)

Rotation

speed

(rev / min)

Feed

mm / min mm / rev

Peeling CTC-300C I 80 1 155 621 760 1.223

QY 321 125 1.25 98 250 315 1.260

Roughing CTC-300C I 63 2.5 159 805 603 0.75

QY 321 63 1.5 62 315 315 1.0

Finishing CTC-300C I 50 0.1 138 879 225 0.6

QY 321 50 0.5 31 250 200 0.80

Grooving CTC-300C I 20 2 85 1 353 212 0.15

QY 321 20 2.5 39 630 125 0.20

QY 321 25 2.5 50 630 160 0.25

MillingEquipment

— MAZAK CTC-300C I

→ Spindle power: 50 Cv ;

→ Max speed: 3 800 rev / min.

— Type QY 321

→ Spindle power: 10 HP ;

→ Max speed: 1 600 Tr / min.

Surfacing cutter

— Ø 80 mm - 7 octagonal teeth. — Ø 125 mm - 9 octagonal teeth.

Rough milling cutter

— Ø 63 mm - 5 octagonal teeth.

Finishing milling cutter

— Ø 63 mm - 4 octagonal teeth.

Grooving milling cutter

— Ø 20 mm - 2 teeth.— Ø 25 mm - 3 teeth.


Depending on thickness plates size feasible in this grade

→ 10 mm: 2 500 x 6 000 ;

→ 12 mm: 2 500 x 6 000 or 2 500 x 8 000 ;

→ 15 mm: 2 000 x 6 000 or 2 500 x 8 000 ;

→ 20 mm: 2 400 x 7 500 or 2 500 x 8 000 ;

→ 25 mm: 2 400 x 7 500 or 2 500 x 8 000 ;

→ 30 mm: 2 000 x 6 700 or 2 400 x 7 500 or 2 500 x 8 000 ;

→ 35 mm: 2 000 x 6 700 ;

→ 40 mm: 2 000 x 6 000 or 2 000 x 6 700 or 2 400 x 2 400 ;

→ 50 mm: 2 400 x 2 400.

Bending effort



— During bending, under the punch effect, plate is bent to a given angle. When the punchis withdrawn, the bent angle open slightly due to of elastic stresses released, otherwise known as ‘spring back’ (see sketch below).

α0

r 0

αi

r i

Forming— In order to validate the formability of this grade we have carried out tests with typical plate dimensions used in industry.

— First of all, it is necessary to remember the general conditions requested for forming wear resistant plate:

→ Plate bending & rolling temperature ≥ 10 °C (≥ 50 °F) ;

→ Check geometrical integrity of V bloc edges and punch. Any tool damaged (distorted, scratch, deeply break) is generating risk of plate rupture due to a lack of sliding ;

→ Absence of any scratch in deformation zone, in particular on extrados plate’s skin submitted to deformation. ;

→ Chamfering of top & bottom edges submitted to tensile stress. The size of the chamfer shall be proportional to the thickness of the plate. After oxy gas cutting, all eventual defects of cut must be removed, in order to avoid any crack initiation. Whatever the thickness, it is recommended to grind the entire flame cut edges and eliminate all defects such as grooves or blemishes ;

→ If possible, bending should be carried out across to plate rolling direction ;


→ If necessary, lubricate the mandrel and radii of support edges with graphite; this will make the surface metal flow more easily ;


→ Staff safety: as the elastic energy accumulated in the plate is high, one should consider the possibility of sudden break or skidding. Therefore, the operator must stand up at the side of machine, not in front of it.

AbrAmAx mu ↘ 109

AbrAmAx mu110 Concept & Features

111 Main characteristics111 Chemical analysis 111 Mechanical properties111 Behaviour at Temperature

112 Thermal Cutting processes112 Oxy-gas114 Plasma114 Laser

115 Cold Cutting processes115 Shearing & Punching116 Water Jet (very high pressure with addition of abrasives)

117 Welding 117 Preliminary welding precautions118 Selection of welding process 120 The three types of applicable welding consumables121 Welding consumable selection123 Basic rules to limit the risk of cold cracking 127 Preheating temperatures129 Protections of welds against wear 130 Welding thin plates132 Heterogeneous welds

134 Machining 134 Drilling136 Milling138 Counterboring140 Tapping

142 Forming142 Bending145 Rolling147 Hot T° Bending & rolling

110 ↙ AbrAmAx mu AbrAmAx mu ↘ 111

Concept & Features

— AbrAmAx mu is an abrasion resistant steel grade obtained by the thermo mechanical rolling process or normalisation after rolling depending on thickness. It is the only abrasion resistant grade for which mechanical properties are guaranteed. Nevertheless this grade cannot be used as a grade subdued to lifting construction rule and standard.

main characteristics

Chemical analysis (indicative value %)

remin. (mPa) r

m min. (mPa) E min. (%) KCVL -20 °C KCVL -40 °C

650 920 12 15 10

Available plate sizes:

→ Width: 1 000 - 3 000 mm ;

→ Length: until 6 000 mm ;

→ Thickness range: 3 - 60 mm.

Mechanical propertiesGuaranteed values (as supplied) data given per quality certificate

C Cr mn Si S P mo

< 0.20 < 1.30 < 1.50 < 0.90 0.010 - 0.020 < 0.015 < 0.20

— Hardness: 270 - 350 HB (indicative value measured on th. 15 mm: 330 HB)

Behavior at temperature

— AbrAmAx mu chemical composition (especially Cr & Mo) combined with thermo-mechanical rolling or normalisation offers this grade an interesting resistance against the softening effect at T° < 450 °C, when the classical water quench steel grades are limited at < 250 °C.


Thermal cutting— AbrAmAx mu can be cut with all classical thermal processes: oxy-gas, plasma & laser. Technical working conditions are close to usual condition used for low carbon & low alloyed steel. Plasma & laser cutting process are preferred because of their ability to profile with dimensional accuracy and limited H.A.Z..

— High mechanical properties of AbrAmAx mu do not allow shearing or punching operations with ease.

Oxy-gasFuel Gas

— All usual gas types are suitable: Acetylene, Propane, Natural gas, Tetrene, etc…

→ Acetylene gives a stronger warm up power which allows increased cutting speed and reduction of oxygen consumption.

→ Tetrene limits adherence of oxide on the cut edges.

Temperature required to avoid any cracks th ≤ 60 mm Thickness ≤ 60 mm

> 10 °C Without preheating

< 10 °C Preheating 150 °C

— The nozzle diameter choice related to outflow & pressure is done according to the technical table provide by cutting machine supplier for low carbon & alloyed steel.

— In case of chamfering operation of thick thickness (wear edges for example) th. to consider is the section to cut and not the nominal th. of plate.

— In case of cutting job th > 25 mm, it is imperative not only to adjust cutting parameters (reduce significantly cutting speed), but also to proceed to a pre-heating, measured in between 160 / 180 °C. Piece and drop off must be covered, up to complete cooling down, in order to limit cracks risk due to oxygas.

— Even for th < 25 mm considering ambient T° of workshop, it could be necessary to warm up plate with torch or warm up the design on cutting bed without oxygen, before to proceed to final cutting operation.

Plate th.

Section th.

Supplemental advice

— Reduce the cutting speed in angular curve & rounded corner especially for thick thickness.

— For cutting of complex shapes, profile inner holes, cut internal holes first and after cut the external edges of the piece. Such a sequence results in reduced distortion of the piece and limits the risk of cracking in case of straightening.

1

2

4

3

— For cutting complex design, speed must be reduced when cutting direction changes, this increase correlatively contact time with flame and then increases the depth of H.A.Z..


Cold cutting process

Shearing & punching

— Shearing of AbrAmAx mu is possible for plate thickness up to 10 mm max.

— If we consider the following restriction and adaptation needed, the advantage of this operation is reduced due to the reduction of workshop output.

— The high mechanical properties of this steel grade necessitate the use of high quality shear blades. (Example: 56 NiCrMoV 7, WN°: 1.2714, hardness 52 - 54 HRC)Blades should be properly sharpened and fixed in blade-holders.

Adjustment

— Cutting angle between the fixed lower blade and the mobile higher blade will have to lie between 3° and 5°

— Blade clearance:Plate thickness:3 - 6 mm: x = 0.06 th7 - 12 mm: x = 0.08 th

Punching

— Unitary Punching of hole on AbrAmAx mu plate is possible for thickness up to about 10 mm max. Series punching on a CNC machine is not conceivable.

Specific recommendations

— Use punches as short as possible. The tool punch and die bolster have to be from tool steel offering the best compromise between wear resistance and toughness.

— The distance between holes shall not be smaller than the side or diameter of the holes Perforation diameter (or their side) shall not be less than 1.5 times the plate thickness.

Plasma

— Plasma cutting process is more advantageous than oxygen cutting considering the following points.

→ For plate thickness < 30 mm, cutting time is halved compared with oxy-gas ;

→ Post deformation is reduced ;

→ For thin plates, there is an absence of slag sticking to cut edges

→ Smaller H.A.Z., enabling arc welding to be carried out directly on the edges after simple edge brush cleaning.

Laser

— This solution is particularly adapted for plate cutting plate.





→ Direct welding without edge dressing ;

→ Lower heating zones in the case of cutting of small pieces.

— Operational capacities of current machines allow plates up to 20 mm to be cut. However, it is interesting to notice that cut edge aspect (stria & delay waves) limit this efficiency below < 15 mm.

x


Water jet cutting

— This cold cutting process is ideal to produce small pieces from plates.

— No microstructure change will occur in the thickness or on the edge of the piece.

— Hardness and consequently wear resistance will remain completely homogeneous throughout the whole piece.


Welding— Welding of AbrAmAx mu requires the respect of certain precautions inherent to the basic rules of welding basic (EN 1011-1).

— Cold cracking is the main risk during welding of this type of material. It can occur immediately and up to 72 hours after the end of welding. It may occur by the interaction of three metallurgical parameters:


→ Creation of residual stresses of welding, related on the shrinking of steel during the solidification of the molten metal and also due to the differences in thermal expansions ;


— The whole of the recommendations of this guide make it possible to act on these three parameters, for all welding conditions, processes and operational parameters, to make reliable the operations of welding.

Preliminary recommendations for welding→ Plate temperature

> 10 °C.

→ Avoid condensation.


→ Weld on dry plate.

→ Moisture is a possible source for hydrogen introduction.

→ Protect plate against negative action of wind and rain.

→ Do not vibrate the plate (graving) during an operation of welding.


→ Grind to white all surfaces in contact with weld metal.

→ Remove any residual oxides, slag, impurity possible source of H

2 and inclusions.

→ Clean up welding areas. Remove grease, slag, dust…


→ Ask & control H2 level in each

weld product.

→ Whatever the weld consumable max: 5 ml / 100 g.

→ Reduction of welding stress

→ Minimum gap between plates in position: 2 mm.

→ Minimum length of tack welding: 30 mm.

→ Always grind and clean any weld defect (settle risk of crack propagation)

→ At each extremity of tack welding turn back to eliminate any weld pit and crater (significant criteria to star bead crack)

2 mm maxi

30 mm mini

Stick electrode (SmAW) mAG flux cored wire (FCAW) mAG plain wire (GmAW) Submerged arc (SAW) Flux cored without Gas (Inner shield)

Carrying out Easy

Strongly advise against the use of this

process for AbrAmAx mu welding

Process Manuel Manual (possibly automatic) Manual (possibly automatic) Automatic

Welding environment Any type Any type Better in workshop Better in workshop

Position Multi-positions Multi-positions 3G and 2G → Skilled welder 1G (Flat) (eventually 2G)

Deposit rate, Carrying out speed Low Medium Medium High

H2 introduction High → Imperative stove drying Low Very low → Safer process Very high

→ Imperative flux stove drying

Special recommendations Repairs and small assemblies All assemblies medium thickness → Any types of assembly

→ Big combined thicknesses

→ High stressed structure

→ Big assemblies

→ Very long welds

→ Ideal for high thicknesses

Selection of welding process

— Classical welding processes can be used for AbrAmAx mu. The choice depends on manufacturing parameters. It is also necessary to take account of the risks induced by each technique.


The three types of applicable welding consumables— According to the type of welding structure, thickness and environment conditions, there are several metallurgical solutions for the welding of AbrAmAx mu.

use of low alloyed C / mn metal

mechanical properties Ys ~ 460 MPa / UTS ~ 550 MPa

Choice criteria → When high mechanical properties of welds is not requested

→ When welds are not much exposed to wear

→ When one wishes is to limit preheating temperatures

Advantages → Decrease welding stresses and cold cracking risk

→ Make easier manufacture

use of high alloyed C / mn metal

mechanical properties YS ~ 690 MPa / UTS ~ 800 MPa

Choice criteria → When weld shall be submitted to high tensile strength

ex: high loads, fatigue cycles.

→ When welds are exposed to wear

Disadvantages → Increased cold cracking sensitivity due to increased welding stresses

→ More severe welding conditions (ex: Preheating)

use of stainless welding product, austenitic or austeno-ferritic type

mechanical properties YS ~ 460 MPa

UTS ~ 600 MPa

→ High toughness

Equivalent to those of low alloyed C.Mn

Choice criteria → In case of massive welds and therefore highly stressed structures

→ For high combined thicknesses

→ Difficult welding environments (on site welding)

→ High wear resistance (work hardening)

Advantages → No preheating required

→ Less severe welding conditions

Disadvantages → Expensive welding products

Welding consumable selectionLow alloyed C/mn welding rods Example of usable products


Stick electrodes

(SmAW)

EN 499

E42 4B x 2H5

A5-1

E7016 or E7018

BTW, ESAB, SAF,

OERLIKON, LINCOLN

FOX EV50,

OK 48-04 / 0K 48-00

TENACITO 38R,

SAFER NF58,

SAFDRY NF58,

CORNAC 49C,

EMB Sahara.

mAG Flux cored

wire (FCAW)

EN 758

T42 3B x H5

A5-20

ER 71 T5

ESAB, LINCOLN

OERLIKON, SAF

BTW

OK 15.00, MC 710

H, FLUXOFIL 31,

SAFDUAL 31,

UNION B055Kb.

mAG Plain wire

(GmAW)

EN 440

G423 x G x Si

A5-18

ER 70 S4

or ER 70 S6

BTW, ESAB,

LINCOLN,

OERLIKON, SAF

EMK7-SG2-H,

OK 12-51, LNM 27,

CARBOFIL 1, NIC 70-S

Submerged arc

(SAW)

Wire: S 1

Flux: SA AB H5

A5-17

Wire: EM12K

Flux: F6.A4.EL12

or F7.A4.EM.12

ESAB, SAF,

LINCOLN

Wire: OK

Autrod12-10, AS26,

AS35,

Lincoldweld 860 / 882.

Flux: OK Flux 10-71,

AS72, L-61, L-60


High alloyed C / mn – high yield strength metal Example of usable products

Euronorm AWS Fournisseur Nom de marque

Stick electrodes

(SmAW)

EN 759

E69 B H5

A5-5

E 9 018 to E12 018

BTW, ESAB,

OERLIKON, SAF,

LINCOLN

SH N 12 K100,

OK 75.75, SAFDRY 80,

TENCACITO 80,

CORNAC 85 EMB

Sahara

mAG Flux cored wire

(FCAW)

A5-29

E 90 T5 to E110 T5

ESAB, SA,

OERLIKON.

OK 15.27, P2 6148,

SAFDUAL 270,

FLUXOFIL 42.

mAG Plain wire

(GmAW)

EN 12354 G (69-89) A5-28

ER 90 S6 to ER 110 S6

BTW, SAF UNION X90,

NIC 85 / 88

Submerged arc

(SAW)

Wire: S 3

Flux: SA FB H5

A5-23

F10 to 12

A8-EC-F5

ESAB, BTW,

OERLIKON

Wire: Fluxocolor 42,

Union Ni Mo Cr,

OK Autrod 13-43.

Flux: Fluxocolor 42,

Union Ni Mo Cr,

OK Autrod 13-43.

Stainless welding rods, 307 type Example of usable products

Euronorm AWS Fournisseur Nom de marque

Stick electrodes

(SmAW)

EN 1600

E 18 8 Mn B 12

A5-4 E308 Mo BTW, ESAB,

METROD, LINCOLN

OK 67.45,

Thermanit XW,

Armet-1,

Metmax 370R,

Jungo 307

mAG Flux cored wire

(FCAW)

EN 12072

G 188 Mn

A5-9

ER 307 Si

BTW, SANDVIK,

METROD, LINCOLN

Thermanit X,

RIMA 308 Mn,

LNM 307,

18,8 Mn

Note: For the processes requiring the use of gas (FCAW, GMAW), the choice of gas will be done in agreement with the wire supplier.

Basic rules to limit the risk of cold cracking

— The cold cracking sensitivity during welding is led by following parameters:




— There are means of action to limit the risk of cracking:


Influential factors → Combined thicknesses

→ Mechanical properties

of welding products

→ Combined thicknesses

→ Heat input

→ Process

→ Welding product

Action means → Preheating

→ Control of

welding sequences

→ Choice of

welding product

→ Preheating

→ Postheating

→ Preparation of

welding area

→ Postheating

→ Control of

welding product

←H2→

Risk of cracking

↑H.A.Z.↑

← Stress Stress →


Combined thickness

— Its influence on the weldability of the welded structure is very important as it will fix the stress level as well as the heat flow speed through the H.A.Z.. However, this is only an estimative approach and some structures should be overestimated.

Some examples of combined thickness calculation:

Heat input — This parameter represents the quantity of heat introduced during welding. Heat input is connected to intensity (I), voltage (U) and welding speed (v). It can be calculated with following formula:

Es(Kj / cm) =





Thermal cycle

Sketch of typical thermal cycle:

60 x U x l

1 000v (cm / min)

Number of passes

Temperature

Maximum interpass T°

Postheating T°

Preheating T°

Room T°

Phase 1: PreheatingPhase 2: Postheating

Welding Phase 2Phase 1

e2

th1 th2

th1

th2

th1

th2

th1

th2

th1

th2

th1

th2

Cth.. = th1 + th2

Cth. = th1 + th2

Cth. = th1 + th2






th1

th2

i

th3

th2

th1


Phase 1: Preheating

— It varies with:

→ heat input ;





Never post-heat a weld, which has not been pre-heated.

Welding sequences

— The mode of filling of chamfers and the order of the achievements of the welds in an assembly have a direct effect on creation of residual stresses and thus on cracking.

— A plate which will not be able to deform during welding inevitably will induce strong residual stresses in the area of welded joints (ex: high thicknesses, excessive dimensions and fastening).

— It is thus recommended as well as possible to let degrees of freedom to the assemblies. It is not recommended to perform stress relieving at high temperatures under risk of losing the abrasive properties of the AbrAmAx mu.

— Cases of cross weld:

1

2

— Case of repair in the middle of plate:

2

1

3

4

R = 250 mm

Preheating temperatures

Case of low alloyed C & mn welding products


Combined thickness (mm)

30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Semi-automatic

under gas

15

30

manual welding

Stick electrode

10

20

Automatic

submerged arc

20

30





Case of high alloyed C & mn welding products

— Due to the fact of richer chemistry and high mechanical properties:

→ The level of stresses is higher ;

→ The cracking sensitivity of the weld metal is higher.

Consequently, an adapted pre/postheating table shall be applied.


Combined thickness (mm)20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Semi-automatic

under gas

15

30

manual welding

Stick electrode

10

20

Automatic

submerged arc

20

30





Case of stainless welding products, 307 types

— This method is an efficient solution in case of massive structure with strong fastening and for difficult welding environments (on field welding, low temperatures, humidity…)

→ Apply preliminary recommendations ;

→ Preheating is not required.

Special applications: Protection of welds against wear

use of very hard welding products for covering passes

Stick electrode mAG-plain wire mAG – Flux cored

OErLIKON CITODur 400 b CArbOFIL A500 FLuxOFIL 54

SAF SAFEr 345b NIC535 SAFDuAL 53

LINCOLN KD62

bTW THYSSEN 350 rOSA uNION A350 IG

FOxDur 350 IG

uNION bO350

Operating conditions

— Those materials may crack during welding as they are much sensitive, this effect is well known. Supplier recommendations should by strictly applied.

A very simple solution consists in orientating weld position in order to avoid direct contact of weld metal with abrasive.


recommended welding sequences:

Stud welding— It is recommended to use studs in mild steels S235 (A350 LF1 grade).

Precautions

— In order to guarantee good quality of welds, it is necessary:

→ To grind and to center punch the position where the stud must be welded ;


→ To check for the good selection of welding parameters by carrying out five preliminary flash welds followed by a pull-off test according to NFA 89020-2 specification (+ XPA 89022, performance classes) ;

→ To check periodically for current operational parameter during manufacturing.

Welding thin plates

— As well as for thick plates, special attention shall be paid for face preparation (scale grinding…)

— In case of structures completely made of thin plates, it is advised to control heat input (< 1,3 kJ / mm). Too voluminous Welding beads have a tendency, to increase stresses due to shrinkage, or to create a H.A.Z. throughout the whole plate thickness.

— Welding sequences shall be carefully selected to ensure a privileged direction for shrinkage. Welding passes shall be done in order to limit deformations and welding stresses.

— Welding product shall have preferably moderate mechanical properties and GMAW process shall be preferably used (GS2 wire).

— During manufacture of pre-assemblies, added pieces should be preferably welded before final welding.

Wrong welding sequences:

31 2

5

4

6

5 6

1

34

2


Heteregeneous welds

Case of welding with a steel lower alloyed than AbrAmAx mu

— Welding conditions of AbrAmAx mu shall be applied.

— The choice of welding product is function of expected wear resistance. If wear resistance is not a major concern, one must select a welding product with mechanical properties close to those of the lowest alloyed steel.

— Examples:AbrAmAx mu + S355 → Welding product low alloyed C / Mn AbrAmAx mu + S690 → Welding product C / Mn 690 MPa type

Nb: Use of stainless welding product, austenitic or austeno-ferritic, remains possible and do not change above conditions.

Case of welding with an over alloyed steel

— Welding parameters must be those of the more sensitive steel.

— Welding regulations remain identical but the choice referential becomes the over alloyed grade. Combined thickness calculation, welding sequences, preheating, etc…

— The choice of a welding product is still depending on service conditions but it is always recommended to use a low alloyed welding product when possible.

— Examples:AbrAmAx mu + AbrAmAx mu → Low alloyed C / Mn welding productAbrAmAx mu + 25CrMo4 → Welding product 25CrMo4 type or low alloyed C / Mn

Nb: Welding with stainless steel is also possible; some preheating precaution should be taken if the steel grade is a highly alloyed.

— A typical example which illustrates is that of bucket teeth adaptor welding or a bucket attack blade welding.

— These pieces are generally casted in grade 35CrMo4 or other very quenching steels. Welding conditions are thus more penalizing than those of AbrAmAx mu.

— In this case, a maximum dilution of the molten metal is advised to avoid any crack. That means: a low welding speed, a low amperage.

— Welding product may be E7018 / ER 70 type Or E11018 / ER110 type.

Welding of tooth adaptor sequence advice

— Preheating has to be made according to high alloyed steel characteristics. To limit these stresses, the following range is proposed:

1 or 2 beads

Caution

Stop the beads before chamfer area in order to avoid overload of stress in H.A.Z..

Complete filling with balanced procedure

1 or 2 beads

1 23 4


machining— Main machining operations commonly performed on wear resistant plate are:

→ Drilling ;

→ Milling, namely execution of countersunk holes for screw heat seats ;

→ Tapping.

Thanks to its microstructure design and better homogeneity of hardness in its cross-section, AbrAmAx mu is readily machine-workable and provides effective saving of machining time and reduces the frequency of tool re-sharpening, compared to ordinary 400 HB steels.

Drilling— To be performed using radial type machine tools in good condition, with automatic advance and sufficient power. Machined parts should be rigidly secured to the working table.

— Pieces shall be securely fastened on the body (column) of the machine to avoid any vibration.

Tool geometry

— Classical twist drill with preferably with long helical (small helical angle) H class H according to DIN 1836.

— Short fluted portion (called short type)

— Tip angle 120° / 130°, normal grinding with taper lead angle or cross grinding.

— Tip angle 120° / 130° ; normal grinding with taper lead angle.

Quality of tool

— High-speed steel of current use, HSS, are perfectly suitable.

Example

AFNOr DIN EN.ISO AISI

AR.2.9.1.8 S.2.9.1.8

Werkstoff 1.3247

HS 2.9.1.8 AISI M42

Example of trademarks: Guhring, Vadium Tools, Cleveland…


Quality Ø (mm) Cutting speed

(m / min)

rotation speed

(rev / min)

Feed (mm / rev)

HSSCO

AR.2.9.1.8

(M42)

5 15 - 20 950 - 1 250 0.07

10 13 - 17 415 - 540 0.09

15 12 - 15 255 - 320 0.10

20 11 - 14 175 - 220 0.12

25 9 - 12 115 - 150 0.15

30 8 - 10 85 - 105 0.20

— Based on this table, most closely corresponding rotation speed and feed per revolution should be chosen, in absence of machine tool regulation parameters.

Lubrification

— Lubrication shall be done with 10 % diluted soluble oil. Abundant flow (around 1 l / min flow rate) under low pressure is necessary.

Soluble oil ISO class: L-MAD 6743/7.


Milling— To be performed using powerful machine tools, in good condition, with machined parts securely clamped.

General remark

— It is recommended to removal by preliminary grinding the top of surface hardened part of angle to a depth corresponding to pass depth, before surfacing or grooving the parts produced by oxygen cutting, to avoid premature wear of milling cutters.

Tool geometry

— Tools have to have classic geometry of milling cutter, with sufficient number or teeth.

Quality of the tools


→ Simple machining operations like surfacing or roughing for example, can be performed with tools made of over-carburized high speed cobalt steel (HSSCO).

Examples:

AFNOr standard DIN EN.ISO AISI

AR.6.5.2.5 S.6.5.2.5 Werkstoff 1.3243 HS 6.5.2.5 M35

AR.12.1.5.5 S.12.1.5.5 Werkstoff 1.3202 HS 12.1.5.5 T15

Examples of trademarks: Coba, Fraisa…

→ Tools equipped with inserted or removable carbide tips are particularly suitable for the milling of AbrAmAx mu for large series these tools widely supplant the HHSCO tools for grooving and finishing operations.

Hardened H.A.Z.

FeedGrinded part

Selection of carbide tip quality according to the type of operation (indicative)

→ Removing, roughing, Carbide P10 or P20 according ISO ;

→ Finishing, Carbide K10 or K20 ;

→ Grooving (roughing and finishing), carbide P25.

Example of trademarks: Safety, Sandvik, Seco…


HSSCO milling cutters surfacing

Tool Depth P (mm) Cutting speed (m / mn) Feed (mm / tooth)

Steel HSSCO

Quality AR.12.1.5.5

(T15)

1 12 - 15 0.08

4 10 - 12 0.10

8 7 - 9 0.15

— In slab milling, feed per tooth will be smaller, however, it will not result in oversized chips provoking refusal of cutting.


Cutting parameters in surfacing Cutting parameters in grooving

Roughing (depth: 2 mm):

Carbide tips: P10 or P20



Roughing





Carbide tips: K10 or K20







Lubrification

— Soluble oil 10 %, abundant flow.


Counterboring and countersinking— Counterboring of screw head seat.

Counterboring

Ø counterboring

Ø

— There are different possibilities for counterboring; hereafter we mention two processes especially suitable for AbrAmAx mu:

→ Drill hole for bolt using a drill, then use a milling tool with 3 or 4 teeth equipped with inserted carbide tips (P25 quality according to ISO) fitted with axial pilot equivalent to diameter of hole previously drilled.

→ machining with a surfacing milling cutter, which is equipped with carbide tips and a tool diameter smaller than this of the countersink. Machining is performed:

→ By circular interpolation (the bolt hole is previously drilled) ;

→ By helical interpolation, (the bolt hole can be drilled later).

Example of trademarks: Gürhing, Tivoly, Toshiba, Rito…

Lubrification

— Soluble oil 10 %.

Countersinking

Ø countersinking

Ø

— Machining in two stages:

→ Drilling of the screw bolt with a HSSCO type drill (M42 for example) ;

→ Machining of the countersink:

→ With a conical milling cutter with 3 or 4 teeth in HSSCO type steel (T15 for example) ;

→ With a HSSCO type drill of required diameter with modified tip angle, 90° for example.

Drilling operation with multiple-step twist drill:

— This solution is especially interesting:Countersunk is performed in one operation. Drill in HSSCO type steelExample AR.6.5.2.5 (M35) or AR.2.9.1.8. (M42)

Nb: To optimize tool life time, it is recommended to reduce rotation speed as soon as countersunk drilling starts.


Tapping— Tapping of AbrAmAx mu plates shall be only performed by machine tapping with controlled “couple” and using adapted tools.

Case of tapped holes of small or medium diameters. ~ maximum m30

Screw tap geometry

→ Reinforced tool (thick set) ;

→ Flutes for opened holes Helical at 25° for blind holes (3 flutes up to M12, 4 flutes above) ;

→ Thread grinding to approach angle, ca.9° ;

→ Recessed threads.

Tool quality

— Cobalt over carburized high speed steel of HSSCO type or HSS.2E type.

Example of trademarks: Courcelle-Gavelle, Outillage Vadium, Prototyp…

Cutting speed

— 3 to 4 m / min.

Lubrification

— It must be managed with extreme pressure oil, continuously spraying. (class. ISO-L-MHF grade VG-15).

Special recommendations

→ Tapping drill holes should be drilled in diameter within upper limits of tolerance with allowance 0.1 to 0.2 mm depending on thread pitch ;

→ Execute small countersinking of predrilled holes.

Case of large tapped holes above m30

— If such tapping has to be carried out, it is recommended, if possible, to use threading countersink (example: Dixi cutters). Use of a CNC machine is required.

Tool quality:

— Solid micro-granular carbides.

— Example of tool:

Example of trademarks: Outillage Vadium, Sandvik, Prototyp…


Cutting speed: 200 m / mnFeed per tooth: can be quite correctly assessed by following this formula: fz = 0.01 x D (D is the diameter in mm of the tool)

Lubrification

— Soluble oil 10 %.


Forming— AbrAmAx mu plates can be bent or rolled.

— As well as for other wear resistant materials with high mechanical properties, bending and rolling of AbrAmAx mu plates require certain operating precautions.

— AbrAmAx mu can be hot formed without any significant reduction of its wear resistance properties: an extra advantageous property in special processing conditions (limited power of bending press machine, bending job at low radius).

BendingInternal radius ri for bending job (angle 90°)

bent parallel to rolling direction bent Perpendicular

to rolling direction

Internal radius (ri) r

i ≥ 4th r

i ≥ 3th

Die opening(lv) lv ≥ 12th lv ≥ 12th

Type of press

— The classical hydraulic bending press fits perfectly for bending AbrAmAx mu.

— The use of a press with a manufactured bending beam is not recommended. This type of bending press obstructs the plate sliding possibilities during the forming process.

th = plate thickness

bending force


— Rotating round rods on the die are recommended to decrease bending force necessary, and reduce the risk of cracking.


Indicative values, for a 90° bent, and for a die opening lv = 12t

Nb: Lubrication (grease, graphite) of rounded edges of the die ensures better sliding of the 2 sides of the bent. Consequently required bent load is reduced, it can be reduced by 20 %.

Thickness (mm) bending load for L = 1 m (ton / m)

5 60

10 120

20 240

30 320

Spring back

— During the bending process the plate is bent to a given angle. When the punch is withdrawn from the plate, the bent angle will open slightly due to the elastic stresses released (see sketch below).

α0

r 0

αi

r i

lv

th

r i


— This phenomenon is especially important for high yield strength steel like AbrAmAx mu.

— To get an accurate angle, it is necessary to take this spring back effect into account. For given steel, higher is r

i / th ratio, higher the spring back effect will be.

Example, for AbrAmAx mu steel and for ri / th = 5 anticipate a bending angle in

the tool about 10° smaller.

recommendations for bending operations

→ Plate bending temperature ≥ 10 °C (≥ 50 °F) ;

→ Absence of any scratch in deformation zone, in particular on extrados plate’s skin submitted to deformation. ;

→ Rounding of top & bottom edges, submitted to tensile stress by grinding. The size of the chamfer shall be proportional to the thickness of the plate. After oxy gas cutting any defect of cut must be removed in order to avoid any crack initiation. In the case of plates thicker than 20 mm, it is recommended to grind the entire flame cut edges ;

→ If possible, bending should be carried out across the plate rolling direction ;

→ When the pieces to be bent have been sheared (thin plates), put the bur inside the fold or grind it ;


→ If necessary, lubricate the mandrel and radii of support edges with graphite ; this will make the surface metal flow more easily ;


→ Staff safety: as the elastic energy accumulated in the plate is high, one should consider the possibility of sudden break or skidding. Therefore, the operator must stand up at the side of machine, not in front of it.

RollingInternal rolling diameter

Type of rolling press

— Rolling press, pyramid type, with 3 rolls (sketch above) preliminary bending of extremities of the plate is necessary before rolling ; it can be performed on a bending press or on an open-front forging press.

th

Øi— Internal diameter: Øi ≥ 25th

— th = plate thickness

— Rolling press with 3 rolls with horizontal displacement of lower rolls (above example) or vertical displacement.

— Rolling press with 4 rolls.Main advantages: preliminary bending of both extremities without turnover of the plate, calibration after longitudinal welding.


rolling load

— The force required for rolling is depending upon the steel tensile properties (UTS), width and thickness of plate to be rolled, rolling diameter and distance between contact lines on lowers rolls during rolling.

— Rolling press manufacturers indicates rolling capabilities of their machines based on reference steel (generally S235, S355…)

For rolling of AbrAmAx mu plate, one should remember that the limiting thickness of cold rolling is about half that which is admissible for ordinary grade plate, S355 type.

— Increase of the number of rolling sequences is recommended.

Spring-back

— As in the case of bending, a relatively high elastic limit results in a high spring-back value. In rolling, this phenomenon becomes essential, namely, if thin or medium-thickness sheets have to be formed around a large diameter, if Ø / th ratio is high, approximately when Øi /th > 150.

— In industrial practice, adjustments are done progressively until requested curved diameter is reached, controlled with a template. Here, the skills of the operator are decisive.

recommendations for rolling

— Even if plate rolling requires smaller deformation capabilities than bending, precautions listed for bending remains the same and relevant for rolling:

→ Plate temperature ≥ 10 °C, chamfering of edges, grinding away any defect link to oxygen cuttings are required.

→ Rolling should be carried out in a sufficient number or forward and reverse passes with progressive force, at a properly chosen rolling speed.

Hot bending & rolling— Hot bending can be carried out on a whole piece, if sufficiently large furnace is available for heat treatment or, locally, we can proceed with proper heating using a gas burner.

— For hot rolling operations, it is necessary that whole plates are heated in heat treatment furnaces.

Hot forming of AbrAmAx mu – application case — Hot processing can be considered, in order to obtain:

→ Small bending radius ri < 5th ;

→ Small rolling diameters - Øi < 25th.

— Also, it can be used, if the capacity of the press or roll press is beyond the capacity range required for the execution of the operation.

Temperature range to be observed — In order to avoid any decrease in abrasion resistance of the formed pieces, it is necessary to observe certain hot transformation temperature ranges, see table below:

Temperature (°C)

1 000← Hot bending very easy

All Thicknesses.

← Cold bending area.

← Bending all thicknesses.

800

600

500450400

200

10

148 ↙ AbrAmAx mu

remarks relative to hot rolling

— The contact of plate with rolls induces a thermal loss by conductivity.Rolling operation shall be performed quite rapidly:



AbrAmAx mu hot forming

— Hot rolling is readily performed at a temperature from 850 to 900 °C (1 598 to 1 832 °F) whatever the thickness following by a simple room T° cooling down, without significant alteration of properties.

recommendation for hot bending and rolling

— Prior to starting this type of process, it is useful to verify that preset temperature is reached evenly in the deformation zone. A simple, but precise enough control can be made using:



→ Measurement with Infrared laser gun ;

→ Or better, with a thermocouple thermometer equipped with a contact probe (Testo type).

recommendation for hot bending and rolling

— The contact of plate with rolls induces a thermal loss by conductivity.Rolling operation shall be performed quite rapidly:



— This procedure is until easy in the bracket of T° 850 °C up to 950 °C.

Documents

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