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8/20/2019 816_Đilas, Milovan, The New Class - An Analysis of the Communist System, Thames and Hudson, 1957
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Т Н Е NEW CL SS
у
Milovan Djilas
n
nalysis of the
o ш ш u n i s t
System
n tlantic Press book u Ь i s l z e d
TH MES ND HUDSON
ondon
8/20/2019 816_Đilas, Milovan, The New Class - An Analysis of the Communist System, Thames and Hudson, 1957
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The
P u Ь l i s h e т s wish to e x p т e s s their
gratitude f о т editorial assistance to
Mr M o т t o n uner and Mr Konrad Kellen
First
p u Ь l i s h e d
in Great Britain,
1957
All rights reserved _,
Printed in tlle United States of America
reface
All
this could
told
in different way: as
the
history of
contemporary revoluti on, as the expr·ession of
set.
of opinions,
or
finally,
as
the confession of revolutionary. little of each
of these may
found
in
this document.
В н t ,
even
i
this is
an
inadequate
s y n t ћ e s i s of
history, o p i п i o n s and memoirs,
it
re-
flects
my
effort to give
as
complete а п d
as brief picture
as
p o s s i Ь l e of
c o п t e m p o r a т y
C o m m u п i s m Some special or tech-
п i c a l aspects may lost, but.
the l a т g e r
picture, I trust,
will
that much simpler а п d more complete.
I have tried to detach myself f г o m
my
p e r s o п a l
p r o Ь l e m s
not s u b m i t t i п g to t ћ e m М у c i r c u m s t a п c e s are,
at.
best, un-
c e r · t a i п а п d I am tl1erefore compelled to express my p e т s o n a l
o b s e т v a t i o п s а п d
e x p e 1 · i e п c e s
ћ a s t i l y ;
more detailed examina-
t i o п
of
my
p e r s o п a l
s i t u a t i o п
m i g ћ t
some day
s u p p l e m e п t
а п d
p e т h a p s even
c h a п g e
some of my
c o п c l u s i o п s .
I c a n п o t d e s c r i Ь e all
the d i m e п s i o n s
of the c o п f l i c t in
the
p a i п f u l с о u п е of
our
c o п t e m p o r a r y world.
or do
I p r e t e п d
to k п o \ v
any world
outside. the C o m m u п i s t \Vorld, in \Vhich I
had either
the
f o r t u п e or ш i s f o r t u п e to live. When I speak of
world out side my o \vn, I do so orlly to put my О \ V П world
in
perspective, to make its reality clearer.
8/20/2019 816_Đilas, Milovan, The New Class - An Analysis of the Communist System, Thames and Hudson, 1957
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vi
PREF CE
A l т o s t everytblng
in
this book has been expressed s o т e
vvhere else, and in different way. Perhaps
new
fiavor, color,
and n ю o d , and s о т е п е \ v t h o u g ћ t s т а у found here. That
is
s o т e t h i n g - - i п fact,
quite
enough. Each
т а п s
experiences
are unique 1vorthy of c o т т u п i c a t i o n to bls fello1v т е n .
The
reader
s l ю u l d not
seek
in
this book some
kind
of social
or other
pbllosophy,
not
even 1vhere I make generalized state
т e n t s . М у а i т has been to present p i c t u т e of the C o т т u n i s t
1vorld
but not
to philosophize
about it.
means of generaliza
tions-even though I ћ а v е sometimes found g e п e r a l i z a t i o n
н п a v o i d a Ь l e .
Т ћ е m e t ћ o d of d e t a c ћ e d o b s e r v a t i o п s e e т e d to т е t ћ е most
s u i t a Ь l e о п е for p т e s e n t i n g
т у
т a t e т i a l . М у
p r e т i s e s
could
ћ а v е been s t r e п g t h e n e d and т у c o n c l u s i o п s could ћ а v е Ь е е п
proved
q u o t a t i o п s
statistics,
and т e c i t a l s
of
e v e п t s .
order
to
as
simple
and
concise
as
p o s s i Ь l e I
ћ а v е
i п s t e a d expressed
o b s e r v a t i o п s
thr·ougl1
r e a s o п i п g
and
logical
deduction
keep
i п g q u o t a t i o п s and
statistics to
ш i n i т u т .
I t l п k ш у
ш e t h o d is
a p p т o p r i a t e for personal story а п d
for method of NOrking а п d thinking.
D ш i n g т у adult life I
ћ а v е
t т a v e l e d the entire road о р е п to
C o ш ш u n i s t :
ћ о ш
the
Iovvest
to the b l g ћ e s t
rung
of the bler
ю · c ћ i c a l l a d d e т f г о ш local а п d
national
to i n t e ш a t i o n a l forums,
а п d
ћ о ш the
f o r щ a t i o п
of t ћ е t т u e C o т т u n i s t Party
and
o r g a n i z a t i o п of the
revolution
to the e s t a Ь l i s h т e n t of the so
called socialist society. No one c o т p e l l e d to е т Ь r а с е or to
т е ј е с t
C o т ш u n i s ш .
I
т а d е
ш у
o1vn
d e c i s i o п
according to
т у
convictions, ћ е е l у in so
far·
as т а n can
ћ е е .
Even t ћ o u g ћ
I 1vas disillusioned, I do not belong to t ћ o s e whose disillusion
r п e n t
1vas
s ћ a r p and е х t г е т е .
I
cut т y s e l f
off gradually
and
c o п s c i o u s l y building up the
picture
and c o n c l н s i o n s I present
in this book.
As
I became i п c г e a s i п g l y estr·anged f r o т the re
ality of c o п t e т p o r - a r · y C o т r п н n i s m , I came closer to the idea
of
e r п o c г a t i c
s o c i a l i s т .
This
personal evolut ion is also refiected
PREF CE
vii
n this book,
although
the book s
primary
purpose is not to
trace this evolution.
I consider
it
superfluous to criticize
o m m u п i s m as an
idea.
The
ideas of equality and b r o t h e r ћ o o d among men,
w h i c ћ
ћ а v е exjsred
in
varying f o r т s s i п c e ћ н m а n society began-and
>vhich contemporary o т m н n i s m accepts in w o г d - a r e
p г i n
ciples
to
-vvhich
fighters for progress
and
ћ e e d o m
1vill
al1vays
aspire. It 1 v o н l d 1vrong
t.o
criticize t ћ e s e basic ideas, as \\rell
as v a i н and f o o l i s ћ . The struggle to achieve t ћ е т is part of
ћ н m а n society.
Nor
ћ а v е
I e н g a g e d
detailed
criticism of C o ш m н n i s t
theory,
although
such criticism is
needed
а п d useful. I have
c o n c e п t r a t e d d e s c r i p t i o п of c o п t e m p o r a r y C o m m н н i s m ,
touching
upon theor-y о н l у 1vhere n e c e s s a г y .
It
is
i m p o s s i Ь l e to express all my
o b s e r v a t i o п s
а п d exper
i e п c e s i н а 1vork as b г i e f
as
this о п е . I ћ а v е stated only the most
essential of
t ћ e m , u s i п g
g e n e r a l i z a t i o п s 1 v ћ е г е
t ћ е у
\Vere
un
a v o i d a Ь l e .
This
account may appear strange
t.o
t ћ o s e 1 v ћ о live in t ћ е
п o п - C o m r п u n i s t 1 v o г l d ; it. \vould п о t seem u п u s u a l to t ћ o s e
1 v ћ о
live i н t ћ е C o r п m u п i s t о п е : I claim no exclusive credit or dis
t i п c t i o n for p г e s e п t i n g t ћ е picture of tllat 1vorld, nor
f о г
t ћ е
ideas concerning it.
They
а г е simply the p i c t ш e а п d ideas of
t ћ е
\VOrld
i н \ v b l c ћ I live. I
am
p г o d u c t of
t ћ a t
1vor1d. I ћ а v е
c o n t r i Ь u t e d to it. No1v I
am
one of its cr-itics.
О п l у on
t ћ е
surface
is
tbls i n c o п s i s t e п t . I ћ а v е struggled
t ћ е
past,
and am
s t r н g g l i п g
IlO\V
for·
better
world.
Т ћ а t
s t т н g
gle may п о t produce the desired
r e s н l t s .
Nevertl1eless, t ћ е logic
of my action
is
c o n t a i п e d in t ћ е
l e н g t ћ а п d c o n t i п н i t y
of that
struggle.
8/20/2019 816_Đilas, Milovan, The New Class - An Analysis of the Communist System, Thames and Hudson, 1957
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CONTENTS
Origins
1
Character of the Revolution
5
The New Class
37
The Party State
7
Dogmatism in
the
Economy
103
Tyranny over
the
Mind
124
The Aim
and
The Means
147
The Essence
164
National Communism
173
The Present Day World
9
8/20/2019 816_Đilas, Milovan, The New Class - An Analysis of the Communist System, Thames and Hudson, 1957
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rigins
1
The roots of modern С о m п ш п i s п 1 reach back very far, al
though they >vere
dormant
before
tl1e
development of m o d e п 1
industry
. ; v e s t e r п
Europe
Communism s basic ideas
ar·e
the
Primacy of
Matter а п d t ћ е
Reality of Change, ideas borrmved
from tblnkers of t ћ е period just
befoie
the inception of Com
rnunism. As Communism endures and gains strength, these
basic ideas play less а п d less i m p o г t a п t role. This is u п d e r -
s t a n d a Ь l e
once pmvei,
C o m m u п i s m
t e п d s to Iemodel t ћ е
rest of the -.;vorld a c c o г d i n g to its o-.;vn ideas and t e п d s less and
less to change itseif.
Dialectics and m a t e r i a l i s m t ћ e c ћ a п g i n g of t ћ е -.;vorbl inde
pendently of hurnan -.;vill-formed the basis of the old, classical,
Marxist
C o m m u п i s m
Т ћ е s е
basic ideas
-.;vere
not originated
Communist theorists, s u c ћ as Marx or Engels. Т ћ е у bor
Io-.;ved
them
and
-.;vove
t ћ e m into -.;vhole
thus forming,
unintentionally, the basis for
r1e1v
conception of
t ћ е -.;vorld.
Т ћ е idea of the Prirnacy of Matter was borrmved from the
French materialists of t ћ е eighteenth century.
E ю · I i e r
t h i п k e r s
i п c l u d i n g D e п ю c r i t u s
in
а п с i е н t Greece, had expressed
it
in
differ·ent way. The
idea
of t ћ е reality of c h a н g e caused the
struggle of opposites, called Dialectics, was t a k e н over from
1
8/20/2019 816_Đilas, Milovan, The New Class - An Analysis of the Communist System, Thames and Hudson, 1957
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2
Т Н
N W CL SS
Hegel;
the
same idea had е е n expressed in different \vay
He1-aclitus
in
ancient Greece.
Without going into
t ћ е
details of t ћ е
d i f f e т e n c e s
bet.,veen
M a т x i s t ideas а н d p r e c e d i н g similar t ћ e o r i e s , it is necessary to
p o i п t
out t ћ a t Hegel, in
p т e s e п t i н g
the idea of t ћ е Reality of
С ћ а п g е , т e t a i н e d the с о н с е р t of а н u н с ћ а н g i н g supreme la\v,
or
Idea
of
t ћ е
Absolute. As
he
expressed it,
t ћ е
last
a н a l y -
sis t ћ е г е are u н с ћ а н g е а Ь l е la'\vs
\ v h i c ћ ,
i n d e p e н d e н t l y of l ш m а п
will, g o v e r п
nature
society, а н d
ћ u m а п b e i н g s .
A l t h o u g ћ
s t r e s s i п g t ћ е
idea of
t ћ е
Reality of С ћ а н g е , : М а т х ,
а н d especially Engels, stated t ћ a t t ћ е la\vs of t ћ е objective or
material world were
u н с ћ а п g е а Ь l е а н d i н d e p e н d e н t
of
ћ u m а п
b e i н g s . М а т х '\vas c e 1 · t a i н
t ћ a t
he \vould discover t ћ е basic Ia,vs
g o v e r п i п g
life
а н d
society, just as
D a n v i н ћ а d
discovered t ћ е
la'\\'S g o v e r п i п g l i v i н g creatures.
At
а н у rate, М а т х did clarify
some social la,vs, particular-Iy t ћ е way \ V ћ i с ћ t ћ e s e Iaws
o p e т a t e d
t ћ е
p e т i o d of early i п d u s t r i a l capitalism.
T ћ i s fact а l о н е , е v е н i accepted
as
accurate, c a n н o t
in
itself
justify
t ћ е с о н t е н t i о н
of m o d e r п Communists t ћ a t М а т х dis
c o v e г e d
all t ћ е la1vs of society. Still less с а н it justify their at
t ~ m p t
to
:nodel
society
after t ћ o s e
ideas
i н t ћ е
same
'\vay t ћ a t
l1vestock s Ь г е d
t ћ е
basis of t ћ е discoveries of Lamarck
а п d
D a r w i п .
H u m a н society
с а н н о t Ь е
compared to species of a н i -
mals or to i н a п i m a t e objects;
it
is composed of individuals а н d
g r o u ~ s \ v ћ i с ћ are c o п t i н u o u s l y а н d c o п s c i o u s l y active it,
r o ш н а п d с ћ а н g i п g .
. t ћ е p r e t ~ n s i o н s
of
contempOI ary
C o m m u н i s m
of b e i п g ,
1f. not t ћ е
u ш q u e
and
absolut.e,
but in
any case t ћ е ћ i g ћ e s t
sc1ence, based dialectical materialism, are
ћ i d d e н t ћ е
seeds
of its despotism. Т ћ е OI igin of t ћ e s e p r e t e п s i o н s can f o u п d
t ћ е
ideas of
М а т х ,
t ћ o u g l 1 М а т х blmself did
п о t
anticipate
t ћ e m .
f course, contempora1y Communism does r ю t deny t ћ е
eXIstence of an objective or u n c h a н g i n g body of laws. However,
w h e н
power, it acts in an entirely different
m a п n e r
to \vard
ORIGINS
human society and t ћ е individual, and uses methods to estab
lish its power different from those its theories would suggest.
Beginning
\ v i t ћ
the
p r e щ i s e t ћ a t t ћ е у
alone
know the
Iaws
which govern society, C o ш ш u n i s t s a п i v e at the o v e r s i ш p l i f i e d
and unscientific
c o n c l u s i o п
that this alleged knowledge gives
t ћ е ш t ћ е po,ver and the exclusive
r i g ћ t
to
c ћ a n g e
society and
to control its activities.
This is
the
ш а ј о r error
of t ћ e i r system.
Hegel c l a i ш e d t ћ a t
t ћ е
absolute
ш о п а r с ћ у in
Prussia was
t ћ е
i n c a r п a t i o n of bls idea of
t ћ е
Absolute. Т ћ е C o ш ш u n i s t s
on t ћ е o t ћ e r
ћ а п d ,
c l a i ш t ћ a t t ћ е у represent t ћ е i n c a r п a t i o n
of
t ћ е
objective aspirations of society.
Here
is
Ш О I е
t ћ a n just
one difference between t ћ е C o ш ш u n i s t s and Hegel;
t ћ e r e
is
also difference bet1veen tl1e C o ш m u n i s t s
and
absolute
ш о n -
а r с ћ у .
Т ћ е ш о n а r с ћ у did not tblnk quite as
b l g ћ l y
of itself as
t ћ е
C o ш m u n i s t s
do of t ћ e ш s e l v e s ,
п о r \Vas
it as absolute as
t ћ е у are.
2.
Hegel ћ i ш s e l f '\Vas p r o b a Ь l y
t r o u Ь l e d t ћ е
p o s s i Ь l e con-·
clusions to drawn f r o ш ћ i s own discoveries.
For
inst.ance,
if everytblng '\Vas constantly
being
t r a п s f o r ш e d , w ћ a t
'\Vould
ћ а р р е n
to ћ i s own ideas and to t ћ е society \ V ћ i с ћ \Vanted
to preserve? As professor royal a p p o i n t ш e п t ћ е could
not ћ а v е
dared, in any case, to
ш а k е p u Ь l i c
r e c o ш ш e n d a t i o n s
for
t ћ е i ш p r o v e ш e n t of
society on
t ћ е
basis of bls p ћ i l o s o p ћ y .
T ћ i s '\vas not t ћ е case w i t ћ М а т х . As young
ш а n
took
active part in
t ћ е
1848 revolution. \vent to e x t r e ш e s
in
dra,ving
c o n c l u s i o п s f r o ш
Hegel s ideas. Was not t ћ е
Ь l o o d y
class s t т u g g l e г a g i n g all over Europe straining to \vard s o ш e t h i n g
ne1v
and b l g ћ e r ? It. appeared not only t ћ a t Hegel '\Vas r i g ћ t -
t ћ a t is,
Hegel
as intet·preted
Marx-but
also t ћ a t pbllo
s o p ћ i c a l s y s t e ш s longer ћ а d ш e a n i n g and j u s t i f i c a t i o н , since
science '\Vas discovering objective la1vs so rapidly,
including
t ћ o s e
a p p l i c a Ь l e to society.
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Т Н
NEW CL SS
In
science, Comte's
pos1t1v1sm
llad already
triumphed as
method of inquiry; tlle Englisll scllool of political economy
(Smitll, Ricardo, and otllers) 1vas at its lleight; е р о с ћ а l laws
1vere being discover·ed from day to day in
t ћ е
п a t u r a l sciences;
m о d е г п i п d u s t r y 1vas c a r v i п g out its р а t ћ on
t ћ е
basis of s c i e п
tific t e c h п o l o g y ;
and
t ћ е w o u п d s of y o u п g capitalism revealed
t ћ e m s e l v e s
i п t ћ е
s u f f e r i п g а п d
the
b e g i п п i п g
struggle of
the
proletariat. A p p ю · e n t l y this 1vas
t ћ е
onset of
t ћ е
d o ш i п a t i o п
of
c i e п c e ,
е v е п over society, and
t ћ е
e l i ш i n a t i o п of t he capital
istic
с о п с е р t
of ; v п e r s h i p
as t ћ е
final obstacle to ћ u ш а п happi
п e s s а п d
freedom.
Т ћ е
time
1yas
ripe for one great c o п c l u s i o п . Marx
had
Ь о t ћ
t ћ е d a r i п g а п d t ћ е d e p t ћ to express it, but t ћ e r e 1vere social
forces a v a i l a Ь l e 1vblch he could rely.
Marx >vas s c i e п t i s t
and
ideologist.
As
s c i e п t i s t , made
important
d i s c o v e г i e s ,
p a н i c u l a r l y sociology.
As
ideol
ogist, f u r n i s ћ e d t ћ е ideological basis for the g т e a t e s t
and
ш o s t i m p o г t a n t political m o v e ш e n t s of ш о d е т п blstory, 1vhich
took place first
in
Е ш о р е
and
are п m v taking place in Asia.
But, just because he >vas s c i e п t i s t , e c o п o ш i s t , а п d sociol
ogist, Marx never t h o u g ћ t of c o n s t ш c t i п g all-inclusive
philosopblcal
or
ideological s y s t e ш . о п с е said: One t ћ i п g
is
c e r t a i п ;
I
п о t
Marxist. His great
s c i e п t i f i c
talent gave
Ы ш t ћ е
g г e a t e s t
advantage
over·
all ls socialist.
p г e d e c e s s o r s ,
s u c ћ as О > v е п а п d Fourier. Т ћ е fact t.hat did r ю t i п s i s t
on
ideological all-inclusiveness
ls
о > v п
p b l l o s o p ћ i c a l s y s t e ш
gave
him
an even g т e a t e r advantage over
ls
disciples. Most of
the latter
>vere
ideologists
and
only to very
l i ш i t e d
degree-
as
t ћ е
e x a ш p l e s
of P l e k ћ a n o v , Labr·iola, Lenin, Kautsky,
and
Stalin
>vill
s l ю > v - s c i e n t i s t s .
Т ћ е i г
main desire 1vas to construct
s y s t e ш out
of Marx's ideas;
t ls 1vas
especially t.rue of
t ћ o s e
who kne1v littl e pbllosophy and even less talent for it.
As
t ћ е
t i ш e
passed, Marx's
s u c c e s s o г s г e v e a l e d а
tendency to present
his teachings as finite and all-inclusive concept of the >vorld,
and
to
r e g a г d
t ћ e m s e l v e s
as т e s p o n s i Ь l e
for
t ћ е c o n t i п u a t i o n
ORIGINS
of all of Marx 's work, >vhich they considered
as
b e i п g virtuaHy·
c o ш p l e t e . Science gradually yielded to p r o p a g a п d a , and as
result, p r o p a g a п d a t e п d e d
ш о r е
а п d
ш о r е
to represent itself
as science.
B e i п g product of ls t i ш e , Marx d e п i e d the need for а н у
k i п d of p ћ i l o s o p ћ y . His closest friend, Engels, declar·ed
t ћ a t
p b l l o s o p ћ y
had
died
1 v i t ћ
t ћ е
d e v e l o p m e п t
of
s c i e п c e .
Marx's
t ћ e s i s >vas н о t at all o r i g i п a l . Т ћ е so-called s c i e п t i f i c p h i l o s o p ћ y ,
especially after
C o ш t e ' s
p o s i t i v i s ш а п d F e u e r b a c ћ ' s
ш a t e r
ialism, ћ а d
Ь е с о ш е
t ћ е g e н e r a l
f a s b l o п .
It
is
easy to u п d e r · s t a н d 1 v ћ у
Marx
d e п i e d Ь о t ћ the п е е d for
and
t ћ е p o s s i Ь i l i t y
of
e s t a Ь l i s b l н g
any
k i п d
of p ћ i l o s o p h y . It
is ћ a r d e r to u п d e r s t a п d > v ћ у ls s u c c e s s ш s
tried
to a r r a п g e his
ideas i п t o an a l l - i н c l u s i v e s y s t e ш , i н t o а п е 1 v , exclusive p ћ i l o s
o p ћ y . Е v е п t ћ o u g ћ they
d e п i e d t ћ е н е е d
for any k i п d of
p ћ i l o s o p ћ y , practice t ћ е у created dogma of t ћ e i r о w н 1 v ћ i с ћ
tl1ey
c o п s i d e r e d to
t ћ е ш o s t s c i e п t i f i c
or tlle
о п l у
s c i e п
tific
s y s t e ш .
p e г i o d of
g e н e r · a l
s c i e п t i f i c
e п t ћ u s i a s ш and
of gr·eat c ћ a n g e s brougl1t about e v e г y d a y life and industry
science,
t ћ е у
could
п о t
ћ е l р
but ш a t e r i a l i s t s and
to
consider t ћ e ш s e l v e s
tl1e о п l у
r e p r · e s e п t a t i v e s of
t ћ е о п l у
s c i e п t i f i c
vie>v
and
ш e t h o d ,
particular·ly since
t ћ е у
г e p r e s e n t e d
social s t r · a t u ш 1 v b l c ћ 1vas confiict 1 v i t ћ all tlle accepted
ideas of tlle t i ш e .
Marx's ideas
>vere
i n f i u e п c e d
t ћ е s c i e п t i f i c a t ш o s p ћ e r e of
ls
time,
ls o>vn l e a п i n g s
to>vard s c i e п c e ,
and
his г e v o l u ·
tionary a s p i r - a t i o п to give to t ћ е 1vorking-class ш o v ш n t
ш о r е
or
less scientific basis.
His
disciples 1vere
i п f i u e п c e d
а d i f f e г e n t
e n v i г o n ш e n t
а п d d i f f e r e п t ш o t i v e s 1 v ћ e n
t ћ е у
c o n v e н e d ls Yie>vs into dogrna.
f t ћ е political needs of t ћ е 1vor·king-class
ш o v ш n t
in
Europe had not d e ш a n d e d ne1v ideology c o ш p l e t e in itself,
t ћ е
p b l l o s o p ћ y t.hat calls itself Marxist, t ћ е dialectical
ш a t e r i a l
i s ш , \\rould have been
f o r g o t t e n - d i s ш i s s e d as s o ш e t ћ i n g
п о t
particularly profound
or
even o r i g i п a l , t ћ o u g ћ Marx's е с о -
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6
Т Н
NEW CLASS
n o ш i c and
social studies are of the ћ i g h e s t scientific
and
literary
rank.
Т ћ е s t r e n g t ћ of Marxist pbllosophy
did not
Iie in its
s c i e п
tific e l e ш e п t s ,
but
its
с о п п е с t i о п
-.;vith ш a s s ш o v e ш e n t а п d
ш o s t
of all
in
its e ш p h a s i s
tl1e
objective of c h a п g i п g society.
It
stated a g a i п
and a g a i п
that. the e x i s t i п g -.;vorld
-.;vould c h a п g e
s i ш p l y
because
it
ћ а d
to
c ћ a n g e , t ћ a t
it bore
the seeds of its
о - . ; v п
o p p o s t o п а п d destruction; t Ъ a t the
- . ; v o г k i п g
class - . ; v a п t e d
this c h a п g e and
-.;vould
а Ь l е to effect it. I n e v i t a Ь l y , the influ
ence of this philosophy increased
а п d
created the
E u r · o p e a п
-.;vorkir1g-class
ш o v e m e n t the
i l l u s i o п
tl1at
it
.;vas omnipotent
at least.
as
method. countries - . ; v ћ e r e s i ш i l a r
c o n d i t i o п s
did
п о t
exist,
sucl1 as
Great B r i t a i п
and
the United States, t ћ е
i п f l u e п c e а п d
i ш p o r t a п c e
of this p ћ i l o s o p h y .;vas
i n s i g п i f i c a п t ,
despite the s t г e п g t l l of the - . ; v o г k i n g class and the - . ; v o r k i п g ~ c l a s s
ш о v е ш е п t
As
а s c i e п c e ,
Maixist
philosophy
.;vas
r ю t i ш p o r · t a п t ,
s i п c e
it
.;vas based mainly H e g e l i a п а п d materialistic ideas. As tlle
ideology of the
п е - . ; v
oppr·essed classes
а п d
especially of political
ш o v e m e n t s
it
marked an
epocl1, first in Eur·ope, and
later
in
Russia а п d Asia, p г o v i d i п g the basis for п е - . ; v political move
ш e п t а п d п е - . ; v social system.
Marx thought t ћ a t the
r e p l a c e m e п t
of capitalist society
1vould Ь е b r o u g ћ t а Ь о п t r e v o l п t i o п a г y s t г п g g l e b e t - . ; v e e п
its t .;vo basic classes, the b o п г g e o i s i e and t ћ е p г o l e t a r i a t . The
c l a s ћ
seemed all t ћ е
mor-e
likely to
him
Ь е с а п s е
in
the capital
istic system of t ћ a t time
Ь о t ћ
poverty а п d
-.;vealth
kept increas
ing п п с ћ е с k е d t ћ е opposite poles of society
t ћ a t
.;vas
s ћ а k е п periodic e c o п o m i c crises.
t ћ е last analysis, Marxist t e a c h i п g 1vas
t ћ е
p r o d п c t of t ћ е
ORIGINS
7
i n d п s t r i a l
revolution
or
of the struggle of the i n d п s t r i a l prole
tariat for better life. It .;vas no accident that tlle friglltful
poverty а п d b r u t a l i z a t i o п of t ћ е masses 1 v ћ i c h accompanied
d п s t r i a l cllange had p o - . ; v e r f п l i n f l п e n c e Marx.. His most
i m p o r t a п t -.;vork
Das Kapital
contains
number
of
important
and
stin·ing pages this topic. Т ћ е recurring crises, -.;vhich
\vere c ћ a r a c t e r i s t i c of tlle capitalism of
t ћ е
n i n e t e e n t ћ с е п t п r у ,
t o g e t ћ e r - . ; v i t ћ t ћ е pover-ty and the г a p i d
i n c г e a s e
of t ћ е popula
tiorl, logically
led Marx
to
t ћ е
belief tllat r e v o l п t i o п .;vas the
only
s o l п t i o n
. . М а r х did not c o п s i d e r r e v o l п t i o п to i п e v i t a
Ь l e in all c o п n t r i e s , p a г t i c п l a r l y
not
i п t l ю s e - . ; v ћ e r e democratic
i п s t i t п t i o п s
- . ; v е г е alr·eady tradition of social life.
Н е
cited as
examples of s п с Ь c o п n t r i e s , one of ћ i s talks, tlle N e t Ь e r l a n d s
Great B r i t a i п а п d tlle United States. Ho-.;vever о н е can con
c l п d e
from his ideas, t a k e п
as
- . ; v ћ o l e
t Ь a t
the i п e v i t a Ь i l i t y
of r e v o l п t i o n .;vas one of bls basic beliefs. believed revo
l п t i o п а п d
p r · e a c Ь e d
it.; .;vas
r e v o l п t i o п a r y .
l\Iarx s
r · e v o l п t i o п a т y
ideas,
- . ; v Ъ i с Ь
1vere
c o п d i t i o n a l
and п о t
u n i v e г s a l l y a p p l i c a Ь l e , were c l l a п g e d Ь у L е п i п i п t o a b s o l п t e а п d
lllliversal p г i п c i p l e s .
The lnfantile Disorder of Left-Wing
ommunism
p e r Ь a p s bls most dogmatic 1vork, L е п i п devel
oped t Ь e s e p г i п c i p l e s still more, d i f f e r i п g - . ; v i t Ь Marx s position
that r e v o l п t i o n .;vas a v o i d a Ь l e
in
c e r - t a i п
с о п п t т i е s .
said t ћ a t
Great
В r · i t a i п c o п l d no l o п g e r r e g a т d e d as c o п n t r y
1 v ћ i с ћ r · e v o l п t i o п 1vas a v o i d a Ь l e
Ь е с а п s е
d п r i п g t Ь е First
\Vorbl \Var
s Ь е Ь а d
become militar-istic
po-.;ver and
ther·efore
tlle B r - i t i s ћ \ V o r k i п g class Ь а d п о о t Ь е г с Ь о i с е Ь п t . т e v o l п t i o n .
L е п i п е п е d п о t
о п l у
in
ћ i s f a i l п r e
to
п n d e r s t a п d
that
" B т i t i s h
r n i l i t a т i s m " \vas о п l у
temporary, \vartime
р ћ а s е
of develop
ш e п t
Ь п t
Ь е с а п s е
failed to f o г e s e e
t Ь е f п r t ћ e r
development
of d e m o c т a c y а п d e c o п o m i c p т o g r e s s Gr-eat
В · i t a i п
or other
\ V e s t e ш
c o п п t r - i e s . also
did
п о t
u п d e r s t a n d
t Ь е
n a t п r e of
tlle E n g l i s Ь t r a d e - u п i o п r п o v e m e п t . placed too much em
pllasis or1 Ь i s О \ V П , or Marxian, d e t e n n i п i s t i c , s c i e п t i f i c ideas
а п d
paid too little
attention
to the objective social role а п d
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8
Т Н N Т V CL SS
potentialities
of
the 1vorking class in more highly developed
countries.
Although
he
disclaimed it,
he
did
in
fact proclaim
his
theories
and the
R u s s i a п
т e v o l u t i o n a r y
experience
to
universally a p p l i c a Ь l e .
According to Marx s ћ y p o t h e s i s
and
his c o п c l u s i o n s the
subject,
the
r·evolution >vould о с с н r first of all in
the higbly
developed capitalist c o u n t т i e s . Marx believed
that
the results
of
the
r e v o l u t i o п - t h a t is,
the
ne1v socialist society->vould
lead
to ne1v
and
higher level of freedom t h a п t ћ a t
prevalent in
t ћ е existing society, in so-called l i Ь e r · a l capitalism. This is
u n d e г s t a n d a Ь l e . In the very act of r e j e c t i п g various types
of
capitalism, Marx 1vas
at
the same
time
pi Oduct of his epoch,
t ћ е l i Ь e r a l
capitalist epoch.
I п d e v e l o p i п g
the Marxist
s t a п d that. capitalism must re
placed
not
only ћ i g h e r economic and social f o т m - t h a t is,
socialism-but
higl1er
form
of human fr·eedom, the Social
Democrats
j u s t i f i a Ь l y
considered
themselves
to Marx s
suc
c e s s o г s .
They
ћ а d
less т i g h t to t ћ i s claim than the Com
munists, 1vho cited Marx as the source of their idea that
the
replacement of capitalism can
take place
only
revolutionary
means. Hmvever,
both
groups of Marx s follo>vers-the Social
D e m o п a t s
а п d t ћ е
C o m m н n i s t s - > v e г e
only partly
r i g Ь t i п cit.
ing him as t Ь е basis for t l e i г ideas. In citing Marx s ideas t ћ е у
1vere defending t ћ e i r ·
o>vn
practices, >vhich ћ а d
o г i g i n a t e d
in
d i f f e г e п t , and
already c Ь a n g e d
society. А п d
a l t h o н g Ь
both
cited and depended on M a т x i s t ideas, the Social D e ш o c т a t i c а п d
C o ш m u n i s t n ю v e ш e n t s developed in d i f f e г e n t d i т e c t i o n s .
In
c o t ш t r i e s
>vhere
political
and
e c o n o ш i c
p г o g г e s s 1vas
dif
ficult,
and v ћ е г е t ћ е
> v и k i п g class played 1veak role in society,
the
п е е d
а г о s е slo1vly to ш а k е s y s t e ш
and
dogma
out of
Marxist
teaching. M o т e o v e r , countr'ies > v ћ е т е
e c o n o ш i c
forces
and
social relations 1vere п о t yet ripe for
i п d u s t r i a l c ћ a n g e , as
Russia and later in C ћ i n a , tl1e adoption and dogmatization of
the r e v o l u t i o п a г y aspects
of Marxist t e a c ћ i n g s
was т о г е rapid
and
c o ш p l e t e . Т ћ е r е
>vas
e m p ћ a s i s on
revolution
the
work-
ORIGINS
9
ing-class ш o v e m e n t . In such countries, Marxism grew stronger
and
t r o п g e r
а п d
1vith the victory of t ћ е revolutionary party,
it
became the d о ш i п а п t ideology.
In c o u п t r i e s s u c ћ as G е r ш а п у 1 v ћ e r e t ћ е degree
of
political
and e c o п o r n i c progress made r e v o l u t i o п unnecessary, t ћ е derno
cratic
and reforrnist aspects of Marxist t e a c ћ i n g ,
r a t ћ e r t ћ а п
t ћ е revolutionary ones,
d o m i п a t e d . Т ћ е a п t i - d o g r n a t i c
ideologi
cal
а п d
political tendencies
g e п e r a t e d
а п e m p ћ a s i s reform
the v o r k i п g - c l a s s movernent.
the first case, t ћ е ties 1 v i t ћ
Marx 1 v е г е
s t ' e n g t ћ e n e d ,
at
Ieast in out1vard
а р р е а r а п с е . In
the second case, t ћ е у 1vere
1veakened.
Social
d e v e l o p r n e п t and
the developrnent of ideas
led
to
severe
s c ћ i s m the European
socialist
r n o v e m e п t . R o н g h l y
speaking, t ћ е c ћ a n g e s political and econornic conditions co
incided 1vith c h a п g e s
i п t ћ е
ideas of
tl1e
socialist t ћ e o r i s t s ,
because they interpreted reality in т e l a t i v e manner, that is,
incornplete а п d one-sided 1vay ћ о m tl1eir 0 \ V П partisan
p o i п t of
vie1v.
L e п i n in R ш s i a and Bernstein G e г r n a п y а т е
the
t>vo ex
tremes through 1vhich t Ь е d i f f e г e n t c ћ a n g e s , social and eco
п o r n i c , а п d
t ћ е d i f f e г e п t
" т e a l i t i e s " of t ћ е 1 v o т k i n g - c l a s s move
ments f o u п d e x p т e s s i o п .
Alrnost п o t h i n g т e r n a i n e d
of
o г i g i п a l : м a r x i s m . In
the West
it had died out or 1vas in t ћ е process of dying out; in the East,
as
т e s u l t
of t ћ е e s t a Ь l i s ћ r n e n t of C o r n r n u п i s t rule, only res
idue of
o r ш a l i s r n and dogmatisrn т e r n a i n e d of Marx s dialectics
and m a t e г i a l i s r n ;
t ћ i s
1vas used for t ћ е
pur-pose
of
cernenting
po1ver, justifying t y т a n n y а п d violating ћ u r n a n c o п s c i e n c e .
A l t ћ o u g l 1
it
in fact also
been
а Ь а п d о п е d in t ћ е East, Marx
ism operated t ћ e r e as r·igid dogrna 1 v i t ћ incr·easing po1ver. It
1vas rnore
than
an idea t ћ e r e ; it 1vas ne1v government,
nevv
econorny, п е 1 v social systern.
A l t ћ o u g Ь Marx ћ а d f u r n i s ћ e d ls disciples 1 v i t ћ t ћ е i m p e t н s
for s н с ћ developrnent, Ь а d Yery
little
desire f о т · s u c ћ develop-
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10/112
10
Т Н Е N W CLASS
ment nor did he expect it. History betrayed
this
great master
as it
has
others 1vho have attempted to interpret its laws.
What
ћ а s
been the nature of t ћ е
development
since Marx?
In the 1870 s, the formation of c o r p o r a t i o п s а п d monopolies
had
b e g u п in
c o u r н r i e s 1 v ћ e r e the i п d u s t r i a l revolution ћ а d
already t a k e п place, s u c ћ as Germany, E п g l a п d
and
t ћ е U п i t e d
States.
This
d e v e l o p m e п t 1vas
in
full
swing the
beginning
of the H v e п t i e t ћ century. Scientific analyses were made of it
Hobson, Hilferding,
and
others.
L e n i п in Imperialism, the
Final Stage of Capitalism, made political analysis, based
ш а i п l у on tllese authors, containing predictions w h i c ћ
ћ а v е
proved mostl inaccurate.
Marx s
t ћ e o r i e s
about tlle increasing i m p o v e r i s ћ m e n t of t ћ е
1vorking class 1;vere not. Ь о ш е out d e v e l o p ш e n t s those
c o u п t r i e s
from 1vblch
bls
theories ћ а d been
derived.
However,
as Hugh Seton- \>Vatson sta tes in From Lenin to Malenkov,
they
appeared to r · e a s o n a Ь l y
accurate for the most part in
t ћ е
case of the agr·ar ian East
European
countries. T ћ u s while
in
the
vVest his stature 1vas r e d п c e d
to
that
of
blstorian and
scholar, Marx became
the
p г o p h e t of ne1v era in e a s t e ш
Europe.
His
teachings
ћ а d i п t o x i c . a t i п g
effect, similar to
п е w religion.
Т ћ е
s i t п a t i o п
1vestern Europe tllat c o n t r i b п t e d to the
theories of E п g e l s
and Marx
is
d e s c г i Ь e d Andre
Maurois in
the
Y п g o s l a v
edition
of
The
History Df England:
ћ e n
Engels visited
: М а n с ћ е s t е г
in 1844, found 350,000
> v o г k e r · s с г п s ћ е d and crmvded into darnp, dirty, broken-down
houses
> v ћ e r e
tlley breathed an atrnospllere
r e s e r n Ь i i n g а
mix
ture of 1vater and coal. In
t ћ е
rnines, he saw half-naked
wornen, who 1vere
t т e a t e d
Iike tlle lowest of draft animals.
Cllildr·en s p e п t the day in
dark
tunnels, wllere t ћ е у were
employed
in
o p e п i n g and closing t ћ е primitive openings for
ventilation, and o t ћ e r d i f f i c п l t tasks. t ћ е Ј а с е i n d u s t г y
e x p l o i t a t i o п reached s u c ћ
point
t ћ a t four-year-old cllildren
worked for virtually р а у
• New York, Frederick Praeger,
1953.
ORIGINS
E n c т e l s
lived to see
an
entirely different
picture
of
Great
B r i t a i п but he sa>v still ш о r е l ю п i Ь l е
a n d - w ћ a t
1s
ш о r е
i m p o r t a n t - ћ o p e l e s s
poverty in Russia, the
B a l k a ~ s
Asia а п d
Africa.
Technological i ш p r o v e ш e n t s
brougl1t about vast and con-
crete с h а п и е s the vVest,
i ш ш е п s е
f r o ш every
p o i п t
of v i e - ~ v .
Т ћ е у
led
~ tlle f o r - m a t i o п
of
ш o п o p o l i e s а п d
to the
p a r t i t i ? п
of the 1vorld i п t o s p l l e г e s of i п t e r e s t for tlle developed c o u п t п e s
а п d for
t ћ е
ш o п o p o l i e s . Tlley also
led to
the F i т s t World War
а п d t Ъ е October R e v o l u t i o п .
the developed
c o u п t т i e s
the rapid rise
in p r o d u c t i o п and
tlle a c q u i s i t i o п of
c o l o п i a l
sources of materials а п d ш a r k e t s
m a t e г i a l l y c h a п g e d
t ћ е
p o s i t i o п of the 1 v o r k i п g class. The strug
gle f о г т е f о r ш for better
ш a t e r i a l
c o п d i t i o п s together 1vith
t ћ е
a d o p t i o п of p a r l i a ш e n t a r y f o r ш s of
g o v e г п m e n t
Ь е с а ш е
mor-e т е а l а п d
v a l п a Ь l e tl1a11 r e v o l u t i o п a r y
ideals. I п s п с ћ places
r e v o l u t i o п became п o n s e n s i c a l and u п r e a l i s t i c .
The countl ies 1 v h i c ћ were
п о t
yet
i п d u s t r i a l i z e d
p a г t i c u l a r l y
Russia, 1vere in an e п t i r e l y
d i f f e г e п t
s i t u a t i o п . They found
t ћ e m s e l v e s
d i l e ш r n a ;
they llad either· to becorne
i п d u s t r i a l
ized,
or
to
d i s c o п t i п u e
active
p a r t i c i p a t i o п
the stage of
Ы s t o r - y
t п ш i п g i п t o captives of t ћ е developed c o u п t r i e s
and
t ћ e i r ш o п o p o l i e s t ћ н s
doomed to
degeneracy.
Local capital
and t ћ е class and
p a г t i e s
r e p r - e s e n t i п g it 1 v е г е too 1veak
to
solve
the p r o Ь i e m s of r·apid i п d н s t r i a l i z a t i o п . In
t ћ e s e
c o u п t r i e s
г e v o
l п t i o п
became
i n e s c a p a Ь i e п e c e s s i t y
Yital need for t ћ е п а
t i о п and
only one class could
b г i n g
it
a b o u t - t Ъ e
p г o l e t a г i a t
or
the
r e v o l п t i o п a г y р а г t у
r-epr-esenting it.
The
г e a s o n
f о г tbls is t ћ a t t l 1 e г e is i m m u t a Ь l e la.v-that
е а с ћ hurnan society and all i п d i v i d u a l s p a г t i c i p a t i n g i п it str-ive
to increase and p e г f e c t р г о d п с t i о п . I п d o i п g
tbls
t ћ е у
come in
c o п f l i c t \ v i t ћ
o t ћ e r societies а п d individuals, so
t ћ a t t ћ е у
corn
pete
1 v i t ћ
е а с ћ
o t ћ e r o г d e r
to
SUI \'iYe. This i п п е а s е
and
e x p a n s i o п of p г o d п c t i o n
c o п s t a п t l y
faces n a t п r a l and sociai
b a п i e r s sucl1 as
individual, political,
legal,
а п d
international
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12
Т Н NEW CL SS
customs and relationships. Since
it
rnust overcorne obstacles,
society, that
is,
those who at g i v e п n ю r n e n t r e p r e s e п t its
productiYe forces, rnust eliminate, change,
or
destroy the ob
stacles \Vhich arise either inside or outside its boundaries.
Classes, parties, political systerns, political ideas, are expres
s i o п of t.his ceaseless p a t t e r п of rnovernent and stagnation.
N society
or nation
alla...vs
production
to lag to such
an
extent t l ш t its existence
is
threatened. Т о lag rneans to die.
People never die \villingly; they are ready to undergo
а п у
sacri
fice
to overcorne the d i f f i c н l t i e s \Vhich stand in the >vay of their
econornic p r o d н c t i o п а п d t h e i г e x i s t e п c e .
The
e n v i r · o п m e п t а п d the material а п d intellectual level de
t e r r n i п e the
m e t l ю d ,
forces,
а п d m e a п s
t ћ a t will used
to
b r i п g about. t ћ е
d e v e l o p m e п t
а п d е х р а п s i о п of p r o d u c t i o п ,
а п d t ћ е social I esults >vhich
follo>v.
Ho>vever, t Ъ е
п e c e s s i t y
for
tl1e
d e v e l o p m e п t
а п d
e x p a n s i o п
of
p i o d u c t i o п - u п d e r
а п у ideo
logical Ь а п п е r
or
social fOl ce-does п о t
d e p e п d i п d i v i d u a l s ;
because t ћ е у > v i s ћ to survive, societies а п d п a t i o n s f i п d the
leaders а п d ideas > v ћ i с ћ ,
at g i Y e п m o m e п t ,
are best suited
to
that ' i \ ' ћ i с ћ t ћ е у must and \vish to attain.
R e v o l u t i o п a r y Marxism >vas t i a n s p l a п t e d
d н r i п g t ћ е
period
of monopolistic capitalism
fmm
t ћ е
i п d u s t i ' i a l l y
developed
\Vest
t.o
c o u п t r i e s of the i п d u s t r i a l l y u п d e v e l o p e d East, s н с ћ as
Russia
а п d С ћ i п а . T ћ i s is
about the time > v ћ е п socialist move
m e п t s
\vere d e v e l o p i п g i п t ћ е East а п d \Vest. T ћ i s stage
of socialist
movement
began > v i t ћ its u п i f i c a t i o п and c e п t r a l
i z a t i o п t Ъ е S e c o п d
I п t e ш a t i o п a l , а п d
e п d e d \ v i t ћ
division
i п t o t ћ е Social
D e m o c г a t i c
(I eform)
>ving
and t ћ е Communist
(revolutionary) > v i п g , l e a d i п g to t ћ е I ' e v o l u t i o п Russia а п d
t ћ е f o г m a t i o п of t ћ е T ћ i r · d I п t e ш a t i o n a l .
c o u п t r i e s > v ћ e r e
t ћ e i ' e \Vas
no
o t ћ e i '
1vay
of
b r i п g i п g about
i п d u s t r i a l i z a t . i o п , there >ve 'e special п a t i o п a l r e a s o п s for t ћ е
C o m m u п i s t r e v o l u t i o п .
R e v o l u t i o п a r y
m o v e m e п t s
existed
in
semi-feudal R н s s i a over half с е п t н r у before the
а р р е а r а п с е
of
t ћ е
Marxists the late
n i п e t e e п t h
c e п t u r y . Moreover, there
ORIGINS
13
\vere u r g e п t а п d specific concrete
reasons-international
eco
п o m i c , political-for r e v o l н t i o n . The basic r e a s o п - t ћ e
v i ~ a l
п е е d for i п d u s t r i a l c ћ a п g e - > v a s c o m m o п to all t ћ е c o u п t п e s
s н с ћ as Russia, С Ь l п а , and Yugoslavia, \Vl1ere r e v o l u t i o п took
place.
It
>vas
ћ i s t ш i c a l l y i п e v i t a Ь l e that. most of
t ћ е
European
socialist
ш о v е ш е п t s
after Mar·x
\Vere not о п l у ш a t e т i a l i s t i c
and
Marxist,
but
to
c o п s i d e r a Ь l e d e g т e e
ideologically
e x c l н ~ i v e .
A и a i п s t
t ћ e m vere u п i t e d all t ћ е forces of
t ћ е
old soCiety:
d
с l ш т с ћ , s c ћ o o l , private
o w п e r s b l p ,
g o v e r п m e п t an , mm·e Im-
p o r t a п t , t ћ е
vast.
pO\ver
m a c ћ i n ~ r y
~ ћ i с ћ t ћ е Е ш о р е а п c o u п
tries ћ а d developed since early times ш t ћ е face of t ћ е constant
c o п t i n e п t a l
> v a r в .
А п у о п е w ћ о >vants
to c ћ a n g e
t ћ е > v o т l d
f u п d a m e n t a l l y must
first of all interpi et
it
f u п d a m e п t a l l y а п d " w i t l ю u t
е п о r . "
Jf::;·· >v
movement must
i ~ e o l o g i c a l l y
exclusive, esp:ciall.y
i i i о п is
the о п l у
1vay
victory
с а п iVOil.
А п d If t ћ 1 s
\;\ t
is
s н c c e s s f u l
its
v е т у
success must
s t r e п g t ћ e n
its
,
I'e
s· :lhd ideas.
Т ћ о u g ћ
successes
t ћ r · о н g ћ
a d v e п t u r o u s par
l i a m e п t a т y
m e t l ю d s
а п d sti ikes s t r · e п g t ћ e п e d t ћ е . т e f o r m i s t t r ~ п d
the
G e ' m a п а п d
o t ћ e r · Social D e m o п a t i c part1es,
t ћ е R u s s ш n
\vorkers,
\ v ћ о
could п о t improve their p o s i t i o п
Ь у о п е
kopeck
\ \ i t ћ o н t
Ь l o o d y
l i q u i d a t i o п s ,
ћ а d no
с ћ о i с е but
to use \ v e a p o п s
to escape despair· а п d d e a t ћ s t a r v a t i o п .
Т ћ е
o t h e г c o u п t r i e s
of
e a s t e п 1 Е ш о р е - Р о l а п d , C z e c ћ o
slovakia, Н н п g а r у ,
R u m a п i a ,
а п d Bulgaria-do not fall н п d е r
t ћ i s rule at Ieast п о t t ћ е
fir·st
t ћ т е е
c o u п t r i e s . Т ћ е у
did п о t
e x p e r i e n ~ e
r e v o l н t i o п s i п c e t ћ е
C o m m u п i s t
system
w ~ s
im
posed
them
t ћ е pO\ver of tlle Soviet Arrny. Т ћ е у d1d n?t
even p т e s s for i n d н s t r · i a l c h a п g e , at least п о t t ћ е o m ш u ш s t
m e t ћ o d ,
for
some of t ћ е ш had already a t t a i п e d it.
t ћ e s e
c o u п t r · i e s , r e v o l u t i o п
>vas
imposed from the outside а п d frorn
above, foreign b a y o п e t s а п d t Ъ е macblnery of force.
The
C o m m u п i s t movements
>vere
weak, except the ш o s t devel
oped
of
t ћ е
c o u п t r i e s , Czechoslovakia, 1vhere
the C o ш m u п i s t
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l
Т Н Е
N W CLASS
т о : е ~ е п t had closely r e s e m Ь l e d leftist а п d p a г l i a m e п t a r y
~ o o a l i s t
m o v e m e п t s
up
to
the time
of d i г e c t Soviet i п t e r v e п t i o n
t h ~ 1 v ~ r and the
coup d etat
of February 1948. S i п c e the Com
m u ш s t ~ these
c o u п t r i e s
1vere 1veak, the s u b s t a п c e
а п d
f o r п l
of the1r
o m m u п i s m had
to i d e п t i c a l 1vith that of the
U . S . S . ~ .
The
U.S.S.R. imposed its system them,
а п d
the
dom:stic Communists adopted
it
gladly.
The
1veaker
C o r п
m u ш s п ~ . 1vas t ~ e ~ o r e it h.ad to imitate е v е п in form its Ь i g
brother - t o t a l i t a r i a п Russiail
C o m m u п i s m .
C o u п t r i e s
such as France and Italy, 1 v ћ i c h had relatively
st:ong
C o m m u п i s t movements, had llard time keepina up
; v н h
the industrially better-developed
c o u н t r i e s а п d
thu;
ш t о s o c i ~ l
d i f f i c ~ l t i e s . ~ i n c e
tlley. llad already passed througll
democratrc
and ш d u s t п a l
r e v o l u t i o п s ,
their C o m m u н i s t
m o v e ~
me?ts
differed g r e ~ t l y
ћ о m
those in Russia, Yugoslavia, and
С h ш а . T ћ e r e f o r e
France
and Italy revolution
did not
ћ а v е
real chance. Since they 1vere livina and operatina in an e н v i ~
ronment of political democracy,
e v e ~
t ћ е
Ieaders of
t ћ e i r
Com
~ u n i s t p a r t ~ e s 1 ~ e r e п о t
а Ь l е
to free t ћ e ш s e l v e s entirely of par
l l a m e п t a r y
I l l u s ю п s . As far as r e v o l u t i o п 1vas с о п с е r п е d they
t e п d e d
to rely
mot·e the i п t e r п a t i o п a l C o m m u п i s t move·
m e п t
а п d
t ћ ~
aid
of
the U S . S . ~ t l : a н t ћ e i r o>vn r e v o l u t i o п a r y
p o 1 ~ e r .
T ћ e r r f o l l o 1 v e r ~ , c o п S i d e г ш g t ћ e i r leaders to fighters
a g a t ~ s t
poverty
а п d misery, п a ' i v e l y believed
t ћ a t
t ћ е party 1vas
f i g h t ш g for br·oader а п d truer
d e ш o c r a c y .
M o d e r ~ п o m m u п i s m Ь е g а п
as
idea 1 v i t ћ
the
i п c e p t i o п of
m o d e r ~ ш d u s t r y . It is
d y i п g out
or b e i п g e l i m i п a t e d i п t ћ o s e
c ~ u п t r r e s
1vhe:re
i п d u s t r i a l
d e v e l o p ш e n t
has acbleved its basic
a1ms. It f l o u r i S ћ e s those
c o u п t r i e s
1vhere tbls ћ а s п о t yet
h a p p e п e d .
. Т ћ е historical role of o m m u п i s m i п t ћ е u п d e v e l o p e d coun
t:Ies has.
e t , : r m i п e d
the course and
the
character of the revolu
t ю п
w h к h It has
ћ а d
to
b r i п g
about.
Character o the Revolution
1
History sh01vs that in countries where C o m m u п i s t revolu
tions have taken place other parties too have been dissatisfied
1vith e x i s t i п g c o п d i t i o п s . The best example is Russia, where
the
party
which
accomplished
the Cornmunist revolution
1vas
п о t
о п l у revolutionary р а т - t у .
However, о п l у the Communist p a г t i e s were both revolu-
t i o п a r y i п their opposition to the
status quo
а п d s t a u п c h and
c o п s i s t e n t their support of t.he i п d u s t r i a l t r a n s f o r r n a t i o п .
practice, tbls meant radical destruction of e s t a Ь l i s h e d O>mer
ship r e l a t i o п s . No other party 1 v e п t so far in t.his respect. None
1vas industrial to that degree.
It
is
less clear 1vhy these parties had to socialist their
program. Under the back1vard c o п d i t i o n s e x i s t i п g Czarist
Russia, capitalist private 01mership
not о п l у
sho1ved itself in
c a p a Ь l e
of
rapid i п d u s t r i a l t r · a п s f o r m a t i o n but actually ob
structed it. The private property class had developed
c o u п t r y
1vhich extrernely po1verful feudal t · e l a t i o п s h i p s still
existed, 1vhile monopolies of rnore developed countries retained
their grip this enormous area
a b o u п d i n g in ra1v
rnaterials
a ld markets.
Czarist Russia, a c c o r d i п g
to
its history, had
to
latecomer
15
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16
Т Н NEW CL SS
with т e s p e c t to
the industrial
revolution. It is
the
only Е ш о
р е а п c o u п t r y
1vhich
did п о t
pass
t ћ r o u g h t.he R e f o r m a t i o п and
the R e п a i s s a п c e .
It
did not
have
a n y t h i п g
like
t.he
medieval
E u r o p e a п
city-states. Back1vard, semi-feudal, w i t ћ absolutist
m o п a r c h y
а п d bureaucratic
centralism, 1vith
rapid
i ш . т е а s е
of
t.he
proletariat
several centers, Russia
found ћ e r s e l f
in
the
w ћ i r l p o o l of
modem
world
capitalism, and
in
t ћ е s п a r e s
of the financial interests of t.he gigantic
banking
centers.
Lenin states his work Imperial ism the Final Stage of
Capi:alism t ћ a t
t . h r e e - f o ш t ћ s of the
capital of t ћ е large
b a п k s
in
R u s ы a was
in the
h a п d s of f o r e i g п capitalists. Trotsky his
history of the R u s s i a п revolution emphasizes that foreigners
c o п t r o l l e d forty
per
cent
of the s ћ a r e s of i п d u s t r i a l capital ir1
Russia, and
that
this percentage >vas
е v е п g г e a t e r in
some lead
i п g i п d u s t r i e s . As for Yugoslavia, f o r e i g п e r s
had
decisive
influence in
the
most i m p o г t a n t br·ar1ches of Yugoslav economy.
These
facts alone do
not р т о v е a n y t ћ i n g .
But they
s ћ m v that
foreigtl capitalists used
t ћ e i r
pmver to с ћ е с k progress
in
these
countries, to develop
t ћ e m
exclusively
as t ћ e i r О \ \ 1 1
sources
of
raw materials
and
cheap labor, 1vith tlle result that t ћ e s e na
tions became unprogt·essive
and
even began to decline.
Т ћ е party
> v h i c ћ ћ а d t ћ е
historic task of carrying out
t ћ е
revolution in t ћ e s e countries ћ а d to anti-capitalistic in its
internal
policy а п d
a п t i - i m p e г i a l i s t i c
in its
f o r e i g п
policy.
Internally domestic capital 1vas 1veak, and 1vas lar·gely
~ n s t _ r u m e n t or
affiliate
of f o r e i g п
capital. It 1vas
r ю t t ћ е
cap
Italist. class
but
a п o t l l e r class, t ћ е
proletariat
1 v ћ i c h 1vas arisino
from
the
i п c r e a s i n g
р о v е н у
of
t ћ е
peasantry,
t ћ a t
1vas
vitall;
interested t ћ е industrial r e v o l u t i o п . Just as t ћ е elimination
of outrageous exploitation \\ as
ш a t t e r
of Iife
а п d
deatll for
t.hose w ћ о already were p r o l e t a г i a n s , so 1vas industrialization
ш a t t e r
of
survival for
t ћ o s e
1 \ ћ о
in their t н г п w е г е about
to
become proletarians. Т ћ е movement 1 v ћ i с ћ represented bot.h
of t ћ e s e ћ а d
to
a п t i - c a p i t a l i s t i c ,
t ћ a t is, socialistic in its
ideas, slogans
and
pledges.
CH R CTER
OF Т Н REVOLUTION
17
Т ћ е
r e v o l н t i o п a r y party
o н l d not
e r i o н s l y
contemplate exe
c н t i o n
of
i п d u s t r i a l r e v o l н t i o п н n l e s s it concentrated all do
mestic
r e s o н т c e s
in its o1vn ћ а п d s p a r t i c н l a r l y t l ю s e of native
capitalists against 1\ hom
the a s s e s
1vere also
e m Ь i t t e r e d
because
of severe e x p l o i t a t i o п а п d t ћ е use of i n ћ н m a n e ш e t h o d s . Т ћ е
r e v o l u t i o п a r y party
had to take
s i ш i l a r s t a п d
against
f o r e i g п
capital.
Other
par·ties 1vere
u п а Ь l е
to follo1v similar program.
of
t ћ e m
eitl1er aspired to return to t ћ е
old
system, to preserva
t i o п
of vested, static
r e l a t i o п s h i p s ;
or
at.
best, to g r a d н a l and
peaceful development. Even
t ћ е
p a н i e s 1vhich 1vere anti-capital
istic, as
f о г
example
t ћ е
SRs S o c i a l i s t - R e v o l u t i o n a т y Party) in
Russia, aspired to1var·d г e t u r n i п g society to idyllic p т i m i t i v e
peasant
Ш е . Even t ћ е
socialist parties s н с ћ
as
t ћ е Mensheviks
in Russia did not go f a r t ћ e r · t ћ a n to
push
for tl1e v i o l e п t over
t ћ r o > v of the barriers to f г е е capitalist development.
Т ћ е у
took
t ћ е p o i п t of
vie1v t.hat
it. >vas п e c e s s a r y
to
ћ а v е
fully developed
capitalism и e r to arrive
at
socialism later. Ho1vever,
the
p r · o Ь l e m
ћ е г е 1vas differ·ent; Ь о t ћ г e t н r n to t ћ е old system а п d
u п ћ a m p e r e d
development of
capitalism
1 v е г е
i m p o s s i Ь i e for
t ћ e s e c o н n t г i e s .
N
i t ћ e r
s o l u t i o п 1vas с а р а Ь l е , н п d е r · t ћ е given
i n t e m a t i o п a l and
internal
c o п d i t i o n s , of resolving t ћ е urgerlt
р г о Ь i е m of f н т t ћ е r · development of
these c o н n t r i e s , i.e., t ћ e i r
industrial
r · e v o l u t i o п s .
О п l у t ћ е р а н у 1 v h i c ћ 1vas favor of the a п t i - c a p i t a l i s t
revolution
а п d
Iapid i п d u s t г i a l i z a t i o n
ћ а d pr-ospects for suc
cess.
O b v i o н s l y t ћ a t
party
Ь а d to
Ь е , i п
a d d i t i o п ,
socialist
its
c o п v i c t i o n s .
But
s i п c e
it
1vas
o Ь l i g e d
to
operate
under
pre
v a i l i п g c o n d i t i o п s
general, а п d
t ћ е labor
or socialist
m o v e ш e n t s s н с ћ party Ь а d to
d e p e п d
ideologically
t ћ е
с о п с е р t of t ћ е i n e v i t a Ь i l i t y а п d н s e f u l п e s s of m o d e т n industry
as 1vell as
t ћ е
tenet t ћ a t r e v o l н t i o n v\ as
н п a v o i d a Ь l e .
This
concept
a l т e a d y
existed,
it
\vas п е с е s s а г у only to modify it. Т Ь е
concept was
M a r x i s ш - i t s 1 · e v o l u t i o п a r y
aspect. A s s o c i a t i o п
1 v i t ћ
r e v o l u t i o п ю - y
M a r x i s ш
> 9 i t Ь t ћ е Е н г о р е а n socialist move-
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18
Т Н NEW CLASS
ment, \Vas natural for t ћ е party t h e п . Lat.er, w i t ћ t ћ е develop·
m e п t
of
t ћ е r e v o l н t i o п
and
with
the o r g a п i z a t i o n a l changes in
t ћ е
deyeJoped c o u п t r i e s it became just
as
essential for it t
separ·ate itself from
t ћ е
reformism of European socialism.
The inevitability of revolution
and
of rapid n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o п
w ћ i с ћ exacted enormous sacrifices and involved rutbless vio
lence, required п о t only promises but faith in t ћ е possibllity of
t ћ е kingdom
of ћ e a v e n
on e a r t ћ . A d v a n c i п g as
o t ћ e r s
also do,
a l o п g the l i п e of least r e s i s t a п c e the supporters of revolution
and industrialization often departed from e s t a Ь l i s ћ e d Marxist
а п d socialist d o c t r i п e . However,
it.
was i m p o s s i Ь l e for them to
shed the doctrine e п t i r e l y .
Capitalism а п d capitalist r e l a t i o п s b l p s were t ћ е proper а п d
at
the g i v e п moment the i п e v i t a Ь l e
forms
а п d t e c ћ n i q u e s
w ћ i c h society expressed its needs and aspirations for improving
а п d e x p a n d i п g p г o d u c t i o n .
In
Great
Britain, in
the
first
ћ a l f
of t ћ е п i n e t e e n t h с е п t u т у capitalism improved and e x p a п d e d
production.
nd just
as
t ћ е
industrialists
in Britain had
to de
stroy the peasantry in order
to attain
h i g ћ e r degree of produc
t i o п
the industrialists, or t ћ е b o ш g e o i s i e
in
Russia ћ а d t
become Yictim of the industrial revolution.
Т ћ е p a r t i c i p a п t s
and the forms wei e different, but t ћ е la\v \Vas t ћ е same
in
both
cases.
In
Ь о t ћ instances socialism \vas
i n e v i t a Ь l e - a s а s l o g a п
а п d
pledge,
as f a i t ћ а п d
lofty ideal, and, in fact, as particular
f o r ш
of g o v e r п m e n t а п d O\vnersblp \ v b l c ћ \vould facilitate the
industrial reYolution and make p o s s i Ь l e improvement а п d
е х ·
p a n s i o п of p r o d u c t i o п .
2.
All the r e v o l u t i o п s of past o r i g i п a t e d after п е \ v economic
or social r elationsblps
ћ а d begun to
prevail, and the old politi·
CHARACTER O Т Н REVOLUTION
19
.:;al system
had
e c ~ m e the sole obstacle to further development.
None of these revolutions s o н g h t а п у t ћ i п g other t.han the
destruction of the old political forms and an o p e ~ i n g o.f ~ h e
1vay
for
a l г e a d y
m a t ш e social forces а п d relationsh1ps e ~ I s t : n g
in t ћ е old society. Even
in
those cases
\ v ћ e i e
t ћ е r e Y o l н t ~ o ш s t s
desired something else, s u c ћ
as
t ћ е b н i l d i n g of econom1:: a ~ d
social r e l a t i o n s ћ i p s means of for·ce, as
did
the Ј а с о Ь ш ~ ш
the French
r e v o l н t i o n
t ћ е у
ћ а d
to accept
f a i l ш e
and
S\Vlftly
eliminated.
In
all preYious revolutions, force
and
violence appeared
p r e d o m i п a n t l y as consequence, as an i п s t r н m e п t of _ne'v ~ н t
already prevailing economic
and
social
f ш c e s а п d
r . e l ~ t ю n s h i _ P S ·
Even 1 v ћ е п f о т с е and
v i o l e п c e
surpassed proper
l1m1ts
~ t m n g
t ћ е course of r e v o l u t i o п in
the
i п a l analysis t ћ е
r e v o l u t ю n a r y
forces
ћ а d
to directed toward positive and a t t a i n ~ Ь l e . goal.
these cases t e п o r and despotism
t n i g ћ t ћ а v е
been ш е v н а Ь l е
but solely t e m p o т a r y m a п i f e s t a t i o п s . . .
All so-called bourgeois
r e v o l u t i o п s \ v ћ e t ћ e r a c ћ 1 e v e d
П о т
belmv, i.e.,
\ V i t ћ
p a r t i c i p a t i o п of t ћ е masses as F r ~ n c e
or
from above, i.e., coup d etat
as
in G e r m a п y н n d е г B1smar·ck,
ћ а d to е п d up political democracy. Т ћ а t is u п d e . r s t a п d ~ ~ l e .
T ћ e i r
task \Vas c ћ i e f i y to destioy t ћ е old despotlc pollt.Ical
system, and to
p e т m i t t ћ е e s t a Ь l i s h m e n t
of political
т e l a t ю ~ -
s ћ i p s
\ V ћ i с ћ would adequate for ali·eady existing е с о r ю n н с
and
other
needs, particularly those concerning t ћ е f т е е produc-
t i o п of goods. .
Т ћ е case is e п t i r e l y diffeieilt \vith
c o п t e m p o r a r y
C o m m u ш s t
r e v o l u t i o п s .
These
т e y o l u t i o п s
did not
occur
Ь е с а н s е
ne\V,
let
us say socialist,
r e l a t i o n s ћ i p s
\vere already
e x i s t i п g
in
t ћ е
econ·
· · d
1
d О п the con-
omy,
or
because
c a p н a l l s m
\Vas over eve о р е .
trary.
Т ћ е у
did occur because capitalism was not fully
veloped and because
it \Vas
п о t
а Ь l е
to carry out the
i n d u s t п a l
transfoimation of country.
In
F t - a п c e
capitalism had already prevailed in the economy,
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20
Т Н Е
NEW
CL SS
in social re lationships,
and
even the
p u Ь l i c
conscience p т i o r
t
ш с е р ~ ю ?
of the r e v o l u t ю n . The case is hardly c o m p a r a Ь e
With soctallsm in Russia, China, or Yugoslavia.
The leaders of the Russian r e v o l u t i o п themselves wer e ю v a r e
of this
f a ~ t . Speaking
at the Seventh Congress of the
R u s s i a п
C o m m u ш s t Party March 7, 1918, while the r e v o l u t i o п 1vas
still
in
progress,
Lenin
said:
· · . One of the fundamental differences b e t \ v e e п bourgeois
а п ~ socia ist revolutions is that in bourgeois revolution,
w h ~ c h a п s e s from f e u d a l i s ш , new
e c o n o ш i c
organizations
w l н c 1 graduaiiy с ~ а п g е all aspects of feudai society are pro
gresSively
created
ш
the midst of the old order.
In a c c o ш
p l i s h i п g . this
t ~ s k , e v ~ r y _ b o ш g e o i s
revolution a c c o ш p l i s h e s
aii that
.Is
. r · e q ш r e d
o_f
It:. It. a s t e п s the grmvth of c a p i t a l i s ш .
А
socialist r · e v o l u t ю п
S ш
e п t i r · e l y d i f f e r - e п t s i t п a t i o п .
the.
e x t e п t
that c o u п t r - y \vhich had to b e g i п socialist
r e v o l u t ю i _ I , _ because of the vagaries of
history
is back
1
vard,
the
t r a п s l t l o п
f r - o ш
old capitalist
r e l a t i o п s
to socialist rela
t i o п s is i п c r e a s i п g l y difficult
The
. d i f f e г ~ п c e
Ь е ~ 1 v е е п socialist r e v o l u t i o п s а п d bourgeois
I " e v o l u t ю п s
l1es speCifically
t ћ е
fact t ћ a t . the Iatter case
e s t a Ь l i s h e d forms of capitalist I e l a t i o п s
e x i ~ t
1vhile the s o v i e ~
power-the proletaiiat-does п о t a t t a i п such r e l a t i o п s , if
;ve
exclude t ћ е ш o s t de;reloped forms of c a p i t a l i s ш , 1vhich actually
e п c o ~ p a s s e d smaii
n u ш b e r
of top i п d u s t r i e s
а п d о п l у
very
s c a п t i l y touclled agriculture,
I
quote
Lenin,
but
I could
quote
any leader
of
the Com
munist
e v o l u t i o n and u m e r o u s
other authors,
as
c o n f i r m a t i o п
of the fact that. settled т e l a t i o n s h i p s
did not
exist for the
Pe;v society,
but
t ~ a t
s o m e o п e ,
in this case the "soviet po
1
ver,"
must t ћ e r e f o r e
bUild them. f the
ne1v
"socialist" r e l a t i o п s h i p s
had ~ e e n devel?ped to the fullest in the
country in
i\'hich Com
m u ш s t т e v o l u t ю п 1vas
а Ь i е
to emerge victor-ious, ther·e
1
vould
have
been need
for so many assurances,
d i s s e i t a t i o п s ,
and
efforts embracing the ' Ъ u i l d i п g of socialism."
CH R CTER OF Т Н REVOLUTION
21
This leads to an
a p p a r e п t
c o n t r a d i c t i o п . f tlle conditions
for п е w society 1vere not sufficiently prevalent, tllen wllo
needed the revolution? Moreover, hoiv ;vas the т e ; r o l u t i o п pos
s i Ь l e ?
Ho1v could
it
survive
in
;rie1v of the fact
that
the
п е w
social
r e l a t i o п s h i p s
1vere not yet in the formative process in
the
old
society?
No r e v o l u t i o п
or party
had
ever before set itself
to
the task
of building social r e l a t i o п s h i p s or ne;v society. But this 1vas
the primary objective of the C o m m u п i s t Ievolution.
Communist leaders,
thougll no better
a c q u a i п t e d than
others
with the
la1vs
1vhich g o v ш society, discover·ed that in the coun
t т y in 1vhich
t h e i т
revolution 1vas p o s s i Ь l e , industrialization Nas
also p o s s i Ь l e , particularly when it involved
t т a n s f o r m a t i o n
of
society keeping 1vith their ideological hypothesis.
E x p e r i e п c e
-the success of revolution
u п d e r
u n f a v o т a Ь l e conditions
confirmed this for them; the building of socialism" did like-
1\'ise.
This
s t r · e п g t h e n e d their· illusion
that
they
kne>v
the laws
of social
development.
In
fact, they 1vere
in t Ъ е position of
making Ь l u e p r i n t for ne;v society, and t h e п of s t ю · t i n g to
build
it, making c o п e c t i o n s here and leaving out sometblng
tl1ere, all
the
while
adhering
closely to
their
p l a п s .
I n d u s t т i a l i z a t i o n , as i n e v i t a Ь l e ,
legitimate necessity of
society, and the Communist 1vay of accomplishing it, j o i п e d
forces in t Ъ е c o u п t г i e s of C o r ш n u n i s t revolutions.
However, neither of tllese, though
tl1ey
progressed togetller
and on p a г a l l e l tracks, could achieve success o v e ш i g h t . After
the completion
of
the revolution,
someone
had
to shoulder
the
r e s p o n s i Ь i l i t y
for
industrialization.
the West, tbls
т о l е
1vas
taken over t ћ е economic forces of capitalism l i Ь e r a t e d
from
the despotic political chains, while in the countries of Com
munist
revolutions no
similar forces existed and, thus, tlleir
function had
to taken
over the revolutionary organs
themselves,
the
new authority, that is, the revolutionary party.
In earlier revolutions, revolutionary force and violence be
came
hindrance
to the е с о п о m у as
soor1
as the
old
order 1vas
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22
overthrmvn
In С
. Т Л Е
NEW
CLASS
· o m m u ш s t revolutio 1 f
condition for further d
1
s orce and vio1ence are
Words of earlier revo1ut1. eve ~ р m е щ and even progress. In
the
o n a п e s for·ce and . I
necessary
evil and
' ю ence were on1y
. means to an
end
I h
m u ш s t s force
and
.
1
. · Il t 1vords of Corn-
f
' ю ence are
elev
t d
cu1t and
an
ult to t lofty position
.
1 Ш а t е
с т о а i In
the
t h I
1vh1ch made
up ? ·
pas ' t asses and forces
. ne\v society already xi t d f
t ю n erupted Th С . s ore the revolu-
have
had
to
~ r e a t е
o m m u ш . s t
revo1utions are the fi.r-st 1Vhich
Even as tl
ela ~ e \ v ~ O c 1 e t y
and ne\v social fOI·ces.
le revo
u t ю n s
th
vV
h d .
democracy
after
aii the . es:. 1 ~ ~ v ~ t a Ь l y to end in
the
East, the r evolutions had
; : : : ~ : 7 s а п d
.
н h d r a w a 1 s ,
of
terror а п d v i o 1 e п c e
in
the W despot1sm. The methods
lous, а п d е v е п h i п d r a п c e est b e ~ ~ m ~ п e e d l e s s а п d ridicu
the
r e v o l u t i o п a r i e s а п d
r е т т 1
a ~ c o m p 1 S l н n g the
revo1ution
for
' п t ю n а г у part"
1
case was the opposite.
Not
on1 d"d d ~ e s n the East, t ћ е
East
Ь е с а п s е
the t г a п s f o . 1 . espot1sm c o п t i п u e in the
· п n a t ю n of ш d u s t г ·
t1me, Ь п t ,
as 1ve
shaii see 1ater· t d r e q ш r e d so mucll
t
h · ' 1 aste
l o n c т
aft · d
Ion ad taken
р 1 а с е .
er ustrializa-
TI ere are other basic d1 ff
1
. erences
betw
.
vo u t ю n s
а п d ear1ier ones 1 een o m m u ш s t re-
had reached the point of re ·d. I ~ r revolutions, though t ћ е у
I П e s s 1n an
Were u n a Ь l e
to br·eak out with economy and society,
We now knmv the e n e г a l cond" . о и t a d v a п t a g e o u s conditions.
and
success
of
г e v o l u t i o п
Н
I t ю n s
necessary
for
the
e r п p t i o n
addition to these g e п e r a i
o;e;er,
e ~ e r y revolution has, in
make its planning and е х е c ~ n I t ю п ~ , Its pecuiiarites w h i c ћ
w
c u t ю n
p o s s i Ь l e
. ar, or more precisely, n a t i o п a i с о Ј .
z а t ю п , was u n n e c e s s a г y for ast I a p ~ e of t ћ е state o r g a п i -
Iarger ones. Until no,v
ћ о w
; . e v o l u t ю n s , at Ieast for the
for the victory
of С о ~ ~ v e r , t
Is
ћ ~ s
been basic
c o n d i t i o л
m u ш s t
r e v o l u t ю n s т ь ·
.
. Is
Is
е v е п valid
1
t
1
CHARACTER OF Tl fE REVOLUTION
23
for C h i п a ; true, there
the
revolution began prior to
the
Ј а р а -
п е s е i п v a s i o n , but it c o п t i n u e d for an entire decade to spread
а п d finally to
e m e г g e
v i c t ш i o п s with
t ћ е
е п d of t ћ е war. The
S p a п i s ћ
revolution
of
1936,
1 v b l c ћ could ћ а v е
been
an
excep
tion, did п о t have time to transfor·m itself i п t o а purely Com
rnunist revolution,
а п d
theiefore,
п e v e r
emerged victorious.
Т ћ е
reason
1var
1vas necessary for tlle C o m m u п i s t .
r e v o l u t i o п ,
or
t ћ е
do1vnfall of
t ћ е
stat.e machinery,
n ш s t s o u g ћ t
in the
immaturity of t ћ е е с о п о m у and society. s e r i o п s collapse
of system, а п d p a r t i c u l a т l y i п war 1 v h i c Ъ ћ а s Ь е е п u п s u c c e s s -
ful for tlle exist.ing
т u l i n g
circles and state system, small but
well-organized а п d disciplined group is i п e v i t a Ь l y а Ь l е to take
a u t l ю r i t y in its
h a п d s .
T ћ u s at
the
time
of
t ћ е Oct.ober
Revolution
the
Communist
Par·ty ћ а d about 80,000 members. Т ћ е Yugoslav C o m m п п i s t
Р а н у began the 1941 revolution with about 10,000 members.
grasp po1ver, the support а п d active p a т t i c i p a t i o n of at 1east
part of t ћ е people
is
necessary, but in every case the party
which leads t ћ е revolution а п d a s s п m e s power is minority
g г o u p
т e l y i п g
exclusively on exceptionally f a v o r a Ь l e condi
tions.
F u r t ћ e п n o r · e
such
party c a п n o t
majority
group
п n t i l it becomes the permanently e s t a Ь l i s h e d authority.
The
accomplishment of s u c ћ а grandiose t a s k - t ћ e destruc
tion of social order and
t ћ е
building of
п е w
society when
conditions for s u c ћ undertaking are r ю t p r o p t o п s in the
е с о n о ш у
or
society-is task а Ь l е to a t t т a c t о п l у а minority,
and
at that, only those
1 v ћ о
believe fanat.ically in its p o s s i Ь i l i t i e s .
Special conditions
а п d
particular party
are basic charac
teristics of
C o ш m u п i s t
r e v o l u t i o п s .
The
a c h i e v e m e п t
of
е v е г у т e v o l п t i o п ,
as well as of every
victor·y in 1var d e ш a п d s c e п t r a l i z a t i o n of all forces. A c c o r d i п g
to the
M a l t l ш s i a п
theory, the
F r · e п c h
r e v o l u t i o п 1vas the fir·st
w h i c Ъ all
t ћ е resources of people at. 1var 1vere placed
the hands of the authorities: people, food, c l o t ћ i п g . T ћ i s ш u s t
t ћ е
case to an е v е п greater degree in C o m m u п i s t "im-
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Т Н Е N E Т V CL SS
24
mature
revolution: not only all material means but all i n ~
tellectual means must fall
into
the hands of the party, and
the
party itself I Ш I S t become politically,
and as an
organization,
c e п t r a l i z e d to the fullest e x t e п t . О п l у C o m m u п i s t parties,
politically
u п i t e d ,
firmly grouped
a r o u п d
the c e п t e r ,
а п d
pos
s e s s i п c r i d e п t i c a l ideolocrical
v i e > v p o i п t s ,
are
а Ы е to
carry out
such
а т e v o l u t i o п .
C e п t r a l i z a t i o п
of all forces
а п d
means as well as some
kind
of political u п i t y
of the revolutionary
parties
are
essential
c o ~
d i t i o п s for every successful т e v o l u t i o п . F о т
the
C o r n m н m s t
г e v o l н t i o n these
c o п d i t i o п s
а т е е v е п m о т е
i r n p o т t a п t ,
since
f г o m t l т e
very
b e c r i п п i п c r
tlle Communists exclude every
o t l l e т
'
independent
political g r o н p or party f г o m b e i п g
an
ally of
their р а г t у .
At the same time they
demand н п i f o т m i t y
of all
v i e > v p o i п t s , i п c l н d i п g
pr·actical political
vieiVS as >vell
as theo
retical, pllilosopllical, and е v е п moral vie>vs. Т Ъ е fact t l т a t
the
l e f t o f c e п t e т
SR s (Socialist-Revolutionaries)
p a т t i c i p a t e d
in
t l т e
October Revolution, а п d t l т a t i п d i v i d н a l s а п d groups