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University of Reading

Business School

Organizational Behavior

Coursework Essay 1

What are the benefits and dangers of motivation theory for contemporary managerial practice?

TO: Ismael Al-Amoudi

FROM: STUDENT NAME STUDENT NUMBER

Submitted: Wednesday 7th March 2007, 12:00

Word Count: 2,658

(Including abstract Excluding bibliography)

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Abstract

In order to analyse the impact of benefits and dangers motivational theory exerts on contemporary

managerial practice, it is important to analyse what is meant by contemporary managerial practice in

the first place. Ok Once the background analysis as to what contemporary managerial practice is, theessay will develop in the attempt of analysing the benefits and dangers mainstream motivational

theories cause on modern management. The contemporary managerial practice will be depicted

mainly through the Marxist and Taylorist perspective. However in order to portray a rather more

modern view, an interview by George Harris (2005) with Peter Drucker, will be used to extract

certain elements of twenty-first century management. Mainstream motivational theories will, above

all, be exposed through the concepts portrayed by Maslow, Vroom and McGregor. The essay will

ultimately hypothesize that the danger of motivational theories is not in the theoretical aspect itself,

but in the practical application of the theories adopted by management.

In the attempt of analysing the benefits and dangers of motivational theory causes to

contemporary managerial practice, the essay will evolve by analysing two central arguments.

Primarily a discussion will aim at portraying what the contemporary managerial practice really is.

Once the contemporary managerial practice has been analysed, motivational theory will be analysed

within that context, trying to unveil the benefits and dangers the theories exert. The essay will

adopt a contemporary time frame, ranging from the works on Scientific Management by Taylor at the

start of 20th Century to the modern application of motivation theories at the dawn of the 21st Century.

Good. You are right to define the time frame corresponding to what you mean by contemporary.

Marx states that workers experience alienation, other theorists acknowledge the fact that a distinct

separation between workers and managers exists. This separation between the two employee

categories creates the need for managers to motivate, in order to achieve the best possible output from

their labor power (Knights et all, 2007). The essay will, therefore be based on the conception that

motivation is an empowering tool (Harris, 2005), and from this conception it will analyse the two

central arguments previously mentioned.

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Karl Marx famously stated that men make history, but not under conditions of their own

choosing (Knights et al, 2007, pg. 58), through Marxs quotation the core conception of

contemporary managerial practice can be portrayed: people need coordination. Contemporary

managerial practice developed as significant number of workers [started to become] employed by a

single capitalist (Braverman, 1974, pg. 59). In order for the capitalist to achieve coordination, he

needed a system of guidance and control for his labor power. However in modern managerial

practice, power lies within a group of capitalists: the shareholders (Harris, 2005). It can therefore be

said, that to a certain extent, twenty-first century capitalism sees the managerial force itself as part of

the labor force, and the shareholders as the capitalists. Agreed. Another (post-marxist) conception is

that the dichotomy worker-owner is less salient than in the 19th Century, in part because of the advent

of a class of rich employees who represent the interests of owners and in part because of the mass

ownership of many firms by a large amount of upper middle class people.

With the large growth in organizations the US experienced during the early twentieth century,

Taylorism developed as a management method and [way for] organization of labor (Braverman,

1974, pg. 85). Taylors approach was an attempt to apply the methods of science to the increasingly

complex problems of the control of labor (Braverman, 1974, pg. 86). With the contemporary

managerial practice becoming more complex, and with more labor power to be controlled and

coordinated, new methods to do so had to be found. Taylors piece rate wage system can be said to be

both a control method, as well as a motivating method. Absolutely. Therefore taken into consideration

the basic conception of capitalism, expressed by Marx, and its modern prospective in the twenty-first

century, it can be said that contemporary managerial practice, is the practice of control and

coordination. Motivational methods derived from mainstream motivational theories, can be seen as

the means to achieve coordination and efficient productivity (Knights, 2007).

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Having depicted in general terms the basic structure of the contemporary managerial

practice, the essay will now develop in analysing the benefits and dangers motivational theories

have on it. The essay will develop through the conviction that contemporary managerial world still

heavily relies upon theories exposed by Marx and Taylor in past centuries.

For the man who is extremely and dangerously hungry, no other interest exists but food

(Maslow, 1987, pg. 37), if this quotation is taken literally, then it has little significance. However if it

is interpreted as a metaphor for human behavior, then its application is immense, because humans

seem to be motivated solely by their needs (Maslow, 1987). Ok Maslows theory implies that

human needs must be satisfied (Maslow, 1987). If managers know the basic needs that must be

guaranteed satisfaction for their workers then most likely they will act to provide human needs

satisfaction, this can be considered a benefit for managerial practice. However according to Maslow,

if workers are guaranteed a particular need, then they will develop the necessity to satisfy another

need, most likely even more demanding for management to guarantee than the previous. If the

physiological needs are relatively well gratified, there then emerges a new set of needs (Maslow,

1987, pg. 39), in a modern workplace environment, basic needs, such as physiological and safety

needs tend to be satisfied. However the importance for managerial practice resides in attempting to

deliver satisfaction of the more complex needs, belongingness esteem and self-actualization

needs. If the need for belongingness where to be analysed, it might be said that this need might

never be reached at lower levels of an organisation. According to Marx at a blue-collar worker level,

alienation from others might be experienced; therefore, management will not be able to provide

means to encourage the satisfying of belongingness needs. Therefore, although Maslows theory

might bring the benefit of knowing certain needs exist, one danger management might encounter, is

that it will be hard to apply this theory to all levels of an organization. The achievement of human

needs also vary according to which cultural background a person might belong to. Therefore the idea

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that human needs are standard between all people, is too simplistic, and could become a danger for

contemporary managerial practice. Yes. This is convincing.

A common danger of motivational theories, is that of cultural boundaries. Maslows theory

certainly can be afflicted by such dangers. Two different cultures may provide two completely

different ways of satisfying a particular desire (Maslow, 1987, pg. 22). In a global economy, if a

multinational organization adopts similar motivational techniques in every nation it operates in, then

it risks to create a malfunctioning method of motivation. However some research seems to suggest

that differences in desire of needs is not as different as it could be thought to be. Hair, Ghiselli and

Porter (1963) conducted a cultural study to demonstrate how managers from different cultural

backgrounds rate needs on Maslows hierarchy of needs. The results were striking: Spanish

managers were nor appreciably different from German managers or English managers their reports

of their motivations (Vroom, 1965, pg. 22). Therefore, although, there is research, which seems to

suggest that cultural differences might not be present at a high degree, I believe that how managers

implement methods of exploiting human needs is significantly different according to culture. The

danger, for example, is that the actual meaning of self-actualization might differ according to

cultural background. This has a significant impact on managerial practice, and if not managed

correctly it could present a danger to the organisation. Ok. Am I right to guess that you use danger

in inverted comas to suggest that it may be identified as a danger by some groups but not others?

A further danger, which Maslows theory may exert on modern managerial practice, is that it

disregards, to a certain degree, the effect of the environment on human motivation. Human

motivation rarely actualised itself in behavior except in relation to the situation and to other people

(Maslow, 1987, pg. 28). The effect of workplace relationships differs greatly from the type of

organization one analyses. Therefore if the organization in question is a small or medium enterprise

(SME), employees might experience greater belongingness, because of more frequent and closer

contacts with co-workers. However if the organization in question is a large multinational

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corporation, then belongingness needs might be harder to achieve, and alienation might be

experienced even at managerial level (Knights, 2007). Therefore the danger for managerial practice

resides in how theories are applied to practice. Motivational theories will be adopted differently in a

SME than they would in a large multinational corporation.

Maslows theory provides a core foundation for understanding motivation through human

needs. However, although it can be used as a fundamental theory, its dangers are evident, since it

seems to be too generic for effective implementation in managerial practice. However it is hard to

find mainstream motivational theories, which do not exceed in generalisation, for obvious practical

reasons.

Vroom states that motivation in essence is the moment in which the person is able to perform

or not perform the act at will (Vroom, 1965, pg. 7) [sounds very much like (a certain conception of)

freedom to me]. Motivational theories seem to all derive from general generalizations about human

behavior, Maslow seems to suggest that human needs are innate, on the other hand Vroom suggests

that motivation is achieved through interaction, as well as through valence expectancy and

instrumentality (Knights, 2007). I believe the greatest beneficial effect of Vrooms theory on

managerial practice, is the concept of valence (Vroom, 1992). The benefit would consist in the fact

that if management knows people are driven by what they expect the outcome to be, then a method

might be conceived to encourage employees in believing their actions will be ultimately rewarded.

By doing so employees will be motivated, according to Vroom, only the expectations they develop

about their work (syntax?). This concept guarantees a great benefit for managerial practice, mainly

because motivation can be achieved through little managerial effort. For example motivation could be

achieved via great encouragement speeches, and reward systems.

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However the danger for managerial practice, exposed by Vrooms theory, is immense. If

employees develop low expectations from their work, then they will be unmotivated, and productivity

will ultimately drop (Knights, 2007).

Vrooms theory seems to suggest that every individual has an individualistic approach on

motivation; in other words, individuals drive their own motivation. However this is not always the

case in mainstream motivational theories. Douglas McGregor, on the other hand, seems to suggest

that management has the stronger impact on employee motivation, or in more general terms: some

people have a significant impact on other people (Knights, 2007).

McGregor tries to analyse how to tap the unrealised potential present in human resources

(McGregor, 1960, pg. 4). McGregors Theory X and Theory Y can be said to be a beneficial tool for

managerial practice, because it essentially portrays what can be expected from employees, and

managerial practice styles can consequently be derived from what is expected.

Theory Xs is based upon the general assumption that the average worker is passive,

requires intervention from management to be persuaded and motivated (Knights, 2007). In the

modern managerial environment theory X can be said to still have a strong influence on managerial

decisions, to a certain extent. In fact, if the incentive schemes used to persuade employees in

achieving target goals are analysed, they are merely objectives set by management in order to direct

and coordinate the workers efforts. The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid

responsibility, has relatively little ambition, wants security above all (McGregor, 1960, pg. 34). If

these beliefs McGregor exposes in his Theory X are taken into account in the modern workplace, then

it might seem that managerial practice has the complete responsibility of directing and controlling the

labor force. However evidence also tends to demonstrate that twenty-first century managerial practice

is moving more towards a position of individual empowerment (Harris, 2005). Therefore a modern

manager might be described more as a Theory Y type of individual rather than a Theory X, and if

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managerial practice were to relay upon Theory X assumptions too heavily it could comprise danger

for the whole enterprise.

However if some of the aspects expressed in McGregors Theory X were not true, then

managerial control systems would not be present in companies (McGregor, 1960). Therefore the

benefits, which could be derived from McGregors mainstream theory is that it enforces management

not to completely bypass the assumption that some employees might need and want guidance and

coordination. However it should also create awareness that some employees might be more ambitious,

and require a degree of freedom to work at their best. McGregors theory therefore greatly benefits

managerial practice, in that it provides a core knowledge for managers, so that they can direct their

managerial style in accordance to the type of employee they are faced with (Al-Amoudi, 2007).

However, I believe, that evidence exists which suggests that in the modern organisation

Theory X beliefs are still present yes. An example would be stock option plans for managers. If

Theory Y completely dominates, then theoretically there will not be the need to encourage managers

work via stock option plans. Therefore the benefit in knowing the application of McGregors theories,

relies on the fact that it allows management to make better decision-making in regard of which

motivational method to choose. However the danger might consist in relaying too heavily upon one of

the two theories more than the other. This would compromise the stability or performance of the

company, because it would not take into consideration that both Theory X and Theory Y types of

employee exist, and that both require different styles of managerial style. Ultimately, it is also true,

that the needs at different levels of the organisation are extremely different (Knight, 2007). In fact, a

production worker will have different needs, and ambitions, then a top manager, and if management

generalizes McGregors theories, this could consist in an enormous danger for the entire

organization. I agree. In your view, what causes these differences in needs?

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Taken Taking into consideration all the benefits and dangers which have been analyzed, I

believe a common danger to managerial practice, is found in all theories. Motivational methods tend

to be dictated from top management. Therefore, I believe a great danger resides in the fact that when

management turnover takes place, for example a change in the CEO of the company, all the

motivational methods knowledge leaves with him. Well, in big firms, CEOs are often trained in

similar ways. If this is the case, chances are that the next CEO will use the same recipes. Motivational

theories in fact, do not provide practical applications; therefore if the previous management leaves no

practical knowledge, the new management taking over the position might dramatically restructure

motivation methods based on completely new motivational theories. This would consist in a great

danger for the organisation. Therefore the greatest danger might reside in the fact of basing a

practical discipline as management is, on theoretical approaches, and leaving it up to the present

management at the time to develop practical applications of those theories. It can therefore be

speculated that the danger for managerial practice, is not in the theories themselves, but rather in the

practical application by the managerial force, which adopts them (Best, 2000). Yes. Another aspect of

the gap between the theory and practice of motivation is that theories can at best complement,

without replacing, the tacit knowledge of her employees that a (paternalist) manager may have.

Possibilities are not recognized, innovating efforts are not undertaken, until theoretical

conceptions lay a groundwork for them (McGregor, 1960, pg. 54). The essay could be easily

summarized through McGregors quotation. In fact, motivational theories seem to have benefited

contemporary managerial practice through the provision of a groundwork from which management

styles can develop in motivating employees. However the dangers seem to derive when the

theoretical background is not applied in accordance with the managerial environment it is

established in. Nikolas Roses statement, based on Marxist beliefs, that: in work, it would appear, the

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worker is no more than a factor of production, just one factor among many caught up in a process

whose sole rationale is profit (Rose, 1989, pg. 55), seems to be slowly(?)ing fading as a conception.

In twenty-first century management, although Taylorist and Marxist beliefs are still present, the

emphasis seems to have shifted more towards employee empowerment, namely McGregors Theory

Y, as a means of motivation (Harris, 2005). Ultimately I believe that the benefits and dangers do

not reside in the motivational theories themselves, but in how management applies the theories to

everyday managerial practice. Therefore it can be said that it is up to managerial practice to avoid the

dangers motivational theories can cause, and seek to achieve the benefits they might bring to the

enterprise.

70%

This is a very good essay. Clear. Well-structured. Nicely written. You address the question

and have skilfully avoided drawing an empty catalogue of theories of motivation.

References & Bibliography

ALVESSON, M and Willmott, H, 1992, Critical Management Studies, Sage, London

AL-AMOUDI, I., 2007, Lectures: Motivation, and Leadership, Organizational Behaviour module,

University of Reading, UK

BEST, M.H., 2000, The New Competition, Harvard University Press, US

BRAVERMAN, H., 1974, Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of Work in the 20th

Century, Monthly Review Press, London

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CAREY, A., 1987, The Hawthorne Studies: A Radical Criticism, American Sociological Review,

32(4) pages 403 416

EDWARDS, R., 1979, Contested Terrain The Transformation of the Workplace in the 20 th Century,

Basic Books Inc., New York

FILLER, L., There's No Better Time Than the Present to Consider Offering Commuter Benefits,

Benefits & Compensation Digest; Jan2007, Vol. 44 Issue 1, p40-43, 4p

HARRIS, G., The Post capitalist Executive: An Interview with Peter F. Drucker, in Jossey Bass

Reader, Management Skills, 2005, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, USA

KNIGHTS, D., and Willmott, H., et al, 2007, Introducing Organizational Behaviour and

Management, Thomson Learning, London

MASLOW, A.H., 1987, Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row, New York

MCGREGOR, D., 1960, The Human Side of Enterprise, McGraw Hill Education, New York

ROSE, N., 1989, Governing the Soul The Shaping of the Private Self, Routledge, London

SNAPE, E., and Redman, T., 1994, Managing Managers: Strategies and Techniques for Human

Resource Management, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK

VROOM, V.H., and Deci, E.L., 1992, Management and Motivation, Penguin Education, New York

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