7) Fact, Inference, Judgement

Contents

I. INTRODUCTION

II. DESCRIPTION OF THE TERMS INVOLVEDA. FACT

B. INFERENCE

C. JUDGEMENT

III. MINI EXERCISEA. FACT

B. INFERENCE

C. JUDGEMENT

IV. GENERAL QUESTION PATTERN

V. SOLVED EXAMPLES

Fact, Inference, Judgement

I. INTRODUCTION

FIJ questions are a part of the chapter on Critical Reasoning in the Verbal

section. F stands for FACT, I for INFERENCE and J for JUDGEMENT. In

these questions, you are expected to categorize the given sentences as

belonging to one of the three types (FACT, INFERENCE or JUDGEMENT)

on the basis of the definitions provided for these types at the beginning of

the question.

II. DESCRIPTION OF THE TERMS INVOLVED

A. FACT

Page 1 of 18Fact, Inference, Judgement

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1. USUAL DEFINITION

2. DETAILED INTERPRETATION

1. USUAL DEFINITION


A fact is a statement about some information either seen or heard and

is open to discovery or verification.

A fact is an assertive statement that describes something which can be

verified by observation, measurement and calculation or otherwise.

A fact does not depend upon the personal opinion or reasoning of the

author.

For example, “That girl was wearing a red dress.” is a fact because it

states that which was observeddiscovered through sight, already

verified by someone and in turn ‘verifiable’ or ‘discoverable’ by others

too. All such direct experiences are deemed to be facts.

Also, these statements need to be understood the way they are used in

common language and not in any special sense. In other words, do not

question whether ‘red’ is an interpretation of something else. ‘Red’

merely means ‘the colour red’ as used in common language.

B. INFERENCE

An Inference is a statement made on the basis of a fact.

An inference is a conclusion about something that is derived or drawn

from a fact. It is the application of some logical reasoning from factual

knowledge. An inference is not a simple statement of information or

knowledge, nor can it be directly discovered as it depends on some

logical reasoning based on fact. But it can be verified because of the

facts supporting it.

For example, “The girl wearing the red dress likes the colour red.” is

an inference because the statement draws a conclusion about the




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1. USUAL DEFINITION


girl’s liking for the colour red on the basis of the fact that she is

wearing a red dress. It is possible that what is stated in the inference

is not true. But we are merely concerned with categorizing the

sentence, and not with the verification of its authenticity.

All such statements are to be classified as inferences. To explain a

little more, it is possible to verify this statement by observing what

she wears every day. If we see her wearing the red dress (fact) more

often than not, the above conclusion stands verified. Likewise, all

inferences will be based on facts.

A few people may still disagree and say that it may simply be a

coincidence that she has more red dresses than of other colours.

Hence, what we need to decide is: presented with the facts (of the

girl’s frequently wearing red) whether most people are likely to agree

that ‘she likes red’ or only few people are likely to agree with it. If we

decide that most people are likely to agree with it, it is to be termed as

an inference. If we feel only very few people are likely to agree with it,

it is not an inference but a personal opinion.

C. JUDGEMENT

A Judgement is an opinion that states approval or disapproval of any

event, object or situation.

A judgement is usually a personal opinion. It implies some level of

approval or disapproval of any event, object or situation.

A judgement is not a simple statement of information or knowledge,

nor is it directly verifiable/ discoverable as it depends on personal

reasoning and not on logical reasoning on the basis of a fact.

A judgement can also be a conclusion drawn out of logical reasoning

on the basis of some fact, but it differs from an inference in that an

inference is likely to be true for most people, but a judgment is likely




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to be true for fewer people, hence we can term it as someone’s or a

few people’s personal opinion.

For example, “That girl looks very beautiful in the red dress.” is a

judgment because it is a personal opinion that is stated regarding the

girl’s appearance. The statement about the girl’s beauty (especially

‘very beautiful’) cannot be directly discovered/verified as opinions

can differ. The statement is also not drawn from any logical reasoning

that is universally acceptable. Though it may look like an inference, it

is not necessary that most people are likely to agree with this

statement.

Such statements, with which only one person (personal opinion) or a

few people are likely to agree, are to be categorized as judgments.

III. MINI EXERCISE

To understand each classification, let us take an example of each type.

A. FACT

Example :

“The population of Tokyo exceeds 12 million.” This statement is a

fact because it states direct statistical information which has

already been verified. Such information can be further verified too.

Hence, it is a Fact.

Example :

“Tokyo is also one of Japan’s 47 prefectures, but is called a

metropolis rather than a prefecture.” This statement is a fact

because it states something that is known and experienced by

everyone and involves no logical processes or reasoning in it.




Example :

“Pakistan lies to the north west of the Indian Territory.” This

statement is a fact because it describes geographical information

which can be verified. Hence it is a Fact. Similarly statements which

describe historical, economic, political, scientific, or any other type

of information that is already verified or can be verified are

classified as facts.

B. INFERENCE

Example :

“Property prices in the area have increased because the new flyover

provides easy access to the city.”

This statement is an inference because it is a conclusion drawn by

the author on the basis of the fact that the new flyover makes the

area more accessible. The word “because” denotes direct reasoning,

hence it usually helps in identifying an Inference. In this sentence

we have a fact and an inference. Since the emphasis of the entire

statement is on the first part i.e. the inference and not on the latter

part which is the fact, the sentence is termed as an inference rather

than a fact. ‘The property prices have increased’ is not directly

discovered or verified, but one needs the property rates of the past

and in comparison come to the conclusion that they have increased.

Without this supporting data, one cannot say that the prices have

‘increased’.

Example :

“According to the 2001 census it seems that people prefer living in

urban areas more as compared to 1991.”




This statement is a conclusion based on census data. “According to”

shows that the conclusion is based on some data, but the words “it

seems” make it clear that this statement cannot be directly

discovered or verified and hence it is an inference. The supporting

data here will be Census 2001 and an earlier census data.

Comparing the two, the increase in population in the urban areas

can be verified. Whether this increase denotes a preference or not is

debatable, but most people are likely to agree that it shows a

preference (for whatever reasons!). Hence it is not a judgment but

an inference.

Example :

“McDonald’s has been in the burger business for over 40 years and

so they can beat the competition.”

This statement draws a conclusion based on the fact that

McDonald’s has over 40 years of experience in the burger business.

Analyzing the data of 40 years it is possible to verify that

McDonald’s has time and again beaten the competition in the

market. This fact will support the inference that this time also, ‘it

can beat’ the competition. As most people will agree with the

prediction based on this data, it can be termed as an inference

rather than a judgment. One can identify the reasoning by the

words “and so”. You should look out for words like so, because,

hence which denote reasoning as they are very useful in identifying

inferences.

C. JUDGEMENT

Example :

“Vincent Van Gogh’s selfportrait is one of the most amazing




paintings in the world.”

This statement is a judgement because it is a personal opinion

about the quality of the painting. The adjective “most amazing”

indicates this and tells you that this statement cannot be verified,

and not everyone will necessarily agree with it. Also it is not based

on any reasoning. Look out for adjectives like this which can help

you identify a personal opinion and term them as judgements.

Example :

“Tendulkar should not have played a rash shot at the beginning of

his innings.”

*The words “should not” indicate disapproval. You can see that this

is a personal opinion not supported by any reasoning. Hence it is a

judgement. Look out for words, like these (should, should not, must,

must not), which indicate approval or disapproval since they make

it easy to identify a judgement.

Example :

“It is not right on the part of any political party to demand the

discrimination of a community based on caste or religion.”

This statement again describes a personal opinion about the

appropriateness of the actions of a political party. Hence, it is a

judgement. The words “is not right” indicate disapproval. Look out

for similar combinations.

IV. GENERAL QUESTION PATTERN




A. Usually this question type comprises a set of statements with instructions at

the start, along with a definition of the terms involved i.e. fact; inference;

judgement.

B. Each question will usually have three or four statements.

C. The options will specify the classification of the statements given in which F

stands for FACT, I for INFERENCE, J for JUDGEMENT

D. You need to choose the option in which the statements are correctly classified.

A. Facts, which deal with pieces of information that one has heard, seen or read,

and which are open to discovery or verification (the answer option indicates such a statement with an “F”).

B. Inferences, which are conclusions drawn about the unknown, on the basis of the known (the answer option indicates such a statement with an “I”).

C. Judgements, which are opinions that imply approval or disapproval of persons,

objects, situations and occurrences in the past, present, or future (the answer option indicates such a statement with a “J”).

Directions: Each question has a set of four sequentially ordered

statements. Each statement can be classified as one of the following:

Example 1:

1. The youth do not approve of the current lot of politicians because the newspapers are full of stories about young men

and women campaigning against politicians.

2. Young people should not enter politics because it is a dirty game.

3. Only 35 % of the youth population voted in the last elections.

Options:

(1) FIJ (2) FJI (3) IJF (4) FII (5) IIF

Explanation:




The first statement is a conclusion drawn by the author about what

the youth do not approve of, based on the fact that the newspapers

carry stories about their campaigns. Therefore statement a is an

Inference.

HINT:

The word “because” is a clue as it denotes reasoning. This can be

used to identify Inferences in many cases.

The second statement is a judgment as it expresses a person’s

opinion. A clue in the second statement to it being a judgment is the

phrase ‘should not’ which indicates disapproval.

The third statement is clearly a fact as it can be verified from some

election records. You can see that there is no reasoning or personal

opinion involved.

Hence, the correct answer is option 3.

Example 2:

1. The lack of a strong world body that could solve international

disputes had contributed to the Second World War.

2. The next world war will be so destructive that it will wipe out

the world.

3. The First World War resulted in a huge loss of life and

property.

Options:

(1) FFJ (2) FJJ (3) IJF (4) FJI (5) IIF

Explanation:

The second part of Statement 1 is an inference about the cause of




the Second World War derived from the fact that there was no

strong world body. This statement cannot be proven factually as it

could be one of the reasons why the Second World War started. So

this is an Inference.

HINT:

Now you can eliminate options 1, 2 and 4. This makes solving faster.

Remember to make maximum use of the elimination technique.

The second statement is a person’s opinion on what will happen if

there is another World War. This statement cannot be proven from

facts neither can be inferred. So this is a Judgement.

The third statement informs about a fact of the First World War i.e.

it resulted in a huge loss of life and property. This statement can be

verified. So this is a Fact.

Hence, the right answer is option 3.

Example 3:

1. A batsman who can hit sixes is the only one suitable for Twenty 20 cricket.

2. There are only twenty overs per inning in Twenty 20 cricket.

3. Batsmen are under pressure to score from each ball in

Twenty 20 because there are only 20 overs.

Options:

(1) FIJ (2) JFI (3) IJF (4) FIF (5) FJF

Explanation:

In the first statement a person has expressed his/her opinion on the

most suitable batsman for Twenty 20 cricket. Understand, that this




cannot be proven, as being able to hit sixes may not be the only skill

required to be a suitable Twenty 20 Cricket batsman. Therefore

statement 1 is a judgment.

HINT:

It is very easy to identify a Judgement. It will generally have an

adjective and will express a personal opinion.

The second statement is clearly a fact of the Twenty 20 type of

cricket as it mentions some knowledge that can be verified.

The third statement is an inference based on the fact that there are

only 20 overs. Hence, this statement is an inference.


HINT:

Even if you are not sure about one of the statements, you can still

arrive at the answer by identifying the other two statements and

then eliminating the options.

REMEMBER:

While solving these questions bear the following points in mind:

Get complete conceptual clarity about what Facts, Inferences, and

Judgements are, as defined in the instructions.

Get rid of any preconceived definitions you might have about what

facts, inferences and judgements are.

For accuracy and speed, use the options to decide how each

statement has to be evaluated (e.g., the available options ask you to

evaluate the first statement in the above question only as Judgement

vs. Inference.)




Ignore any apparent relation between any two statements. Each

sentence is classified on its own merit and not in relation to another

statement in the same question.

V. SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 4:

[CAT 2006]

Each of the questions below has a set of sequentially ordered

statements. Each statement can be classified as one of the following:

1. Facts, which deal with the pieces of information that one has heard, seen or read, and which are open to discovery or

verification (the answer option indicates such a statement

with an ‘F’)

2. Inferences, which are conclusions drawn about the unknown,

on the basis of the known (the answer option indicates such a

statement with an ‘I’)

3. Judgements, which are opinions that imply approval or

disapproval of persons, objects, situations and occurrences in

the past, the present or the future (the answer option

indicates such a statement with a ‘J’)

Select the answer option that best describes the set of statements.

1. Inequitable distribution of all kinds of resources is certainly one of the strongest and most sinister sources of conflict.

2. Even without war, we know that conflicts continue to trouble

us they only change in character.

3. Extensive disarmament is the only insurance for our future;

imagine the amount of resources that can be released and

redeployed.

4. The economies of the industrialized western world derive

20% of their income from the sale of all kinds of arms.




(1) IJJI (2) JIJF (3) IIJF (4) JIIF (5) IJIF

Explanation:

The first sentence is to be evaluated as a judgement. ‘Most sinister’

is neither verified nor verifiable. It is clearly an opinion, making it a

Judgement. This eliminates options 1, 3 and 5.

Evaluating options 2 and 4, one has to decide whether statement 3

is an inference or a judgement. ‘Only insurance’ cannot be verified;

it is a personal opinion that there are no other possibilities.

Therefore it is a judgement, which eliminates option 4.


Example 5:

[XAT 2010]

1. Proper allocation of resources is required for the overall

development of our economy.

2. Government has decided to allocate the gas from KG basin to power fertiliser sector.

3. A court decision against the declared policy guidelines can

result in government intervention in the form of an appeal.

4. Some section of the society may consider this decision as a

deliberate attempt to protect some private interest.

(1) IFIJ (2) FFJJ (3) JFJI (4) JFFI (5) FFII

Explanation:

Statement ii) has been identified as a Fact in all the answer options.

Statement i) with the word ‘our’ cannot be a Fact. Eliminate options

2 and 5. Statement iii) states a possible outcome of an action and

cannot be termed as a fact. Eliminate option 4. Statement iv) uses a




lot of strongly opinionated words and hardly any data ‘...may

consider this decision as a deliberate attempt to protect some

private interest.’ This makes it a more suitable Judgement than an

inference. Statement i) with ‘proper allocation of resources’ and

‘overall development’ and statement iii) with ‘court decision’,

‘declared policy guideline’ and ‘government intervention in the

form of an appeal’ have logical inferences derived from data. Both

these statements can be classified as inferences rather than

judgements. Therefore IFIJ is the correct allocation of statements.


Example 6:

[CAT 2006]

1. We should not be hopelessly addicted to an erroneous belief

that corruption in India is caused by the crookedness of

Indians.

2. The truth is that we have more red tape we take eightynine

days to start a small business, Australians take two.

3. Red tape leads to corruption and distorts a people’s character.

4. Every red tape procedure is a point of contact with an official, and such contacts have the potential to become opportunities

for money to change hands.

(1) JFIF (2) JFJJ (3) JIJF (4) IFJF (5) JFJI

Explanation:

Several things make statement 1 a judgement – 'should not be',

'hopelessly addicted', 'erroneous belief', and ‘crookedness of

Indians’; none of them are facts, nor are they conclusions based on

fact.

Statement 2 is a combination of inference and facts. ‘We have more

red tape’ is an inference, but ‘we take 89 days etc.” is a fact. Since




the thrust of the statement is based on the facts it has to be

classified as a fact. Therefore, options 3 and 4 are eliminated.

Options 1, 2 and 5 remain. Statement 3 is clearly a judgement or an

opinion and is classified in both options 2 and 5 as a judgement.

Eliminate option 1.

Statement 4 could be either a judgement or an inference. The first

part of sentence 4 is a fact. In the second part, ‘potential’ is inferred

based on facts/experiences. Therefore statement 4 is classified as

an inference. This eliminates option 2.


Example 7:

[CAT 2006]

1. According to all statistical indications, the Sarva Shiksha

Abhiyan has managed to keep pace with its ambitious goals.

2. The Midday Meal Scheme has been a significant incentive for

the poor to send their little ones to school, thus establishing

the vital link between healthy bodies and healthy minds.

3. Only about 13 million children in the age group of 6 to 14

years are out of school.

4. The goal of universalisation of elementary education has to be

a prerequisite for the evolution and development of our

country.

(1) IIFJ (2) JIIJ (3) IJFJ (4) IJFI (5) JIFI

Explanation:

Statement 1 is an inference. “According to statistical indications ….”

tells us that what follows is based on statistics, hence an inference.

This eliminates options 2 and 5.




In statement 2 (to be evaluated as Judgement or Inference), though

‘significant incentive’ may be inferred by checking with available

data, ‘the vital link between healthy bodies and healthy minds’

cannot be investigated for data– medical or otherwise. Hence, it is a

judgement.

Options 3 and 4 remain. The options state that sentence 3 is fact.

Sentence 4 needs to be evaluated as either an inference or a

judgement. “… has to be a prerequisite for the evolution….” cannot

be verified from facts, making sentence 4 a judgement.


Example 8:

[CAT 2006]

1. Given the poor quality of service in the public sector, the HIV/AIDS affected should be switching to private initiatives

that supply antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) at a low cost.

2. The government has been supplying free drugs since 2004, and 35000 have benefited up to now though the size of the

affected population is 150 times this number.

3. The recent initiatives of networks and companies like AIDS Care Network, Emcure, RelianceCiplaCII, would lead to

availability of muchneeded drugs to a larger number of

affected people.

4. But how ironic it is that we should face a perennial shortage

of drugs when India is one of the world‘s largest suppliers of

generic drugs to the developing world.

(1) JFIJ (2) JIIJ (3) IFIJ (4) IFFJ (5) JFII

Explanation:

The given options require you to evaluate statement 1 as either a




judgement or an inference. ‘Given the poor quality of services in the

public sector … ’ is more of a judgement than an inference. Based on

this the conclusion “should be switching….” establishes statement 1

as a judgement. This eliminates options 3 and 4.

The numbers in statement 2 are a result of direct verification.

Hence, it is easy to see that statement 2 is a fact. This eliminates

option 2.

Evaluating options 1 and 5, both of which say statement 3 is an

inference, one has to now establish whether statement 4 is an

inference or a judgement (as per the options 1 and 5).

“… How ironic it is...” is neither verified nor verifiable through facts.

Statement 4 is a judgement.


Example 9:

[CAT 2006]

1. So much of our daytoday focus seems to be on getting things done, trudging our way through the tasks of living it can feel

like a treadmill that gets you nowhere; where is the childlike

joy?

2. We are not doing the things that make us happy; that which

brings us joy; the things that we cannot wait to do because we

enjoy them so much.

3. This is the stuff that joyful living is made of – identifying your

calling and committing yourself wholeheartedly to it.

4. When this happens, each moment becomes a celebration of you; there is a rush of energy that comes with feeling

completely immersed in doing what you love most.

(1) IIIJ (2) IFIJ (3) JFJJ (4) JJJJ (5) JFII




********************************* End of Lesson *********************************

Explanation:

Statement 1 states, “It can feel like a treadmill that gets you

nowhere”. This can neither be experienced nor verified as it is a

personal viewpoint, hence a judgement.

Statement 2 is a personal viewpoint not necessarily agreed to by

many. It is a judgement.

Statement 3 is an opinion, neither verifiable nor directly

experienced. It is a judgement.

Statement 4 is someone’s personal assessment of his own

experience. It is also a judgement.





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7) Fact, Inference, Judgement