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319 A / 8 4 i
O. NIST
A GUIDE FOR THE PERFORMANCE OF TRUMPET
MARIACHI MUSIC IN SCHOOLS
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
North Texas State University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
By
James G. Bennett, Jr., B. M., M. A.
Denton, Texas
August, 1979
Bennett, James Gordon, Jr., A Guide for the Performance
°f Trumpet Mariachi Music in Schools. Doctor of Philosophy
(Music Education), August, 1979, 289 pp., 10 illustrations,
7 figures, bibliography, 266 titles.
The purpose of this study is to provide a guide for the
instruction of a trumpet mariachi performance ensemble in a
music curriculum. The fulfillment of this purpose is depend-
ent upon the data supplied in answer to the subproblems:
(1) What socio-cultural information is essential to an
authentic interpretation of trumpet mariachi music as it
exists in the milieu; (2) What examples of trumpet mariachi
literature will provide appropriate knowledge of the reper-
toire and style; (3) What instructional source materials
may be developed that might provide Mexican American and
non-Mexican American instructors with a competency relative
to the trumpet mariachi repertoire and style; (4) What
method of evaluation may be applied to this guide concerning
its functional design for a music curriculum?
A primary source of material that has been used in this
dissertation is a collection of taped and transcribed exam-
ples of the trumpet mariachi repertoire. These examples
were tape recorded in Mexico using an authentic trumpet
mariachi ensemble in its milieu. All of the examples,
except one, were performed by the Mariachi Mexico Tipico,
Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas, Mexico. The one exception was
"Corrido de Monterrey, El Cerro de la Silla," which was
recorded by the Mariachi El Regio, Monterrey, Nuevo Leon,
Mexico. Ethnomusicological data has been reported from
the Nettie Benson Library, Latin American Collection, Uni-
versity of Texas, Austin, Texas; Biblioteca de Universidad
Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico, D. F.; Biblioteca de El Palacio
de Bellas Artes, Mexico, D. F.; Biblioteca de Universidad
Autonoma de Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico; and Biblioteca
de Universidad Autonoma de San Luis Potosi, San Luis Potosi,
Mexico. La Senora Carmen Romano de Lopez Portillo, through
her "Escuela Superios de Musica y Danza de Monterrey," has
supplied xeroxed copies of research reports which were
prepared under her patronage.
The data collected for use in this study has been
presented in three major categories: (1) the history and
milieu in which the trumpet, mariachi crystalized; (2) the
repertoire--its history and function in Mexican society
and the transcriptions of types demonstrating the musical
structure; and (3) the technical information relative to the
instruction of the particular mariachi instruments. An
evaluative instrument has been supplied in an attempt to
establish the validity of the information and examples pro-
vided in this practicum. The validity of the research
seems to rest on its authenticity and its serviceability.
The findings of this study are stated as assertions
based on the literature in general and the repertorial
types specifically included. These assertions are aligned
with the organization of the data as it has been reported
in the body of the dissertation.
The conclusions are stated in a similar manner as
assertions pertinent to cross referenced statements which
may be implied as concepts drawn from the reported data
and the literature observed in this study.
As an educational guide for the implementation of the
trumpet mariachi ensemble as an instructional experience
in the public schools, the basis for this research has of
necessity been quite general. Relevant research might be
developed based on a study of indigenous sources that in-
fluence the meso-music of Mexico, the creative processes
of specific mariachi composers and maestros, cross-cultural
influences active upon Mexican music.
@ 1979
JAMES GORDON BENNETT, J R .
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS v
LIST OF FIGURES vi
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Problem Statement Definition of Terms Delimitation Basic Assumptions Related Literature Incidence of the Problem Methodology
II. HISTORY AND MILIEU OF THE TRUMPET MARIACHI ENSEMBLE 52
Crystalization of the Trumpet Mariachi Ensemble
Early Twentieth Century Organography of Folk Ensembles in Mexico Folk Groups Having a Related Organography
and Repertoire Specific Groups in the Development of the
Trumpet Mariachi Conflict of Ideals Among the Leading
Mariachi Performers The Cinematography of the Ranchero Style
and its Relationship to the Trumpet Mariachi
Some Composers of Mariachi Literature Local Groups in the Trumpet Mariachi
Tradition A Mestizo Cultural Medium of Expression Theatrical and Literary Influences in
Mariachi Traditions Symphonic Literature Summary
111
Page III. THE REPERTOIRE OF THE TRUMPET MARIACHI 89
The Theatrical Uses of the Folk Music Instrumental Dance Forms Vocal-Instrumental Forms of the
Trumpet Mariachi Repertoire Las Mananitas (serenatas) Larger Ensemble Works Played by
Ear in the Trumpet Mariachi Ensemble Repertoire
Espana Cani
IV. TECHNICAL INFORMATION CONCERNING THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE TRUMPET MARIACHI ENSEMBLE 220
Mariachi Guitar Fingering Charts Mariachi Terminology
V. FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 237
Findings Evaluation of the Research Conclusions Recommendat ions
APPENDIX 263
BIBLIOGRAPHY 270
IV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustration Page
1. Son de la Negra 95
2. Malaguena Salerosa 104
3. Jarabe Tapatio 122
4. Corrido de Monterrey 139
5. Camelia La Tej ana 147
6. Ella 157
7. Jesusita en Chihuahua 166
8. Solamente una vez 173
9. Amor de madre 180
10. La borrachita 186
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure P a g e
1. Intonation of the Strings of the Guitarro'n
Requinto 221
2. The Requinto and the Spanish Guitar 221
3. Intonation of the Spanish Guitar 222
4. Vihuela 222
5. Intonation of the Vihuela 222
6. Guitarron 223
7. Intonation of the Guitarron 224
VI
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In the past decade many educators have perceived the
need for cross-cultural understanding in the pluralistic
society of the United States. The social upheaval in the
sixties was reflected in the demonstrations for racial and
cultural equality. This struggle underlined the need for
new curricular perspectives in the school.
James L. Farmer focuses on the need for culturally
relevant curricular content as follows:
Not only do ghetto schools need specially trained teachers, they need special curriculums; those planned for middle class white youngsters lack relevance in the inner city. The children of the poor need to develop pride and dignity and self-esteem in the course of becoming educated (22, p. 25).
In the same context Farmer avows:
As one means to this end the schools need to intro-duce programs of ethnic studies . . . .
One tragedy of the minorities is that history courses have generally ignored their history. Black and white students should have the chance to see black men as a proud and equal cultural identity, fitting in with other ethnic entities that go to make up the American pluralistic society (22, p. 25).
The conception of a "melting pot" has dominated Amer-
ican society and its schools for many years (79). Both the
school administrative policies and curricular objectives
postulated the goal of "anglicizing" the total population.
Laws existed which prohibited the use of any language other
than English as a medium of instruction. Those laws have
been superseded by mandatory desegregation practices imposed
by the directives of the Supreme Court. Federal jurisdiction
has established for all schools the policy of ethnic-racial
balance for all levels public instruction.
The ideal of cultural pluralism in the United States
was presented to the National Education Association in its
general convention of 1916 by John Dewey (20, pp. 183-189).
He asserts :
When sometime in the remote future the tale is summed up and the public, as distinct from the private and merely personal, achievement of the common school is recorded, the question which will have to be answered is, What has the American public school done toward subordinating a local, provincial, sectarian, and partisan spirit of mind to aims and interests which are common to all the men and women of the country--to what extent has it taught men to think and feel in ideas broad enough to be inclusive of the purposes and happiness of all sections and classes? (20, p. 184)
He further specifies:
No matter how loudly any one proclaims his Americanism, if he assumes that any one racial strain, any one com-ponent culture, no matter how early settled it was in our territory, or how effective it has proved in its own land, is to furnish a pattern to which all other strains cultures are to conform, he is a traitor to American nationalism. Our unity cannot be a homogene-ous thing like that of the separate states of Europe. . .
it must be a unity created by drawing out and composing into a harmonious whole the best, the most character-istic, which each contributing race and people has to offer (20, pp. 184-185).
The Journal of Teacher Education devoted its Winter,
1973, issue to the question of cultural pluralism. The
thesis editorial for this issue was provided by William A.
Hunter. His guest editorial expresses the concept:
America's culture is unalterably pluralistic; history does not beg the issue--it affirms the fact. Since historians and educators have either omitted or dis-torted the facts regarding American cultural diversity, multicultural education has become a major need in restructuring today's educational values, morality, and concepts.
. . . The American people are greater in their combination than as the mere sum of their individual parts. They constitute a unique whole in their com-binations, interactions, interrelations, and cohesiveness. They possess an unprecedented, uncopiable originality which cannot exist if they are separate (28, p. 262).
The need for cross-cultural awareness and cultural
literacy is considered by James A. Banks. This author
writes concerning cultural understanding as a fundamental
value in a democratic educational practice. He affirms
that the development of social awareness and cross-cultural
perspectives are the only "defensible" bases for lower level
strategies in multicultural studies curricula. His point
of view is that the narrow concept that has characterized
ethnic study programs lacks the dimension of a sophisticated
educational process of cross-cultural awareness (8, p. 745).
Banks contends:
It is also insufficient to conceptualize ethnicity in America only in terms of ethnic minority groups . . . .
Ethnic studies must be conceptualized more broadly, and ethnic studies programs should include information about all of America's diverse ethnic groups to enable students to develop valid comparative generalizations and to fully grasp the complexity of ethnicity in American society (8, p. 741).
Most of the ethnic studies programs of the past have
centered on one ethnic group and members of that group have
been the participants in the study. This study proposes a
broader base cultural interaction for all members of school
societies.
Banks avers that
Perhaps unknowingly, educators who feel that ethnic minority content should be studied by ethnic minorities and that ethnic minorities only need to study content about their own cultures, have a condescending attitude toward ethnic minority studies and do not consider the ethnic minority experience to be a significant part of American life (8, p. 745).
The need for a source of information and materials
which presents Mexican music for the development of cultural
perspectives in the music curriculum is indicated by the
scarcity of published materials in the music textbooks
currently offered for adoption in public schools. These
texts include selections from Mexican folk music sources
which are obscure and little known examples. There is a
need for readily identifiable song content that relates to
the familial and ethnic cultural circles of the Mexican
American students background.
Census studies estimate that Texas public schools have
a pupil ratio of 25.3 percent Mexican-American students (66).
A large portion of this ethnic minority is resident in the
region of the border between the United States and Mexico
from Texas to California. The Texas Education Agency lists
one hundred eighty-four public school districts that include
bilingual instructional programs in their curriculum as of
the school year 1976-77. These programs are established
in conformity with the education legislation code concerning
bilingual education enacted by the Sixty-third Legislature--
Regular Session, Chapter 392.
The need for cultural identity for the Mexican American
child in school is discussed by Charles F. Leyba, California
State University, Los Angeles, California. Leyba points out
that cultural description and definition are basic needs in
a multicultural environment.
As the culture is created in the developing child by the environment, so the environment is the matrix within which a culture sustains itself (33, p. 272).
He further claims:
This is especially true of the Mexican-American living largely on the border of the U.S. and Mexico, the Mexican-American has a community (communities) power-fully self-sustaining, self-renewed by immigrations of Mexicans into these communities, and visits to Mexico. Nonetheless, the Mexican American has a riven conscious life. Being neither Mexican nor American in the sense of full participation in Anglo culture, he suffers a severe loss of identity--if not a loss, certainly a profound confusion as to his identity (33, p. 273).
The efforts toward cultural awareness that have been
employed in the school systems have provided some means
for releasing the pressures of our present cultural dilemma.
Leyba affirms that
To present courses in the ethnic culture at educa-tional institutions has the effect of using one of the major means employed by the majority culture as an instrument whereby the ethnic culture can center on its own life, values, and interests . . . .
Obviously, this also has the effect of creating an appreciation, respect and understanding of the ethnic culture in those students who are from a dif-ferent culture (33, p. 273).
This present guide for the instruction of a trumpet
mariachi performance ensemble is intended to provide an
opportunity for cross-cultural participation in this cur-
ricular source. The trumpet mariachi ensemble of the San
Antonio College multicultural studies program is an example
of cross cultural perspectives for this type of learning
experience. The program has been in operation for several
years under the direction of Ms. Isabella San Miguel. The
college group is a part of a continuing performance program
for student groups who begin their training in the high
school curricula of the San Antonio Independent School
District. Since the trumpet mariachi is a regularly observed
phenomona in San Antonio cultural life, the total school
population is familiar with its sound and instrumentation.
In addition to the San Antonio Independent School
District, Austin Independent School District and Dallas
Independent School District have instituted mariachi in-
struction programs. Of these programs, perhaps the Dallas
Independent School District has made the largest investment.
This program was started in 1971 with very limited community
familiarity with the trumpet mariachi ensemble. The project
was initiated under the leadership of Dr. Rube'n Gallegos,
Assistant Superintendent in charge of Program Development
for the Dallas school system. Under the provisions of the
Emergency School Assistance Act, Mr. Agustin Cerda-Reyes
was employed as a resource teacher--an artist in residence.
His duties were to train a group of students from the
Mexican American segment of the school population and
prepare them for public performance in the Dallas area.
Mr. Federico Cisneros, a professionally certified instruct-
or, was in charge of the brass; Mr. Ezekiel Castro, a
certified string instructor, was in charge of the violins.
Mr. Cerda-Reyes was employed as a paraprofessional since he
was uncertified, with an artist in residence standing. He
instructed the vihuelists and guitarronists. Ms. Linda
Llano, as a teacher aide, instructed the guitarists and
provided the necessary organizational services.
Since the artist in residence is a native of Mexico
and a trained mariachi performer serving as maestro (leader),
the students are trained in an authentic mariachi manner.
Their instruction is by ear (de oido) which is a basic
trumpet mariachi technique. Sr. Cerda-Reyes makes ar-
rangements for the students, but the method of instruction
for the mariachi performer both in the United States and
Mexico is an aural perception-performance interaction.
Sr. Cerda-Reyes came to Dallas from San Antonio, but his •
native city is Zacatecas,Mexico. Mr. Federico Cisneros
/
is from the state of Coahuila, Mexico.
The music of the trumpet mariachi is perhaps the
best known mexican music to citizens of the United States
and Mexico. A project that seeks to provide a guide for
the instruction of a trumpet mariachi performance ensemble,
using authentic examples of the repertoire, may serve to
create a positive interpretation of Mexican culture for
citizens of the United States.
In school systems such as Dallas, Austin, and San
Antonio, Texas, the artist-in-residence is the arranger of
the pieces performed by the group. Usually these arrange-
ments are prepared by writing the arrangement that the
maestro knows. This collection of models will be prepared
from an authentic taped performance of the examples. These
compositions will be transcribed to notation and the study
will provide information concerning the performance prac-
tices appropriate to their use. These models of the
literature will be placed in a sequence depicting the
classifications of the forms in the repertoire.
Problem Statement
This study is provided as a guide for the instruction
of a trumpet mariachi performance ensemble in a music cur-
riculum.
In order to fulfill the purpose of this investigation,
answers will be sought to the following questions:
1. What socio-cultural information is essential to
an authentic interpretation of trumpet mariachi music as
it exists in the milieu?
2. What examples of trumpet mariachi literature will
provide appropriate knowledge of the repertoire and style?
3. What instructional strategies may be developed
that might provide both Mexican-American and non Mexican-
American instructors with a competency relative to trumpet
mariachi repertoire and style?
4. What method of evaluation may be applied to this
guide concerning its functional design for a music curricu-
lum?
Definition of Terms
1. Folk mariachi is a term applied to the original
folk ensemble which developed during the late nineteenth
century in the western and central regions of Mexico. This
ensemble still exists in the rural regions of Mexico and
has an instrumentation consisting of violins, vihuelas, and
10
the arpa grande. The large guitar, known as the guitarron,
has come to replace the arpa grande (25, p. 41).
2. Trumpet mariachi is a term applied to an ensemble
which grew out of the folk mariachi during the decade of
the thirties. This ensemble has come to be standard, but
has developed somewhat different instrumentation and reper-
toire from its parent ensemble (25, p. 41). This ensemble
was adapted for broadcast purposes to include two trumpets
and a guitarron, deleting the arpa grande. The instrumen-
tation is two violins, two trumpets, two vihuelas, two /
requintos, two guitars and guitarron.
3. Requinto is a term applied to a type of Spanish
guitar which is adapted to be tuned an octave higher than
the Spanish guitar. The requinto emphasizes the fifth of
the chord in its performance practice, hence its name.
4. Vihuela is the name of a chordophonic instrument
which has five strings and a molded wood sound chamber.
The vihuela was the predecessor of the guitar in Spain.
It has been somewhat adapted in Mexican and mariachi usage.
5. Guitarron is a term applied to a very large instru-
ment which plays the bass part in the mariachi ensemble.
It is shaped like the vihuela and was developed in Mexico
for use in the wandering folk ensembles.
6. Ranchero style is a term applied to the music of
the country songs which flourished in the theatre during
the period of the Revolution (1910). These songs began as
a theatrical interlude with either a singer performing a
cancion or a couple dancing the jarabe. The style is
11
characterized by singing in thirds and vigorous style of
singing with an emphasis of strong sentimentality.
Geijerstam writes:
. . . the work ranchero specifies that a mariachi orchestra accompanies the piece.
The word may also refer to the nature of the text, the manner of singing, and the charro costume.
The word is linked with the performance style of the trumpet
mariachi (25, pp. 68-70).
7- Cancion ranchera is a term applied to the song as
it first developed among the country people (campesinos) on
the haciendas or ranches in the time before the twentieth
century. This song style originates among the rural pop-
ulation of Mexico. The form-rhythms of the songs classified
under this style are those of the vals, polka, bolero,
danza, chotis, and redova (25, p. 67).
Corrido is a term that has come to be associated
with a narrative form somewhat like the ballad in United
States folksong tradition. This is a standard lyric-epic-
narrative poem-song which has developed in Mexican folk
music as an expression of the popular response surrounding
any important event. These forms are less sentimental and
more structured than the ranchera songs. These ballads
have evolved from the romance and plena of medieval Spanish
tradition (39, p. X).
9. Son is a word applied to an instrumental folk tune
ithout regard to its style. More specifically it is de-
fined in terms of a rhythmic complexity based on a basic
6/8 meter; the rhythmic emphasis is alternated between the
w
12
duple and triple effect. Some musicologists relate the
rhythmic pattern to the European sesquialtera (62) , while
Mendoza and Sordo Sodi link it with the Andalusian and
African influence in the eastern coastal regions of Mexico
(25, 58, 60, 36). There are Son Jalisciense, Son
Veracruzano, Son Michoacana; thus, many regions have their
particular son rhythm. The son form compositions such as
Son de la Ne'gra usually begin with an instrumental section--
•
a fandango, sinfonia, or entrada, followed by a sung part
consisting of a copla, which may have an instrumental
refrain or an estribillo sung by the listeners (25, p. 23).
10. Huapango is a term applied to a composition of the
eastern and east central part of Mexico. This kind of a
composition is based on the use of the son rhythm and is
associated with a song fiesta in which heel tapping is used
as a part of the choreographed folk dance having the same
name. This heel work is called zapateado and bears a rela-/
tionship to flamenco dancing of the Andalusian tradition
(25, pp. 22-25). The use of coplas is extensive in these
instrumental-dance forms, and they may vary from a vigorous
rhythmic dance to the gentle malaguena rhythm.
11. The copla is a four stanza verse form having the
usual eight syllables per line. They are often improvised
by a coplero, who traditionally has been a performer for the
mariachi group who makes up his verses extemporaneously
(25, p. 17).
13
12. Grito means literally cry or shout, and in the
mariachi music performance the grito is always inserted at
an emotional moment in the performance. The response may
come from the audience, or some of the mariachi performers
may interpolate the essential outcry.
13. Jarabe is a dance form and relates to the son in
origin and has come to be associated with mariachi litera-
ture from the days of the Spanish theatre and has been
called the national dance of Mexico (60). The jarabe has
come to be associated with the charro costume and is per-
formed as a choreographic partner dance form using the large
sombrero and the china poblano costume for the female dancer,
Many citizens of the state of Jalisco consider the jarabe to
be a part of their cultural tradition. It is included in
both the older, folk mariachi and the trumpet mariachi
literature (25, pp. 35-40).
Delimitation
1. This investigation is delimited only to the col-
lection, tape recording, and transcription of generic models
of trumpet mariachi literature which will provide music in-
structors with authentic examples of the repertoire and its
forms.
2. The examples chosen for inclusion in this inves-
tigation are delimited to those which will provide appropri-
ate knowledge for implementing this instructional guide in
a music curriculum.
14
3. The provision of socio-cultural data concerning the
forms included in this investigation is delimited to infor-
mation concerning the milieu in which the repertoire exists.
4. The musical guidelines included in this study are
delimited to the technical information concerning the musical
instruments, and the performance practices related to the
forms and the mariachi style; thus enabling the instructor
and performer to achieve an appropriate performance practice
for the trumpet mariachi literature.
5. Ethnomusicological data to be supplied for this
study shall be delimited to information concerning the au-
thentic trumpet mariachi, its ethnic origins and literature
development.
Basic Assumptions
1. A basic assumption of this study is that cultural
diversity provides an opportunity for enrichment of the
curricular content.
2. A further assumption is that positive attitudes
concerning cultural diversity may provide homeostatic
conditions in the school for both minority and majority
students.
Related Literature
The research related to this collection and analysis
of trumpet mariachi repertoire for use as a guide for the
15
instruction of a performance ensemble as a curricular ex-
perience in music education is perhaps limited. The data
pertaining to the ethnomusical considerations of Mexican
folk-popular music, however, has been investigated rather
extensively. A number of ethnographic delineations have
provided information for this study in regard to trumpet
mariachi history and milieu, as well as its repertoire.
Nevertheless, no study has been found which explores the
trumpet mariachi specifically in its literature based on
transcribed examples of its repertoire as it may be heard
in an authentic setting. This present study seeks to pro-
vide a source of information concerning the history and
milieu of the trumpet mariachi, and the technical data
necessary for an instructional competency in music education.
A review of the research related to the present inves-
tigation may be organized into categories relative to the
history, milieu, and repertoire of the present day trumpet
mariachi ensemble. The categories for this related liter-
ature are as follows: (1) the ethnomusicological data
attendant upon the history, milieu, and analysis of the
representative models selected for this study; and (2) dis-
sertations, projects, and practica, which may parallel this
study as a multicultural music cirriculum source.
16
Ethnomusicological Information
History and milieu.--Ethnomusicological information
attendant upon the history and milieu, analysis, and inter-
pretation of the examples of trumpet mariachi literature
included in this study may be found in the writings of
Cervantes Ramirez (15, 16) whose articles were published
in the daily newspapers of Guadalajara, ELL Occidental, and
of Mexico City, Las Novedades. These articles were written
as descriptions of the conditions surrounding the mariachi
groups in Jalisco during the first decades of the twentieth
century. Cervantes was a professional musician in the serv-
ice of a military band during the time setting of his ac-
count. Research concerning the years prior to the twentieth
century has been provided by the Universidad Autonoma de
Guadalajara and by Sra. Carmen Romano de Lopez Portillo
through the Escuela Superior de Musica y Baile in Monterrey, /
Nuevo Leon. A resident researcher in the folklore and folk-
music of the state of Jalisco is Sr. Efrain de la Cruz, whose
lecture notes and article, "Apuntes sobre el origen del
mariachi" (19), presents data from parish records and
diaries kept as far back as the sixteenth century. This
data offers some insight into the indigenous antecedents of
the mariachi. In addition to the information gleaned from
the records and journals of the early Franciscan Friars who
served as missionaries in that whole region of the Baj10,
17
the research project of Sr. de la Cruz provides interview
accounts obtained from residents of the region whose fami-
lies had had a continuous tradition of mariachi ensemble
performance in their history. The Jaliscan culture of the
nineteenth century was the locale of much of the mariachi
traditions which have continued into the present century.
The various types of groups and ensembles which were de-
veloping in the mariachi folk traditions are discussed
from the point of view of family tradition and legend during
the turbulent revolutionary times of the one hundred year
period from 1850 to 1950. This research has been carried
out under the supervision of Dr. Francisco Sartchez Flores
of the Universidad Autonoma de Guadalajara. Dr. Sanchez is
also the Director of the Office of Historical Investigations
for the city of Guadalajara, and the Director of the Depart-
ment of Education in the State of Jalisco. /
Another research project from the Universidad Autonoma / /
de Guadalajara has been provided by Maestro Ramon Cardenas
Nunez, "El mariachi sin Trompetas" (51), Perez Verdia,
"Historia particular en el estado de Jalisco desde los
primeros tiempos de que hay noticias hasta nuestra dias"
(53). These full research articles from the State of
Jalisco are authorized research by the state historical
investigations services, but they are mimeographed articles
and have been used in lecture presentations throughout the
regions adjoining Jalisco.
18
Bias Galindo (24) has written an article for the Office
of Music Education, Mexico City, D.F., describing the folk
(or string) mariachi. Galindo was an important composer
during the middle decades of the twentieth century. In
addition to these credentials, Galindo was a Huichol from
the state of Jalisco and grew up as a revolutionary and
mariachi in the early decades of the twentieth century (65,
pp. 254-258).
A source of information concerning the trumpet mariachi
in its development for the media of communication during the
twenties, thirties and forties is Salvador Morales, Auge y
Ocaso de la Musica Mexicana (49). The Editorial Contenido,
S.A., is a firm which has published contemporary writings
concerning the field of radio, film and recordings in this
century, as it has developed in Mexico City.
General information concerning the folk music traditions
of Mexico are found in the writings of Otto Mayer-Sierra,
Musica y Musicos de Latino-America (35). Salvador Novo
wrote an article for Las Novedades, "El Teoria del Mariachi"
(50), pertaining to origins of the term "mariachi" and the
practices of the group for public performance. The use of
classical compositions and their misuse, in his opinion, in
the mariachi tradition-- such as playing the Poet and Peasant
Overture or other concert works by ear is treated in this
article. "The Mexican Son," by E. Thomas Stanford (62), is
19
a pertinent work for the history of the mariachi and its
relationship with the son.
The short treatise "La Musica Vernacula," by Carmen
Sordo Sodi (60) was written for the one hundredth anniver-
sary of the Tequila Sauza Firm. This work describes the
history and development of the mariachi repertoire. Carmen
Sordo Sodi is the directress of the Department of Investi-
gations of the Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City, D.F.
The recording which accompanies this treatise is organized
by Manuel Esperon in conjunction with Sra« Sordo Sodi and
demonstrates the mariachi traditions over the century from
1873-1973.
Finally, the book Popular Music in Mexico by Claes af
Geijerstam (25) deals with the ethnomusicological data and
sociological considerations of the total spectrum of Mexican
popular (folk) music. The work treats each aspect briefly,
but succinctly, and provides a valuable collection of in-
formation concerning the mariachi and its literature with
respect to its cultural and ethnic background. This source
contains material relative to the folk, ethnic, and popular-
commercial aspects of the literature of Mexican folk music.
A further consideration of the literature which may
serve as sources for a study of the literature of the trumpet
mariachi are as follows:
20
a. Son and huapango. - -Research which pertains to these
forms may be seen in the articles: Herrera Frimont, "Breves
notas sobre les sones huasteca" (27); Hurtado, "El huapango"
(30); Baquiero Foster, "El Huapango" (6); Schmidt, "The
Huapango, a Dithyrambic Festival" (58) ; and the significant
research is found in the book by Frances Toor, "A Treasury
of Mexican Folkways" (67).
b. The jarabe.--Because of its relationship to the
composed music of the traditional concert composers of
Mexico, Robert Stevenson (65) has considered the j arabe in
some detail. Frances Toor's A Treasury of Mexican Folkways
(67) relates to the jarabe and her article in the Mexican
Folkways publication, "El jarabe antiquo y moderno," pro-
vide discussion of the dance form. In relationship to this
dance form, Carmen Sordo Sodi's article "La Miisica Vernacula,"
describes the origins of the jarabe briefly. Extensive and
possibly very significant research has been provided in
Mendoza's articles: "El Album de 24 canciones y jarabes"
(38), "La Musica en el coliseo de Mexico" (45). These ar-
ticles describe the jarabe and its place in Mexican litera-
ture as it grew out of the nineteenth century cultural
development of the various classes of the society. The work
of Geijerstam (25) relies on Mendoza and Carmen Sordo Sodi
for data in his study which relates to the jarabe. The
social classes and the effects of the jarabe on their
21
artistic experiences as well as the development of the exam-
ples in the literature of the folk music genre of the
nineteenth century are observed in the research of Vicente
T. Mendoza. Mendoza is an ethnographer and relates his
delineations to the socio-cultural aspects of the repertoire.
An area of research which is germaine to the literature
of the mariachi and subsequently to the literature of the
trumpet mariachi is that pertaining to the corrido. The
corrido is a type of ballad which appears in Mexican folk
music and relates to the historical and cultural events of
the popular modes and styles as they reflect the movements
and upheavals of Mexico's history.
c. The corrido.-- Information concerning the corrido
as a Mexican folk form may be found in the research of
Vicente T. Mendoza. The early work of Mendoza concerning
the corrido was El romance espanol y corrido (41) , which
related to the literary forms of Spain and their influence
in the popular literature of Mexico. Subsequently he revised
this research in the book, E^ corrido Mexicano, Antologia,
Introduccion y Notas (39). Finally, all this material was
assimilated and reorganized into the work Panorama de la
/ /
Musica tradicional de Mexico (46), in which Mendoza includes
a summary of all his research concerning the various forms
of popular music in Mexico. A more detailed work in the area
of the corrido is Lirica Narrativa: el corrido de Mexico (44) ,
22
written for and published by the Universidad Autonoma de
Mexico in 1964. Mendoza's theory of research was based in
the provision of ethnomusicological and sociological dis-
cussion supported by an anthology of examples with a "single
melodic line notation" set of examples provided in support
of his concepts.
Other authors who have provided data for this project
/
are Duran in his article "Romance, corrido, y plena" (21),
and Higinio Vasquez Santa Ana in a two volume work,
Canciones, cantares y corridos (73). This last work pro-
vides no music notation, but is valuable for its discussion
and literary analysis of these three genre of Mexican folk
literature. Frances Toor (67) provides an interpretative
summary of the corrido and its place in the mores of the
Mexican population.
The corrido, cantar, and copla, types have, perhaps,
crystalized into a repertorical development of the cancio'n
ranchera. For the trumpet mariachi, this type of song has
been significant as a major part of its literature. The
film productions, recording discs, and radio diffusion, have
combined to effect a development of the types of music par-
ticularly significant to the trumpet mariachi.
d- The cancion ranchera.--Two major sources have
provided information concerning the sequence of development
in the area of the cancion ranchera as a part of the
23
fundamental part of the repertoire of the trumpet mariachi.
The sources are the writings of Vicente T. Mendoza:
Canciones Mexicana (37); La Cancion Mexicana: ensayo
de classificacion y antologia (42); Panorama de la Musica
de Mexico (46).
Claes af Geijerstam (25) discusses the development of
the cancicm based on the research of Vicente T. Mendoza and
the statements of Carmen Sordo Sodi. The classifications
included in the present investigation of the trumpet mari-
achi literature are based upon the general categories
delineated in Panorama de la musica tradicional de Mexico.
The actual examples are grouped according to their rhythmic
form patterns. Frances Toor (67) utilizes another dimension
for the grouping of her collection of Mexican songs. Toor's
examples are also single melodic examples and like Mendoza's
citations, they provide no insight into the sonorities or
harmonizations of the literature.
A major difficulty encountered when viewing pure,
written research arises if one has had no previous exper-
ience with the actual milieu from which the data is drawn.
If one lacks a frame of reference with relationship to the
culture and its mores, the data can not be correctly per-
ceived. These sources listed above as informational sources
are predicated upon the assumption that the reader is famil-
iar with Mexican music and mores. This present investigation
24
seeks to provide a background and relevant information which
will enable the reader to form a valid concept of the music
in its forms, sonorities, and the cultural milieu from which
it has developed. Theoretically, the study and performance
of concrete models should provide insight for both Mexican-
American and non-Mexican-American instructors who may wish
to provide a cross-cultural learning experience.
One fundamental difficulty with any research regarding
the mariachi is the basic tradition of non-literate perform-
ance. The actual notation of the mariachi and its subsequent
development in the trumpet mariachi is not written down or
available except from artists-in-residence who provide ar-
rangements as these transcriptions are to be provided--from
actual performances which have been transcribed to notation.
According to Maestro Magallanes, Mariachi Me'xico Ti'pico, and
Salvador Castro, artists-in-residence in the San Antonio
Independent School District Mariachi Program, these arrange-
ments are not available from a published source. Actually,
the primary purpose of this research project is to provide
examples of this literature for use where no artist-in-
residence is available. Most mariachi musicians cannot
read music; therefore, the performance of the repertoire is
an aural experience. Mariachis consider this practice to be
fundamental to their authentic repertoire. However, in order
for students of both Mexican and non-Mexican backgrounds in
25
a multicultural society to relate to the music of the mari-
achi, a collection of classified models is basic to the use
of this medium in a North American multicultural school
population.
Related Music Education Research
In the decades of the sixties and seventies, educational
researchers began to recognize the need for multicultural
studies. Studies have appeared which were probably a result
of the social upheaval relevant to the civil rights movement
which began in the late fifties. Completed research in the
field of multicultural studies have included collections and
instructional analyses of ethnic source materials. Most of
these studies have related to the ethnic perspectives of
black culture in its authentic setting. One significant
study in this field of research is The Source Book of African
and Afro-American Materials for Music Educators, by James
Standifer and Barbara Reeder (61). This source seeks to
provide materials for use in a music curriculum. It is
further expected that from the use of this source the in-
structor might acquire a competency in the instruction of
Black cultural music as an enrichment of the classroom ex-
perience. The Standifer-Reeder study contains music, and
data concerning musical instruments, dance, art, a list of
learning activity experiences, and a bibliography.
26
A Dissertation by Charles Freebern, The Music of India,
China, Japan, and Oceania (23) , seeks to provide source data
in the area of cultural development of the oriental cultures
listed as part of the research dimension. Freebern dis-
cusses the music and provides information concerning these
cultures for private study.
A United States Defense Department study, Czech Basic
Course: Songs of Czechoslovakia (71) has collected seventy-
seven Czechoslovakian folk songs reflecting the culture for
use in its Czech language program for the Language Institute
of the U.S. Defense Department.
In seeking other projects more relevant to the Hispanic
segment of the United States cultural panorama a telex search
was conducted by means of computer descriptors relevant to
the topic of mariachi, Mexican culture music and Mexican
folk music. This research device provided by Education Re-
source Information Center through the facilities maintained
at North Texas State University Library has listed sixteen
studies which are relevant to Hispanic cultural needs in the
present society.
Two dissertations were listed:
1. Resources and Suggested Organizational Procedures
for Courses in Mexican and Mexican-American Music [76-03886]
(9) by Martin Kyle Behnke, lists reference materials and
recordings with data provided for the manner in which the
27
sources may be applied to the general music class. The
study provides no actual musical notation, but suggests the
sources for obtaining musical materials and groups the an-
notated bibliographical citations into fifteen lesson units.
2. Another dissertation, Selected Spanish Folk Songs
of the Southwest and Their Implication for Music Education
(13), by Clyde S. Cappon,uses library sources contained in
the Lincoln Center Library, Boston Public Library, and the
University of New Mexico Library, to analyze the changes
that have occurred in Colonial Spanish music of early New
Mexican history. Cappon seeks to provide insight into the
melos and literary interactions which have occurred in the
evolution of these early Spanish folk-songs since they were
brought from Spain in the sixteenth century.
The following projects have been reviewed as relevant
to this study and are described as follows:
3. Activity File of Learning Center and Classroom Mul-
ticultural Activities (1), Riverside Unified School District,
Riverside, California, was a project developed as a card file
of idea sources. The cards in this file are representative
samples of the types of activities developed by teachers in-
volved in a Title I funded learning center of multi-cultural
classroom activities for elementary school students. The
five cultures that are studied are those of blacks, Asian
Americans, native Americans, Mexican-Americans, and Anglos.
28
A multi-media approach is used, in the classroom, and the
activities described on these cards are part of a program
which includes films, filmstrips, tapes, field trips, and
many more. There are sixty-eight cards describing activities
divided into five areas: reading and language arts, cooking,
arts and crafts, math, and music and dance. Listed under
these five areas are thirty-eight activities, some of which
include puzzles, types of poetry, how to make groundnut
soup, early American recipes, food for the pioneers, African
beads, Indian pottery, Japanese carp kits, Oriental block
prints, counting triangles, the limbo dance, the Mexican
national folk dance, the China poblana costume, and others.
4. Cantando y aprendiendo (Singing and Learning),
Bertha Badias (4), and others, provided as a curriculum
adaptation network for Bilingual/Bicultural Education,
Bronx, N. Y. Northeast Regional Adaptation Center; Dissem-
ination Center for Bilingual Bicultural Education, Austin,
Texas, was a project that was sponsored by Office of Health,
Education and Welfare, Washington, D. C. under a grant from
the William Randolph Hearst Foundation, Los Angeles,
California. This illustrated teacher's songbook contains
eighteen songs and game songs to be used with the Spanish
Curricula Development Center publications or with other bi-
lingual instructional materials. The songs are based on the
Spanish Curricula Development Center Reading Series for the
29
Language Arts strand Kits 2-11. The objective of the book
is to develop children's listening and comprehension skills,
music appreciation and rhythmic expression.
5. Modular Sequence: Puerto Rican Pupils in the Main-
land Schools, The Puerto Rican and the Arts (48) , Teacher
Corps Bi-lingual Project. Sponsored by Office of Education,
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington,
D.C., is a module that provides readers a broad view of the
development of music and the plastic arts in Puerto Rico.
At the same time, the module includes the names of Puerto
Ricans who have found distinction in these fields of endeavor.
A preassessment test, learning alternatives, postassessment
test, and various narratives concerned with the theme of the
module are included.
6. Oral Language and Motor Skills for Non-English
Speaking Children, by Effie Mae Davis (18). A Practicum
report submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for
the degree of Doctor of Education, Nova University, Fort
Lauderdale, Florida, October, 1973, was an oral language
program that was instituted at DeZavala Elementary School,
San Antonio, Texas, for pupils from kindergarten and grades
1 and 2 who were identified as having difficulty with oral
English expression and in understanding instruction given in
other than Spanish. The program employed a bilingual teacher
and aides who worked with 4-8 pupils each school day for
30
30-40 minutes. The children were given intense auditory
training in English and Spanish using music and rhythms,
and were given motor skill exercises on speech equipment.
Goals were revised as slowly or as rapidly as skill im-
provement was demonstrated. Teachers found that, as a
result of the program, high risk pupils increased efforts
to participate in class work, that language skills in un-
derstanding instructions in English and Spanish were
improved, and that daily attendance averages surpassed
previous class averages. Non-English speaking mothers
were used to help the children with motor skill equipment.
Although success of the program caused several aspects to
be continued in the school, the report recommended further
research relating language disability and weaknesses of
motor skills. Seven factors which possibly contributed to
the success of the practicum were also given.
7. National Conference: Early Childhood Education
and the Chicanito (Tucson, Arizona, August 3-5, 1972),
Rafael Chavez, editor (17), Pima Community College, Tucson,
Arizona, was sponsored by the Children's Bureau, Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C., Report
Number OCD-CB-410 (SI), August, 1972. This document reports
on a national meeting organized by the State Training Office
in Arizona through the combined efforts of Mexican-American
Systems and the Office of Child Development. The emphasis
31
of the meeting was to encourage implementation of bilingual-
bicultural education for Chicanitos at early stages of their
development. The first section of the report presents sum-
maries of the activities of nineteen small group workshops,
with topics incorporating (a) problems of the Chica.no child,
(b) Mexican American life style, (c) teacher training, (d)
existing bilingual programs, and (e) the new approaches were
presented to companies who exhibited their bilingual materi-
als at the conference. An abstract bibliography of twenty
relevant papers and a bibliography of thirty-four textbooks
concerned in various ways with bilingual education is in-
cluded. The final section of the document includes precon-
ference correspondence from government officials, education
administrators, and professors. Results of the workshop
evaluations are listed, based on rating scales completed by
all participants. The publicity generated by the conference
is reviewed, as is initial indications of lasting effects of
the meeting.
8. Afternoon Remedial and Enrichment Program, Buffalo,
New York, Elementary Program in Compensatory Education (2),
2. American Institute for Research in Behavioral Sciences,
Palo Alto, California, Sponsoring agency: Office of Edu-
cation, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Washington, D.C., is an Education Act Title I project.
This afternoon remedial and enrichment program was offered
32
to inner-city low income children (grades 3-8). About 75
percent of the children were black, 20 percent white and 5
percent Puerto Rican. Remedial instruction was offered in
reading and mathematics. Average class size was six pupils.
These small groups allowed for better diagnosis of needs
and individualized instruction. Enrichment teachers taught
classes in art, music, industrial arts, and physical edu-
cation. Children's gains were measured by the California
Reading Test and the California Arithmetic Test fForms W
and X) in 1966-67. No test data were collected in 1967-68
and 1968-69. Test scores for 1966-67 showed, however, that
pupils achieved a mean gain of five months in reading
achievement and six months mean gain in arithmetic during
the five months between testings. If these students had
been followed up in the succeeding years in a regular cur-
riculum situation a better assessment could have been made
of the project.
9. Migrant Education Handbook, by Alice Michael,
Editor (47), California State Department of Education,
Sacramento, California, Office of Compensatory Education;
Monterey County Office of Education Salinas, California,
Sponsoring Agency: Office of Health, Education, and Wel-
fare, Washington, D.C., 1967, 77 pp., is a handbook directed
to teachers of economically and culturally deprived, Spanish-
speaking migrant pupils having a limited command or a
33
complete lack of English. Several suggestions are given for
providing a wide range of opportunities for meaningful oral
communication as a means of overcoming this obstacle and
promoting the use of standard English. Among the suggested
activities are the use of real and vicarious activities;
reading aloud, art and music activities, and health and
physical education activities. Techniques are presented
for using these activities to develop social growth as well
as reading and/or self concept. Methods of correcting
special learning problems and the problems of school
placement of the migrant child are recommended. The
advantages of having teacher aids and their ideal abil-
ities are treated briefly in this project. An emphasis
is placed on involving the Mexican-American parent through
home visitation. This work includes a short bibliography.
10. A Program for Five-Year-Old Migrant Children (3),
Texas Education Agency, Austin, Texas, University of Texas,
Austin, 1968, 216 pp., is a program designed during the
institute for Kindergarten Teachers and Aides of Migrant
Children. Emphasis is placed on the concept that in order
to learn anything, young children must have direct sensory
experience related to the idea to be learned. It is pointed
out that basic to all activities is an understanding of
child development and child behavior. Various ideas are
given as to learning experiences in which the child can
34
acquire meanings and use the language necessary to express
these meanings. Among these experiences for five-year-olds
are a mathematics program, art and music activities, and
study topics from the physical environment and cultural
world (for example, cocoons, the vineyard, and good grooming)
Several suggestions are given concerning sources of content
for children's programs through movies and field trips. In-
cluded are descriptions of six video tapes made of twenty-
two Mexican American children in classroom situations, and
a summary of characteristics of effective teacher aides.
Numerous bibliographies are listed throughout the document.
11. Bibliography of English-Spanish/Bilingual Teaching
Materials, compiled by Herb Ibarra (.31) , San Diego City
Schools, San Diego, California, Sponsoring Agency: Office
of Education, Office of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Washington, D.C. , February, 1969, 31 pages. Four hundred
and six books, articles, and instructional realia published
between 1945 and 1968 are listed in this bibliography for
teachers and students of Spanish-speaking and bilingual
students. While emphasis is placed on English as a second
language, textual materials for all levels of education
from primary to adult and lists of materials such as kits
and visuals for music and science are also provided. A
final section is devoted to teacher preparation materials,
cultural information, and instructional guides. This
35
publication was funded by the Title III of the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act.
12. Christmas Songs of Puerto Rico, Miriam Transue
(70), Puerto Rico Commonwealth, New York, N.Y. Department
of Labor, October, 1957, 11 pages. English and Puerto Rican
Lyrics, including music, of fourteen Puerto Rican Christmas
Songs are presented. The songs can be taught in elementary
or secondary schools. Folk songs, folk dances, praises of
the Christ Child and of the three wise kings, and retellings
of the Christmas story constitute the repertoire. Background
and information and the meanings of unfamiliar words are
given. The book is a useful resource for schools with large
numbers of Puerto Rican children, because it enables the
school to teach these children and their classmates of other
ethnic groups the contribution of Puerto Rico to the musical
heritage of the Americas.
13. Information and Materials to Teach the Cultural
Heritage, of the Mexican American Child, Minerva Gorcna (26),
and others, Developed by the Bilingual Program of Education
Service Center, Region XIII, Austin, Texas, 1972, is pre-
sented as a resource guide developed originally as a five
year developmental project in cooperation with at least
three school systems in the thirteen county region served
by the Education Service Center, Region XIII, Austin, Texas.
The program started in the Fall of 1969, with five first-grade
36
classes, four in public schools and one in a parochial
school in a semi-rural section. In the second year the
original first grade students were followed into the second
grade. A new program was implemented with the new first
graders who began in those same five schools. The bilingual
program has served schools in three different locales, in-
volving three different school administration offices and
three different sets of children.
The locales include a center-city area composed of
housing projects and some individually owned homes; a sub-
urban near rural neighborhood of the same city; and a rural,
Central Texas town. All locales were from 200 to 250 miles
from Mexico.
The contents of the report include source information
concerning the history, geography, food, holiday traditions,
and songs, of Mexico. No music is provided; only the texts
of the songs are included.
14. Ernesto Barrios edits A Research Guide for
Teaching Chicano Studies in Junior and Senior High Schools
(5) in coordination with others of the San Diego City Schools
(ED 080 223, 1969) provides songs as well as sociological
and historical data for use in a Mexican studies curriculum.
15. A study relating to the use of mariachi music in
the area of dance instruction entitled Bailes a Colores
(Dances to Colors) (77) by Irma Saldivar Vela. This
37
activity plan includes five dance instruction charts for
the traditional dances: "Las Chiapanecas," "Los viejitos,"
"La Bamba," "El Fado Blanquito," and "El Jarabe Tapatio."
The study includes a recording of the mariachi music per-
formed by a group from New Braunfels, Texas. A book of
drawings are provided for coloring purposes which supplement
the dance instruction.
16. An incomplete master's thesis concerning the mari-
achi music in an analytical study is cited in the archives
of the Ethnomusicology Department at the University of
California at Los Angeles. This study "The sones mariachis:
The Rhythmic Pattern as a Principle of Melodic Organization,"
by Ponn Borchardt (11), attempts to present the history of
the folk mariachi and analyze the music on a broad scale in
terms of the rhythmic organization in the melodic structure
of the repertoire. No entire examples are provided for per-
formance purposes nor does the study propose an instructional
guide for a music curriculum implementation of mariachi music.
All the studies that have been listed as related re-
search have been examined in the course of the preliminary
reading for this study. No study has been found which
attempts to provide source-guide data for use in a school
curriculum. The present study hopes to provide an analysis
of these collected examples of trumpet mariachi literature in
support of a pedagogical concept relating to cross-cultural
knowledge.
38
Incidence of the Problem
Mexican-American people feel very strongly about their
right to have their sons and daughters educated with a
positive feeling about themselves, their home, and their
culture. The report is again quoted as follows:
Spanish speaking ethnic groups within this country are insisting that their cultural attributes and historical references be recognized and incorporated as integral features of the school. In rejecting the concept of_ a monolithic American culture in favor of biculturalism, they are furthering the educational principle of an expanding curriculum--of an educational model where students are provided with opportunities to gain exper-iences related to their immediate perceptual world, . . . . Such curricula would accept the students' cul-tural being . . . prepare them to function effectively in the large American society (20, p. 133).
The need for instructional media and resources has
been felt by traditional educators who work in a multi-
cultural society. Inquiries are frequently made concerning
the work in bicultural music education done in Laredo, Texas.
The sources in the United States publishing industry is very
limited. The music materials that are available from
Mexican sources are difficult to obtain and provide very
few notated examples. The need for familiar examples of
Mexican music is quite generally felt among teachers who
teach in the multicultural societies of Texas and the
Southwest. This source material would not only provide
for the actual notation and style of the mariachi perfor-
mance group, but would serve to promote the cultural
awareness necessary to its full appreciation.
39
Ms. Nelda Drury, dance instructor at San Antonio Col-
lege, San Antonio, Texas, is particularly aware of the need
for music that can provide a "live mariachi performance" as
accompaniment for the internationally known dance troup.
They have performed in Europe, Mexico, and Japan, using
records because the music has not been available for the
mariachi ensemble.
Robert Petzold was consulted concerning this project
when he was at North Texas State University in 1976. His
response was encouraging, but he limited his view of the
project as having significance for Mexican American students
only. In view of the cross-cultural philosophy postulated
by James A. Banks, and William A. Hunter, as well as the
psychological research reported by Erikson, Ryland W. Crary,
and Abraham Maslow, the significant implications indicate a
broader basis of need than just the minority culture concept.
The Texas Education Agency provides lists of Mexican
songs with only the words, containing no music notation,
with a tape recording for use in Spanish language instruction
in a bicultural curriculum. The lack of music notation
renders the strategy of instruction a rote device, which
needs to be supplemented with the actual music notation
for use in a whole educational experience. The collection
and transcription of trumpet mariachi literature would pro-
vide source material for multicultural studies in United
States schools.
40
Methodology
Sub-Problem 1
What socio-cultural information is essential to an
authentic interpretation of trumpet mariachi music as it
exists in the milieu?
Collection of data.- -Information concerning the history,
generic form classifications of the literature, and socio-
cultural data concerning the milieu in which the trumpet
mariachi has developed will be collected by examining the
published literature, newspaper articles, and taped inter-
views with mariachi performers.
Treatment of data.--This information will provide a
knowledge of the history and style of the trumpet mariachi
and the development of its literature. The data collected
for this section of the study will be used to inform the
reader of the ethnomusical and socio-cultural consider-
ations pertinent to this guide.
Sub-Problem 1_
What examples of trumpet mariachi literature will pro-
vide appropriate knowledge of the repertoire and style?
Collection of data.--The examples to be included in this in-
vestigation will be drawn from suggested titles provided by edu-
cators who are practicing choral directors, band directors , Spanish
41
language instructors, and dance directors. When the titles
have been agreed upon for each generic classification, the
models will be tape-recorded by an authentic trumpet mari-
achi ensemble in Mexico.
Treatment of data.--The data will be transcribed by the
investigator to notation for use in the performance in-
struction for this guide. This treatment of the data is
intended to provide concrete information regarding the
repertoire and style of the trumpet mariachi music.
Sub-Problem 3
What instructional strategies may be developed that
might provide both Mexican-American and non Mexican-Ameri-
can instructors with a competency relative to trumpet
mariachi repertoire and style?
Collection of data..--A general consideration in the
collection of information pertaining to the collected models
of the repertoire of the trumpet mariachi is an overall
grouping of the examples into two main categories: (1)
instrumental-dance forms, and (2) vocal-instrumental forms.
Each model will then be classified according to its function
in the literature. Examples of the son, huapango, and
jarabe, will represent the instrumental-dance forms. The
vocal-instrumental forms will be represented by examples
of the corrido and cancio'n ranchera.
42
Treatment of data.--When the data has been collected
and classified according to its generic type in the reper-
toire, each illustration of the literature will be presented
in the following format:
a. The taped performance by an authentic mariachi
ensemble.
b. A monograph of the socio-cultural and ethnic
background relative to each illustration of the liter-
ature .
c. An analysis and translation of the poetry.
d. A transcribed score of the taped performance
for possible use as a performance experience.
e. Basic information concerning the performance
techniques for each of the guitar type string section
instruments will be provided, and source of instruc-
tional materials from Mexican sources will be suggested.
Sub-Problem 4_
What method of evaluation may be applied to this guide
concerning its functional design for a music curriculum?
Collection of data.--Evaluative information concerning
the function of this guide in a music curriculum may be ob-
tained from the two sources: (1) those educators who are
practicing in a curriculum that now uses a trumpet mariachi
as an instructional medium, and (2) those educators who
43
have had no experience with the trumpet mariachi as an in-
structional medium.
The evaluation of the research will seek to measure the
validity of this research through opinion questionnaire.
The validity of the research as a guide-source will be
considered from the following perspectives.
1. The need and philosophical foundation of the study.
2. The sociocultural and historical knowledge which is
provided.
3. The presentation of the illustrations of the lit-
erature as a practicum in a music curriculum.
Evaluative information may be collected concerning the
function of this guide by means of presenting the guide to
selected educators. The questionnaire should provide the
educator in related practice with the opportunity to respond
to specific questions concerning the dimensions and per-
spectives of the study.
Treatment of data.--The summation of the evaluative
responses will be presented as Appendix A of this study.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
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4. Badias, Bertha, Cantando y Aprendiendo (Singing and Learning), Curriculum Adaptation Network for Bi-lingual/Bicultural Education, Bronx, New York, Sponsoring Agency: Office of Education (Department of Health, Education and Welfare), Washington, D.C., William Randolph Hearst Foundation, Los Angeles, California, March, 1974, 53 pages.
5. Barrios, Ernest (comp.) and others, A Research Guide for Teaching Chicano Studies in Junior and Senior High Schools, San Diego, California, San Diego City Schools, (ED080 223), 1969, 31 pages.
6. Baquiero-Foster, Geronimo, "El Huapango," Revista musical Mexicana, 8 (1942), pp. 174-183.
7. , "La primera orquesta de tipo mariachi," Revista musical Mexicana 3 (1943).
8. Banks, James A., "Teaching for Ethnic Literacy: A Comparative Approach," Social Education, 37, Number 8 (December, 1973), pp. 738-750.
9. Behnke, Martin Kyle, Resources and Suggested Organi-zational Procedures for Courses in Mexican American Music, Doctoral Dissertation, Boulder, Colorado, Universitv of Colorado, 1975.
44
45
10. Bernier, Mormand R. and Richard H. Davis, "Synergy: A Model for Implementing Multicultural Education," Journal of Teacher Education, XXIV, Number 5 (Winter, 1973), pp. 266-271.
11. Borchard, Donn, "The Sones Mariachi: The Rhythmic Pattern as a Principle of Melodic Organization," Uncompleted Master's Thesis on file at University of California, Los Angeles, 1965.
12. Campos,^Ruben M., "El Folklore Musical de Mexico," Boletin Latino-Americano de Musica, III/3 (April, 1937), pp. 137-142.
13. Cappon, Clyde S., Selected Spanish American Folksongs of the Southwest and their Implications for Music Education, unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Boston, Boston University, 1968.
14. Castaneda, Daniel, "La Musica y la Revolucio'n Mexicana," Boletin Latino-Americana de Musica, V/5 (Octubre, 1941), pp. 437-448.
15. Cervantes Ramirez, Jose', "El mariachi," Novedades, Mexico, D.F., Wednesday, February 11, 1964.
16. , "El mariachi es Jalisciense," El Occidental, Sunday, January 27, 1963.
17. Chavez, Rafael (Editor), National Conference: Early Childhood Education and the Chicanito, Tuscon~i Arizona, August 3-5, 1972. Sponsoring Agency: Children's Bureau (Department of Health, Education, and Welfare), Washington, D.C., August, 1972, 89 pages.
18. Davis, Effie Mae, Oral Language and Motor Skills for Non-English Speaking Children, Practicum Report"^ submitted in partial fulfillment of the require-ments for the degree of Doctor of Education, Nova University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, October, 1973 (ED091115 RC 007876), 42 pages.
19. de la Cruz, Efrain, "Apuntes sobre origen del mariachi," (Memoranda Concerning the Origin of the Mariachi), an unpublished mimeographed treatise, provided by Sra. Carmen Romano de Lopez Portillo, Escuela Superior de Musica y Danza de Monterrey, August, 1978.
46
20. Dewey, John, "Nationalizing Education," Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 54 (1916), pp. 183-189.
21. Duran, Gustavo, "Romance corrido, y plena," Boletin de La Union Pan-Americana (November, 1942), pp. 630^639.
22. Farmer, James L., "Education is the Answer," (excerpts from an address, January, 1969), Today1s Education, 58 (April, 1969), pp. 25-26.
23. Freebern, Charles L. , The Music of India, China, Japan, and Oceania: A Source Book for Teachers, unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Tuscon, Arizona, University of Arizona, 1969.
24. Galindo, Bias, "El mariachi," Boletin del departamento de musica de la Secretaria de Education Pilblica" T TT946), pp. 3-8.
25. Geijerstam, Claes af, Popular Music in Mexico, Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1976.
26. Gorena, Minerva, and others, Information and Materials to Teach the Cultural Heritage of the Mexican-American Child, Developed by the Bilingual Program of Education Center, Region XIII, Austin, Texas, 1972.
27. Herrera Frimont, Celestino, "Breves notas sobre las sones huastecos," Suplemento Dominical de E_1 Nacional, Mexico, D.F., 1931.
28. Hunter, William A. (guest editor), "Cultural Pluralism: The Whole i_s Greater Than the Sum of its Parts," Journal of Teacher Education, XXIV, Number 4 (Winter, 1973, p."262.
29. Hunter, William A. (editor), Multicultural Education Through Competency Based Teacher Education (A con-ference report, Norman, Oklahoma, 1974), Washington, D.C., American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education, 1974.
30. Hurtado, N. Obregon, E_1 Huapango, Mexico, D.F., Secretaria de Educacidn Publica, 1933.
47
31. Ibarra, Herb, Bibliography of English Second Language/ Bilingual Teaching Materials, Sponsoring Agency: Office of Education (Department of Health, Edu-cation, and Welfare), Washington, D.C., Division of Plans and Supplementary Centers, Report Number: DPSC-67-2941 , February, 1969, 31 pages.
32. Johnson, Edith, Regional Dances of Mexico, Skokie, Illinois, National Textbook Company, 1974.
33. Leyba, Charles F., "Cultural Identity: Problems and Dilemmas," Journal of Teacher Education, XXIV, No. 4, Winter, 1973, tip. 272-276.
34. Lindsay, Margaret, "Performance Based Teacher Education: Examination of a Slogan," Journal of Teacher Edu-cation, XXIV, Number 3 (Fall, 1973), pp. 272-276.
35. Mayer-Sierra, O,tto, Mtlfsica y musicos de Latino -America, 2 volumes, Mexico, D.F., Editorial Atlante, 1947.
36. > Panorama de la musica Mexica.na desde la Independencia hasta la actualidad, Mexico, D.F., Editorial Losana, 1941.
37. Mendoza, Vincente T., Canciones Mexicanas, New York, Pan-American Union, 1948.
38. , "El Album de 24 canciones y iarabes Mexicanos," Boletin Latino Americano de milsica (1941), pp. 511-541.
39. , in Corrido mexicano , antologia, introduccion y notas, Me"xico, D.F., Letras Mexicanas, Fondo de cultura economica, 1954.
40 . , "El grupo musical mexicano llamado mariachi," Revista Universitaria, Guadelajara,
(1943), pp. 87-89.
41. , El_ romance espanol y el_ corrido, Mexico, D.F., Universidad Nacional Aut^noma cFe Mexico, 1939.
42 . , La cancion mexicana : ens ay o de classTf icacicfn y antologfa, Estudios de Folklore, ntlmero 1, Mexico, D.F., Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, 1961.
48
43. , "La copla, musical en Mexico," Anuario de la Societe Folklorica de Mexico, 5 (1945) , pp. 189-202 .
44. , Lirica Narrativa: El corrido de Mexico, Mexico, D.F., Instituto de Investigaciones Es t^ticas , Universidad Aut<5noma de Mexico, 1964.
45. , "La musica en el colisco de Mexico," Nuestra Musica, 26 (1952), pp. 108-133.
46. , Panorama de la musica tradicional de Mexico, Me'xico, D.F., Imprenta Universitaria, 1956.
47. Michael, Elice (editor), Migrant Education Handbook, Sacramento, California, California State Department of Education, Office of Compensatory Education, Monterey, County Office of Education, Salinas, California, Sponsoring Agency: Office of Education (Department of Health, Education, and Welfare), Washington, D.C., 1967, 77 pages.
48. Modular Sequence: Puerto Rican Pupils in Mainland Schools, TTP 003.12, The Puerto Rican and the Arts, Teacher Corps Bilingual Project, West Hartford, Connecticut, Hartford University, College of Edu-cation, Sponsoring Agency: Office of Education (Department of Health, Education, and Welfare), Washington, D.C., 29 pages.
49. Morales, Salvador (editor), Auge y Ocaso de la mus ica Mexicana, Mexico, D.F., Editorial Contenido, S.A., 1975.
50. Novo, Salvador, "Teoria del Mariachi," Novedades, Monday, January 29, 1964.
51. Nunez, Ramon Cardenas, "El mariachi sin trompetas" (The mariachi without trumpets) unpublished mim-eographed treatise provided by the Grupo Folklorico de la Universidad de Guadalajara, 1978.
52. Pena, Albar A., "Special Feature on Bilingual Edu-cation: An Overview," Today's Education, LXIV (January-February, 1975), pp. 71-73.
49
53. Perez Verdia, Luis, Historia particular en el_ estado de Jalisco desde los pri.meros tiempos 3F que hay noticia hasta nuestra dias, Guadalajara, 1910-11, provided by the Grupo Folklorico Universidad de Guadalajara, 1978.
54. Ramirez, Manuel, "Identity Crisis in the Barrios," Music Educators Journal, 56, Number 9 (May, 1970), pp. 69-70.
55. Rincon Gallardo, Don Carlos, EJL libro del charro Mexicano, Mexico, D.F., Editorial Porrua, S.A.
56. Rose, Peter, I., They and We: Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States, New York, Random
57.
House, 1964. w 7 • -
Santamaria, Francisco J., Diccionario de Mejicanismos, Mexico, D.F., Editorial Porrua, 1959.
58. Schmidt, Henry, "The Huapango: a Dithyrambic Festival," from Hunters and Healers, Folklore types and topics, Wilson M. Hudson ed. Austin, University of Texas Press, 1971, pp. 147-156.
59. Slonimsky, Nicolas, Music of Latin America, New York, Thomas Y. Crowell, 1945.
60. Sordo Sodi, Carmen, "La musica vernacula," Guadalajara Publicidad Ferrer, S.A., 197 3.
61. Standifer, James, and Barbara Reeder, Source Book of African and Afro-American Materials for Music Educators, Washington, D.C., Music Educators National Conference, 1973.
62. Stanford, E. Thomas, "The Mexican Son," The Yearbook of the International Folkmusic Council, 4 \1912), pp. 66-86.
63. , "Vicente T. Mendoza, Lirica narrativa de Mexico: el corrido" (book review), Ethnomusicology, 1 (1966), pp. 111-114.
64. , "The villancico and the Mexican corrido," Anales de Instituto Nacional de Antropologfa e Historia^ 23 D-976) .
50
65. Stevenson, Robert M., Music in Mexico, New York,
Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1952.
66. The Texas Education Agency, Fall Survey, 1977-78.
67. Toor, Frances, A Treasury of Mexican Folkways, New York, Crown Publishers, Inc., 1947.
68. , "El jarabe antiauo y moderno," Mexican Folkways^ 6 (1930) .
69. _, Nuestra numero de canciones," Mexican Folkways, 3 (1927) .
70. Transue, Miriam L., Christmas Songs of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico Commonwealth, New York, N.Y., Department of Labor, October, 1957, 11 pages.
71. U.S. Department of Defense, Czech Basic Course: Songs of Czechoslovakia, Washington, D.C., Defense Language Institute, ED 066 946, 1972.
72. Valencia, Atilano (prime writer), "Part III, Spanish Speaking American Perspectives of Multicultural Education and Competency Based Teacher Education," Multicultural Education Through Competency Based Teacher Education, Report of Multicultural Writing Conference, Norman, Oklahoma, 1974, Washington, D.C., American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education, 1974.
73. Vasquez Santa Ana, Higinio, Canciones, cantares, y / corridos, 2 volumes, Mexico, D.F., Imprenta de Leon Sanchez, 1925.
74 . , Fiestas y_ costumbres mexicanas, Mexico, D.F., Ediciones Balas, 1940.
75. , Historia de lji cancion mexicano^ Me'xico, D.F. , Talleres GrITicos de la Nacion, 1931.
76. Vega, Carlos, "Mesomusic: An Essay on the Music of the Masses," Ethnomusicology, 1 (1966), pp. 1-17.
77. Vela, Irma Saldivar, Bailes a Colores (Dances to Colors), Austin, Texas, American Universal Art-forms Corporation, Education Division, 1972.
51
78. White, Louise R., "P.B.T.E. in a Multicultural Society," Journal of Teacher Education, XXIV, Number 3 (Fall, 1973) , pp. 225-231.
79. Zangwill, Israel, The Melting Pot, New York, McMillan and Company, 1909.
CHAPTER II
HISTORY AND MILIEU OF THE TRUMPET
MARIACHI ENSEMBLE
In Mexican folk music, there are a number of vari-
ations of the standard folk ensembles. Among these folk
groups, three types of ensembles have emerged into a wide
range of usages through the country. The mariachi conjunto
norteno and the marimba band (10, p. 41) have been publi-
cized in Mexico and the United States by means of film
productions, radio, recordings, and television. In the
past a number of tours have been financed by the Mexican
Government and the International Good Neighbor Council,
and private enterprise, which has extended knowledge of
these folk groups in the United States as well as other
countries.
These ensembles began as folk music media and have
become standardized groups. The culturally diverse regions
of Mexico have been the scenes of development for these
major species of ensemble, their sub-types, and their
characteristic repertoire. This investigation into the
music of the trumpet mariachi relates to the group that
has been the most widely publicized ensemble outside of
Mexico (14).
52
53
In order to provide the socio-cultural information
essential to the authentic interpretation of trumpet mari-
achi repertoire, the following delineations are offered.
Crystalization of the Trumpet Mariachi Ensemble
The trumpet mariachi may be considered as a "meta-
morphosis" of the older string-folk mariachi. A recent
investigation into Mexican folk music by Geijerstam is
quoted:
To be accurate, there are actually two kinds of mariachi bands in Mexico. The original mariachi, consisting of string instruments only, belongs to the realm of the folk music. String mariachi bands are to be found in the countryside of central Mexico. Around 1940 a commercial type of mariachi began to develop, primarily in the cities. In these ensembles the original balance of string instruments was altered by the addition of trumpets (10, p. 41).
In the treatise "La Musica vernacula," Carmen Sordo
Sodi maintains that the trumpet was added for the radio
broadcasts over Radio Station XEW, Mexico City, D.F., in
the 1930's. Sordo Sodi is quoted as follows:
The trumpet joined the mariachis in the decade of the 1930's when the initial radiobroadcasts in Mexico City, D.F., at the instigation and request of the now deceased Don Emilio Azcarraga V., who knew the limitation of the old microphones and that the string instruments had soft sound. He decided to augment the sonority and brightness of this music by adding the trumpets. After a broadcast with one of the groups of the mariachi, the decision was made to abandon the harps and include one, two, or more trumpets which provided more projection, energy, and excitement (18, p. 5).
54
Some of the people, enthusiasts about mariachis,
were not pleased with this change. Sra. Sordo Sodi
quotes Don Francisco Javier Sauza:
I listened to that absolute unpleasantness with the stridency and generally noisy use of the trumpet (18, p. 5).
Geijerstam provides a similar account obtained in
an interview with Juan S. Garrido which corroborates
the same anecdote. Popular Music in Mexico is quoted
as follows:
According to Garrido, it was Emilio Azcarraga Vidaureta who actually created the trumpet mari-achi. Azcarraga was the main initiator and the director of radio station XEW, which opened in Mexico City in 1930. He wanted to broadcast mari-achi music played by authentic Jalisco bands, but thought the sound was too thin for reproduction by radio. (Transmission of sound was not very ad-vanced at that time.) He therefore suggested that the melody be carried by a more piercing instrument. A trumpet was added and the harp omitted; the new mariachi ensemble came into being--trumpet (at first only one, later two or three), two or three violins requinto, (an ordinary six-stringed guitar) and guitarron, with the guitarists also performing as vocalists (10, p. 43).
Early Twentieth Century
Those events may have crystalized the trumpet mari-
achi as a standard ensemble. However, the use of the
trumpet in the mariachi may not have originated in that
instance. There is evidence that the trumpet had been
known in the mariachi ensembles of Cocula before this
time, the "Ante" and the mariachis. Jose' Cervantes
55
Ramirez as a military musician in the early part of the
twentieth century provides an eyewitness account. In an
article that appeared in the newspaper, IU Occidental (4),
this account is rendered:
In September 1911, I returned to Guadalajara, but this time as a military musician. One day the director of the band said to me, "Please meet this person," presenting a person to me whose name was Pablo Becerra.
. . . . "Do you play the cornet?" he asked when he saw this instrument.
"Yes," I answered with interest, "Would you like to play something?"
Immediately he lifted the instrument to his mouth and played "Tres Piedras."
When he finished, he remained looking at me fixedly.
He offered the question, "How was it?" While he played, I listened with attention all
the time that he was playing and noted a style that was rare and affected. Even though the sound was good his school (technique) appeared to be very deficient.
"Where did you learn that piece," I asked him, "Because apart from the style you have played in another key."
"In the mariachi," he answered me, "I am from Cocula."
By that time I had knowledge of the existence of the mariachi, but had not seen or heard one. I then asked him, "What is a mariachi?"
He informed me, "The mariachis are little groups of five or six musicians who go around in Cocula playing and singing in doorways or inside of the cantinas and since all are lyricists (people who play entirely by ear) we learn the pieces by ear and thus we sometimes come out in another key. "I know solfege; I know music; I do not like the mariachi." Becerra continued, "it does not agree with me to go in the streets playing and singing in doorways of the cantinas; I know music and I desire something better. I do not understand why we go dressed always as a ranchero, learning music by ear in the company of people who have to make themselves drunk."
56
"The 'Ante'", Pablo Becerra continued, "became the mariachi little by little. First they added the violin, then the bajo sexto and the requinto, then the guitarr^n, the contrebass, a clarinet, the flute and the cornet, and then in this ar-rangement it was possible to play for dances" (4).
On the basis of this narration provided by Cervantes,
it would appear that the trumpet was not included in a
mariachi ensemble for the first time at the radio broad-
cast in the period of Azcarraga's direction.
Perhaps it may be said that the trumpet mariachi
crystalized in that period as a commercial group. Again
relying on Juan S. Garrido, Geijerstam avows:
The trumpet mariachi was an immediate success and was widely imitated by the mariachi bands in the capital; new ensembles were formed. The success was such that the trumpet mariachi was soon the country's unofficial national ensemble. Since then the term mariachi is commonly associated only with the trumpet form of ensemble (10, p. 44).
Besides Cocula, another town in the state of Jalisco
has produced the Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlan. At the
end of the nineteenth century Caspar Vargas organized
his group including sons and brothers. They began to
play the music of the local tradition. This ensemble
used strong rhythms and an intense tone color. They
turned the village of San Pedro de Tlaquepaque into a
mecca for the mariachi groups. Then these groups began
to search the cantinas and the streets of Guadalajara
for customers.
57
In this practice a definitive custom of contracting
with a mariachi group developed, (a) that of arranging
with the clients in the street. This category of mari-
achi was the earliest type and has continued to exist in
the present time. The Mariachi Vargas began a second
practice, (b) that of arranging for service through
previously arranged contractual agreement. Both cate-
gories of mariachi continues in the popular music service
field at the present time (14, pp. 146-147).
Organography of Folk Ensembles in Mexico
While this study is concerned with the trumpet mari-
achi the place that this ensemble occupies in the relation-
ship with the many ensembles of the folkloric traditions
of Mexico seems significant.
Vincent T. Mendoza describes the popular ensemble
as follows:
The popular organography is based principally in the Spanish instruments, with one or another indigenous instrument surviving. The teponaztle is seen at some Festivals in Jalisco; the huehuetl in Tlascala; the shell of the turtle as a percussion instrument and the conch of the sea snail (nautilus) in Oaxaca. The rattles of various forms are used in almost all of the Indian dances. Most of the Mexican instrumentation are bound to the three dimensions of the harp, large, medium, and small. These include the violin, the jaranita (little guitar) of four strings, the mandolin, improvised out of the armadilla shell, the vihuela of five strings, the guitar of six strings, and the Jaliscan guitarron which is the bajo sexto adapted for the mariachi (13, pp. 109-110).
58
Mendoza indicated in this discussion that the mari-
achi was one of the large number of popular ensembles
existing in Mexico during the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries. The groups have largely crystalized
into the three major classifications conjunto norteno, a
trio group popular in the Northwestern and border regions
of Mexico; the mariachi band; and the marimba band of
the southern tropical regions of Mexico: Oaxaca, Chiapas,
Yucatan, and southern Veracruz. Frances Toor describes
the jarana groups in the Yucatan region in relationship
to the folk dances and festivals of that tropical area.
Everywhere industrialization is having its effect and
the popular festivals are continuing with highly mechan-
ized dimensions which have not existed before. Folk-
lorists and aficionados of the traditions are trying
to preserve the groups. The harp trio, harp, vihuela,
and guitar, popular in the region of Veracruz are highly
prized by the folklorists and collectors.
Folk Groups Having a Related Organography and Repertoire
Castaneda informs that there was a concentration of
groups in the Capital of the Republic of popular groups
overflowing with popular music and at the same time, many
singers, musical groups, typical orchestras and they played
vernacular music with color and enthusiasm (3, p. 447).
59
His first group listed is described as follows:
1. Los Mariachis de Cocula, with its typical orchestra composed of violins, harps, vihuelas, guitars and voices, and its extensive repertoire of Music of the Ba j10 (3, p. 447).
Castaneda provides a commentary on the musical ensem-
bles of the revolution as they appeared in the early
twentieth century:
During the revolution the canciones, the sones, the corridos, the huapangos, and the valonas were car-ried by travel throughout the multiple geographic regions. Popular music crossed the Republic from the north to the south, from east to west, going and coming, emigrating from the mountains to the Baijo, from the coast to, the high plain, passing from Chihuahua to Yucatan, from Veracruz to Colima. All of the people finally coming to the capitals of the states and at last to Mexico City. It was a fair, a fiesta of the revolution--a fiesta of the popular songs. This concentration reached its highest proportions in 1925, until the capital of the Republic was overflowing with popular music, singers, musical groups of typical orchestras of vernacular performance, filled with color and enthusiasm. Among these musical groups and typical orchestras who arrived at the capital and in which was her triumphal hour producing true examples of national sentiment, ought to be cited, by their musical importance as follows:
1. The Mariachis from Cocula . . . violins, harps, viheulas, and voices
2. The Yucatan Trobadors . . . guitarras sextos, hondas singing style (Andalusian)
3. Singers and dancers of the j arabe and sandunga
4. Typical orchestra . . . violins, harps psalters and bandolons
5. The groups of Yaqui soldiers with their animal dances of the deer and coyote . . .
violins and primitive flute, pentatonic and tetratonic harmonies and scales, rattles, and water filled jugs sticks with notches (chicahuastli), guiros and drums of the Yaqui
60
6. The Trobadors from Tamaulipas and Veracruz . . . (Costa de Sotavento) vihuelas and guitars constructed from a single piece of wood, violins and the singing characteristic sad, or mournful
7. The typical singers from Oaxaca 8. The mariachis from Guerrero . . .
violins, vihuelas, guitars, vihuela pausona, harps and drums,_chilenas, gustos, sones and malaguenas
9. Singers from Michoacan and the orchestra typical of the region . . . violins, vihuelas, guitars songs of the lake region, sones islanos
10. Dancers from all of the Republic who merit capital interest because of the color and rhythms . . .
The double phenomenon: the concentration and dispersion of popular music that culminated in the year 1925 . . . raised its genius with equal ex-cellence and defects . . . with whatever came from the mexican music . . . the Revolution should have been satisfied . . . this is part of its work relating to emotion and has bound together, for us, ultimately, a popular music that is ours (3, pp. 445-448).
Specific Groups in the Development of the Trumpet Mariachi
Morales provides information pertaining to a specific
group from Cocula. In the decade of 1920-30, a group
went to Mexico City having seven elements which played
in honor of Alvaro Obregon, President of the Republic.
The maestro (leader) was described as a "modest, but
exceptional" vihuelist, whose name was Concho Andrade.
Andrade wished to remain in Mexico City, but his men
returned to Jalisco (al terruno). Andrade formed a new
group and taught them to play the music of Jalisco in the
Tenampa, a cantina region facing the Plaza Garibaldi. This
61
cantina became the fashionable place to hear the music
of the mariachi. "Let's go hear the mariachis in
Garibaldi," became the phrase heard often in the capital
(14, p. 147).
Andrade died in 1943; but before the period of radio
and mass communications he extended knowledge of mariachi
music to the tourists from many countries of the world
(14, p. 147).
In 1932, Silvestre Vargas, the son of Caspar Vargas,
travelled to Mexico City, accompanied by the mariachi
that his father had founded. They completed a short con-
tract and returned to Tecalitlan. They then travelled to
Tijuana, B.C., for two months. When President Lazaro
Cardenas took office as president of Mexico, this group
was invited to play for the occasion. They played their
own arrangement of "El son de la negra" in the style that
had been developed by his father, Caspar Vargas. They
were then invited to take part in a radio broadcast spon-
sored by the Chief of Police (14, p. 149).
In 1938, the Mariachi Vargas made its first inter-
national tour. They were sent by the Mexican government
to the United States, Cuba, and Central America, as musi-
cal ambassadors (14, pp. 149-150). In regard to the
subsequent tours of the now famous Mariachi Vargas,
Silvestre Vargas declares:
62
The journey that I remember with the most fondness . . . is that which brought us to Spain in 1948 with Jorge Negrete. This was a true triumphal passage. "What a great help such a figure as Jorge Negrete was in the diffusion of our music (14, p. 150)
Conflict of Ideals Among the Leading Mariachi Performers
Commercial exigiencies and performances necessities
caused certain changes to occur in the practices of the
group. At first Silvestre Vargas resisted putting the
trumpets into his group until other groups surpassed his
in popularity (14, p. 150). The purists lamented the
change in the Vargas group, saying that they tended to
abandon the real popular music of Mexico for classical
music, boleros from Cuba, and even rock music. Folk-
lorists feel that in this way they are losing their
original appearance (14, p. 150). Morales edits these
ideals with his personal comment:
I believe the mariachi was born to interpret the popular music of Mexico and nothing more (14, p. 150).
Other directors of mariachi groups agreed with the
"orthodox stand" which Vargas first assumed. Francisco
Zavala of the Mariachi Atotonilco expresses these ideas:
We are going to lose the flavor of our music, even some people include all classes of instruments with an authentic mariachi. In my judgement, the mariachi aught to interpret only folkloric music or at the most only some other types of Mexican music (14, p. 151).
Of course, not all agree, Romdri Palomar of Ameca,
Jalisco, travelled throughout the world and returned to
63
Mexico in 1951. That year he organized his own mariachi
and included written instrumentations for his recordings,
using the traditional folkloric music.
Vargas and Palomar were antagonists concerning the
musical concepts, but they are personal friends. Palomar
used the clarinet rather consistently as well as the ac-
cordion and drums, even an electric bass (14, p. 151).
Silvestre Vargas was among the first to introduce
changes such as written arrangements and instrumentations
for such figures as Negrete. Morales cites the fact that
in its beginning the Mariachi Vargas consisted of just
harp, violin, and guitarron, when they played for fiestas
in Tecalitlan. Palomar points out that he considers these
variations as experiments (14, pp. 151-152).
The Cinematography of the Ranchero Style and its Relationship to
the Trumpet Mariachi
A developmental force in the promotion of the mari-
achi and new concepts in its literature was the motion
picture industry during the 1940's and 50's. These films
used the music of the ranchero style and promoted the
famous singers such as Jorge Negrete, Pedro Infante, /
Lucha Reyes, and more recently Lola Beltran. These films
were largely an excuse for these singers to perform their
ranchero songs. They were packed with one song right
after another. These films are still seen on the
64
television sets in the homes of Mexican families on both
sides of the border on a regular basis. While these
cinematic figures were not from the actual ranks of the
mariachi performers, they performed the ranchero music
of the mariachi in their films.
. . . Canciones mexicanas and ranchera songs played a prominent role in sound films . . .
Generally the song was related to the love story that was invariably a part of the plot, but songs with national associations were also popular (such as "Ay, Jalisco no te rajes" by Manuel Esperon) . . .
The most prolific songwriters for films of the 1930's and beyond included Agustin Lara, Manuel Esperon, and Chucho Monge. Chucho Monge (a mari-achi composer) wrote themes for 17 6 films, and in 76 of them his songs provided the title of the film in which they were used (10, pp. 120-121).
The two male singers who created the vocal image for
the trumpet mariachi were Jorge Negrete and Pedro Infante.
Both singers sang in the bel canto style. Geijerstam
points out their relationship to the film industry and
the ranchera style as follows:
Reliable box office draws such as Pedro Infante and Jorge Negrete appeared in film after film, thus popularizing Mexican music throughout the Hispanic world. These artists although now dead, are still among the record stars most in demand (10, p. 69).
The association of the bel canto style with the sound
of mariachi music may be as Geijerstam points out:
The Italian bel canto style quickly gave rise to romantic canciones in the musical salons. The bel canto style was also transmitted "from the pro-fessional opera singers via provincial composers and popular troubadours to the country people (10, p. 61)*.
65
/
Jorge Negrete was born in 1911, in Leon, Guanajuato.
He was "trained for military service," but later entered
the Conservatorio Nacional Libre and graduated as a well
trained singer. He wanted to become an opera star, but
his opportunity came in films. He became known as "El
Charro Inmortal" and was always associated with the
ranchero style. He died in Los Angeles, California,
in 1951 (14, p.
The films in which Negrete appeared using the charro
tradition as a background included Historia de un gran
amor, Jalisco canta en Sevilla (filmed in Spain), Teatro
Apolo, (using music of the cancion ranchera), and El Penon
de las animas.
These films produced the following ranchera songs:
Cartas de amor, Oj os tapatios, El dia que me quieras, and
Ay, Jalisco no te raj es, Cocula, and Juan Charreasqueado.
Other favorite titles for the tourist mariachi from his
films are Paloma querida and Mexico Lindo y querido (14,
p. 174.).
Pedro Infante was born in 1917, in Mazatlan, Sinaloa.
His career was associated with that of Jorge Negrete.
Both artists appeared as charros and became rich and
famous through their individual and combined performance
of the ranchero music on the screen and recordings. The
emotional response is still strong concerning both singers.
66
Morales states that there is a cult that continues to demand
the films of Pedro Infante. Without interruption, a
dozen of the movie houses in the capital and hundreds of
the popular film rooms in the rural districts have con-
tinued to show the films, such as Nosotros los pobres,
Pepe el Toro, Los tres Garcias, Escuela de vagabundos,
and Tizoc (14, p. 185).
The same people who were writing the songs for these
ranchera sound films may be associated with the mariachi
development. Geijerstam provides the following:
The theme song frequently provided the content for the entire film, the plot illustrating the lyrics. Many composers and songwriters realized the op-portunity for making a fortune (10, p. 121).
On this basis it may be stated that the film producers
used the mariachi music as a basis for their exploitation
of the Mexican public taste.
Paul Bowles wrote in 1941 concerning this phenomenon:
Talent scouts from Mexico City radio stations are fast destroying the local cultures by carrying away the best musicians from their villages (1, p. 225).
The same practice was continued into the so called
golden epoch (epoca d'oro) of Mexican folk music (14,
pp. 139-186).
While the originators of the old mariachi ensemble
repertoire who developed the songs, canciones, and corridos
of their regions, are obscure and unknown to the present
day scholars, the composers of the trumpet mariachi music
67
are well known to the public through the media of radio,
film, and recording. The folk mariachi was an anonymous
transmitter of folk music for people of their time and
place (17, D. 3).
By contrast the trumpet mariachi is an entertainment
medium heard in all sections of Mexico nowadays (10, p.
45). The trumpet mariachi is used in fashionable hotels
in tourist resorts to create atmosphere. They are used
in restaurants and plazas of the large cities. Geijerstam
avows:
The trumpet mariachi sound has left its imprint on Mexican popular music. Mariachi accompaniment to canciones rancheras and boleros rancheros is standard (10, p. 45).
Some of the contributing composers are included in
this investigation for the purpose of demonstrating the
changes which have occurred in the literature of the folk
and trumpet mariachi.
Some Composers of Mariachi Literature
Chucho Monge was concerned with the romantic style
initially. As a singer and composer from adolescence, he
discovered that he had a facility with the ranchero and
thus he produced songs such as Cartas marcadas, Pa' que
me sirve la vida, Besando la cruz, and La feria de las
flores (14, p. 155).
68
/
Pepe Guizar is called the "musical painter of Mexico."
He is a brilliant exponent of the vernacular style song.
His list of compositions include: Oye vale, Guadalajara,
Tehuantepec, Chapala, and Los mariachis de mi tierra. He
lives in seclusion in Veracruz due to his age and poor
health (14, p. 156).
Manuel Espero'n was born in 1911. His major songs in
the mariachi repertoire include Cocula, Tequila con 1imon, /
Amorcito corazon, La chancla, and Jalisco no te rajes.
Esperon is now the conductor of the Union Philharmonic
of Mexico City and has been invited to conduct the State
Symphony of Mexico, which is considered the best in the
nation (14, p. 156).
Jos/ Alfredo Jimenez was born in 1926 in Dolores
Hidalgo in Guanajuato. His titles include Yo , Ella, Que
suerte la mia, Cuatro caminos and Tu recuerdo y yo. He
died in 1973 (14, p. 160). He was seen in cinematic pro-
ductions singing his own songs (10, p. 118).
These composers are included in the discussion of
Salvador Morales concerning the trumpet mariachi period
of Mexican music.
Local Groups in the Trumpet Mariachi Tradition
There are presently obscure and provincial trumpet
mariachi groups such as the Mariachi Rodriguez of Colima,
69
Mariachi Mexico Tipico of Nuevo Laredo, or Los Reyes de
Guadalajara in Monterrey. There are thousands of similar
groups that continue to play their repertoire for natives
and tourists in the fondas, cantinas, fashionable hotels,
on the streets and plazas, for serenades at private parties
and for public receptions of notable guests.
In support of this point of view, Geijerstam describes
Trumpet Mariachi can be heard everywhere. They play for tourists at fashionable hotels and in squares such as the Plaza Garibaldi in Mexico City, or seated on flower-decked boats in the verdant, winding chanels of Zochimilco. They are indispensable at garden parties of the aristocracy and political banquets. Moreover, many television programs and films overflow with mariachi music, tequila, tears, and national feelings (10, p. 44).
Sordo Sodi provides the following data:
According to statistical data provided by the review Contenido del ano, actually 75% of the mariachis do not know how to read music . . . .
In spite of the fact that there have been some outstanding composers of vernacular music. These com-posers are concerned that the mariachis are preoc-cupied only with pleasure and memorization . . . .
Are we capricious enough to think that the traditional Mexican music does not merit a profound and exhaustive study which will preserve and collect the data for one of our most ancestral, and nearly extinguished, forms of esthetic communications: our Mexican vernacular music? (17, p. 5)
The milieu in which the trumpet mariachi crystalized
and became popular has become a commercial society. The
effects of a market place society is seen here as every-
where else in the culture.
70
The research of Efrain de la Cruz has revealed manu-
scripts and records from the sixteenth, seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries which indicates that these groups were
called mariachi for many years. In line with this research,
de la Cruz states that the mariachi Salinas and a group
known as Mariachi de Pancho Alba have been continuously
in existence since the third decade of the nineteenth
century.
A Mestizo Cultural Medium of Expression
While the mariachi is claimed by the people of Jalisco
as its own, the tradition is found as a cultural character-/
istic in the total area of the Bajio. Particularly does one
find the mariachi in the states of Guanajuato and Guerrero.
The mariachi de Guerrero is outside the scope of this study.
From this general dispersion of the group and its similarity
in all regions one may assume that the mariachi is a mestizo
folk group and as such it relates to the whole mestizo
population. One of the universal traditions of the mestizo
population was the charro habit, or dress.
Frances Toor considers the mariachi as mestizo folk
music groups. Her statements are as follows: There are regions in which mestizo folk music pre-dominates and the musicians are also mestizos. The most outstanding for this type of musical production is Jalisco. It was there that the mariachis originated, which are also popular in Colima and Nayarit (20, p. 307) .
71
Fundamental to this point of view is the position des-
cribed by fieijerstam with regard to ethnic music. He dis-
cusses the mestizo population in the following discourse:
The term "ethnic music," which is sometimes used synonymously with tribal music, may also denote traditions in larger ethnic groups. In Mexico it refers to the acculturated Indians, who combine Indian and Spanish cultural traits. The ethnic situation among Mexican Indians (and among the Indians of the Latin American Highlands in general) is highly complicated. The Indians and Spanish have mingled since the sixteenth century, which has resulted in the mestizo (mixed) race that currently dominates the population of Mexico (10, p. 2).
The history of the charro is a cultural development
within the mestizo population in Mexico. Don Carlos Rincon
Gallardo writes:
The Mexican charro traces its origin from Salamanca, Spain, where the design with its name comes from a village of that vicinity (16, p. 3).
The charro movement is very much bound up in horseman-
ship. Frances Toors describes the concept:
The Spaniards from the very beginning of their sojourn in Mexico made fortunes in mining and from their im-mense estates. For their own pleasure and to impress the people they were exploiting, they lavished their wealth on horses, carriages, dress, showing off at bullfights, in riding games, promenades and processions In 1623, Felipe IV sent an order forbidding such scan-dalous public displays.
At about this time a new social class arose--the mestizo rancheros, or small land holders . . . .
The rancheros had plenty of money and nothing to spend it on in the country, so they adorned their horses' harnesses with silver, and wore suits of rich materials with much embroidery.
The rancheros were the first real representatives of the new Mexican race of Spanish-indigenous blood; they were very patriotic and played a leading part in the Revolution for Mexican Independence.
72
The present charro costume is the same as the one evolved and worn in the nineteenth century.
There are three classes of charros: (1) the gentleman charro of the cities and country; (2) the professional charro, for whom a new field has been recently opened in the movies; (3) the vaquero charro or herdsman, who takes care of and trains the horses (20, pp. 286-287).
The costuming of the trumpet mariachi is the charro
dress. Their costumes are elaborately embroidered in the
typical Mexican fashion which often mixes silver and gold
with the design. The description of the charro costume is
paraphrased from El libro del charro mexicano, by D. Carlos
Rincon Gallardo, as follows (16, pp. 86-95):
Sombrero: The sombrero of the charro has a cap some-high, with indentations, and a band. The cap is more or less forty-five centimeters high. The sombreros are made of various materials, felt, straw, royal palms, or other. Often they are made from velvet, silk, or chamois. The chamois is both ornamental and practical.
Toquillas (bands): The hat bands are usually of braided silk, leather, or other material, around the sombrero at the base of the cap.
Chapetas: The chapetas are monogrammed plaques placed on the sides of the sombrero, to adorn the bands and chin straps.
Camisa de charro (the shirt of the charro): The shirt must be soft and its tail long and doubled.
Corbata (tie) : The tie must be fourteen centi-meters wide, eighty-five centimeters long of matching material. Any strong color is acceptable, but the macho must not wear light blue, lavender, or rose colors. These are considered feminine perogatives.
Chaquetas (jackets): The chaquetas must be long sleeved and buttoned at the upper part of the chest; open at the bottom. The back must be long enough to come to the last vertebra, no more, no less.
Blusa (blouse): The blusa is used in place of the chaqueta. It can be made of drill cashmere wool, or chamois. These are somewhat military and are not used by the mariachi.
73
Pantaloneras (pants): The pants must be adjustable for the legs, not impeding the movements. The most comfortable and lasting are those made of chamois. The pantalones are decorated for gala occasions, with but-tons and borders (16, p. 86-96).
The charro costume is used in the films of the 1930's
and 1940's. The scenes in the movies were often on the
haciendas and ranches where the population was entertained
by the local mariachis as the plot went and the singers were
accompanied by a trumpet mariachi. The local color fiestas
that were used as a background for these films were the
jarabe festivals and the china poblana holidays such as
May 5th, the day of the victory at Puebla of the Mexicans
against the French in the war of the intervention (1864-
1867).
The female artists of both stage and film were dressed
in the china poblana costume. When there are charro festi-
vals in Mexico, and sections of Texas, New Mexico , Arizona
and California, the people dress in these costumes; (a) the
men in the charro dress and (b) the women in china poblana
dress. Frances Toor describes the china poblana:
The women riders are called charras, those of the cities wearing the China Poblana costume. This con-sists of a long full green flannel skirt with a red yoke, trimmed with sequins; a white embroidered shirt worn inside the skirt; a folded rebozo over the shoulders, crossed in front; red ribbons bows in the hair; red or green slippers. But the charras modify it by wearing a man's sombrero and over the shoulder at serape instead of the rebozo (shawl) (19, p. 238).
74
These costumes and festivals are cited here because
of their relativity to the films in which the large quan-
tity of literature of the ranchero style was developed.
In that aspect they relate to the trumpet mariachi. How-
ever, in real life the mariachi performer is of the lower
class mestizo society. His level of socio-economic position
is of the working-laboring classes. Mariachis are identi-
fied with the charro because of their presence at ferias
and fiestas in which the charro traditions are dominant.
Sordo Sodi indicates that the charro uniform was not used
by the first groups who arrived in Mexico City until after
the cinema identified the music of the trumpet mariachi
with the charro film subjects (18). It may have been tra-
ditional in Jalisco because the charro upper class society
was dominant in that state. Cervantes Ramirez cites the
statement of Pablo Bercerra that he "did not know whey they
went dressed as charros" (4).
The charro costume was used in the theatrical pro-
ductions of the nineteenth century. Geijerstam provides
the following comment:
. . . . country songs were incorporated into theatre performances of the Juarez epoch.
. . . performed in the theatre by artists dressed as charros (cowboys) or what was called the chinaco style; . . . (10, pp. 67-68)
Sordo Sodi discusses the theatrical antecedants of
the folk music of Mexico. Her evidence is based on the
75
concepts of Vicente T. Mendoza (12) stating that the taste
for popular music was spread by the tonadilla escenica.
The works of anonymous composers, songs, sones, and jarabes,
were performed by the leading singers and dancers of the
period between the acts of the operas and zarzuelas. Among
these was the often used "Jarabe Tapatio" costumed as the
princess of the china poblana legend (17).
Theatrical and Literary Influences in Mariachi Traditions
The tonadilla esce'nica corresponds to the entreacts
of the theatre in the French, Spanish, and Italian musical
theatre houses of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
A comic relief scene or some light music was used to vary
the entertainment of the audience who had been attendant
at a very involved plot in the main offering of the
evening (12).
The theatrical events of the nineteenth century began
to include nationalistic scenarios which pleased the mestizo
population (12). Among the scenes enacted, one of the
favorites of the audiences was the legend of the China
Poblana. The songs, dances (jarabes), and sones that were
performed in the musical arrangements for these entreacts
were based on the mestizo charro traditions and legends of
the ranchero idiom.
76
It seems appropriate to include a summary of the
legend of the China Poblana in this investigation. This
quotation is a paraphrase of the legend as it is narrated
in the work, El Libro del Charro Mexicano as cited in the
footnotes and chapter bibliography.
In the late seventeenth century pirates preyed upon the ships of Latin America in the Pacific Ocean. A famous pirate, Sir Towly, captured a Chinese vessel loaded with treasure.
This vessel also carried a Chinese princess whose name was Mirrha. The princess was taken to Manila where she was sold to a merchant from Acapulco. The merchant carried her to Mexico where he sold her to Captain Sosa, a merchant from Los Angeles.
Captain Sosa brought the princess to the capital, where he set her free and gave her fine clothes and expensive jewels. Captain Sosa had the princess baptized, giving her the name, Catarina de San Juan. She was then taken to Puebla where she was educated.
From the time that she arrived in Puebla, she demonstrated great kindness and gentleness of heart. She sold her jewels and gave the proceeds to Our Lady of Sorrows. She then adopted the zagalejo (heavy felt skirt worn over crinoline pettycoats). From this legend, the shepherdess dress has come to be the costume of the charro ladies. It is covered with spangles embroidered in various designs.
Catarina was always known as "la china." She was loved by all people of Puebla. She was buried with honors in the sacristy of the Church of the Holy Companions. (16, pp. 266-268)
Geiierstam states:
It is difficult to trace the exact history of the mariachi during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries It may have paralleled that of the jarabe, which was deeply integrated into the musical life of the towns as national music, and then gradually brought back in a renewed form to rural areas (10, p. 43).
Sordo Sodi points out that:
The theatre was the best vehicle which was to provide knowledge and to be absorbed by the people, thanks to it, mainly in the nineteenth century music of ignored
77
composers whose songs, sones, and jarabes became danced and sung by the primera sopranos and the actresses of the fashion and in the entreacts of the comedies, operas, and zarzuelas, they made the "appearance in the escenarios capitalinos such as the "jarabe tapatio" adorned with the bright felt of the "china" (china poblana) (18).
Perhaps from the tonadilla esce'nica the style of
singing for the trumpet mariachi developed from the oper-
atic the bel canto. Influences from the whole body of
forms and styles of the opera, zarzuela, and tonadilla
escenica sifted down to the folk music performers (liricos)
Geijerstam points out:
The bel canto style of singing became very popular in the capital and was also incorporated into folk music traditions (10, p. 16).
In regard to these tonadillas Mendoza provides this
data:
The truest traditional ingredient that came to give birth to the Mexican cancion was the opera--those spectacular events that appeared in the first decades of the nineteenth century programs given at the Coliseum in Mexico City, interlaced with the tona-dillas that were most in vogue. From the Barber of Seville by Paisielo, the best works of Rossini ancF later those by Bellini and Donizetti, were the in-structive sources for the liricos (street musician poets) who developed the taste for the Italian bel canto among the inhabitants of the cities of the country. Soon it descended to the class of the peasants (campesinos) . . . . (13, pp. 109-110)
The point for the trumpet mariachi must be made,
however, that the principal artists among the men who
sang the ranchero style music for the films and radio
performances were Jorge Negrete, Pedro Infante, and Pedro
78
Vargas, among others who were trained at the conservatories
and began careers as opera singers and later shifted to
ranchero style performance.
Geijerstam cites these circumstances:
Some composers, instrumentalists, and singers who began their musical careers by studying at the National Conservatory were later forced by financial problems to abandon their plans to work as concert performers or opera singers. Mario Talavera, Pedro Vargas, Felipe Llera and Jorge Negrete were all singers who began in opera but turned to singing popular songs when this proved more profitable (10, p. 95).
Perhaps it is safe to say that the mariachi singing
style developed during the period in line with the public
taste of the nineteenth century.
Symphonic Literature
The relationship which mariachi music has had with the
field of symphonic literature in Mexico is demonstrated
with the following composers: Silvestre RevueItas, Bias
Galindo, and Miguel Bernal Jimenez. These Mexican
nationalist composers used the rhythms and melodic con-
tours of the mariachi perhaps as an unconscious ingredient.
Revueltas was born in Durango, 1899-1940. He began
very early to play the violin and formed his own little
group who were rewarded with "candy from his fathers
store" (19, pp. 251-253).
Stevenson comments:
Aaron Copland compared Revueltas' spontaneity with Schubert's, and remarked that "he composes organically tunes which are almost indistinguishable from the original folk material itself"--the original folk
79
material being mestizo melody of the kind heard everywhere along the highways and byways of Mexico (19, p. 252).
Bias Galindo was born in the heart of the mariachi
center, San Gabriel in the state of Jalisco. Stevenson
cites:
The state of Jalisco was like other parts of Mexico torn by strife all through the early twenties, and Bias, quitting school in his native village of San Gabriel, Jalisco, took to the mountains, where he lived a wandering life as a guerillist. With a gun under one arm and a guitar under the other, he was welcome in any band of Indian fighters. His sympathies were, of course, with his own people, since he himself is a full-blooded Huich$l (19, p. 254).
He played by ear before he learned to read music. In
May 1931, he began his career as a music student under the
influence of Revueltas. He received the highest certificate
from the conservatory in December, 1944. He was under the
tutelage of Carlos Chavez. He wrote an orchestral synthesis
of mariachi tunes, Sones Mariachi, for the concerts pro-
vided at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in the 1930's.
In his cello concerto he uses the son ialisciense counter-
rhythms as a basis for the rhythmic interest.
Stevenson comments concerning his music flavor:
Certain features in Galindo's music do seem Mexican enough; anyone who has seen the terraced farms in the high mountainous regions of Mexico will find the abrupt changes of signature, the abrupt changes of mood in the music, the abrupt changes of pace in the rhythmic blow, reminiscent of the step-like cultivated hillsides (19, p. 258).
80
Miguel Bernal Jimenez (1910-1956) , began his music
study as a choir boy in the city of Morelia at the Cathedral.
He was a fervent believer and his life was lived in the
shadow of the church (17, p. 45). His personal life
and musical instruction were under the direction of don
Jose" Maria Villasenor. After studying in Morelia, Jimenez
was sent to Rome to study at the Pontifical Institute of
Sacred Music, studying organ and Gregorian chant.
After his return to Mexico, he was appointed director
of the Escuela Superior de Musica Sagrada. His compositions
include a work, Michoacan, which contains three movements,
Alborada ("Daybreak"), Cancion, and Corrido.
Stevenson remarks:
. . . this suite shows Bernal a complete master of orchestration. His melodies, prevailingly diatonic, are draped oftenest in a resplendent gown of chromatic harmony'. With Respighian opulence the Alborada in the Michoacan Suite develops a final fortissimo climax in an A major section marked "Grandioso". The Cancion contains a throbbing melody sung by all the strings, except basses; the woodwind repartee accompanying this lush melody adds suitable shimmer to the total sound. The Corrido explores a com-bination of 2/4's and 3/4's. During the fugue exposition a liberal use of "wrong notes" in the counterpoints, or doubled leading tones, or fifths on successive beats in two-part passages, exhibiting Bernal in one of his rare wryly humorous, veins. . . . At the end of the whole affair, the orchestral v players are instructed to shout, "Viva Michoacan!" (18, pp. 262-263)
81
Summary
In summary, the trumpet mariachi drew a wide spread
attention in Mexico during the 1930's through the radio
broadcasts over XEW under the direction of Don Emilio
Azcarraga Vidaureta. At that broadcast, the problems
that arose with the sound transmission caused the pro-
gram director to change the instrumentation of the maria-
chi group that performed omitting the harp and adding a
trumpet. This innovation was followed by mariachi groups
in Mexico City adding the trumpet to their ensemble.
While this may have been the crystalization of the
actual trumpet mariachi, it was not the first time the
piston had been included in the mariachi band. The ac-
counts of Jose Cervantes Ramirez (5) indicates that the
use of the bugle, cornet, and at last the trumpet was
characteristic of the mariachi groups of Cocula and other
villages in Jalisco during the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries.
The small groups which originated in the state of Jalisco
had included trumpets, clarinets, and drums, in addition to
the basic harp, vihuela, and violin. Beyond the basic trio,
the instrumentation varied from group to group.
The trios were called "Ante," because they played
before the doorways of the fondas and cantinas. An inter-
view with a mariachi performer from Cocula, Pablo Bercerra
82
was recorded by Cervantes in his newspaper article for the
Guadalajara "El Occidental" (4) , Bercerra proferred the theory
that the ante became the mariachi little by little. He
defined the mariachi as a group of five or six instruments
which played at fairs and dances when their instrumentation
permitted it. From these statements one might summarize
that the ante and the mariachi existed side by side in
the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.
Both Castaneda (3) and Morales (14), indicate that
the first mariachi groups arrived in Mexico City during
the twenties. Morales provides specific information con-
cerning the group which extended the knowledge of the
mariachi ensembles in Mexico City. His information states
that Concho Andrade was brought to Mexico City to perform
for the inauguration affairs of Alvaro Obregon, when he
took office as president of the Republic. Morales credits
Andrade and his mariachi group which performed at the
"Tenampa" on the adjoining Plaza Garibaldi with establishing
the plaza as the mariachi center in Mexico City.
Other groups later came to Mexico City, among them the
Silvestre Vargas group, Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlan.
Silvestre Vargas brought his fathers group to Mexico City
where he also added the trumpets. This group travelled
extensively in the United States, Cuba, Spain and South
America, as musical ambassadors to Mexico (14).
83
The radio and recording industry capitalized on the
appeal of the trumpet mariachi and spread its popularity.
The film industry used the trumpet mariachi to provide
background, atmosphere, and accompaniment for its ranchero
"stars".
In addition to the innovation of leaving off the harp
and adding the trumpet, further changes were forced on the
mariachi by the entertainment industry. When professional
singers were used, such as the ranchero performers,
written arrangements had to be supplied. They experi-
mented further with the sonority. Roman Palomar used
the clarinet instead of the trumpet and included an
accordion, saxophone, and even an electric bass. They
have eAren experimented with playing the well known over-
tures by ear. These experiments have been rejected by
the purists and folklorists. The attempts to expand the
use and repertoire of the ensemble continues. Ruben
Fuentes had experimented with a mariachi sinfonico and
used the most modern arranging techniques (10, p. 44).
The composition, "La Bikina," which appeared in the late
1960's employs jazz sounds and polytonality (18).
Since the mid 1950's there has been a strong renewal
of the Catholic church in Mexico. The trumpet mariachi
is now playing at folk masses. One work which has become
84
/
widely used is the Misa Panamericana, which is a potpourri
work. In this regard Geijerstam informs:
An unusual arrangement well worth hearing is created by mariachi orchestras performing at so-called mari-achi masses, at which mariachi groups provide the accompaniment for traditional religious songs and hymns. In 1971 Sordo Sodi stated that the mariachi has played this role for some ten years. She emphasized that the mariachi masses were significant in the renewal of the Catholic Church in Mexico. Music in the traditional style is also specially written for these masses. Mariachi masses are performed, for example, every Saturday at 7:00 p.m. in the church of Tlatelolco in Mexico City and every Sunday in the cathedral at Cuernavaca (10, p. 45).
The trumpet mariachi has left its permanent impression
on the popular tastes of the Mexican populace in the twen-
tieth century (10, p. 45). It has become commercial and
unionized, and is dominant in Mexican popular music. Carlos
Chavez describes popular music as music of the people in a
context of agricultural and industrial laborers (6, pp.
638-639). The music he calls popular is the music pre-
ferred by this level of society as a daily fair. The
criteria for popular music in this contextual definition
relates to the traditional music which characterizes the
proletariat milieu and is associated with the mores and
daily customs--holidays, national sentiments, and personal
interactions.
The trumpet mariachi may be considered as a part of
the popular music of the cities. It is to be seen at every
fair and fiesta throughout the Bajfo and northern Mexico.
It is the standard performance group for the cock-fights
85
popular in the country and rural gatherings. In the contem-
porary media of radio, television, and film, the preference
which has been shown in Mexico for the trumpet mariachi is
strongly evidenced in its frequent appearance in these
media. The vast quantity of recordings pressed and sold
annually as cited by Geijerstam (10, pp. 113-120) evidences
its traditional positions.
The position of the trumpet mariachi in relationship
to some ethnomusicological definitions seems somewhat con-
sistent with several of the standard definitions. Tradi-
tional music may refer to older melodies that are firmly
rooted in popular consciousness (10, p. 4). This defini-
tion may be applied to the music of the trumpet mariachi.
The mariachi may be popular music in the sense that the
music is identified with Chavez's definition of popular
music as cited above (6, pp. 638-639). In addition tra-
ditional-popular music is non-literate and its aural tra-
ditions are jealously guarded (5). Still one finds that
"arrangements" have been made by Ruben Fuentes and Gustavo
Santiago for film and recording performances when they
provide accompaniment (10, p. 44) for a "star ranchera
singer" (14, p. 151).
Folk, traditional and popular music are inextricably
interwoven in the genre of the Mexican music. "Crossed
identity" might be considered a characteristic of the
86
mixture of genre when a waltz is the basis for the music of
a corrido; a polka becomes the basis for a cancion ranchera;
or a huapango or son becomes the fundamental rhythm of a
cancion. Each example must be considered in terms of its
function rather than its abstract musical shape. The
strongest determinant factor in the trumpet mariachi music
repertoire becomes a response inspired at the moment of its
performance.
The trumpet mariachi has presented the music of the
masses to the salons, through radio, recording, film, and
television; but it is still strongly criticized by the
orthodox folklorists as "commercial." Nevertheless, there
is no more poorly paid musician in Mexico than the mariachi
performer (14, p. 155).
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bowles, Paul, "On Mexico's Popular Music," Modern Music, XVIII, Number 4 (May-June, 1941), pp. 225-230. "
2. Campos, Ruben, "La Folklore Musical de Mexico," Boletin Latino Americana de Musica, III/3 (Abril, 1937), pp. 137-142.
3. Canciones de Mexico, Dibujos Musicales "Ambriz", Guadalajara, Me"xico, 19 74.
4. Cervantes Ramirez, Jose'', "El Mariachi es Jalisciense," El Occidental, Guadalajara, January 27, 1973, p. 2 and 10.
5. Cervantes Ramirez, Jose, "El Mariachi," Las Novedades, Me'xico, D.F., February 11, 1964.
6. Chavez, Carlos, 'La musica de una puebla," Mexico y La Cultura, Mexico, D.G. 1946, pp. 601-684.
7. Dav^.la Garibi, Jose' I., Investigaciones Linguisticas, Organo del Instituto Mejicano de Investigaciones Linguisticas, Tome III, Mexico, D.F., 1935, pp. 292-293.
8. de la Cruz, Efrain, and Dr. Francisco Sanchez Flores, "Apuntes sobre origen del mariachi," An unpublished mimeographed treatise provided by Carmen Romano de Lopez Portillo, Escuela Superior de Musica y Danza de Monterrey, research performed in 1975.
9. El Libro de oro del cine Mexicano, Comision nacional de cinematograffa, Cinevoz, 1949, 2 volumes.
10. Geijerstam, Claes af, Popular Music in Mexico, Alberquerque, N.M., University of New Mexico Press, 1976.
11. Mendoza, Vincente T., "El Album de 24 canciones y jarabes mexicanas," Boletin Latino Americano de Musica, Volume 5 (October, 1941), pp. 514-541.
87
88
12. Mendoza, Vincente T., "La musica en el Coliseo de Mexico," Nuestra Musica, Volume 26 (1952), pp. 108-133.
13. , Panorama de la musica tradicional de Mexico, Me'xico, D.F., Imprenta Universitaria, T9567
14. Morales, Salvador, Editor, Auge y Ocaso de La musica Mexicana, Mexico D.F., Editorial Contenido, S.A., 1975.
15. Novo, Salvador, "Teoria del Mariachi," Las Novedades, Mexico, D.F., January 20, 1964.
16. Rinco'n Gallardo, Don Carlos, El libro del charro Mexicano, Mexico, D.F. Editorial Porrua, S.A., 1971.
17. Sordo Sodi, Carmen, "La Musica Vernacula," Guadalajara, Publicidad Ferrer, S.A., 1973.
18. Stevenson, Robert M., Music in Mexico, New York, Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1952.
19. Toor, Frances, A Treasury of Mexican Folkways, Crown Publishers, Inc., 1947.
20. Vega, Carlos, "Meso Music: An Essay on Music of the Masses," Ethnomusicology 1 (1966), 1-17.
CHAPTER III
THE REPERTOIRE OF THE
TRUMPET MARIACHI
The trumpet mariachi repertoire has emerged from the
literature of the folk mariachi. From this earlier ensemble
the trumpet mariachi evolved a definitive set of generic
types. The folk mariachi music was characterized by the
son, jarabe, corrido, cantos, and cancion romantica y
sentimental. These same generic types or genere were
adapted for use in the mid-twentieth century trumpet mari-
achi music (20, pp. 147-159).
The influence of the cancion revolucionario may have
set up the style for the music of the wandering trobadores
in the late nineteenth century. These revolutionary songs
and ballads carry texts that relate the events of the
revolution. Such songs as "La Adelita," "Las Cuartro
M i l p a s " L a Valentina," and many others, tell the story
of the personal ambitions and tragedies of the revolutionary
movement. The textual rhythmic settings strongly resemble
the text settings of the cancion ranchera (9, p. 67).
The forms of the salon music of the criollo population
cannot be disregarded as a force in the formation of the
trumpet mariachi repertoire. The vals, polka, schottische
89
90
/ (chotis) , bolero ranchero and danzon,contain the rhythmic
patterns of the generic models of the cancio'n in trumpet
mariachi repertoire (9, p. 68).
The Theatrical Uses of the Folk Music
The theatrical uses of the folk music in the early
tonadillas escenicas and the bocadillas of the Porfirian
period were influences in the development of the repertoire
of the trumpet mariachi ensemble. In these entracts, the
use of bel canto style of singing influenced the provincial
singing style and the ideal for the vocal style was evolved
for the cancio'n ranchera (18, p. 117).
The corridos and the cancio'n ranchera are related in
the drawn out endings of the phrase line (9, p. 69). The
corrido is rigidly structured in the eight syllable line
while the cancion ranchera may use the longer phrase line
for obvious sentimental expression.
The ranchera style was firmly entrenched as the typical
Mexican music sound as a result of the intense popularity
of the films which used the trumpet mariachi as its bases
for the orquesta tipica in the production of the 1930's
(9, p. 69). Entire films were based on the ranchera songs.
"Alia en el rancho grande," "Rayando del sol," and "Paj arillo"
were the titles of films whose plots were based on these
already well-known mariachi songs (9, p. 69).
91
The trumpet mariachi literature began as an eclectic
type literature but produced a new sound which promoted
new literature for this vivacious, ebullient, sometimes
noisy, folk musical phenomenon of the mid-twentieth century.
The selections included in this study are chosen to
show the varieties of generic types which have existed
in the repertoire of the trumpet mariachi. These songs
are titles often requested by clients and may show the
influences which seem to exist in the trumpet mariachi
repertoire.
There is considerable overlapping of forms. The can-
cio'n ranchera is observed in several form-rhythms. Paul
Bowles states that a great deal of confusion exists con-
cerning the factors that differentiate the various forms
of Mexican popular music (2, p. 229). Bowles article was
written in 1941, and since then considerable study has been
done by the Mexican musicologists evolving the larger clas-
sifications for basic reference points. Much of the inves-
tigation that has been done in Mexican folk music research
may be credited to Daniel Castaneda (15), Vicente T.
Mendoza (13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18), Geronimo Baquiero-Foster
(1), Higinio Va'squez-Santa Ana (31, 32, 33), Rube'n M.
Campos (5), and Gabriel Saldivar (24) .
The classification of specific generic forms are
grouped for this project into two major groups: those
92
forms that are utilized as dance forms and those that are
vocal music forms with instrumental accompaniment. The
instrumental-dance forms may use coplas in the structure,
but the music is intended to be dance accompaniment. The
force of the son, huapango, and jarabe, include coplas
most of the time, but the music is primarily based on a
dance rhythm scheme. The two major vocal-instrumental
forms are the corrido, and the cancion ranchera.
Instrumental Dance Forms
A. The son.--The word son is derived from Latin word
sonus. In Spanish-Mexican usage the word carries other
meanings besides a direct equivalency. In the Mexican
usage it refers to a musical noise; applying the term to
folk music's rhythmic accompaniments (26, p. 66).
Thomas E. Stanford relates the son to the terms
danza, which designates a primitive dance, rather than
the baile which designates a cultivated dance such as
court dance or ballroom dance. In Stanford's description
the word son refers to music which uses a highly rhythmic
development with such instruments as drum, bagpipes,
guitars or other types of ideophonic or membranophonic
instruments for the danzas originating among indigenous
peoples (26, p. 660).
93
This author considers the son:
Concerted noise . . . .
The word son then seems to have a meaning intermediate
between ruido (noise) and musica.
The son is associated with the dance movement called
zapateado or heel tapping which is typical of the son in
both the bajio region and Jalisco.
The Jaliscan researcher, de la Cruz, considers that
the sones and zapateado danzas originated in the Veracruz
area and gradually ascended to the mountain regions with
the guitarron (6).
The harmonic-melodic structure in these early sones
was in thirds as continues presently in the melodic-
harmonic structure of the trumpet mariachi.
Stanford states:
Two trumpets have been introduced to the mariachi ensemble from the state of Jalisco. Although, in the eighteenth and nineteenth century instrument ensembles prefer instruments usually employed in pairs (26, pp. 70-71).
This comment seems to indicate the "perpetual" use of thirds
as a practice with the earlier ensembles just as it is with
the contemporary trumpet mariachi.
The literary vehicle which is used in the son is the
copla, or couplet. The copla uses the eight syllable, four
line quatrain. In the mariachi son it remains four lined,
but in the son-huapango it is expanded to include more
94
syllables in the line and many lines, depending upon the
coplero and the audience response (26, p. 68). The copla
is very seldom improvised in the practice of the trumpet
mariachi. The verses have become fixed texts in the reper-
toire .
A fundamental harmonic-rhythmic device of the son,
linked also to Andalusia in Stanford's data is the ses-
quialtera (26, p. 68). This form is used today in Spanish
Mexican parlance, to indicate "the six which changes."
The sesquialtera occurs in the son rhythmic structure
as follows:
A. Typical melodic rhythmic pattern
im rn\}) ?
V * J J\nnn) j. j. n
B. Typical harmonic rhythmic pattern
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95
Illustration No. 1.--Son de la Negra
At the inauguration of General Lazaro Ca'rdenas as
president of the republic, a uniformed mariachi group from
Jalisco was contracted to play. When their turn came they
played Son de la Negra in the style of Gaspar Vargas. The
enthusiasm of the crowd was awakened for this mariachi
group, and this composition became the representative com-
position for the Tecalitlan which has continued as the
most exploited and famous mariachi group in Mexico (20,
pp. 149-150).
The copla:
Negrita de mis pesares
ojos de papel volando *
A todos diles que si *
Little black one of my worries,
(with) eyes of flying paper
To all you say yes,
pero no les digas cuando * y 0 U will not say when,
Asi me dejiste a mi Thus I say to myself,
por eso vivo penando why this painful living?
En donde estara mi negra **
que la quiero ver aqul' **
con su rebozo de seda **
que la traje de Tepic **
* consonant rhyme scheme ** asonant rhyme scheme
Where will she be, my black one,
That I wish to see here
With her silk shawl
Which I brought from Tepic
96
The Son de la Negra as it is performed in repertoire
/ . of the mariachi ensemble Mexico Tipico, Nuevo Laredo, Mexico:
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102
The sub types of the sesquialtera rhythmic pattern
which has been included in this study are (a) the son
mariachi Son de la Negra and (b) the son huapango Malaguena
Salerosa as they are performed in a trumpet mariachi ensem-
ble performance.
The son rhythm as it exists in the Son de la Negra,
as it is observed in this mariachi performance, is repre-
sented as follows:
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103
B. The huapango.--Recent research in the field of
Mexican popular music sums up the statements of several
previous investigators as follows:
There are different theories concerning the etymology of the word "huapango." One of them suggests that the term derives from the Aztec word cuahpango, meaning the spot over which a piece of wood is placed. Another theory refers to the Huaxtecas living by the river Pango (Panuco), and the huapango is further used to designate the art of these aborigines. Still another theory claims that huapango is a cor-ruption of fandango (9, p. 24).
The word huapango is used to designate fiestas in the
areas of Veracruz and San Luis Potosi and eastern Mexico
generally. Historically, Veracruz was the first place of
Spanish entry into Mexico and it has remained the center
of strong Spanish custom. The first Spanish entrants
after the conquest were largely the Andalusian peoples.
The Andalusi'an flavor is considered to be strong in the
huapango examples of the region and are characterized by
the zapateado (heel work). This fiery stamping of feet
relates to the dance style known as the flamenco (9, p. 24).
Vicente T. Mendoza comments on the mestizo factor in
the son as a basis for Mexican folk music:
The many musical and literary forms, rhythms, styles, accompaniment, and dances, make it illogical to group under one heading huapango, tonadillas, fandangos, fandanguillos, malaguenas, peterenas, boleros, giiajiras, tangos, pasacalJLes , ayayayis, candenas, recuestas, d^cimas and glosas, plus remnants of the zarabanda, gallarda, rastroj os, pie de j ibao, gambetas, and other dances--in short, all forms of the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries that arrived on the Veracruz coast, took root, and have flowered there ever since (18, p. 72).
104
Illustration No. 2.--Malaguena Salerosa
The son huapango contrasts sharply with the music of
the western regions of Mexico (1, p. 179).
The copla:
Que bonitos ojos tienes
de bajo de esas dos cejas
Malagueria Salerosa (Refrain)
Ellos me quieren mirar
What beautiful eyes you have
below those two brows
pero si tu no los dejas
ni si quiera parpadear
A tus labios quisiera
Malaguena Salerosa
y decir te nina hermosa
Que eres linda y hechicera
Como el candorde rosa
Si por pobre me desprecias
Yo te consedo razon
Yo te consede razon
Si por pobre me desprecias
Yo no te ofrezco requezas
Te ofrezco mi corazon
Te ofrezco mi corazon
Acambio de mi pobreza
Malaguena Salerosa (Refrain)
Those eyes that desire to gaze upon
me, but you will permit them
neither you will not let them glance
To your lips which I desire
Malaguena Salerosa
To tell you beautiful girl
That you are beautiful and a sorceress
As the candor of the rose
Because of poverty you reject me
I concede the reason
I do not offer riches
I offer my heart
in exchange for my poverty
105
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As a dance form in its original setting the huapango
belongs to the jarocha bands of Veracruz. As an example
of the trumpet mariachi repertoire, the son-huapango becomes
a type of cancion-huapango, using the son rhythms of the
malaguena type.
The chord sequence in these cancion types of the
malaguena rhythm, using the phrygian cadence traceable
to the Andalusian Gypsy dances, is cited as follows from
the cancion, Malaguena Salerosa.
% & 33 5 : —r -Nr
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r JIZ? €. M fli rfe—«r-
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This cancion is popular in the repertoire of the trumpet
mariachi, but may have appeared as a solo song in the early
116
traditions of the baj10 regions. The fact that many trumpet
mariachi groups exist in Veracruz and the neighboring cities
may account for its appearance in the repertoire of the
trumpet ensemble.
This illustration is included in the examples of the
trumpet mariachi literature as an illustration of the mari-
achi use of the huapango genre in its repertoire. The
cancion huapango,Malaguena Salerosa, illustrates the ec-
lectic characteristic of the trumpet mariachi ensemble.
Perhaps these types of rhythms developed (in this reper-
toire) from the 1925 period when Castafieda states that
there was a general exchange of styles and ideas during
the period of 1910-1925 (5, p.
The huapango-malaguena type rhythms appear in other
trumpet mariachi works, one of which is included on the
typed collection for this study, the cancion, "Cucurrucucu,
Paloma," arranged for piano and voice publication by Tomas
Mendez.
C- The jarabe.--The jarabe is a choreographic folk
dance. The terms j arabe and son are used somewhat on an
interchangeable basis. It may be correct to say that the
j arabe is a dance composition made up of a series of short
sones.
117
Robert Stevenson summarizes the characteristics of
the jarabe as follows:
1. The rhythms were always spirited, with an almost equal distribution of accent on all beats of the measure.
2. Dotted rhythms and syncopation were frequent. 3. Feminine endings were of approximately equal
frequency with masculine ending (at cadences). 4. The major mode is almost invariably used. 5. Tonic-dominant harmony of the most conventional
variety underlay the melodies. 6. Harmonization of the melodies in thirds and sixths
(especially thirds) was the rule. 7. Within each individual son no modulations were
attempted. 8. Simple modulations from tonic to dominant or
subdominant were frequent between one son and the next.
9. Keys with one or two accidentals --at most--were the rule.
10. A flourish and climax at the end of the whole series of sones was usual (27, p. 217).
Stevenson's descriptions of the son seems to relate
to the jarabe:
The music was fast, in 6/8 or 3/4 usually, with six-teen or twenty-four measures in each son; the son was an individual tune, and when the j arabe was danced more sones were sung in succession. The son with sixteen measures was divided into two parts: the first eight measures were instrumental; the last eight, vocal with accompaniment . . . . (27, p. 217).
Frances Toor defined the jarabe as follows:
. . . Jarabe means a syrup or sweet drink in Spanish, but various dances introduced by the Spaniards in the form of zapateados were called j arabes. In fact, one called j arabe gatuna and another pan de j arabe or sweet bread, were brought to the notice of the Inquisition, accused of being indecent. The literal meaning of son is "an agreeable sound". The dance songs began being called sones about the middle of the eighteenth century (29, p. 364).
118
In its many varieties existing throughout the regional
folk dance repertoire of Mexico, the j arabe is choreographed
as a courtship dance (9, p. 36). There are a number of
kinds of j arabe, some of which have been listed are the
Jarabe gatuno (catlike), which Saldivar relates to the
seguidilla (24, p. 257). "El pan de jarabe" is listed
by Baquiero Foster as a type of huapango (1, p. 78).
These and one known as "jarabe de manteca", from Pachuca
are listed in the Inquisition archives. These records
are now maintained at the Archive General de la Nacion
in Mexico City.
Another j arabe that has been cited in the writings
of Geijerstam (9), Johnson (10), and Toor (29), is the
"Jarabe de la botella". This j arabe is comical and is
danced in one of two ways: (a) with a bottle on the
platform from which the dancers drink; or, (b) with the
man maintaining the bottle of tequilla or arguardiente
on his head. The "Morismo" or knife dance (a jarabe type),
is described by Frances Toor, who also elaborates on the
j arabe to be danced at the funeral of young children as a
ceremonial dance (29, p. 364).
The history of the j arabe as an example of folk dance
literature is uncertain in the colonial time. Sordo Sodi
(28) traces the j arabe to the fiestas known as escapularios,
which were introduced to teach the indigenos the Christian
119
religion. These celebrations were referred to as public
oratorios and were the occasion for dramatizing the life
of the saints or other religious exigencies. The slaves
and gypsies turned these occasions into profane observances
(28).
Sordo Sodi considers that there were two major sources
for the development of the jarabe: (1) the Tertulias or
Dance schools of the eighteenth century; and, (2) the
theater at the beginning of the nineteenth century (Musica
Verna'cula) .
The statement concerning the Escuelas de Danzar is
Of great fame and not very good reputation . . . . of mixed character, they are said to be the origin of agile and joyful music for dancing and . . . using and abusing musical groups of the large harp, small drums, the fife . . . . In these arose almost all of our vernacular music of dance tradition, in these were tapped out most of our sones and jarabes (28, p. 3)
Sordo Sodi traces the son and j arabe to the entreacts
in the operas, comedies, and zarzuelas of the early nine-
teenth century.
In the scenarios of the capital the Jarabe Tapatio made its appearance adorned with the brilliant felt of the "china" (china poblana) (28, p. 3).
Stevenson cites Mme. Calderon de la Barca, who lived
in Mexico City during the early nineteenth century:
After surveying the vaneful effects of the opera craze in Mexico Mme. Calderdn de la Barca turned with hope-ful sigh of relief to the native dances of Mexico. In 1840 she noted the following types of dances, jarabes, aforrados, enanos, palomas, and zapateros (27, P. 195).
120
Mme. Calderon de la Barca was a musician whose opinion
has an enlightened and objective position in the comments
concerning the time. She was the wife of the Spanish envoy
to Mexico and was a Scottish noblewoman.
Vicente T. Mendoza mentions Mme. Calderon's collection
of native dances and sones of the early nineteenth century
in the article, "El album de 24 canciones y j arabe mexi-
canos" (14, pp. 515-554). The album of which Mendoza speaks
is a collection of the canciones and jarabes arranged for
the piano by Juan Dupre, a French musician. This album
was dedicated to Kauffman, a book dealer in Mexico City,
for a London firm which had subsidiaries in Mexico and
Columbia. This collection was brought to Mendoza's at-
tention by Don Manuel Correro who found it in a warehouse
in Hamburg owned by J. A. Bohme. The publication was in
Spanish and was intended for sale in Mexico and perhaps
Columbia. These canciones and j arabes were based on mate-
rial that was in use in theatres in Mexico City during the
early third of the nineteenth century. Mendoza was pro-
vided with a copy of this publication by Senor don Manuel
Correro, who had been a leader in the collection and con-
versations of such examples. The work has been printed in
Hamburg. Mendoza's interest in the work has centered in
the number of forms contained in the collections, Mendoza
states:
121
Some of these pieces have references in writings of the epoch. Dona Frances Erskine Inglis, of Edinburg, known also by La Marquesa Calderon de la Barca, who lived in Mexico during the years 1839-1842, cites and in some cases illustrates with a melody the Jarabe Paloma, Los Enanos, El Perico, y El Afforrado, an3 zapateados without mentioning tKeir names. Don Antonio Garcia Cubas, great connoiseur of the Mexican practices and customs at the middle of the nineteenth century, up until the French intervention in the decade of 1870, cites and illustrates also with melodic examples his "Libro de Mis Recuerdos'\ (memoirs), El Butaquito, La Petenera, Los Banos, La Manta, La Tusa, La Morenita, El Cafe, El Palomo. El Afforado, enriched with the citations of texts which were very much in vogue at the time (14, p. 518).
The list of canciones and jarabes in the collection
of 24 Canciones and Jarabes have been listed in other works.
Some of the same titles are to be encountered in the
"Collection of 30 Jarabes y Sones", by Don Miguel Rios
Toledano and finally with Ruben M. Campos who included
some of the same works in his
One hundred Aires Nacionales for Piano such as "El Palomo," "La Tusa," "El Cafe," "La Tapatia," witE-
the titles of "El Tapatio," "La Manta," "El Butaquite," "El Perico," "El Ahualulco," and "El Camelo,',' illustrated with harmonized melodies.
Mendoza further assures us
. . . that La patera, in the form of tonadilla escencia, which they sang . . . . in the Coliseum of Mexico in 1806.
With this documentation the assumption may be made
that the j arabe and other indigenous folk music of the
mestizo tradition have been in existence for some time.
122
Concerning the period of the French Intervention
(1864-1867) Geijerstam informs that during the 1860's
the jarabe became a national dance:
. . . . elaborate performances of the jarabe were given in theaters in the French held capital. At the time it was called the "Jarabe Nacional" or the "Jarabe Oficial." f Later the name was changed to the "Jarabe Tapatio" (9, p. 37).
The example included in this collection which is well
known to most audiences as the Mexican Hat Dance is des-
cribed by Frances Toor as follows:
This jarabe consists of nine gay, captivating melodies and dance figures, the dancers meeting and moving around each other but always some distance apart. They dance with heel and toe, beating strong rhythm to the music. The entire dance takes about ten min-utes. At the end comes "The Love," during which the man follows his partner as she dances around the brim of his sombrero. As she stoops to pick it up, he passes his right leg over her. They finish facing the audience, dancing back and forth to the "Diana," with the man's arm around the girl. The girl wears the China Poblana costume and the man that of the charro.
When this jarabe is danced by rancheros, es-pecially those of Jalisco, it is even gayer and more fiery.
. . . . a wooden platform is placed over an ex-cavated area or over buried jars to produce resonance. The music is furnished by mariachis and singers. The dancers improvising verses and steps (29, p. 365).
Illustration No. 3.--Jarabe Tapatio
123
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Vocal-Instrumental Forms of the Trumpet Mariachi Repertoire
The arrangement of vocal instrumental forms included
in this study is apportioned into two classifications:
(A) the corrido and (B) the cancion ranchera. The quan-
tity of Mexican song literature is large and includes three
major divisions: cancio^ romantica Mexicana (romantic
Mexican songs) cancion revolucionario (revolutionary songs),
and cancion ranchera (ranch songs). Since the repertoire
of the trumpet mariachi has developed from the corrido and
the cancion ranchera as its vocal instrumental repertoire,
the study of the mid-twentieth century trumpet mariachi
repertoire properly includes examples from these groups only.
135
A. The corrido.--The corrido is a ballad form char-
acterized by poetry-music in combination. This statement
implies that the poetry is more important than the music.
The corrido has been used in the mores of the populace to
convey momentous news, express feelings about an event,
and especially, revolutionary ideas.
Vicente T. Mendoza describes the corrido in the fol-
lowing manner:
The corrido is a type of epic-lyric-narrative in quartets of varying rhyme scheme assonant or con-sonant in verse pairs: a literary form based on the musical phrase which support it, composed gen-erally of four members . . . . derived from the copla (verse couplet), and the cantar (song-ditty) . . . . from the jacara (lilting ballad) (15, p. IX).
Spanish literary examples rely upon the length of
line and rhyme scheme to convey a basic communication of
the poetic thought. The thought and its expression in
turn rely upon the rhyme, rhythm, vowel sound, and length
of line (number of syllables) to establish the image (19,
p. 290).
The Spanish romance mayor o heroico requires eleven
syllables and may have either consonant or assosant rhyme
schemes (19, p. 285). The romance de arte menor called
the romancillo (little romance) has seven or eight syllables
and may be either assonant or consonant (19, p. 285).
Mendoza cites the corrido as a type of poetry which
has had a wide trajectory in the history of genuine Mexican
136
literature. He points out that not only is it proper to
the national literature of Mexico, but has crossed the
border into the United States extending from the cities
of southwest to the northern cities where Mexican Americans
are to be found such as Chicago and Detroit (15, p. viii).
It has appeared at the fairs and in the colored paper leaf-
lets distributed by hand in cities among Mexican inhabitants
In the songs of the corridista* and mariachi groups the
corrido is listened to with intense attention in the
public plazas (15, p. viii).
The antecedents of the corrido are given by Mendoza
as the jacara (light ballad), valona (a bragging poem, em-
phasizing the machismo of the narrative), glosas en decima
(ampilication of the verses to ten syllables). These types
are in evidence in the literature of the folk mariachi
ensemble (15, p. xiii). The present day corrido as it
may be seen in the trumpet mariachi literature has grown
out of these eighteenth and nineteenth century forms (15,
p. xiv.).
In the early nineteenth century there appeared many
satiric octosyllabic coplas, but they lacked the narrative
and epic elements of the corrido as it has crystalized in
Mexican literature. As an independent form Mendoza seeks
to organize the history of the corrido into three major
phases (15, p. xiv).
137
First, the last quarter of the nineteenth century during
the rebellion against the Porfirian government (Porfirio
Diaz). This period of the corrido development emphasized
the heroic, epic type poetry.
Second, the corrido developed in the Maderista revo-
lution 1907 to 1929 as the culmination of the epic char-
acteristic of the form. The issues of the political struggle
for a constitutional government form the basis for these
corridos. They relate to the divisions and counter movement
which characterized the history of this period.
Third, from 1930, the corrido was used to promote
political ideas and crusades for improvement. In this
period the corrido was used as a means of promoting the
education of the campesinos, and social improvement in
general. Mendoza considers the corrido to be decadent and
artificial during this period (15, pp. xv-xvi).
Corridos are being used at the present time in Mexico.
Victor Cordero is the best known corridista of the current
period. His corrido, "Juan Charrasqueado," written in the
decade of the 1940's, is still popular on radio programs.
The uprising in 1968, by the students of the University of
Mexico City is commemorated in a corrido. In this event
a large number of students were shot by the military forces.
Since then the students have used the traditional corrido
as a means of protest.
138
In the book, El_ corrido Mexicano, Mendoza provides the
following subject classifications for the corrido: romance,
historia, narracion, ejemplo, tragedia, mananitas, recuerdos,
and versos y coplas (15 , p. ix).
In his subsequent work, Panorama de la musica tradi-
cional de Mexico, Mendoza provides the following classifi-
cations for the corrido in Mexican folk literature:
1. Historicos 2. Revolucionarios 3. Del movimiento agrario 4. De 1 a revolucion cristera 5. Politficos 6. Del caracter lirico 7. De fusilamientos (executions) 8. De? valientes (brave heroes) 9. Carcelarios (prisons) .
10. De raptos, persecusiones, alevosias y (treachery) y asesinatos (abductions)
11. Parricidios 12. Se maldicio'n (curse) 13. De fatalidad ^ 14. Coplas, cantares y_ j acaras 15. Tragedias pasionales (crimes of passion) 16. Accidentes desastres 17. De caballos y bestias 18. De toreros 19. Religiosos, bjLbJJxos y de indole moral (moral
subj ects) 20. En elogio de ciudades
21. De asuntos varios (18, pp. 105-106).
The corrido has served many purposes in Mexican history
and social development. Their publications have been the
basis for the evolution of literary and musical devices.
These corridos have been produced by a large number of
trobadors who have a long historical claim to this literary-
musical heritage. "The corridistas celebrate justice and
fight lyric battles" (15, p. xxxvii).
139
The illustrations of the corrido included here are
taken from the repertoire of current trumpet mariachi
ensembles.
1. The "Cerro de la silla" (Saddle mountain), is
representative of the type en elogio del ciudades. The
form of this corrido is based on the redova form.
2. "Corrido de Camelia la Tejana" (The corrido of
Camelia, the Texas), is a tragedia pasional (crime of
passion) and may serve as an example of the narrative style
in contemporary corridos in the repertoire of the trumpet
mariachi ensemble.
Illustration No. 4.--Corrido de Monterrey
Poetry and translation.
Corrido de Monterrey (cerro de la silla")
Tengo orgullo de ser del norte
de mero San Luisito
I have pride in being a northerner
a genuine San Luisito
porque de ai"es Monterrey because where I come from is Monterrey
de esos barrios el mas querido
por ser el mas remero
si senor, barrio dende naci.
from this neighborhood the most beloved
by being the most queenly
si senor, the neighborhood where I was born.
140
Es por eso que soy norteno
de esa tierra ensueno
It is by this that I am a northerner
from this dream (fantasy) land
which is called Nuevo Leon
land which always dreams
and which I carry deep within
que se llama Nuevo Leon
tierra que siempre sueno
y que muy dentro llevo
si senor, llevo enmi corazon sisenor, I carry in my heart.
Refrain:
Desde el cerro de la silla From this hill of the saddle
se divisa el panorama There is divised a view cuando empieza
a anochecer.
es mi tierra linda Sultana
y que lleva por nombre
si senor, ciudad de Monterrey
When the night begins to des cend.
It is my land a beautiful Sultana
and which known by the name / ^ . si senor, the city of Monterrey.
In sus huertas hay naranj ales In its gardens it has oranges
tut)idos de maizales son and an abundance of stalks sus espigas en flor of corn with their spikes in
flower
en su valles los mezquitales In its valleys of the mesquite
trees
curvean caminos reales royal roads curve,
si senor, banados por el sol si senor, bathed by the sun.
En mi canto ya me despido With my singing I depart
cantando este corrido
que es de puro,Monterrey
ese suelo tan bendecido
de todos muy querido
si senor, verda"de Dios que si.
singing this corrido
which is of the pure Monterrey
this soil is blessed,
beloved by all, J
si senor, truly blessed of God.
141
f.n iring Lm /1o* / m. r y
Sfn~§2v.or~ gu-Ho de ser del nor-te as por 8- so que soy nor te -no
de mero de San Lui- si-to P°r que de de ai es Mon- ter- rev de e-aa tier-r^_§n sueno qju se llama NueWp l«- on
de es a bar-rio el mas que ri- da por ser el mas reiner-a tier- ra _ ^ e siem-pre sue-no y que muy den-tro lle-vo
P J. J I I si, se- nor bar-rio don-de na-ci•
-vo en mi cor a zon
Des-de el cer-ro de la si-lla se di- vi
El pan-o- ra-ma quan-do im-pieza a no-che oer
8 8 m llJttf^ r a * u e n ® - v a p o r nom-bre
si se- nor, ciudad de Mon-ter-rey
vera de Dios que si.
142
"CORRIDO DE MONTERREY"
Tengo orgullo de ser del norte de mero San Luisito porque de de ai" es Monterrey de esos barrios el mas querido por por ser el mas reinero^, si sehor, barrio donde naci.
Es por eso que soy norteno de esa tierra ensueffo t que se llama Nuevo Leon tierra que siempre sueno y que muy dentro llevo si senor, llevo en mi corazo'n.
Desde el cerro de la silla se divisa el panorama cuando empieza a anochecer, es mi tierra linda Sultana y que lleva por nombre si senor, ciudad de Monterrey. /
(FIN)
En sus huertas hay naranjales tupidos de maizales con sus espigas en flor, en sus valles los mezquitales curvean caminos reales si senor, banados por el sol.
En mi canto ya me despido cantando este corrido que es de puro, Monterrey ese suelo tan beralecido de todos muy querido si senor, verda" de Dios que si.
Desde el cerro . . .
143
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147
Illustration No.5.- - Camelia La Tej ana
Poetry and translation:
Salieron de San Isidro
procedentes de Tijuana
Leaving from San Isidro
proceding from Tijuana
traigan las llantas del carro
repletas de yerba mala
eran Emilio Varela y Camelia
la teiana.
bringing the tires of the car
filled with the bad herb
It was Emilio Varela and Camelia
the Texan.
A1 pasar por San Clemente As they passed by San Clemente
/ j
los paro la "migracion" they prepared the "migracion"
les pidio sus documentos
les dijo de donde son San Antonio
una hembra de corazo'n
They (the officers) asked for their documents
They are told that she was from San Antonio
a female of the heart.
Cuando una hembra quiere a un hombre
por el puede dar la vida
pero hay que tener cuidado
si esa hembra se siente herida
la traicio'n y el contrabando
son cosas incompatidas,
When a female loves a man
She can give her life for him
But he must be careful
Should this woman feel herself wounded
The treachery and the contraband
are inseparable things Interlude
148
A Los Angeles llegaron
y en un motel pararon
en un callejon oscuro
las cuatro llantas cambiaron
alii entregaron la yerba
y al instante las pagaron
Emilio dice a Camelia
hoy te das por despedida
con la parte que te toca
ya puedes hacer tu vida
yo me voy pa" San Francisco
con la duena de mi vida
Sonaron cuatro balazos
Camelia a Emilio mataba
la policia solo hallo
una pistola tirada
del dinero y de Camelia
nunca mas se supo nada
They arrive at Los Angeles
and stay in a motel
in an obscure street
the four tires are changed
There they exchanged the herb
and at that instant they were paid.
Emilio says to Camelia
today I will give you by departing
with the part that you take
now you can rebuild your life
I go to San Francisco
with the mistress of my life
Sevel four sounded
Camelia killed Emilio
The police only found
a fired pistol
of the money and of Camelia
nothing was known.
C A Hm.Li A. LA TijAirj
149
V - e y I,'*| r , r - f I n — V _ _ J j 3 « 1 | — — 1 J 7 ? 1 J J*
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I
f'' f t r'|r, r "VI \ t r y| ) J ) ± i U n H j
re-pletas de yer-ba ma-la e-ran
f f 11 r i f f
2 mi- lio Va-re- la
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la trai-cion y el con-tra- ban- do
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son co-sa in corn-par-
'h* f1 r j " j
ti-das.
150
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The chord-rhythmic schemes for the corrido may fall into
one of three categories --waltz, polka, and six eight pat-
terns. These corridos move in a polka type rhythm and
will use the following patterns in the guitar, vihuela
to guitarron accompaniments.
m
t 4 -
154
/ / B. The cancion ranchera.--The cancion ranchera is a
. /
song form which has grown out of the salon type, cancion
roma'ntica. Mendoza calls the cancion romantica the Mexican
classic style (18, p. 99). Ranchero style songs based on
the cancion romantica have retained the "European dance
forms," waltz, polka, Schottische, marcha,--and the rhythms
of the "danza habanera," which they have inherited from
the older form (18, p. 95).
In contrast with the corrido the cancion ranchera is
specifically sentimental-lyric in text and melodic char-
acter while the corrido is narrative-epic in its text and
melodic structure. Both these generic types have evolved
from the copla as a poetic source. It is readily apparent,
however, that the cancion ranchera has the longer line as
a versification trait.
Mendoza traces the Mexican romantic-sentimental song
from the early nineteenth century as an outgrowth of the
Italian opera influence in Mexico during that period in
the history of the Coliseo de Mexico. Italian opera com-
panies travelled in Mexico and South America during the
early nineteenth century. The operas were very popular
with all classes of the society (18, p. 93). The Italian
style of singing, bel canto, was widely imitated and in
vogue in the salons of the upper and middle classes (18,
p. 93; 9, p. 61).
155
In 1827, the renowned Spanish singer, Manuel Garcia,
performed at the Coliseo de Me'xico. He changed the custom
of singing every performance in castellano to the practice
of singing the opera in its original language (18, p. 94).
His popularity established the preferences for bel canto
throughout all levels of the society. In the middle of the
nineteenth century a provincial singer, Antonio Zuniga in
Guanajuata became very ponular. His songs were the type
of provincial style which was in use among the groups and
wandering musicians of the area. Zuniga had adapted the
professional style of singing to the provincial music of
his locale (18, p. 94). Mendoza relates this style of
singing and its literature to the tonadilla escenica which
had been introduced into the theatrical performances in
the Coliseo de Me'xico in the early nineteenth century (18,
pp. 93-94). With the appearance of the provincial music
of this trobador and his following the Italian or profes-
sional style of singing gave way to the provincial style
and evolved into the cancion Mexicana romantica y_ senti-
mental (18, p. 94).
These songs developed introductions (sinfonias) and
interludes (descansos) to permit the singer to rest between
sections (18, p. 94). The instrumental material was also
used to provide contrast in the melodic material.
156
Mendoza reports that the cancion ranchera developed
from the Bajio region of Guanajuato and San Juan de los
Lagos in Jalisco, which are situated in the center of the
nation. The wandering trobadors carried the salon style
canciones to the Pacific states where they were adjusted
to suite the tastes of the people of the rancheras (18,
p. 99). These inhabitants adjusted the style to fit their
language (archaic and rude) lengthening the phrases to
have one short, followed by a long usually sequential
development as an extension of the varying metrical units
of the poetry. They applied their language concepts to
the Italian source (IB, p. 99).
Not only did the people of the rancherias deform the phrases, but also dislocated the beginning of the verses with a short one following a long one of variable meter, changing the words and adjusting them to their archaic and rude language. They applied their char-acterization to the Italian source that has given the cancion its origins. For this reason the cancidn ranchera is more authentically Mexican and folkloric, because it arose from the people of the fields, aligned with that civilization (18, p. 99).
During the political regime of Porfirio Diaz these
ranchera songs were excluded from the theater, but with
his fall in 1907, the theaters began to use canciones
rancheras as bocadillas, a later term for interludes be-
tween the acts of nationalistic plays (9, p. 68). Geijerstam
informs us that these bocadillas were listed in the programs
as rancheras. The sources which provided the body of these
157
songs directly to the theatrical arrangers were the cantinas
and pulquerias, of the lowest classes of society (9, p. 68).
In their development from these low class origins,
Geijerstam considers that they moved in a commercial
direction. He maintains:
The original folk ranchera very soon gave way to new commercially oriented songs which were imitations of the rural rancheras. The ranchera became an artificial product, viewed as country "style" by the city people. Most of the ranchera singers and songs came from Mexico City (9, p. 68).
From these beginnings the rancheras arose to the
"triumphant popularity" of the films in the 1930's (9,
p. 69). Since that time the trumpet mariachi has come
to be considered the standard accompaniment for the
ranchera-style music (9, p. 69).
The models of the cancio'n ranchera that have been in-
cluded in this study of the repertoire of the trumpet
mariachi literature are representative of the style and
its classifications of forms. These canciones are selected
from the literature of the trumpet mariachi as it is cur-
rently performed. These titles are frequently requested
by clients of the trumpet mariachi ensemble.
Illustration No. 6.--Ella
The waltz: "Ella," by Jose Alfredo Jimenez, is an
example of the vals cancion or song type waltz, rather
than a dance form. This model is a lyric-sentimental type
158
of song in which both the text and melodic material demon-
strate the extended phrase lines of sixteen or more syllables
and the long musical phrase which is extended to accommodate
the long text line. This characteristic is typical of the
cancion ranchera. The thetic opening motive is followed
by an arsic motive which extends the tension of the phrase
and then is followed by similar thetic motives. This
composition is characterized by two beat anacrusis to a
three measure motive followed by two two measure motives
ending the first phrase in a three measure motive which
returns to the thetic characteristic. The twelve measure
phrase is typical of this piece throughout.
Me canse, de rogarle
me canse' de decirle que yo sin ella
de pena muero.
I am tired of begging
I am tired of saying that without her
I have the pain of death,
Ya no quiso eschucharme Now you are unwilling to listen to me
si su labios se abrieron If her lips were opened it
fue pa" decirme, ya no te quiero
was to tell me, Now I do not love you.
Yo sentiqueme vida
se perdia en un abismo profundo y negro
como mi suerte
I felt that my life
was lost in a deep, black abyss
like my luck.
159
Quise hallar el olvido
al estilo jalisco
pero aquellos mariachis
y aquel tequila, me hicieron llorar
I should seek to forget it
in the manner of Jalisco
but those mariachis
and that tequila, have made me weep.
Mus ica
/
Me canse de rogarle
con el llanto en los ojos
alse mi copa y brinde por ella
No podia despreciarme
era el unico brindis
de un bohemio con una reina
Interlude
I am tired of begging
with this flood of tears in the eyes
I raised my cup and drank with her
No power can scorn me
it was the unique drink
of a "low life" with a queen
Los mariachis, callaron
de mi mano sin fuerza
cayo mi copa mi darme cuenta
Ella quizo quedarse
/
cuando vio mi tristeza
pero ya estaba escrito
que aquella noche
perdiera . . . su amor
The mariachis, were quiet
from my weak hand
my cup fell unnoticed
She wished to wait
when she saw my sorrow
but still it would have been written
that that night
I lost . . . her love.
160
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166
Illustration No. 7.- -Jesusita en Chihuahua
The polka: "Jesusita en Chihuahua", composer unknown,
is a cancion in the usual polka form--two-four time with
the usual eight measure phrases. Mariachi performances
differ in arrangements of this piece. Some groups use the
eight measure phrase which occurs in this performance in
the trumpet figure at letter F as an introduction, and it
is often played by the violins. No singing occurs, but
the text and melody for the use of the melody is provided.
Ay, Jesusita, te llevo aqui in mi alma
pero tu no comprendes lo mucho que te quiero yo
Ah, Jesusita, I carry you here in my soul but you do not understand how much I love you
No me desprecies a siempre te he querido con amore
Ven a mis brazos nunca dudes de mi amor
Don't put me down as always I have desired you with love Come to my arms, doubt nothing of my love.
Ay, Chihuahua de mis aiores te lleva en el corazon
Ah, Chihuahua of my loves I carry you in the heart
Tus mujeres son bellas flores de tu jardin
Your women are beautiful flowers of your garden.
Ay, Ay, Ay, Ay, Ay, Jesusita en Chihuahua
Ah, Ah, Ah, Ah, Ah, Jesusita in Chihuahua.
Ay, Ay, Ay, Ay, Ay, por ella muero de a-mor. Ah, Ah, Ah, Ah, Ah, for her I die of love.
167
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Illustration No. 8.- -Solamente una vez
C. The bolero ranchero.--The bolero ranchero is a
much used form in trumpet mariachi repertoire. There are
two major types of bolero in Mexico: (1) bolero romantica,
and, (2) the bolero ranchero (9, p. 78). The following
selection was composed by Agustin Lara. Lara was a very
prolific composer who maintained that he had never had a
music lesson (20, pp. 93-94). He is described as playing
by ear and improvising his compositions. This song is of
long use in the United States as popular music, but this
typical trumpet mariachi composition was first introduced
/
into the United States in 1936 by Tito Guizar. The group
that performed in Dallas, Texas, in 1936 at the Texas
Centennial was a trumpet mariachi group under the leader-
ship of the mariachi maestro and composer Pepe Guizar, /
older brother of Tito Guizar.
Solamente una vez, ame en la vida
Only once in my life I have loved
solame^ta una vez, y nada mas
Only once and no more
174
una vez nada mas en mi huerto
No more than once in the brightened
brillo la esperanza orchard of hopes
la esperanza que alumbra that shines on the road el camino
de mi soledad. of my loneliness.
Solemente una vez, se entrega el alma
Only once the soul is given
con la dulce y total, renunciacio'n
with a sweet and total renunciation
y cuando ese milagro realice
and when this miracle
el prodigio de amarse realizes the greatness of its love
hay campanas de fiesta que cantan
the fiesta bells that sang
en el corazon in the heart,
175
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£ £ Illustration No. 9.--Amor de madre
The chotis, "Amor de madre," composer unknown, is a
cancion which is used in the serenatas and mananitas of
the holiday, Dia de madres (Mothers' Day) which occurs
annually on May 10th. While this song is seldom sung, it
may have been sung at one time, therefore the text is pro-
vided. This chotis is simply played as an instrumental
cancion with the text implied.
Dame por Dios, tu bendicion
Oh, madrecita adorada
que yo a tus pies, pido perdon
por lo que tanto he sufrido
Give me from God, your bless ing
Oh! adored little mother
That I at your feet ask pardon
of all that you have suffered
A dondp esta's en la mansion
una mirada te pido
madre querida
ruega por me al creador
From where you are in the mansion
a glance I ask of you
beloved mother
pray for me to the Creator
181
Tu que/ est as en la mans ion
You, who in the mansion
de ese trono celestial
mandale a mi corazon
un suspiro maternal
from this heavenly throne
commend to my heart
a maternal sigh
Un suspiro maternal
ma'ndale a mi corazon
que me hiere al corazon (pierce)
a maternal sigh
commend to my heart
Which might touch me, which might touch (Pierez) me in the heart.
mira madre que en el mundo
See mother that in the world
nadie te ama como yo I love nothing as I love you
mira que el amor de madre See that the love of the mother •
es tan grande como Dios. is as great as the love of God
Mira madre que en el mundo
See mother that in the world
nadie te ama como yo I love nothing as I love you
se acabo el amor de madre You complete the love of the mother
Qye era mi unica ilusion Which will be my only concept,
182
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Chord-rhythmic scheme for the chotis
Illustration No. 10_.--"La borrachita"
The cancion "La Borrachita," is based on the danzon
rhythmic scheme. The rhythmic scheme relates to the
habanera. "La borrachita" is in the tradition of "La
paloma" by Yradier.
During the second and third decades of this century
a number of popular song composers were especially known
for this habanera type cancion. The composer of "La
borrachita," Tata Nacho, in the company with Palmerin,
Miguel Lerdo de Tejada and Alfonso Esparsa Oteo, were com-
posers who wrote music in the style of the habanera (9,
p. 76). These composers of the cancion mexicana were
associated with the nightclub era in Mexico City. The
salon Mexico which inspired the E_1 Salo*!! Mexico was a
center for these composers' work (9, p. 76).
187
In this performance of "La borrachita" by a mariachi
ensemble, one may perceive the ranchera style as it was
characterized in urban society during the era when many
transitions were occurring in Mexican mores and its popular
music. The song is included in this collection because
the trumpet mariachi ensembles now consider it a part of
their regular repertoire, as a danzo'n type.
"Tata Nacho" (1894-1968) was apseudonym for Fernandez
Espero'n. The composer grew up in the state of Oaxaca. He
studied with Edgar Varese (1923-24) in New York City. When
he returned to Mexico he served in the Ministry of Education
under Vasconcelos, as a folk music researcher. He has
several articles included in the research journal, Nuestra
Musica.
After a short period as a researcher, he returned to
musical performance as the leader of the Orquesta Tipica
dedicated folkloric music in Mexico City where he remained
until 1963 (9, pp. 76-77). He is known in Mexican popular
music circles as the composer of "Adios mi chaparrita,"
and "Nunca, nunca, nunca," in addition to the cancion danzon,
"La borrachita."
Tata Nacho was a central figure in Mexican artistic
circles during his life time. He led a bohemian life style
(disregarding conventional behavior), but has made significant
188
contributions to artistic achievements. He was associated
with Manuel M. Ponce and Vicente T. Mendoza in composing
educational corridos during the 1930's to bring about social
change in the lives of the campesinos (peasants) of rural "
Mexico. As the elected president of the Society of Authors
and Composers in Mexico, he brought about important develop-
ments for the creative person in Mexican society (20, pp.
75-76).
Borrachita, me voy, para Little drunkard, I am going olvidarte to forget you.
lo quiero mucho, tambien I love you very much, and me quiero also you love me
borrachita mey voy, hasta Little drunkard, I am going la capital
pa" servile al patron
to the capital
To serve the patron who
cue me mando llamar, anteayer
Yo le quise traer, dijo cue no quesi habia de llorar pa" que volver.
Borrachita me voy, hasta la capital
f para servirle al patron
sent for me the day before yesterday
while I want to go, I do not say that I will not weep for the return.
que me mando llamar, anteayer.
189
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194
Chord-rhythmic scheme for the danzon:
The generic types of the cancion ranchera have been
presented in this guide to trumpet mariachi repertoire as
the vals, polka, bolero ranchero, chotis and danzon. In
the literature of the folk mariachi groups, the mazurka
and redova forms are alluded to in the musicological
literature. No examples of these last two forms have been
encountered in the cancion literature of the trumpet mari-
achi ensemble examined for this study.
The examples of the serenata-mananitas type composition
in Mexican folk music are related to both the cancion and
the corrido; hence for this study, they have been classified
as cantos. These examples possess characteristics of ver-
sification in common with the corrido (eight syllable
quatrains). They have a lyric melodic style which relates
to the cancion ranchera, but their formal structure obviates
this classification. The two well known mananitas are pre-
sented in this guide because they are the usual birthday
195
greeting songs among Mexican and Mexican-American people
in their daily lives.
Las Mananitas (serenatas)
These two vocal-instrumental models are usually sung
in a sequence at birthday celebration. Each of their forms
is that of the copla: four lines of eight syllables each.
(The melodic content is sequential and syllabic in struc-
ture for both compositions.) The first canto is very old
and its origin is not known. Manuel M. Ponce included this
composition in his arrangements of Mexican folk song liter-
ature for the piano (22). The Tapatian canto was composed
by an unknown composer, but is arranged for song collections
by Luis Mars (21) , a popular mariachi performer of
Guadalajara in the early part of this century. Geijerstam
classifies these examples among the cancion literature and
specifies:
In all parts of Mexico, mananitas are performed at birthday celebrations held early in the morning, thus the name. The traditional birthday song in Mexico is called the "Las mananitas." Nowadays mari-achi bands are often hired to perform mananitas and serenatas, which are sung in the evening (9, pp. 63-64).
Frances Toor relates these models to the mores of the
Mexican people in the following manner:
196
There are love songs for special occasions; "Las Mananitas" for birthday serenading in the wee hours of the morning and others for gallos. The gallos are the serenades of young men, who either are or aspire to become lovers of the girls they sing to. Gallo is Spanish for cock. As the serenades take place at the hour the cocks begin to crow, shortly after midnight, they are called gallos. The girl being serenaded sometimes peeks through the window, but she must not turn on the light nor let herself be seen. So formerly it was the custom for the lover who organized the gallo to leave a little clay-cock bank with his card in the slot on the window ledge (29, p. 311).
Toors included another model of the maiianita type which
is "Si Estas Formida," a song of leave taking. She includes
the statement:
Usually gallos are organized by several friends, who practice the songs together and then sing them at the homes of their respective girls. Those who cannot themselves sing, hire singers or a mariachi (29, p.
311).
Vicente T. Mendoza includes still another type of
mananitas in his discussion of the corrido (15, pp. XII and
XXXIV). The type of mananita belongs to the classification
of the corrido known as Tragedia. His delineation is as
follows:
With a much extended feeling the term mananitas is applied, in as much as they are utilized m the songs of executions (fusilimientos) or disgrace, as with a feeling of salutation or of joy; thus we find: mananitas concerning the taking of Juarez City, of Don Francisco I. Madero, of the Generals Argumedo y Angeles, of the Defensa Social de Valparaiso and El Nifto Fidencio. For example, we consider the estribillo of Desastre de la mina del Ete:
Ay, ay, valgame Dios! Ay, Ay, merciful God! Ya no les canten mananas, Now they will no longer
^ sing mananas ya estan gozando de Dios. Now they are enjoying God.
197
The poetic structure of the two compositions included
in this study are different from the verse structure of this
corrido type. These pieces are examples of a corrido type
known as the coplas, cantares and jacaras. Of this type
of corrido Mendoza points out:
The coplas, cantares and jacaras ought not to figure in this work, since they form part of another heading con-sidered elsewhere in the Mexican lyric forms. The only reason for including them is that their musical forms coincide with that of the corrido: a phrase of four lines with eight essential syllables . . . . fl5. p. XXXIV).
The poetic analysis of these models is shown as follows:
Las Mananitas
Es-tas son las mananitas
Que cantaba el Rey David;*
hoy por ser dia de tu santo
te las cantamos a ti.* (bis)
These are the early morning hours
just as in which the King David sang.
Today as your saints day
On which I sing to you.
Despierta mi bien despierta
mira que ya amanecio**
ya los pajaritos cantan
la luna ya se metio. * *
Awaken, my love, awaken,
See how at last the day is breaking,
now the little birds are singing,
now the moon has set.
*Asonant rhyme scheme *^Consonant scheme
198
Las Mananitas Tapatias
Que linda esta la manana How beautiful are the morning hours,
en que vengo a saludarte; in which I come to wish you health
venimos todos con gusto We all come with joy and pleasure
y placer a felicitarte.*** to felicitate you.
Ya viene amaneciendo,
ya la luz del dia nos dio'***
levantate de manana,
mira que ya amanecio. 'k'k'k
El dia en que tu naciste
nacieron todas la flores,***
en la pila del bautismo
cantaron los ruisenores.***
Now comes the day's breaking
Now the light of day is given us,
Arise in the morning hours
To see the days dawning.
The day on which you were born,
All of the flowers were born,
At the pillar of baptism
The nightingales sang.
***Consonant rhyme scheme
The melodic element of the two examples of Las Mananitas
are both sequential melodies with syllabic treatment of the
text, which is typical of the corrido.
199
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Larger Ensemble Works Played by Ear in the Trumpet Mariachi Ensemble Repertoire
Espana Cani
A selection is added to further develop repertorial
content for this study. Trumpet mariachi groups perform
works taken from the repertoire of the symphonic orchestra
and operatic literature. These works are played by ear
and may be heard upon request in the plazas of Guadalajara,
Tlaquepaque, Zapopan, Guanajuato, and Plaza Gariabaldi in
Mexico City.
The work included here is known as "Paso doble,"
(double pass) and is often heard in the bull ring played
by a large brass band.
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CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Baquiero, Gerdmimo Foster, "El Huapango," Revista Musical Mexicana, 8 (1942), 174-183.
2. Bowles, Paul, "On Mexico's Popular Music," Modern Music, XV, No. 4 (May-June, 1941), 225-230.
3. Campos, Ruben M., "El Folklore Musical de Mexico," Boletm Latino Americano de Mtfsica, 111/3 (Abril, 1937) , 137-142 .
4. Casa Veerkamp S. A., Grand Almacenes de Musica, Masonas 2, Mdxico 2, D.F. Apdo Postal 851.
—.. / y 5. Castaneda, Daniel, "La Musica y la revolucion,"
Boletin Latino Americano de Musica, Vol. 5 (October, 1941) 437-448.
6. de la Cruz, Efrarn and Dr. Francisco Sanchez Flores, "Apuntes sobre Origen del Mariachi," an unpublished mimeographed treatise provided by Carmen Romano de Lopez Portillo, Escuela Superior de Musica y Danza de Monterrey, August, 1978.
/ / s 7. Davila Garibi, Jose I., Invest igaciones Lmguisticas,
Vol. 3 (Tome 111), Mexico, Editorial Cultura, 1935, 291-293.
8. Duran, Gustavo, "Romance, corrido y plena," Boletin de la Union Panamericana (November, 1942), 630-639.
9. Geijerstam, Claes af, Popular Music in Mexico, Albuquerque, University o£ New Mexico Press, 1976.
10. Johnson, Edith, Regional Dances of Mexico, Skokie, Illinois National Textbook Company, 1974.
11. Johnson, Jean B., "The Huapango, a Mexican Song Contest," California Folklore Quarterly, No. 3 (1942), 233-244).
12. Leonard, Irving A., Baroque Times in Old Mexico, University of Michigan Press, 19FF.
217
218
13. Mendoza, Vicente T., Canciones Mexicanas, New York, Pan American Union, 1948.
14_ , "El Album de 24 Canciones y Jarabes Mexicanos," Boletm Latino Americano de Musica (1941), 511-541.
-|5_ , El Corrido Mexicano, Mexico, D.F., Fondo de Cultura Econ<5mica, 1954.
16 , El Romance Espanol y El Corrido ' Mexicano, Mexico, D.F., Universidad Nacional AutOnoma
de Mexico, 1939.
1 7 , La Cancion Mexicana ensaya de — C I asif icaci6'n y Antologia, Estudios de Folklore
No. 1, Mexico, Universidad Autonoma de Mexico, 1901.
1g f Panorama de la Mus ica Tradicional de Mexico, Mexico, D.F., Imprenta Universitaria, 1956:
19. Miranda Podadera, Luis, Gramatica Superior (Analisis Gramatica), Madrid Libreria y Casa Editorial Hernando, D.F.
20. Morales, Salvador, Auge y Ocaso de lji Mus ica Mexicana, Mexico, D.F., Editorial Contenido, S.A., 1975.
21. Munoz-Bolanos, Jorge, 100 Exitos Musicales Album I -H. , Quinta Edicion, Mexico, D.F., Editorial Progreso, 1974.
22. Ponce, Manuel A., Escritos y composiciones musicales, Mexico, D.F., Ed. Cultura, 1917.
23. Rincon Gallardo, Don Carlos.El libro del toro Mexicano, Mexico, D.F., Editorial Porrua, S.A., 197T.
• x • 24. Saldivar, Gabriel, Monografia Sobre el jarabe, Mexico,
D.F., Talleres Graficos de la Nacion, 1937.
2 5 Schmidt, Henry, "The Huapango: A Dithyrambic Festival," Hunters and Healers, Folklore Types and Topics, Wilson M. Hudson, ed., Austin, University of Texas Press, 1971, pp. 147-156.
26. Stanford, E. Thomas, "The Mexican Son," ^972 Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council, pp. 66-86.
219
27. Stevenson, Robert M., Music in Mexico, New York, Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1952.
28. Sordo Sodi, Carmen, "La Musica Vernacula," Guadalajara, Publicidad Ferrer, S.A., 1973.
29. Toor, Frances, A Treasury of Mexican Folkways, New York, Crown Publishers, Inc., 1973.
30. Vasconcelos, Jose', Breve Historia de Mexico, Mexico, D.F., Compania Editorial Continental, S.A., 1950.
31. Vazquez Santa Ana, Higinio, Canciones, cantares, y corridos Mexicanos, 2 volumes, Mexico, D.F., Imprenta de Leon Sanchez, 1925.
3 7. „ > Historia de la cancion mexicana, Mexico, D.F.,Talleres Grl*Ficos de la Nacitfn, 1931.
3 3 , Fiestas y costumbres mexicanas, Mexico, D.F., Ediciones Balas, 1940.
34. Vega, Carlos, "Mesomusic: An Essay on the Music of the Masses," Ethnomusicology 1 (1966), 1-17.
CHAPTER IV
TECHNICAL INFORMATION CONCERNING THE INSTRUMENTS
OF THE TRUMPET MARIACHI ENSEMBLE
Observations of the trumpet mariachi for this study
have indicated that its instrumentation consists of two
violin parts, two trumpet parts, a vocal part, which may
be a solo or may alternate with a copla or refrain per-
formed by a group. This may be termed the concertant
ensemble, because it consistently performs the melodic
components of the literature. In addition to these me-
lodic forces, the trumpet mariachi uses several guitar
type instruments which play the continuo elements which
consists of the rhythmic-harmonic components of the lit-
erature. These guitar type instruments are described as
follows.
A. The Requinto (guitarra requinto) is used to pro-
vide upper relationships in the chord structure. The term
"requinto" refers to the doubled fifth implying a higher
tessitura for this instrument in the organization of the
ensemble. The requinto is strung at an octave above the
Spanish guitar.
220
221
^ ' •1 la r« 6 5 4
¥
so si «i 3 2 1
Fig. 1-- Intonation of the strings of the guitarra requinto (1, p. 11)
The chord fingerings are the same as for the Spanish
guitar.
Fig. 2--The requinto and the Spanish guitar (1, p. 11-6)
B. The Spanish guitar is used in the trumpet mariachi
as the basic rhythmic-harmonic instrument. The central or-
ganization of this ensemble is dependent upon the use of at
least three Spanish guitars tuned as follows:
222
GUITARRA ESPANOLA
Mi La Re Sot Si Mi 6 5 4 3 2 1
Suenan una octava mas
ba)a
Fig. 3--Intonation of the Spanish guitar (1, p. 6)
Fig. 4--Vihuela
C. The vihuela has five strings that are tuned as
follows:
l a r« «o s i s i 5 4 3 2 1
Fig. 5--Intonation of the vihuela (1, p. 19)
The vihuela is an ancient instrument from Spain and
was the predecessor of the guitar and was used by the
Spanish masters of the sixteenth century (3, p. 70). This
223
instrument is played punteado (plucked) as opposed to
rasgueado (strumming). In the trumpet mariachi groups
which have been observed for this investigation, the
vihuela has been used mainly as a sonority instrument.
It may be played with the plucked technique at varying
points, but much of the time it serves as a rhythm-chord
instrument. In the early times, and presently in the
rural areas of Mexico, the instrument is played with much
technical skill and is often used as a solo instrument.
As it is used in the trumpet mariachi and as it is
manufactured in Mexico at the present time, the vihuela
has five strings and relates to the guitarron in shape.
The fingerings are the same as for the guitar except that
the low E (mi) string is omitted.
D. The guitarron is a large instrument which serves
as a type of bass guitar in the ensemble. The strings are
usually tuned as follows:
g u i t a r r o n
La Re Sol OoMl La 6 5 A 3 2 1
Suenan una octava mds
ba ja
Fig. 6--Guitarron (1, p. 17)
224
• • J - i 1—i U r»i eo do «i la (Sounds an o«tav« low«* 6 8 I 5 2. 1 • '»
Fig. 7--Intonation of the guitarron (1, p. 17)
The organization of the trumpet mariachi is perhaps
a typical baroque arrangement (3, p. 70): (a) primero
instruments such as the violins, trumpet, and voice; and
(b) segundo instruments such as the guitar type ensemble
which supports the primera section. While this organi-
zation is currently consistent with trumpet mariachi groups
in Mexico, variations range from more players on the given
parts to the deletion of a part entirely. For example, the
group which performed the Corrido de Monterrey, "El cerro
de la silla," as it is illustrated in this study, used no
vihuela or requinto and only three guitars. The primero
instruments were consistent with the usual trumpet mari-
achi. These ensembles which have been used in this study
exhibit the typical baroque organization of the sonorities-
a solo or primera unit balanced with a supportive group
of guitar type instruments providing the continuo element.
225
Stanford points out that this grouping is basically
the ensemble of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
as it was seen in the theatrical orchestras in the Spanish
speaking world (3, p. 70). The guitar type instruments
are common to both the folk mariachi and the trumpet
mariachi, but they seem to be more virtuosic in the folk
mariachi practice. In the trumpet mariachi these instru-
ments contribute the basic rhythmic exigencies of the
performance.
The question of variations in tuning techniques of
the violins is related to the tuning of folk instruments
and does not apply to this study. Since the trumpet mari-
achi uses manufactured instruments, they are precision
built and are tuned in the usual manner. The rural in-
struments made by hand seem to have a modified tuning
system. All the instruments are tuned to the trumpet in
the trumpet mariachi.
In this study some question has arisen concerning
the bowing as it occurs in these performances. The
maestro, Sr. Magallanes, has stated that it depends on the
226
player as to his bowing techniques. Since it is done by
gg i- (de oido), no formal or consistent instruction is
available, and thus the skill varies with the performer.
The music of the trumpet mariachi is only one phase
of a wide spectrum of the mariachi traditions in Mexico.
There are many types of folk ensembles which are like the
mariachi or may be called mariachi. For example, the
groups in Michoacan differ from those in Guerrero. The
Sones Jarochos relate to the mariachi but are a manifes-
tation of the folk culture in the coastal region of
Veracruz and Yucatan; these groups even appear in Venezuela
(3, p. 84).
Mariachi Guitar Fingering Charts
Fingering charts have become useful to the trumpet
mariachi ensembles and the following examples of fin-
gerings as they are used in Mexico among mariachi groups
have been provided by Sr. Juan Magallanes (2), Nuevo
Laredo, Tamaulipas, for inclusion in this study.
Cfrculos de Gultarra
227
DO
DO
/ Am LA
0
Dm
RE SOL KDi
kJI
RE RE
Bm St
* i
Ml Inv
}
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LA A7
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i t si SI
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SI
i 1 ! i ! f i I
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Acordes de Guitarra
228
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229
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230
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Maestro Magallanes has further provided a glossary
of terms that are used in the milieu of the trumpet mari-
achi subculture as follows:
231
Mariachi Terminology
Abajeno: adjective describing anything from the
Bajio region, lower coastal area.
Adorno: an ornamentation figure in the accompaniment,
a background melody.
Aficianado: a fan or enthusiastic follower of the
mariachi, bull fights, or some other sport or idea.
Alegria: joy, gaiety, delight.
Ambiente: atmosphere, environment.
Arna grander literally, "large harp"; the diatonic
harp used in Michoacan as well as the name of the typical
ensemble of the region--Arpa grande, two violins, and
vihuela.
Artista: a performer of high virtuosic ability.
Baj10: coastal lowlands.
Cantina: bar or tavern.
Canto: the vocal section of a composition.
Chamba: a free lance job or what is referred to by
American musicians as a "casual."
Companero: a companion or comrade.
Compas: a measure of music or the vihuela pattern that
spans a measure.
Contratiempo: counterrhythm.
Copla: couplet.
232
Coplero: one who makes up verses (couplets) either
extemporaneously or otherwise.
Cuerdas: Strings, but this term is also applied to the
second or third part in the harmonizations--chords.
Dueiio: owner of an establishment or home.
Entrada: refers to the instrumental introduction of
the song.
Escapulario: Negro celebrations that took place in
Mexico in the 1680's which ridiculed the saints and were
lascivious in nature--dances, plays, and behavior. This
was a distorition of the religious services known as
oratorios, which became very ribald and sacreligious.
Estribillo: the refrain or chorus of a verse form
such as the villancico.
Final: the concluding instrumental section of a song.
Guitarron: a large four or five string instrument,
a bass guitar tuned as follows: A (la); D (re), G (sol),
C (do), and E (mi). With the trumpet mariachi groups the
tuning is done by ear and actual pitch references are not
observed.
Guitarronero: a guitarron player.
Grito: a cry or shout.
Harmonicas : literally "harmonies"--the section of the
mariachi ensemble consisting of guitarron, vihuela, guitar,
and/or guitarra de golpe, a small guitar used for rhythmic
effects.
235
Huasteco (a): the region in Northeastern Mexico in-
habited by the Huastec Indians, which includes parts of
San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, Tamaulipas, and Veracruz. The
term is used to apply to people, ideas, or things from
that region.
Intermedio: the instrumental interlude between the
vocal sections of a song.
Introduccion: introduction.
Jefe: leader or boss.
Macho: masculine in the extreme.
Manico: a strumming or hand pattern on a vihuela or
guitar.
Mariachera: the guitarra de golpe.
Mariachero: (adjective) applying to the mariachi
(the member of the group) (noun).
Melodias: the melodic section of the mariachi en
semble-- the violins, trumpets and voice.
Oratorios: popular festivities engaged in the 1670's
and 80's which were burlesques of the Spanish religious
oratorios. They contained popular music and dances which
are antecedents of much of the folksong literature of Mexico.
Palenque: a cock fight arena.
Pelea de gallo: cock fight, where the mariachis always
play.
Parranda: a drunken spree.
234
Perrada: literally, "a bunch of dogs"; the lowest
level of the mariachi subculture.
Picado: literally, "pricked"; a staccato tonguing
technique used by mariachi trumpet players.
Plazas de los mariachis: a plaza in downtown
Guadalajara where great numbers of mariachi ensembles
gather every day and are available for hire at the
numerous restaurants and bars in the area.
Primera: literally, "first"; the main melody in
an example of mariachi music.
Pueblo: the common people; the village or small town.
Rancho: a rural hamlet or village on a ranch as op-
posed to an independent town.
Ranchero: peasantlike, pertaining to the music of the
country people (campesinos).
Redoble: a rapid flourish in the vihuela.
Sabor: flavor; in music the devices used to furnish
a description.
Segunda: the second part in a two- or three-part
harmonization of a melody, characteristic of ranchero
music. Music sung in thirds.
Serenata: the serenade.
Sesquialtera: the alternation between rhythmic pat-
terns of 6/8, 2/4, and 3/4.
235
Sombrero de charro: the classic wide-brimmed hat of
the Jalisco horsemen.
Sonecitos del pais: literally, "little sones of the
country (nation)." Used in reference to the early tunes
developed in Mexico.
Talonear or andar en el talon: literally, "to walk
on ones heels"; the practice of roving from bar to bar m
search of mariachi customers.
Tenampa: the large area of mariachi bars and
restaurants in the Plaza de Garibaldi, Mexico City.
Tercera: the third part harmonization of a melody.
Tonadilla esc/nica: short, popular, and usually
satirically theatrical composition imported from Spain
and popular in Mexico during the eighteenth century--the
original source of a good deal of Mexican folk music.
Traje de charro: the suit worn by the horsemen from
Jalisco and now used by mariachis.
Verso: stanza or verse.
Vihuelero: a vihuela player.
Zapateado: a dance characterized by rapid pounding of
the feet.
Zapatear: to dance the zapateado.
CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 Cuerdas y Encordaduras, Casa Veerkamp, S.A., Grandes Almacenes de Musica, Mexico City, November, 197 2.
/ .
2. Magallanes, Juan A., Maestro de Mariachi, Mexico, Tipico.
3. Stanford, E. Thomas, "The Mexican Son," 1972 Yearbook of the International Folkmusic Council, pp. 66-86.
236
CHAPTER V
FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The need for cross-cultural awareness in the cur-
riculum of the United States public schools has prompted
research in various disciplines concerning instructional
approaches that might provide a positive insight into the
multi-ethnic characteristic of the population. Much re-
search is available concerning the multi-cultural dimension
of education in the present state of the society of the
United States (p. 1).
In the preparation of this study, research and in-
structional projects were examined as preliminary to the
structure and organization of the data. In the general
field of sociocultural expostulation a position assumed
by James A. Farmer in the 1960's affirmed that a need
existed for curricular material to establish respect for
the achievements of minorities in terms of their history
and cultural heritage (p. 1). In line with this position
which was voiced as a philosophical position, a number of
projects were developed which presented data and peda-
gogical techniques intended to explore ethnicity for the
benefit of the ethnic group alone, providing knowledge
237
238
for the ethnic heritage and cultural characteristics for
the minority group only (p. 3).
James A. Banks has assumed a somewhat variant position
concerning the place of ethnic studies in the curriculum.
The need for cultural literacy for the total population
was pointed out as a practical function of multicultural
curricular offerings. Banks position underlines the need
for the total population to have an acquaintanceship with
the values and contributions of the various cultures who
make up the United States society (pp. 3-4).
Using Banks stated position as a philosophical prin-
cipal of a cross-cultural exchange and interaction, the
present study has explored the trumpet mariachi ensemble
and its repertoire as a means which might afford an oppor-
tunity for all the students of a school population to ex-
perience a broader cultural development. It is the aspir-
ation of this dissertation that a homeostatic atmosphere
might result from an enrichment of musical and cultural
understanding through curricular experiences in performing
and listening to a collection of works drawn from the reper-
toire of the trumpet mariachi ensemble (pp. 3-4).
The taped examples of the repertoire of the trumpet
mariachi ensemble have been performed by a typical group
in an authentic setting. The group which performed these / y
examples is known as "The Mariachi Mexico Tipico" from the
239
fonda by the same name. The ensemble is under the leader-
ship of Maestro Juan Magallanes and its members come from
the Magallanes family and friends who live in their barrio.
They perform regularly in the restaurant and at various
types of special gatherings where mariachis normally function
in the society. These men have had no formal music instruc-
tion and play every piece by ear. They perform with an
ebullience and vivacity consistent with the typical per-
formance practice. The lack of musical tutelage is, of
course, apparent. Further, the acoustical conditions of
the recording site have impaired the sound of this perform-
ance. The restaurant has cement and tile floors and walls.
As an authentic source, however, these examples provide an
insight into the real trumpet mariachi ensemble as it is
heard in many locales of Mexico.
This instructional guide has attempted to provide
knowledge of the socio-cultural origins and milieu of the
trumpet mariachi ensemble as a source for those instructors
and students who have not had experience with the cultural
forces generating this musical phenomenon. Information
has been collected by means of (a) published literature in
journals, treatises, books, and newspaper articles, and
(b) unpublished research reports, observation, and tape
recorded examples of the literature of the trumpet mari-
achi ensemble as it is performed in its milieu. Research
240.
has been pursued with the intention of providing instructional
information for use in a multicultural curriculum.
The findings of this study have been presented in three
general categories: (1) socio-cultural data intended to
afford background concerning the history and milieu in which
the trumpet mariachi ensemble developed; (2) the repertoire
and its generic organization, with ethnomusical data and a
transcription of the illustrations of the rhythm-form types,
and (3) the instrumental components of the ensemble described
and illustrated with typical chordal fingerings as they may
occur in the mariachi ensemble practice.
Findings
A. Socio-cultural data relative to the findings in the
literature concerning the trumpet mariachi ensemble.
1. The trumpet mariachi ensemble is one of a number
of folk ensembles continuing to exist from the twentieth
century which has emerged into the industrialization of
Mexican society and its entertainment industry (p. 52).
2. The trumpet mariachi ensemble has evolved from the
string or folk mariachi ensemble, an older folk ensemble
which still exists in Mexican folk culture. The adjust-
ment which produced the trumpet mariachi ensemble consisted
in the deletion of the arpa grande and adding the two trum-
pets and a guitarron (pp. 52-54).
241
3. The trumpet mariachi ensemble crystalized in the
early 1930's by means of a radio broadcast over the station
XEW in Mexico City under the sponsorship of Don Emilio
Azcarraga. The trumpet was added because the microphones
could not transmit the string ensemble adequately (pp. 53-
54) .
4. Many aficionados of the string mariachi did not
accept the change in the instrumentation, but the public
responded with great enthusiasm and most of the street
groups adapted their organography to the new instrumen-
tation (p. 54) .
5. While the trumpet became associated with the mari-
achi as an innovation occurring for the first time at the
eventful XEW broadcast, Jos/ Cervantes Ramirez includes
the trumpet (cornet or piston) in his description of the
antecedent groups in Jalisco during the early twentieth
century (1905-1911) (pp. 54-55).
6. The Mariachi Vargas of Tecalitlan (a town in
Jalisco) was one of the first mariachi ensembles to adapt
to the trumpet addition and was an influential group in
the subsequent development of the ensemble's literature
and traditions (pp. 56-57).
7. Vicente T. Mendoza views the folk ensembles which
were antecedents of the trumpet mariachi as a development
from the interaction between the indigenous instruments
242
such as the teponaztle, the conch shell and bone flutes, and
Spanish chordophonic ensembles as they were used in Mexican
society during the colonial and early independence times--
the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (pp.
57-58).
8. The folk ensembles which were present in the capi-
tal in large numbers from all over the nation included
mariachi groups which is documented in the first reported
performance of a mariachi group under the leadership of
Maestro Concho Andrade. This mariachi was a folk ensemble
and originated in the state of Jalisco. Andrade's mariachi
played in honor of Alvaro Obregon. The members returned to
Jalisco, but Andrade remained in Mexico City and formed a
new group which played in the restaurants of the Tenampa
region of Mexico City, adjacent to the Plaza Garibaldi
(pp. 58-60) .
9. The next group from Jalisco to gain prominence was
that of Silvestre Vargas. Silvestre Vargas brought his
father's group to play for the inauguration of President
Lazaro c/rdenas. They performed the "Son de la negra,"
in the Jaliscan style (p. 61).
10. In 1938, the Mariachi Vargas made the first inter-
national tour as a group sponsored by the Mexican government,
They performed in the United States, Cuba, and Central
America (pp. 61-67).
243
11. Artistic disagreements existed between the two
leading maestros of the mariachi groups which were promi-
nent in the entertainment industry. Silvestre Vargas had
added trumpets and the guitarron to his father's ensemble
as was the new custom. Roman Palomar rejected these instru-
ments in favor of the clarinet, saxophone, accordion, and
string bass, as well as other types of chordophonic instru-
ments (pp. 62-63).
12. The general atmosphere of Mexican society was
changing from rural-noncompetitive mores to an industrial-
ized milieu. Radio, recording, and film industries capi-
talized on the trumpet mariachi ensemble and its ranchero
style (pp. 63-67).
13. In the manner of the film industry in the United
States, Mexican film industrial promotion capitalized on
the "star" system. The ranchero singers, Jorge Negrete,
Pedro Infante, Lucha Reyes, and Lola Beltran, became the
cinematic "idols" for the public during the middle decades
of the twentieth century (p. 64).
14. Prominent composers of ranchera music with the
trumpet mariachi as a medium were maestros Chucho Monge,
Pepe Guizar, Manuel Esperon and Alfredo Jimenez (pp. 67-68).
15. The trumpet mariachi ensemble is disseminated
throughout the northern, northwestern, and central regions
of Mexico (pp. 68-69).
244
16. Charro costuming was part of a general mestizo
milieu in which the costume of the Charro Society was a
general habit of the upper class population during the late
nineteenth century (pp. 70-78).
17. A cultural characteristic which is considered to
have contributed to the development of the cancion ranchera
style was (a) the Mexican theatre, opera, zarzuela, tonadilla
esce'nica; (b) salon music (dance form); and (c) the folk
trobadors who used the provincial language and musical
styles in combination with the musical characteristics of
the upper class music to produce the ranchera style and
literature (pp. 75-78).
18. The influences of the musical tastes of Mexican
society have produced influence upon the development of the
literature of the trumpet mariachi. Mariachi music has
developed as a basic musical source in the evolution of
nationalistic symphonic literature. For example, Bias
Galindo and Sylvestre Revueltas have used mariachi themes
and rhythms as a source in their compositions (pp. 78-79).
19. The trumpet mariachi ensemble has formed the
basis for the mariachi sinfonico, an expanded development
under the leadership of Rub/n Fuentes (p. 83).
20. In addition to the traditional function of the
trumpet mariachi in the daily mores of the people through
the fondas, fiestas, ferias, and serenatas and mananitas,
245
the present day trumpet mariachi has become active in the
music of the folk or vernacular language mass of the Roman
Catholic Church in Mexico (p. 83).
B. The repertoire of the trumpet mariachi.
1. Trumpet mariachi repertoire has emerged from folk
mariachi literature (p. 89).
2. The son, the jarabe, the corrido, cantos and
canciones rancheras have continued in trumpet mariachi
literature (pp. 92-209).
3. The cancion revolucionario are stylistic ante-
cedents of the cancion ranchera (p. 89).
4. The salon music of the criollo population were an
important force in the development of the forms of the
cancion ranchera (pp. 89-90).
5. In addition to the tonadilla esce'nica, the boca-
dillas of 1875 to 1925 served as entreacts in the theater
and used nationalistic canciones and jarabes to appeal to
the mestizo population (pp. 155-158).
6. The corrido and the cancion ranchera are related
in the drawn-out endings of the phrase lines (p. 90).
7. The poetry of the corrido is structured in an . /
eight syllable quatrain verse form, while the cancion
ranchera uses the longer phrase line and emphasizes the
sentimental characteristics of the poetry (p. 135).
246
8. The trumpet mariachi has developed its literature
in a somewhat eclectic manner from the folk mariachi and
other ensembles in Mexican popular music traditions (pp.
91-116).
9. There is considerable overlapping of forms of all
Mexican music. The son and the copla are fundamental com-
position devices (p. 91).
10. Researchers of Mexican folk traditions have sought
to clarify the generic forms, and therefore the body of
literature has been assorted into the following classifi-
cations: (a) son forms, huapango forms, and jarabe forms
as dance instrumental types; and, (b) the corrido and the
cancion ranchera in its sub-forms seen as polka, bolero,
ranchero, chotis and danzon types (pp. 91-92).
11. The son relates to the rhythmic patterns as a
basis for primitive and community dances. The dances are
characterized by noisy rhythmic patterns and zapateado
dance types (pp. 92-94).
12. The harmonic melodic structure of these early sones
was in thirds and sixths as it continues in present day
trumpet mariachi performances (pp. 93-94).
13. The copla was improvised in folk mariachi tra-
ditions but in trumpet mariachi music the copla remains
fixed in performances of different groups and therefore is
not improvised (p. 94).
247
14. The cancion huapango is typical of the use of the
huapango rhythm devices in trumpet mariachi literature.
What may have been a highly developed improvisational copla
form used in primitive and mestizo zapateado dance forms
of the Vera Cruz regions has been used in trumpet mariachi
literature as an adaptation. This adaptation appears as the
cancion huapango form (pp. 103-104, 115-116).
15. The jarabe is a dance form which uses a series of
sones as a choreographed couples dance. The jarabe relates
to Spanish sources known as seguidillas. The jarabe is
possibly the widest diffused dance form in most Mexican
folk dance literature. It is primarily associated with
the state of Jalisco. It is also the characteristic dance
of the charro society. The china poblana and charro cos-
tumes are also characteristic of the jarabe (pp. 116-122).
16. The vocal instrumental forms are: (a) the corrido
and, (b) the cancion ranchera. The corrido relates to
Spanish sources of the romance and developed in Mexican
culture as a folk poetry form (pp. 134-139, 155-158).
17. The chronology of the corrido is described by
Mendoza in three major categories: (1) the last quarter
of the nineteenth century related to Porfirio Diaz and the
revolution against that government; (2) the second period
(1907-1929) related to the political struggle of the con-
stitutional government and the Maderista revolution; and,
248
(3) from 1930 was used to promote political ideals and
crusades for improvements (p. 137).
18. The corrido continues to be used in the present
political and social struggles in Mexico (p. 139).
19. The cancio'n ranchera developed in folk mariachi
traditions and has continued in twentieth century trumpet
mariachi repertoire (pp. 155-159).
C. The instrumental components of the trumpet mariachi
ensemble.
1. The instrumental components of the trumpet mari-
achi may be grouped into the bowed instruments , strummed
(rasgueado) instruments, the trumpet, and voice sections
(pp. 220-230).
2. The requinto is a small guitar tuned an octave
higher than the regular Spanish guitar. They are constructed
alike with size and tessitura being the only differences.
The requinto usually plays in the tessitura of the fifth
of the chord (pp. 220-221).
3. The Spanish guitar, the requinto, and the vihuela
may use the same fingering charts since the strings are
tuned at the same intervalic ratio (pp. 220-221).
4. The vihuela is tuned as the Spanish guitar with
the omission of the low E (mi) string (p. 222).
5. The guitarron is a large bass instrument built to
be carried. The usual string intonation is provided
249
according to the catalogue from the Casa Veercamp, Mexico
City, provided by Sr. Juan Magallanes. It uses the same
intervalic tuning as the guitar but sounds an octave
lower (p. 223).
6. Variations exist from group to group. Some groups
use larger instrumentation than others (p. 225).
7. The trumpet mariachi instrumentation may be based
on a sixteenth and seventeenth century theatre orchestra
concept as it was known in the Spanish speaking world of
that time (p. 225).
8. The violins are tuned according to the conventional
method. The rural instruments may use some form of rustic
scordatura tuning, but this point is outside the scope of
this study, therefore, no research was performed on this
point (p. 225).
9. The bowing seems to have a poor effect upon the
phrasing--short bows and an excessive use of down bow tech-
niques. Sr. Magallanes states that it depends on the basic
musical concepts and skills of the individual performer
(p. 226).
10. This study is concerned with the trumpet mariachi
and its instrumentation. Many types of mariachi group
exists in the culture, Michoacan, Guerrero, and the folk
or mountain groups (p. 226).
2 50
11. To facilitate the instruction of mariachi type
techniques of fingering the guitar type instruments, Sr.
Magallanes has provided a chart of fingering patterns used
in the instruction of beginners and reference (pp. 226-230).
Evaluation of the Research
In seeking to provide a guide for the instruction of
a trumpet mariachi performance ensemble in a music curric-
ulum, data has been presented concerning the socio-cultural
milieu; examples of the repertoire, and information regard-
ing the musical instruments which are unique in this
ensemble.
A music curriculum which chooses to include the trumpet
mariachi may find it usable in the secondary music curricula
as a performance unit relative to their band, choir, and
orchestral instruction. The trumpet mariachi ensemble is
currently being employed in the public school music programs
as well as junior college and community college performance
organizations.
The instructional strategies which may be developed
through folkloric concerts are possibly centered on the
dances and the charro costuming as a device in the program-
ming of performances in the community. The costuming en-
riches and adds color to a performance.
251
The trumpet mariachi ensemble serves to enrich the music
curriculum through aiding folk dance performance in avoiding
the use of recorded accompaniments for the dance group per-
formances. The trumpet mariachi ensemble can serve as a
link to Spanish language and culturally oriented content
courses such as Mexican culture studies courses which are
now regularly offered in many public schools.
This guide has been structured to serve as a course
offering or as an adjunct to a given music instruction
medium, where no mariachi artist-in-residence is available.
The objectives of this study are posed to facilitate the
implementation of trumpet mariachi material for both bi
lingual and monolingual music instruction.
This dissertation has not attempted to provide new
ethnomusicological or sociological research-data beyond
that which already exists in the published literature per-
taining to Mexican culture and its folk music. The study
has presented categorized examples of the trumpet mariachi
repertoire for use in a music curriculum. As a multicul-
tural music study for music education, the data included
should provide insight for both Mexican-American and non-
Mexican-American students in the United States regarding
the trumpet mariachi ensemble in Mexican culture.
2 52
Conclusions
Socio-Cultural Data
The data concerning the socio-cultural milieu of the
trumpet mariachi which has been reviewed in the preparation
of this study has formed the basis for the following con-
clus ions.
1. The history of the trumpet mariachi is related to
the string or folk mariachi as a popular change or out-
growth of the mariachi as it existed in the early part of
the twentieth century. Since its inception during the
1930's as a folk ensemble for the purposes of radio broad-
casts it has become the principle group of the mariachi
traditions (pp. 52-54).
2. In the milieu of the populace the music of the
trumpet mariachi may be observed in the plazas, hotels,
streets, fondas, cantinas, and public and private gatherings
It is the group which is traditional at cock-fights, ferias,
fiestas, and in private serenatas and mananitas (pp. 56-69).
3. In the historic mores of the populace the trumpet
mariachi is linked with the patriotic sentiments of the
mestizo population (pp. 70-75).
4. The development of the cinematic, radio, and re-
cording industries of Mexico, the trumpet mariachi has been
the typical medium of exploitation as the traditional sound
for Mexican ranchero music (pp. 63-67).
253
5. The older folk-string ensemble may have used not
only trumpets (pistons), but also clarinets, flutes, and
percussion instruments as antecedents of the trumpet mari-
achi (pp. 55-57).
6. The trumpet mariachi is linked with the theatre
through the influences of the tonadilla escenica which
employed the folk mariachi and the literature of the mestizo
population as entr'acte. During the revolution for the
separation of church and state, the mariachi became the
typical jarabe accompaniment. Thus we may conclude that
the music of the tonadilla escenica began as folk music;
was adapted for the theatre and then was returned to the
provincial traditions by folk or popular performers and
composers. We may conclude that the jarabe and the mari-
achi have common traditions (pp. 90, 116-122).
7. The influence of the Italian opera is seen in the
use of singers from the conservatory traditions in the mid-
twentieth century cinema singers such as Jorge Negrete and
Pedro Infante. Since the music of the trumpet mariachi,
which was composed for the cinema, was composed for these
voices it was naturally in the bel canto style. The sub-
sequent development of the provincial music prevailed and
the bel canto was imitated by the singers in the local
trumpet mariachi groups producing a quasi bel canto style
of singing for the cancion ranchera. The corrido and the
254
copla retained the traditional Spanish folk singing style
an untutored, natural range of vocal production (pp. 120-122).
8. From this later influence the great body of cancion
ranchera literature has developed for the cinema, radio,
television, and recordings in this half of the twentieth
century (p. 154-157).
9. The provincial singing style of Antonio Zuniga of
Guanajuato in the early quarter of the century was a mixture
of the bel canto and folk singing styles. This provincial
singing style was retained in the compositions of the early
maestros of the trumpet mariachi traditions such as Chucho
Monge and Pepe Guizar (p. 155).
10. The salon influence is apparent in the forms of the
cancion ranchera segment of the repertoire of the trumpet
mariachi as they are characterized as vals, polka, chotis,
bolero ranchero, danzonas, and marchas (p. 154).
11. The governmental policy of sponsoring the trumpet
mariachi ensemble in diplomatic ventures and moves for
prestige for the revolutionary governments rendered its
style and repertoire internationally known and gave it a
nationalist stamp enjoyed by no other musical ensemble or
style native to the Mexican folk traditions (pp. 61-62).
12. The current development of trumpet mariachi exper-
iments into new tonal and formal concepts are centered in
two movements—(1) the work of Rub^n Fuentes in the devel-
opment of the mariachi sinfonico (p. 83), and (2) the
255
mariachi masses now in vogue in the Cathedral of Cuernavaca
and in the various centers of the Catholic Church renewal
in Mexico during the last ten years (p. 83).
13. Industrialism has influenced the trumpet mariachi
through the development of the union for the musicians of
Mexico (sindicato) (p. 84).
The Literature of the Trumpet Mariachi
The examples of the literature.--The data in the form
of examples of the repertoire recorded on cassette tapes
for use in the transcriptions has been collected using
typical trumpet mariachi ensembles in the restaurants of
Nuevo Laredo and Monterrey. The literature and examples
seem to provide the following conclusions.
1. The fundamental unit of the trumpet mariachi liter-
ature is carried forward from the folk mariachi in the forms
These types are represented by the Son de la negra. These
generic types use the basic eight measure phrase unit with
the copla forming the vocal dimension of the composition
(p. 93).
2. The sesquialtera rhythmic patterns dominate the
son forms, both in the folk mariachi and the trumpet mari-
achi. As with the pre-trumpet mariachi ensemble the son
is characterized by the basic 6/8 rhythm which changes
from triple to duple groupings and through its use of
counterrhythms (contratiempos) (pp. 93-94).
256
3. The huapango is related to the son and has come
into trumpet mariachi literature during the early nine
teenth century from the old folk groups. This eclectic
practice which arose in the period from 1910 to 1925, during
the cultural exchange within the country, brought about
by the migrations of the various types of folk ensemble
to the capital (pp. 115-116).
4. The huapango, in its native setting, is a folk
dance form of the bajio region of Mexico that may combine
style elements from Andalusian, Indian, and Negro groups
which were resident in the area during the colonial and
nineteenth century periods. In the literature of the
trumpet mariachi, this dance form has become a cancion
type based on the sesquialtera rhythm (p. 116).
5. Since the typical trumpet mariachi ensemble dif-
fers from the jarocha ensemble, the sonority of the huapango
in the trumpet mariachi is also different. The malaguena
form lends itself to the lyric style of the trumpet mari-
achi cancion concept and this example has developed as an
effective song form for the trumpet mariachi. In this
setting it is not useable as a dance (p. 115).
6. The typical dance form that belongs to the mari-
achi traditions is the jarabe. This dance form has been
linked with the mariachi in the state of Jalisco, and thus
the form may have also signified the ensemble in the nine-
teenth century. This fact may have obscured documentation
257
of the origins of mariachi in the western regions of the
central part of the nation. The use of the jarabe as a
theatrical vehicle for the tonadilla escenica indicates
that the association has been intimate both in rural and
urban settings (pp. 116-132).
7. While these are primarily dance forms, they use
a copla as their verse form and this practice relates the
forms to Spanish origins. The copla has coincided with
these verse forms which may have been improvised at one
time. In the present use in the literature of the trumpet
mariachi in the industrial settings (television, recording,
and radio industries) they have become fixed (p. 118).
8. The literature of the trumpet mariachi is further
characterized by the corrido forms. Since this is a vocal
genre, it has been very much used by the trumpet mariachi
in the function in the political and social activities of
the society (pp. 135-139).
9. The corrido is a highly structured type based on
a lyric-narrative-epic poetry ideal. The poetry is always
identified by a structure of eight syllable lines in a four
line quatrain pattern. The music is supportive of the
poetry and hence uses a declamatory technique for fitting
the text to the music (p. 135).
10. The corrido may possibly have developed in Mexican
culture from the romance and other forms of poetry introduced
258
into Mexican society by the Franciscan and other Spanish
sources (p. 135).
11. The composer of corridos is referred to as a
corridista but the mariachi groups have always been asso-
ciated with the corrido in their repertoire content (p. 136).
12. The cancion ranchera is a song form which ori-
ginated in the northwestern regions of rural Mexico. The
form may have developed from the repertoire of the roving
trobadors, and mariachis at fairs and country festivals (p. 156).
13. The cross influences of the cancion romantica
and Italian opera were considered to have mutated into
the cancion ranchera. These influences were subjected to
the language practices and the poetic devices of the rural
composers (p. 156).
14. The cancion ranchera as it has developed in the
music industries of Mexico may show evidence of the salon
forms as they became adjusted for use in the professional
entertainment field (p. 154).
15. The collection of examples in this study have
shown that the salon influences are present in the litera-
ture in that the rhythm-forms are termed vals, polka, bolero
ranchero, chotis, and danzon (p. 154).
16. The literature of the trumpet mariachi is further
characterized by a large body of concert works which are
played by the trumpet mariachi by ear. These types include
259
Poet and Peasant Overture, La Forza del Destino Overture,
Overture to Aida, and such band works as Espana Cani. This
last title is included in these transcriptions to illustrate
this practice (p. 210).
Instructional sources.~ ~In order that the trumpet
mariachi literature may be accessible to the public school
and also a source of instructional strategies in the music
curriculum, the following data has been provided.
1. Historical and socio-cultural information drawn
from recognized authorities in the field of Mexican music
research has been provided.
2. Musical scores and vocal parts have been provided
as they have been transcribed from the cassette tapes per-
formed by a typical trumpet mariachi in the social milieu
in which it normally performs.
3. Descriptions of the instruments that are used in
the trumpet mariachi have been provided from the catalogue
sources of instrument manufacturers and data gathered in
observation of the instruments used by the typical trumpet
mariachi.
4. The cassette tape has also been included in this
report since this may be the most efficient method of pro-
viding data concerning the performance style and practices
of a typical trumpet mariachi.
260
5. The instruments may be tuned in the conventional
manner as shown in this instructional study. Instruments
and instructional materials may be obtained from Casa
Veerkamp, S.A., Mesones 21, Mexico 1, APDO. Postal 851,
Telephone 5-10-53. No manufacturer has been found m the
United States who can provide these typical mariachi instru-
ments. Of course the violin, trumpet, and guitars are
manufactured in this country. A possible source for ob
taining these instruments and instructional media is the
Elmo Lopez Music Company, Laredo, Texas 78040.
Recommendations
In the course of the preparation of this study a num-
ber of ideas have emerged for developing further knowledge
in the area of Mexican folk music for the purpose of rein-
forcing a positive cultural status for Mexican American
students in the attitudes of the total student population.
1. What effect does cross-cultural curricular music
studies have on a school society?
2. This study has attempted to present selections
from the trumpet mariachi repertoire for use in a music
curriculum. The research has sought to provide fundamental
data concerning the history and milieu as well as musical
scores for performance experiences. The size of this
concept has proved to be extensive; therefore, a repli-
cation of this study in terms of other examples of the
261
repertoire might further develop the knowledge of this
literature and it's dimensions in Mexican folk music.
3. From the research which has been read for this
study, knowledge of actual Mexicanisms (typically iden-
tifiable Mexican characteristics) have not been apparent
beyond the performance style and practices. The question
arises, does the music itself contain native Mexican
elements ?
4. A research study concerning the escapularios,
oratorios and slave music of the negroes during the late
seventeenth century might provide an insight that has im-
plications for music education.
5. Further research into the groups of northwestern
regions of Mexico may have ethnic importance for the can
cion ranchera. The researchers whose work has been reviewed
here, primarily Mendoza, provides general information. Such
a study might provide insights concerning the relationship
of Mexican cultural development with regard to its Indian
population.
6. Some partially developed research has been seen
in the collection of data for this study concerning the
Coca Indians (now assimilated). Further developments might
be productive in the study of the Cora and Huichol Indians
(unassimilated) with regard to the interaction of these
cultures on the mariachi literature.
262
7. Studies relative to the known composers of the
early trumpet mariachi literature might be pursued with
regard to each maestro such as Chucho Mange, Sylvestre
Vargas, Pepe Guizar, and Manuel Esperdn. Comparative lit-
erary studies may present data that would fulfill philoso
phical ideas of James A. Farmer concerning the contributions
of these men to their society and literature in general.
8. Research related to the Jarana and Jarocho bands,
the marimba band and the conjunto norteno may provide al-
ternatives in literature and deepen the sociocultural
knowledge by means of these anthropological implications
for music education.
9. Research concerning the interacting influences of
the U. S. Army stations on Mexican folk music could pro-
vide insights concerning cultural patterns and aculturation,
which might have broad implications for education and music
education.
10. Further research may be suggested in the collection
of songs and folk material of the region from the Rio Grande
to the Nueces River. The Indian music as well as Mexican
music that has existed here may be studied by project
relative to the Matachines, a quasi religious society which
has existed on both sides of the border as a subcultural
influence since before the United States established its
border at the Rio Grande. This organization may be one
of several which might be brought to light.
APPENDIX
263
264
EVALUATION
This guide-source practicum of research has sought to
provide materials in Mexican folk music drawn from the lit-
erature of the trumpet mariachi ensemble. One criteria for
this study has been to provide an authentic cassette tape
and transcriptions of the examples to notation. These ex-
amples have been classified into generic types. In addition
to the cassette tape and the transcriptions, information
concerning the ensemble and its literature has seemed ger-
mane to a guide for implementing this material as a curric-
ular offering.
A panel of educators who may have an occasion to use
this material are asked to evaluate the research findings
as a curricu'lar resource.
I. An evaluative opinion concerning the need and phil-
osophical foundations of this study is sought. Please circle
the number that is appropriate to your response. One (1) is
negative and five (5) is positive on a rating scale from one
to five.
A. Cultural diversity is a "positive condition" in a society. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
B. There is a need for cross cultural interaction in United States schools. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
265
C. Music education may provide a valid means of devel-oping cross cultural awareness in the United States schools. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
D. Cross cultural awareness may serve to establish conditions favorable to the education needs in the schools and the society they serve. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
E. Cross cultural awareness may serve to encourage creativity in the curriculum. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
II. An evaluation of the findings of this research is
sought concerning the socio-cultural milieu and history of
the trumpet mariachi ensemble. Please rate your response
on the scale of one to five with one as negative and five
as positive.
A. The data provided in this study offers useful cul-tural information concerning the ethnic origins of the trumpet mariachi ensemble. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
B. The historical data regarding the emergence of the trumpet mariachi shows the social significance of ensemble in relationship to the milieu. (1 2 3 4 5)
C. This data could serve as a resource in other dis-ciplines (language, history, sociology) concerning the milieu and mores of the Mexican people as they may relate to the trumpet mariachi ensemble. (1 2 3 4 5)
D. The data included in this study affords a view of the culture and the music of Mexico. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
E. The data appears to be objective. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
F. The data appears to be accurate. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
G. The data avoids a stereotyping imagery. (1 2 3 4 5)
H. The data provides a positive attitude toward the culture. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
266
I. Please offer your comments
III. Please provide an evaluation of the presentation of
the findings concerning the literature and the classification
of the examples on the rating scale of one to five from a
negative to positive parameter.
A. The tape is accurately interpreted in the musical transcriptions. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
B. The subjective elements of the style can be applied to the performance of the transcriptions from the taped examples. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
C. The information provided with each transcription serves to enrich the study and performance of each example. (1 2 3 4 5)
D. The classification of the literature into form-rhythmic categories provides insight into the ethnomusical characteristics of the literature. (1 2 3 4 5)
E. Please provide your comments
IV. The presentation of the data as a public school cur-
riculum offering may be evaluated in response to the following
statements.
267
A. The inclusion of descriptions and sources for ob-taining the instruments which are necessary to the trumpet mariachi ensemble is essential to use of the medium in a music curriculum. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
B. The inclusion of chord fingering charts for the string instruments provides technical information that is needed to facilitate the skills required for the performance of these elements in the en-s emb le. (1 2 3 4 5)
C. This study provides assistance which would otherwise be provided by an artist in residence. (1 2 3 4 5)
D. The inclusion of the trumpet mariachi ensemble would provide an opportunity for an interaction of Spanish speaking students with non-Spanish speaking members of the student body. ( 1 2 3 4 5)
E. This material could be used in a school where there is no Spanish speaking instructor to provide a cross-cultural awareness dimension in the curriculum. (1 2 3 4 5)
F. Please provide your comments
Name Position
Institution
268
VALIDATION SUMMARY
Rating Scale:
5 positive
4 positive with reservation
3 neutral
2 negative with reservation
1 negative
I.
II.
A B C D E
5 2 4 4 4 4
4 2
3
2
1
A B C D E F G H
5 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 4
4 1
3
2
1
269
III. A B D
IV. B D
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, editor, "No one Model American," A Statement on Multicultural Education Adopted November, 1972 as a Guide for Addressing the Issue of Multicul-tural Education, Journal of Teacher Education, No. 4, XXIV (1973) , 264-265.
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Reports
Activity File of Learning Center and Classroom Multicultural Activities, Riverside Unified School District, Riverside, California.
Afternoon Remedial and Enrichment Program, Buffalo, New York, Elenientary Program in Compensatory Education, 2, American Institute for Research in Behavioral Sciences, Palo Alto, California, Report Number: PE-37051, 1969, 13 pages.
A Program for Five-Year-Old Migrant Children, Texas Education Agency, Austin, Texas, Texas University, Austin, Texas, 1968, 216 pages.
Blasser, Dennis F., "Competency Based Teacher Education and Principles of Evaluation," unpublished manuscript, San Diego, California, Institute for Cultural Pluration, San Diego, California.
Badias, Bertha, Cantando y aprendiendo (Singing and Learning), Curriculum Adaptation Network for Bilingual Bicultural Education, Bronx, New York, Sponsoring Agency: Office of Education (Health, Education and Welfare), William Randolph Hearst Foundation, Los Angeles, California, March, 1974, 53 pages.
Barrios, Ernest (comp) and others, A Research Guide for Teaching Chicano Studies in Junior and Senior High Schools, San Diego, California, San Diego City Schools, ED 080223, 1969.
285
Bilingual Staff, Region XIII Education Service Center, In-formation and Materials to Teach the Cultural Heritage of the Mexican-American Child, Austin, Texas, Dissemi-nation Center for Bilingual Bicultural Education, 1972.
Butcher, Vada E. and others, Development of Materials for a One Year Course in African Music for the General Under-graduate Student, Final Report, Washington, D. C., Harvard University, 1970.
Chavez, Rafael, National Preferences: Early Childhood Education and the Chicanlto,Tuscon, Arizona, August 3-5, 1976, Sponsoring Agency Children's Bureau (Depart-ment of National Education and Welfare), Washington, D. C., 1972, 87 pages.
Choate, Robert A., (id), Documentary Report of the Tanglewood Symposium, Washington, D. C., Music Education National Conference, 1968.
Gorena, Minerva and others, Information and Materials to Teach the Cultural Heritage of the Mexican American Child, Education Service Center, Region XIII, Austin, Texas, Joe Parks, Executive Director, Title VII of Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965.
, Information and Materials to Teach the Cultural Heritage of tTve Mexican American Child, Developed by the Bilingual Program Education Service Center, Region XII, Austin, Texas, 1972.
Ibarra, Herb, Bibliography of English Second Language Bilingual Teaching Materials, Sponsoring Agency: Office of Education, DHEWO, Washington, D. C., Division of Plane and Supplementary Centers, Report Number DPSC-67-2941, February, 1969, 31 pages.
Mayor, M. Reyes, Oral Language Assessment, An Evaluation of a Modular Education Program, Teacher Corps, Technical Assistance Project Report, San Diego, California, Institute for Cultural Pluration, San Diego, State University, 1975.
Migrant Education Handbook, Alice Michael, editor, California State Department of Education, Sacramento, California, Office of Compensatory Education; Salinas California, Sponsoring Agency: Office of Education (DHEW), Washington, D. C., 1967, 77 pages.
286
Modular Sequence: Puerto Rican Pupils in Mainland Schools, (TTP ooe 12), The Puerto Rican and the Arts, Teacher Corps Bilingual Projects, Hartford University, West Hartford, Connecticut College of Education, Sponsoring Agency: Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington, D. C., Teacher Corps.
Ortiz de Johnson, Teresa aiui Donia Pena de Frank, Cancion, Bailes, y Juegos de Mexico, Ukiah, California, Ukiah Bilingual Bicultural Project n.d.
Smith, B. 0. in collaboration with Saul B. Cohn and Arthur Pearl, "Teachers for the Real World," Task force of NDEK, National Institute for Advanced Study, Washington, D. C., The American Association of Colleges for Teachers Education, 1969.
The Texas Educational Agency, Superintendents Report, 1977-1978 .
The Texas Education Agency, Fall Survey, 1977-1978Super-intendents Annual Report Part II, Texas Education Agency.
Transue, Miriam L., Christmas Songs of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico Commonwealth, New York, New York Department of Labor, October, 1957, 11 pages.
United States Census Bureau Report as of 1977.
United States Commission on Civil Rights, Mexican American Education Study, Vol.s I-VI, Washington, D. C., U. S. Government Printing Office, 1971-1974.
United States Commission on Civil Rights, Toward Quality Education for Mexican Americans, Report VI Mexican American Education Study, Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, February, 1974.
United States Department of Defense, Czech Basic Course Songs of Czechoslovakia, Washington, D. C., Defense Language Tnstitute, Ed, 066 946, 1972.
United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Curriculum Guide for Afro-American Literature, Yonkers, New York Yonkers City School District, EDO 45 636, 1970.
287
Valencia, Atilano, primo cantos, "Part III Spanish Speaking American Perspective of Multicultural Education and Competency Based Teacher Education," Multicultural Education Through Competency Based Teacher Education, Conference Report of Multicultural Writing Conference, American Association of Teachers Education, Washington, D. C., 1974.
Vela, Irma Saldivar, Bailes a Colores (Dance to Colors), Amelia Stevens Mamangakis, Editor-in-Chief, American Universal Artform Corporation, Austin, Texas, 1972.
Weinstock, Herbert, Mexican Music, New York, William E. Rudges Son, 1940.
Publications of Learned Organizations
"Certain American Truths," Report of the Task Force on Human
Rights, Washington, D. C., National Education Association, 1968.
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Chavez, Carlos, "La Musica," Mexico y La Cultura, Mexico, D. F., 1946, PE 601-684.
Gemin, Auguste, "Notes on the Dances, Music and Songs of the Ancient and Modern Mexicana," Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institute, 1920.
Johnson, Jean B., "The Huapango, a Mexican Song Contest," California Folklore Quarterly, No. 3, 1942.
Leon, Nicolas, Cdclice Sierra, Mexico^luseo Nacional de Arqueologia Historia y Etnografia, 1933.
Rhinehart, Charles P., Effecting Attitude Change Through Music presented by an Intergrative Black Studies Ap-proach," unpublished Doctor's Dissertation, University of Houston, 1972.
Stanford, Thomas E., "The Mexican Son," 1972 Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council, pp. 66-86.
, "The Villancico and the Mexican Corrido," Anales del Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, 23 (1970).
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Encyclopedia Articles
Apel, Willi, Harvard Dictionary of Music, "Mexico," "Primitive Music," Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard Press, 1944.
Benjamin, Harold, editor, Dictionary of Education, Foundations in Education, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959.
Davila Garibi, Jose I., Investigaciones Linguisticas, Vol. 3, Tome III, Mexico, Editorial Cultura, 1935, pp. 291-195.
Miranda Podadera, Luis, Gramatica Superior (Analisis Gramatical), Madrid Libreria y Casa Editorial Hernando, S. A.
Santa Maria, Francisco J., Diccionario de Mej icanismos, Mexico, D. F., Editorial Porria, 1959.
Unpublished Materials
Behnke, Martin Kyle, "Resources and Suggested Organizational Procedures for Courses in Mexican American Music," doctoral dissertation, Boulder, Colorado, University of Colorado, 1975.
Borchart, Donn, "The Sones Mariachi, The Rhythmic Pattern as a Principle of Melodic Organization," unpublished master's thesis, on file at UCLA Ethnomusicology Archives, 1965.
Cappon, Clyde S., "Selected Spanish American Folksongs of the Southwest and Their Implimentation for Music Education," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston, Massachusetts, Boston University, 1968.
Davis, Effie Mae, "Oral Language and Motor Skills for Non-English Speaking Children," Practicum report, submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education, Nova University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida.
de la Cruz and Dr. Francisco Sanchez Flores, "A puntes sobre Origen del Mariachi," an unpublished mimeographed trea-tise provided by Carmen Romano de Lopez Portillo, Escuela Superior de Musica y Danza de Monterrey, August, 1973.
289
Freeborn, Charles L., "The Music of India, China, Japan, and Oceania," a source book for Teachers, unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona, 1969.
Gross, Marjorie Clark, "Ten Assembly Programs for Inter-mediate Grades Designed to Further the Understanding of Mexican Culture in Our Schools, Denton, Texas, N.T.S.U., master's thesis, 1945.
Heidsick, Ralph G., "Music of the Luisena Indians of Southern California, A Study of Music in Indian Cultures with Relation to a Program in Music Education," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Los Angeles, University of California, 1966.
Jurrens, James W., "The Music of the Sioux Indian of the Rosebud Reservation in South Dakota and its Use in Elementary School," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Colorado State College, 1965.
Nunez, Ramon Cardenas, "El Mariachi sin Trompetas," unpub-lished mimeographed treatise.
Perez, Verdia, Luis, Historia particular en el estado de Jalisco, desde los primeros tiempos de que hay noticia hasta mucho dias, Guadalajara Tip de Escuela de Artes y Oficias del Estado, 1910-1911.
Newspapers
Cervantes Ramirez, Jose, "El Mariachi," Novedades, Mexico City, February 11, 1964.
, "El Mariachi es Jalisciense," El _ Occidental, Guadalajara, January 27, 1963, p. 2 and 10.
Novo, Salvador, "Teoria del Mariachi," Novedades, Mexico City, January 20, 1964.
Catalogue
Casa Veerkamp, S. A., Grand Almecenes de Mdsica, Mesones 2, Mexico 2, D. F., Apdo Postal 851.
