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CHAPTER
1 PROPERTIES OF E N G I N E E R I N G MATERIALS
S Y M B O L S 5,6
a area of cross section, m e one) * original area of cross section of test specimen, mm 2 (in 2)
Aj area of smallest cross section of test specimen under load Fj, m 2 (in 2)
AU minimum area of cross section of test specimen at fracture, m 2 (in 2)
A0 original area of cross section of test specimen, m 2 (in 2) Ar percent reduction in area that occurs in standard test
specimen Bhn Brinell hardness number d diameter of indentation, mm
diameter of test specimen at necking, m (in) D diameter of steel ball, mm E modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus, GPa
[Mpsi (Mlb/in2)] strain fringe (fri) value, gm/fri (gin/fri) stress fringe value, kN/m fri (lbf/in fri) load (also with subscripts), kN (lbf) modulus of rigidity or torsional or shear modulus, GPa
(Mpsi) H8 Brinell hardness number /f final length of test specimen at fracture, mm (in) /j gauge length of test specimen corresponding to load Fj, mm
(in) l0 original gauge length of test specimen, mm (in) Q figure of merit, fri/m (fri/in) Rs Rockwell B hardness number Rc Rockwell C hardness number u Poisson's ratio ~r normal stress, MPa (psi)
L L F G
* The units in parentheses are U S Customary units [e.g., fps (foot-pounds-second)].
1.1
1.2 CHAPTER ONE
O" b
O" c
O" s
O" t
~s7
!
~s~ O'xc
O'su
O" u
O'uc
O'ut
O-A su
O'su c
O'su t
ay O'y c
ay, O'sy c
O'sy t
T
~s %
7su 5 r,y
~-'r
transverse bending stress, MPa (psi) compressive stress, MPa (psi) strength, MPa (psi) tensile stress, MPa (psi) endurance limit, MPa (psi) endurance limit of rotating beam specimen or R R Moore
endurance limit, MPa (psi) endurance limit for reversed axial loading, MPa (psi) endurance limit for reversed bending, MPa (psi) compressive strength, MPa (psi) tensile strength, MPa (psi) ultimate stress, MPa (psi) ultimate compressive stress, MPa (psi) ultimate tensile stress, MPt (psi) ultimate strength, MPA (psi) ultimate compressive strength, MPa (psi) ultimate tensile strength, MPa (psi) yield stress, MPa (psi) yield compressive stress, MPa (psi) yield tensile stress, MPa (psi) yield compressive strength, MPa (psi) yield tensile strength, MPa (psi) torsional (shear) stress, MPa (psi) shear strength, MPa (psi) ultimate shear stress, MPa (psi) ultimate shear strength, MPa (psi) yield shear stress, MPa (psi) yield shear strength, MPa (psi) torsional endurance limit, MPa (psi)
SUFFIXES
axial bending compressive endurance strength properties of material tensile ultimate yield
ABBREVIATIONS
AISI ASA AMS ASM ASME ASTM BIS BSS DIN ISO
American Iron and Steel Institute American Standards Association Aerospace Materials Specifications American Society for Metals American Society of Mechanical Engineers American Society for Testing Materials Bureau of Indian Standards British Standard Specifications Deutsches Institut ffir Normung International Standards Organization
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.3
SAE UNS
Society of Automotive Engineers Unified Numbering system
Note: a and -1- with subscript s designates strength properties of material used in the design which will be used and observed throughout this M a c h i n e Des ign D a t a H a n d b o o k . Other factors in performance or in special aspects are included from time to time in this chapter and, being applicable only in their immediate context, are not given at this stage.
Particular Formula
For engineering stress-strain diagram for ductile steel, i.e., low carbon steel
For engineering stress-strain diagram for brittle material such as cast steel or cast iron The nominal unit strain or engineering strain
The numerical value of strength of a material
Refer to Fig. 1-1
Refer to Fig. 1-2
c : l/ - l° : A l - - 1 / l : A° - A f (1-1) l0 l0 l0 A0
where / f = final gauge length of tension test specimen,
l0 -- original gauge length of tension test specimen.
F ors A (1-2)
where subscript s stands for strength.
Q. v
GSy
~ GSe GSp
u)
,~ R' True fracture or rupture strength point
True ~-~ Curve ~ . Elastic . • " " j l. gll
R e g i o n . . . - -
.. ~., . - " " Plastic Region
, . - " ..,,,,.,.....,,~ ~ ~ u~"--~ Y ~ £ , y ' , , 7 Conventional or
'~ ~ Engineering c-~ R Fracture or rupture
~ "- ; Curve strength point
-' GSu a
, O'Sy a
i
a
C " . B A
Strain, e, l.tm/m (iLtin/in) - - " " - " - - " - ~ X
Point P is the proportionality limit. Y is the upper yield limit. E is the elastic limit, yr is the lower yield point. U is the ultimate tensile strength point. R is the fracture or rupture strength point. R' is the true fracture or rupture strength point.
F I G U R E 1-1 Stress-strain diagram for ductile material. * Subscript s stands for strength.
1.4 CHAPTER ONE
Particular Formula
The nominal stress or engineering stress
The true stress
Bridgeman's equation for actual stress (O'act) during r radius necking of a tensile test specimen
The true strain
Integration of Eq. (1-6) yields the expression for true strain
From Eq. (1-1)
The relation between true strain and engineering strain after taking natural logarithm of both sides of Eq. (1-8)
Eq. (1-9) can be written as
F O ' ~ _ _ _ m
A0
where F = applied load.
F O' t r u - - - 0 .t _ _ A:
where Af = actual area of cross section or
O ' a c t
(1-3)
(1-4)
instantaneous area of cross-section of specimen under load F at that instant.
O'ca l
4r (1 + ( 1 + ~ - ) In d ) ] (1-5)
e' All A12 E t r u ' - - - - --~o + lo + A I------~
AI 3 lo + All + AI2
. . .
~ dli = T
I f
/ f = l + e to
In (//--f0)= ln(1 + e) or C t r u = In(1 + ¢)
(1-6a)
(1-6b)
(1-7)
(1-8)
(1-9)
C ~ - e Etru - - 1 (1-1o)
co
cd
o~
f
Strain, 8, tam/m (Bin/in) r x
There is no necking at fracture for brittle material such as cast iron or low cast steel.
FIGURE 1-2 Stress-strain curve for a brittle material.
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.5
Particular Formula
Percent elongation in a standard tension test specimen
Reduction in area that occurs in standard tension test specimen in case of ductile materials
Percent reduction in area that occurs in standard tension test specimen in case of ductile materials
For standard tensile test specimen subject to various loads
The standard gauge length of tensile test specimen
The volume of material of tensile test specimen remains constant during the plastic range which is verified by experiments and is given by
Therefore the true strain from Eqs. (1-7) and (1-15)
The true strain at rupture, which is also known as the true fracture strain or ductility
zl-to (100) (1-11) CIO0 = l o
Ar = Ao - A f (1-12) Ao
A o - AU A r l 0 0 - - ~ (100) (1-13)
Ao
Refer to Fig. 1-3.
k
ao i
7
F
I
o
h F
V
FIGURE 1-3 A standard tensile specimen subject to various loads.
l0 = 6.56v/-a (1-14)
/f A0 d 2 A o l o = A f l f or T 0 = A f = ~ (1-15)
( ~ f f ) /f = 21nd° e tru = l n A0 __ln~0 dff (1-16)
where df = minimum diameter in the gauge length /f of specimen under load at that instant,
Ar - minimum area of cross section of specimen under load at that instant. (1)
eftru = In 1 Ar (1-17)
where AU is the area of cross-section of specimen at fracture.
1.6 CHAPTER ONE
P a r t i c u l a r F o r m u l a
From Eqs. (1-9) and (1-16)
Substituting Eq. (1-18) in Eq. (1-4) and using Eq. (1-3) the true stress
From experimental results plotting true-stress versus true-strain, it was found that the equation for plastic stress-strain line, which is also called the strain- strengthening equation, the true stress is given by
The load at any point along the stress-strain curve (Fig 1-1)
The load-strain relation from Eqs. (1-20) and (1-2)
Differentiating Eq. (1-22) and equating the results to zero yields the true strain equals to the strain harden- ing exponent which is the instability point
The stress on the specimen which causes a given amount of cold work W
The approximate yield strength of the previously cold-worked specimen
The approximate yield strength since A'w = Aw
By substituting Eq. (1-26) into Eq. (1-24)
The tensile strength of a cold worked material
The percent cold work associated with the deforma- tion of the specimen from A0 to A"
Refer to Table 1-1A for values of eftru of steel and aluminum.
Ao A___o0 = 1 + e or A f = 1 + e A f (1-18)
O',r u - - ~(1 4- c) = ere ~'~u (1-19)
Crtr u = O'OCtnrup (1-20)
where cr 0 -- strength coefficient, n = strain hardening or strain
strengthening exponent, e trup - true plastic strain.
Refer to Table 1-1A for er 0 and n values for steels and other materials.
F = a~A0 (1-21)
F i"1 --Ctr u = aoAoe true (1-22)
e u = n (1-23)
Crw = a0(ew)" = F,, (1-24) mw
where Aw = actual cross-sectional area of the specimen,
F w - applied load.
g,~ (a,.,,)w = A,---~, (1-25)
where Aw = A'w = the increased cross-sectional area of specimen because of the elastic recovery that occurs when the load is removed.
,
(a,.v) = -7- ~ aw (1-26) It' A w
(as),) w = cr0(ew)" (1-27)
F. (c~,.u) w = ~ (1-28)
A',
where Aw = A,, F, = Ao(asu)O, ~su -- tensile strength of the original
non-cold worked specimen, A0 = original area of the specimen.
_ A 0 - A 0 - A'w W - A'w(100) or w = A0 A0
W where w =
100
(1-29)
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.7
Particular Formula
For standard tensile specimen at stages of loading A'w is given by equation
Expression for (Osu)w after substituting Eq. (1-28)
Eq. (1-31) can also be expressed as
The modulus of toughness
H A R D N E S S
The Vicker's hardness number ( H v ) or the diamond pyramid hardness number (Hp)
The Knoop hardness number
The Meyer hardness number, HM
The Brinell hardness number HB
The Meyer's strain hardening equation for a given diameter of ball
A " = A0(1 - w) (1-30)
(Cr~u)° (1-31) (crsu)w = 1 - w
(Osu)w = (Osu)O e~'ru (1-32)
Valid for Aw < Au or ew <_ eu.
Io T m = o f l e (1-33a)
~ ~.~..+ ~,s~ 2 er (1-34b)
where c r - - C u - - strain associated with incipient fracture.
H v 2F sin (a /2) 1.8544F = d2 = d ~ (1-35)
where F -- load applied, kgf, a = face angle of the pyramid, 136 °, d -- diagonal of the indentation, mm, H v in kgf/mm 2.
F HK = 0.07028d 2 (1-36)
where d = length of long diagonal of the projected area of the indentation, mm,
F -- load applied, kgf, 0.07028 -- a constant which depends on one of
angles between the intersections of the four faces of a special rhombic-based pyramid industrial diamond indenter 172.5 ° and the other angle is 130 °, HK in kgf/mm 2.
4F HM = ~rd2/4 (1-37)
where F -- applied load, kgf, d = diameter of indentation, mm, HM in kgf/mm 2.
2F /-/e = (1-38)
rcD[D - v/D 2 - d 2]
where F in kgf, d and D in mm, HB in kgf/mm 2.
F A d p (1-39)
where F -- applied load on a spherical indenter, kgf,
d = diameter of indentation, mm, p -- Meyer strain-hardening exponent.
1.8 CHAPTER ONE
Particular Formula
The relation between the diameter of indentation d and the load F according to Datsko 1'2
The relation between Meyer strain-hardening expo- nent p in Eq. (1-39) and the strain-hardening exponent n in the tensile stress-strain Eq. a = a0 en
The ratio of the tensile strength (as,) of a material to its Brinell hardness number (HB) as per experimental results conducted by Datsko 1'2
For the plot of ratio of (as , /HB) = KB against the strain-strengthening exponent n* (1)
The relationship between the Brinell hardness number l ib and Rockwell C number Rc
The relationship between the Brinell hardness number l ib and Rockwell B number RB
F = 18.8d 2"53 (1-40)
p - 2 = n (1-41)
where p = 2.25 for both annealed pure aluminum and annealed 1020 steel,
p = 2 for low work hardening materials such as pH stainless steels and all cold rolled metals,
p = 2.53 experimentally determined value of 70-30 brass.
o~. (1-42) KB = HB
Refer to Fig. 1-4 for KB vs n for various ratios of (d /D) .
1000 -
900
80O d
700 -
KB
600
500
400
I I I o14 o; 0.0 n
FIGURE 1-4 Ratio of (<,.,/HB) = K• vs strain strengthen- ing exponent n.
R C = 88H O162 - 192 (1-43)
HB --47 RB = 0.0074HB + 0.154 (1-44)
* Courtesy: Datsko, J., Materials in Design and Manufacture, J. Datsko Consultants, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1978, and Standard Handbook of Machine Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1996.
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.9
Particular Formula
The approximate relationship between ultimate tensile strength and Brinell hardness number of carbon and alloy steels which can be applied to steels with a Brinell hardness number between 200He and 350He only 1'2
The relationship between the minimum ultimate strength and the Brinell hardness number for steels as per ASTM
The relationship between the minimum ultimate strength and the Brinell hardness number for cast iron as per ASTM
The relationship between the minimum ultimate strength and the Brinell hardness number as per SAE minimum strength
In case of stochastic results the relation between He and Osut for steel based on Eqs. (1-45a) and (1-45b)
In case of stochastic results the relation between He and Crsut for cast iron based on Eqs. (1-47a) and (1-47b)
Relationships between hardness number and tensile strength of steel in SI and US Customary units [7]
The approximate relationship between ultimate shear stress and ultimate tensile strength for various materials
The tensile yield strength of stress-relieved (not cold- worked) steels according to Datsko 1'2
The equation for tensile yield strength of stress- relieved (not cold-worked) steels in terms of Brinell hardness number He according to Datsko (2)
The approximate relationship between shear yield strength (r,y) and yield strength (tensile) ~r,y
Crsut=3.45He MPa SI (1-45a)
= 500He psi USCS (1-45b)
Crsu t = 3. l OHe MPa
= 450He psi
Crsu t = 1.58He - 86.2 MPa
= 2 3 0 H e - 12500 psi
trout = 2.60He - 110 MPa
= 237.5He - 16000 psi
o-,ut = (3.45, 0.152)He Mea
= (500, 22)He psi
cr~,~ t = 1.58He - 62 + (0, 10.3)
SI (1-46a)
USCS (1-46b)
SI (1-47a)
USCS (1-47b)
SI (I-48a)
USCS (1-48b)
SI (1-49a)
USCS (1-49b)
MPa SI (1-50a)
= 230He - 9000 + (0, 1500) psi
u s c s (~-50b)
Refer to Fig. 1.5.
Tsu = 0.82Crsut for wrought steel (1-51a)
Ysu -- 0.90Osut for malleable iron (1-5 lb)
T~u = 1.30~r, ut for cast iron (1-51c)
Ysu = 0.90Osut for copper and copper alloy (1-51d)
T~u = 0.65O~ut for aluminum and aluminum alloys
(1-51e)
Crsy=(O.O72o~ut -205 ) MPa SI (1-52a)
-1 .05o-su t -30 kpi USCS (1-52b)
O ~ y = ( 3 . 6 2 H e - 2 0 5 ) MPa SI (1-53a)
= 5 2 5 H e - 3 0 kpi USCS (1-53b)
r,y = 0.55a~y for aluminum and aluminum alloys
(1-54a)
r~y = 0.58Cr~y for wrought steel (1-54b)
1.10 CHAPTER ONE
Particular Formula
The approximate relationship between endurance limit (also called f a t i g u e limit) for reversed bending polished specimen based on 50 percent survival rate and ultimate strength for nonferrous and ferrous materials
100
150
200
250
300
350 ......
v o 400
450
500 e-
~ 550
600
._~ 650 a
700
750
800
850
900
950
Shore hardness 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100 120 140 160 180 200 22O 240 260 280 30O 320 34O 360 380 40O 420 440 460 48O 50O 520 540 56O 58O 60O 620 640 660
680
7OO
720
740
760
(0) (10) 20 30 40 50 60 70 Rockwell C hardness, R c
n
60 ~) 70
80 500 90
lOO .~ 11o
800 12o % 130 140
1000 150 1~o~ ~70 _.m 1200 180 "~
1400 ] 220 230 • , 240 -, 250
1600 -I 260 -, -, 270
• , 280 1800 _7 290
300
2000
- 2200
2400 ,
2600 I
2800
J
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i; 72 80 90 100 1 0)
Rockwell B hardness, R B
FIGURE 1-5 Conversion of hardness number to ultimate tensile strength of steel as, t, MPa (kpsi). (Technical Editor Speaks, courtesy o f International Nickel Co., Inc., 1943.)
For students' use
f O'sf b --- 0 . 500"su t for wrought steel having
Osut < 1380 MPa (200 kpsi) (1-55)
! asfo = 690 MPa for wrought steel having
Osut > 1380 MPa (1-56a)
! asfb = 100 kpsi for wrought steel having
O'su t > 200 kpsi USCS (1-56b)
For pract ic ing engineers' use
a'sfo = 0.35as.t for wrought steel having as.t < 1380 MPa (200 kpsi) (1-57)
! crsf b = 550 MPa for wrought steel having
O'su t > 1380 MPa SI (1-58a)
! a~f6 = 80 kpsi for wrought steel having
O'su t :> 200 kpsi USCS (1-58b)
t or rib = 0.45Crsu t for cast iron and cast steel when
as.t < 600 MPa (88 kpsi) (1-59a)
! a,fb = 275 MPa for cast iron and cast steel when
asut > 600 MPa SI (1-60a)
! as~ = 40 kpsi for cast iron and cast steel when
Crsut > 88 kpsi USCS (1-60b)
!
O'd b : 0 .45Crsu t for copper-based alloys and nickel-based alloys (1-61)
o"~:~ = 0.36Osu t for wrought aluminum alloys up to a tensile strength of 275 MPa (40 kpsi)
based on 5 x 108 cycle life (1-62)
/ o '~ = O. 16O'su t
/
O s f b = 0 .38Crsu t
for cast aluminum alloys up to tensile strength of 300 MPa (50 kpsi) based
on 5 x 108 cycle life (1-63)
for magnesium casting alloys and magnesium wrought alloys
based on 106 cyclic life (1-64)
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.11
Particular Formula
The relationship between the endurance limit for reversed axial loading of a polished, unnotched speci- men and the reversed bending for steel specimens
The relationship between the torsional endurance limit and the reversed bending for reversed torsional tested polished unnotched specimens for various materials
For additional information or data on properties of engineering materials
! ! Osf a = 0.85Crsf b = 0.43Crsu t
7-stf = 0.58Jsf b -- 0.29Crsu t for steel ! !
"rsf ~ 0.Scrsf b ~ 0.32Crsu t for cast iron t l
"rsf '~ 0.48crsf b ~ 0.22Osu t for copper
Refer to Tables 1-1 to 1-48
(1-65)
(1-66a)
(1-66b)
(1-66c)
WOOD
Specific gravity, Gm, of wood at a given moisture condition, m, is given by
The weight density of wood, D (unit weight) at any given moisture content
Equation for converting of weight density D~ from one moisture condition to another moisture condition D2
For typical properties of wood of clear material as per ASTM D 143
G m -- W ° ( 1 - 6 7 )
Wm
where W0 = weight of the ovendry wood, N (lbf), Wm = weight of water displaced by the
sample at the given moisture condition, N (lbf).
W = weight of ovendry wood and the contained water volume of the piece at the same moisture content
(1-68)
l OO + M2 D 2 -- D~ 100+ M1 + 0.0i35Dl(M2 - M1)
(1-69)
where D1 = known weight density for same moisture condition M1, kN/m 2 (lbf/ft2),
D2 - desired weight density at a moisture condition M2, kN/m 2 (lbf/ft2). M1 and M2 are expressed in percent.
Refer to Table 1-47.
1.12 C H A P T E R ONE
T A B L E 1-1 Hardness conversion (approximate)
Brinell 29.42 kN (3000 kgf) load
10 mm ball
Diameter Hardness (mm) number
Rockwell hardness number
Vickers A scale B scale C scale 15-N scale Shore or Firth 0.588 kN 0.98 kN 1.47 kN 0.147 kN scleroscope hardness (60 kgf) (100 kgf) (150 kgf) (15 kgf) hardness number load load load load number
Tensile strength, ~sut approximate
MPa kpsi
2.25 745 2.30 712 2.35 682 2.40 653 2.45 627 2.50 601 2.55 578 2.60 555 2.65 534 2.70 514 2.75 495 2.80 477 2.85 461 2.90 444 2.95 429 3.00 415 3.05 401 3.10 388 3.15 375 3.20 363 3.25 352 3.30 341 3.35 331 3.40 321 3.45 311 3.50 302 3 55 293 3.60 285 3.65 277 3.70 269 3.75 262 3.80 255 3.85 248 3.90 241 3.95 235 4.00 229 4.05 223 4.10 217 4.15 212 4.20 207 4.25 201 4.30 197 4.35 192 4.40 187
840 783 737 697 667 640 615 591 569 547 528 5O8 491 472 455 440 425 410 396 383 372 360 35O 339 328 319 309 301 292 284 276 269 261 253 247 241 234 228 222 218 212 207 202 196
84 83 82 81 81 8O 79 78 78 77 76 76 75 74 73 73 72 71 71 70 69 69 68 68 67 66 66 65 65 64 64 63 63 62 61 61
l l0 109 109 108 108 107 106 106 105 104 103 102 101 100 99 98 97 96 96 95 94 93 92 91
, ,
65 92 91 64 92 87 62 91 84 60 90 81 59 90 79 58 89 77 57 88 75 55 88 73 54 87 71 52 87 70 51 86 68 50 85 66 49 85 65 47 84 63 46 83 61 45 83 59 43 82 58 42 81 56 40 81 54 39 80 52 38 79 51 37 79 50 36 78 48 34 77 47 33 77 46 32 76 45 31 76 43 30 75 42 29 74 41 28 74 40 27 73 39 25 73 38 24 72 37 23 71 36 22 70 35 21 70 34 19 18 33 16 32 15 31 14 13 30 12 29 10
2570 373 2455 356 2350 341 2275 330 2227 323 2192 318 2124 309 2020 293 1924 279 1834 266 1750 254 1675 243 1620 235 1532 222 1482 215 1434 208 1380 200 1338 194 1296- 188 1255 182 1214 176 1172 170 1145 166 1103 160 1069 155 1042 151 1010 146 983 142 955 138 928 134 904 131 875 127 855 124 832 120 810 117 790 114 770 111 748 108 730 106 714 103 690 100
680 98 662 96 645 93
PROPERTIES OF E N G I N E E R I N G MATERIALS 1 .13
T A B L E 1-1 Hardness conversion (approximate) (Cont.)
Brinell 29.42 kN (3000 kgf) load
10 mm ball
Diameter Hardness (mm) number
Rockwell hardness number
Vickers A scale B scale C scale 15-N scale Shore or Firth 0.588 kN 0.98 kN 1.47 kN 0.147 kN scleroscope hardness (60 kgf) (100 kgf) (150 kgf) (15 kgf) hardness number load load load load number
Tensile strength, tYsu t
approximate
MPa kpsi
4.45 183 4.5O 179 4.55 174 4.60 170 4.65 167 470 163 4.80 156 4.90 149 5.00 143 5.10 137 5.20 131 5.30 126 5.40 121 5.50 116 5.60 111
192 188 182 178 175 171 163 156 150 143 137 132 127 122 117
90 89 88 87 86 85 83 81 79 76 74 72 70 68 65
28 631 91 27 617 89
600 87 26 585 85
576 83 25 562 81 24 538 78 23 514 74 22 493 71 21 472 68
451 65 20 435 63 19 417 60 18 400 58 17 383 55
o~
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t ~ ¢"~1
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%
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N
Z
N
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<
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m
m
m
[-
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o
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ell
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om
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1.16 CHAPTER ONE
T A B L E 1-2 Poisson's ratio (v)
Material
Aluminium, cast Aluminium, drawn Beryllium copper Brass Brass, 30 Zn Cast steel Chromium Copper Douglas fir Ductile iron Glass Gray cast iron Iron, soft Iron, cast Inconel x Lead Magnesium Malleable cast iron
0.330 0.348 0.285 0.340 0.350 0.265 0.210 0.343 0.330 0.340-0.370 0.245 0.210-0.270 0.293 0.270 0.410 0.431 0.291 0.230
Material
Molybdenum Monel metal Nickel, soft Nickel, hard Rubber Silver Steel, mild Steel, high carbon Steel, tool Steel, stainless (18-8)
0.293 0.320-0.370 0.239 0.306 0.450-0.490 0.367 0.303 0.295 0.287 0.305
Tin Titanium Tungsten Vanadium Wrought iron Zinc
0.342 0.357 0.280 0.365 0.278 0.331
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T A B L E 1-9
Mechanical properties of standard steels
Designation Tensile strength, ~r~t
New Old MPa kpsi MPa
Yield stress, Crsy Elongation in 50 mm (gauge
kpsi length 5.65 v/-~ -)
Fe 290 (St 30) 290 42.0 170 24.7 27 Fe E 220 - 290 42.0 220 32.0 27 Fe 310 (St 32) 310 45.0 180 26.1 26 Fe E 230 - 310 45.0 230 33.4 26 Fe 330 (St 34) 330 47.9 200 29.0 26
Fe F 250 - 330 47.9 250 36.3 26 Fe 360 (St 37) 360 52.2 220 32.0 25 Fe F 270 - 360 52.2 270 39.2 25 Fe 410 (St 42) 410 59.5 250 36.3 23
Fe E 310 - 410 59.5 310 50.0 23 Fe 490 (St 50) 490 71.1 290 42.0 21 Fe E 370 - 490 71.1 370 53.7 21 Fe 540 (St 55) 540 78.3 320 46.4 20 Fe E 400 - 540 78.3 400 58.0 20 Fe 620 (St 63) 620 90.0 380 55.1 15 Fe E 460 - 620 90.0 460 66.7 15
Fe 690 (St 70) 690 100.0 410 59.5 12 Fe E 520 - 690 100.0 520 75.4 12 Fe 770 (St 78) 770 111.7 460 66.7 10 Fe E 580 - 770 111.7 580 84.1 10 Fe 870 (St 88) 870 126.2 520 75.4 8 Fe E 650 - 870 126.2 650 94.3 8
Note: a* area of cross-section of test specimen. Source: IS 1570, 1978.
T A B L E 1-10 Chemical composition and mechanical properties of carbon steel castings for surface hardening
Chemical composition (in ladle analysis) max, %
Designation C Si Mn S P Cr Ni Mo Cu Residual elements
Gr 1 0.4-0.5 0.60 1.0 0.05 0.05 0.25 0.40 0.15 0.30 Gr 2 0.5-0.6 0.60 1.0 0.05 0.05 0.25 0.40 0.15 0.30
0.80 0.80
Tensile strength, crst Yield strength, ~rsy
Designation Mpa kpsi Mpa kpsi
Elongation, % min Brinell (gauge length hardness 5.65 v~ ) ~/B
Gr 1 620 90.0 320 46.4 12 460
Gr 2 700 101.5 370 53.7 8 535
Notes: a* area of cross section of test specimen. All castings shall be free from distortion and harmful defects. They shall be well-dressed, fettled, and machinable. Unless agreed upon by the purchaser and the manufacturer, castings shall be supplied in the annealed, or nomalized and tempered condition. Source: IS 2707, 1973.
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1 .34 CHAPTER ONE
T A B L E 1-14 Mechanical properties of case hardening steels in the refined and quenched condition (core properties)
Minimum Izod impact value, Tensile strength, ~r~t elongation, % min (if specified)
(gauge length Limiting ruling Steel designation MPa kpsi = 5.65 x/~)a j ft-lbf section, mm (in)
Brinell hardness number, max, HB
10 C 4 (C 10) 490 71.1 17 54 39.8 14 C 4 (C 14) 490 71.1 17 54 39.9
10 C 8 S 11 (10 S 11) 490 71.1 17 54 39.8 14 C 14 S 14 588 85.4 17 40 29.7 ( 1 4 M n l S 1 4 ) 11 C 15 588 85.4 17 54 39.8 ( 1 1 M n 2 ) 15 Cr 65 588 85.4 13 47 34.7 17 Mn 1 Cr 95 784 113.8 10 34 25.3 20 Mn Cr 1 981 142.3 8 37 27.5 16 Ni 3 Cr 2 686 99.6 15 40 29.7 (16 Ni 80 Cr 60) 16 Ni 4 Cr 3 834 121.0 12 40 29.7 (16 Ni 1 Cr 80) 784 113.8
735 106.7 13 Ni 13 Cr 3 834 121.0 12 47 34.7 (13 Ni 3 Cr 80) 784 113.8 15 Ni 4 Cr 1 1324 192.0 9 34 25.3
1177 170.7 1128 163.2
20 Ni 2 Mo 25 834 121.0 12 61 44.8 686 99.6
20 Ni 7 Cr 2 Mo 2 882 128.0 11 40 29.7 (20 Ni 55 Cr 50 Mo 784 113.8 20) 735 106.7 15 Ni 13 Cr 4 981 142.3 9 40 29.7 (15 Ni Cr 1 Mo 12) 932 135.1 15 Ni 5 Cr 4 Mo 2 1079 156.5 9 34 25.3 (15 Ni 2 Cr 1 Mo. 15) 932 142.3
932 135.1 16 Ni 8 Cr 6 Mo 2 1324 193.0 9 34 25.3 (16 Ni Cr 2 Mo 20) 1177 170.7
1128 163.6
a a* area of cross section. Source: IS 4432. 1967.
15 (0.6) > 15 (0.6) <30 (1.2)
30 (1.2) 30 (1.2)
30 (1.2)
30 (1.2) 30 (1.2) 30 (1.2) 90 (3.6)
30 (1.2) 60 (2.4) 90 (3.6) 60 (2.4)
100 (4.0) 30 (1.2) 60 (2.4) 90 (3.6) 30 (1.2) 60 (2.4) 30 (1.2) 60 (2.4) 90 (3.6) 30 (1.2) 90 (3.6) 30 (1.2) 60 (2.4) 90 (3.6) 30 (1.2) 60 (2.4) 90 (3.6)
130 143
143 154
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P R O P E R T I E S OF E N G I N E E R I N G M A T E R I A L S 1.35
T A B L E 1-15
Typical mechanical properties of some carburizing steels a
Ultimate Tensile tensile yield
strength, strength, O'su t O'sy Elongation
in 50 mm AISINo. MPa kpsi MPa kpsi (2in), %
Hardness
Case Izod impact
Core Thickness energy Reduction Brinell, Rockwell, Machin- of area, % HB Rc mm in J ft-lbf ability
C1015 503 73 317 46 31 C1020 517 75 331 48 31 C1022 572 83 324 47 27
Cl117 669 97 407 59 23 Cl118 779 113 531 77 t7
4320 b 100 146 648 94 22 4620 b 793 115 531 77 22 8620 b 897 !30 53! 77 22
Plain carbon 71 149 62 1.22 0.048 123 91 Poor 71 156 62 1.17 0.046 126 93 Poor 66 163 62 1.17 0.046 110 81 G o o d 53 192 65 1.14 0.045 45 33 Very good
45 229 61 1.65 0.065 22 16 Excellent
Alloy steels 56 293 59 1.91 0.075 65 48 62 235 59 1.52 0.060 106 78 52 " ~ ~6~ 61 1.78 0.070 89 66
a Average properties for 15 mm (1 in) round section treated, 12.625mm (0.505 in) round section tested. Water-quenched and tempered at 177°C (350°F), except where indicated. b Core properties for 14.125 mm (0.565 in) round section treated, 12.625 mm (0.505 in) round section tested. Oil-quenched twice, tempered at 232°C (450°F). Source: Modern Steels and Their Properties, Bethlehem Steel Corp., 4th ed., 1958 and 7th ed., 1972.
1 . 3 6 C H A P T E R O N E
T A B L E 1 - 1 6
M i n i m u m m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f s o m e s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s
Tensile Yield strength, trst strength', o" v
UNS No. AISI No. MPa kpsi Brinell Elongation, Reduction
MPa kps i hardness, HB % in area, % Weldability Machinability Application
Austenitic $30200 302 515 S30300 303 b 585 b $30400 304 515 $30500 305 480 $30800 308 515 $30900 309 515 $31000 310 515 $31008 310 S 515 $34800 348 515 $38400 384 415-550
Annealed (room temperatures)
75 205 30 88 40 85 b 240 b 35 b 50 b 75 205 30 88 40 70 170 25 88 40 75 205 30 88 40 75 205 30 95 40 75 205 30 95 40 75 205 30 95 40 75 205 30 88 40
60--80
Austenitic $20200 202 655 95 310 4560 $21600 216 690 100 415 50 100 $30452 304HN 620 90 345 100
Ferfite $40500 405 415 60 170 25 88max $43000 430 450 65 205 30 88max $44600 446 515 75 275 40 95max
Martensite $40300 403 485 70 205 30 88max $41000 410 450 65 205 30 95max
$41400 414 795 115 620 90 $41800 d 418 d 1450 b 210 b 1210 b 175 b S42000 e 420 e 1720 250 1480 b 215 b 52Rc b $43100 d 431 d 1370 b 198 b 1030 b 149 b
$44002 440 A 725 b 105 b 415 b 60 b 95 b
$44003 440 B 740 107 b 425 b 62 b 96 b $44004 440 C 760 b 110 b 450 b 65 b 97 b $50200 502 b 485 b 70 b 205 b 30 b
55 b
Annealed high-nitrogen
22 e
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16 b
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18 b 14 b 30 b
45 52 b 25 b 55 b
70 b
Good Poor Poor Good Good Poor Good
Good Good
Excellent Fair Fair
Poor Poor
Fair to good Fair
General purpose, springs Bolts, rivets, and nuts Welded structures General purpose
Heat-exchange parts Turbine and furnace Jet engine parts Fasteners and cold-worked parts
Screw machine parts, muffler Machine parts subjected to high- temperature corrosion
Bolts, shafts, and machine parts Bolts, springs, cutlery, and machine parts
High-strength parts used in aircraft and bolts Cutlery, bearing parts, nozzles and ball bearings
a At 0.2% offset. b Typical values.
c 20% elongation for thickness of 1.3 mm (0.050 in) or less. d Tempered at 260°C (500°F).
e Tempered at 205°C (400°F).
Source: ASM Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1988.
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PROPERTIES OF E N G I N E E R I N G MATERIALS 1.45
TABLE 1-24 Typical uses of tool steel
Steel designation Type Typical uses
T 140 W 4 Cr 50 T 133 T l 1 8 T70
T 215 Cr 12 T 160Cr 12 T l l 0 W 2 C r l T 1 0 5 W 2 C r 6 0 V 2 5 T 90 Mn 2 W 50 Cr 45 T 105 Cr 1 T 105 Cr 1 M 60 T85 T75 T65 T 55 Cr 70 T 55 Si 2 Mn 90 Mo 33 T 50 Cr 1 V 23 T 60 Ni 1 T 30 Ni 4 Cr 1 T 55 Ni 2 Cr 65 Mo 3
T 33, W 9 Cr 3 V 38 T 35 Cr 5 Mo V 1 T 35 Cr 5 Mo W 1 V 30 T 75 W 18 Co 6 Cr 4 V 1 Mo 75 T 83 Mo W 6 Cr 4 V 2 T 55 W 14 Cr 3 V 45 a
T 16 Ni 80 Cr 60 T 10 Cr 5 bee 75 V 23
Cold-Work Water-Hardening Steels Fast finishing tool steel Finishing tools with light feeds, marking tools, etc. Carbon tool steels Engraving tools, files, razors, shaping and wood-working
tools, heading and press tools, drills, punches, chisels,shear blades, vice jaws, etc.
Cold-Work Oil and Air-Hardening Steels High-carbon high- Press tools, drawing and cutter dies, shear blade thread chromium tool steels rollers, etc. Nondeforming tool steels Engraving tools, press tools, gauge, tape, dies, drills, hard
reamers, milling cutters, broaches, cold punches, knives, etc.
Carbon-chromium tool steels
Carbon tool steels
Lathe centers, knurling tools, press tools
Die blocks, garden and agricultural tools, etc.
Shock-resisting tool steels Pneumatic chisels, rivet shape, shear blades, heavy-duty punches, scarfing tools, and other tools under high shock
Nickel-chrome- molybdenum tool steels
Cold and heavy duty punches, trimming dies, scarfing tools, pneumatic chisels, etc.
Hot-Work and High-Speed Steel Hot-work tool steels Castings dies for light alloys, dies for extrusion, stamping,
and forging
High-speed tool steels Drills, reamers, broaches, form cutters, milling cutters, deep-hole drills, slitting saws, high-speed and heavy-cut tools
Low-Carbon Mold Steel Carburizing steels After case hardening for molds for plastic materials
a May also be used as hot-work steel. Source: IS 1871, 1965.
1.46 CHAPTER ONE
T A B L E 1-25 Mechanical properties of carbon and alloy steel bars for the production of machine parts
Ultimate tensile strength, O'sut Minimum elongation (gauge length
Steel designation MPa ## kpsi MPa ~ kpsi = 5.65x/~), %
14 C 4 (C 14)** 363 52.6 441 64.0 26 20 C 8 (C 20) 432 62.6 510 74.0 24 30 C 8 (C 30) 490 71.1 588 85.3 21 40 C 8 (C 40) 569 82.5 667 96.7 18 45 C 8 (C 45) 618 89.6 696 101.0 15 55 C 8 (C 55 Mn 75) 706 102.4 13 65 C 6 (C 65) 736 106.7 10 14 C 14 S 14 (14 Mn 1 S 14) 432 62.6 530 76.8 22 11 C 10 S 25 (13 S 25) 363 52.6 481 69.7 23
Notes: a*, area of cross section; ## minimum; ~ maximum; ** steel designations in parentheses are old designations Source: IS 2073, 1970.
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1.80
PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.81
REFERENCES
1. Datsko, J., Material Properties and Manufacturing Process, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1966. 2. Datsko, J. Material in Design and Manufacturing, Malloy, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1977. 3. ASM Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1988. 4. Machine Design, 1981 Materials Reference Issue, Penton/IPC, Cleveland, Ohio, Vol. 53, No. 6, March 19,
1981. 5. Lingaiah, K., Machine Design Data Handbook, Vol. II (SI and Customary Metric Units), Suma Publishers,
Bangalore, India, 1986. 6. Lingaiah, K., and B. R. Narayana Iyengar, Machine Design Data Handbook, Vol. I (SI and Customary Metric
Units), Suma Publishers, Bangalore, India, 1986. 7. Technical Editor Speaks, the International Nickel Company, New York, 1943. 8. Shigley, J. E., Mechanical Engineering Design, Metric Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1986. 9. Deutschman, A. D., W. J. Michels, and C. E. Wilson, Machine Design Theory and Practice, Macmillan Pub-
lishing Company, New York, 1975. 10. Juvinall, R. C.,Fundaments of Machine Components Design, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1983. 11. Lingaiah, K., and B. R. Narayana Iyengar, Machine Design Data Handbook, Engineering College Co-opera-
tive Society, Bangalore, India, 1962. 12. Lingaiah, K., Machine Design Data Handbook, Vol. II (SI and Customary Metric Units), Suma Publishers,
Bangalore, India, 1981 and 1984. 13. Lingaiah, K., and B. R. Narayana Iyengar, Machine Design Data Handbook, Vol. I (SI and Customary Metric
Units), Suma Publishers, Bangalore, India, 1983. 14. SAE Handbook, 1981. 15. Lessels, J. M., Strength and Resistance of Metals, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1954. 16. Siegel, M. J., V. L. Maleev, and J. B. Hartman, Mechanical Design of Machines, 4th edition, International
Textbook Company, Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1965. 17. Black, P. H., and O. Eugene Adams, Jr., Machine Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1963. 18. Niemann, G., Maschinenelemente, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Erster Band, 1963. 19. Faires, V. M., Design of Machine Elements, 4th edition, Macmillan Company, New York, 1965. 20. Nortman, C. A., E. S. Auit, and I. F. Zarobsky, Fundamentals of Machine Design, Macmillan Company, New
York, 1951. 21. Spotts, M. F., Design of Machine Elements, 5th edition, Prentice-Hall of India Private Ltd., New Delhi, 1978. 22. Vallance, A., and V. L. Doughtie, Design of Machine Members, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1951. 23. Decker, K.-H., Maschinenelemente, Gestalting und Bereching, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich, Germany, 1971. 24. Decker, K.-H., and Kabus, B. K., Maschinenelemente-Aufgaben, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich, Germany,
1970. 25. ISO and BIS standards. 26. Metals Handbook, Desk Edition, ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio, 1985 (formerly the American
Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1985). 27. Edwards, Jr., K. S., and R. B. McKee, Fundamentals of Mechanical Components Design, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1991. 28. Shigley, J. E., and C. R. Mischke, Standard Handbook of Machine Design, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1996. 29. Structural Alloys Handbook, Metals and Ceramics Information Center, Battelle Memorial Institute, Colum-
bus, Ohio, 1985. 30. Wood Handbook and U. S. Forest Products Laboratory. 31. SAE J1099, Technical Report of Fatigue Properties. 32. Ashton, J. C., 1. Halpin, and P. H. Petit, Primer on Composite Materials-Analysis, Technomic Publishing Co.,
Inc., 750 Summer Street, Stanford, Conn 06901, 1969. 33. Baumeister, T., E. A. Avallone, and T. Baumeister III, Mark's Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers,
8th edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1978. 34. Norton, Refractories, 3rd edition, Green and Stewart, ASTM Standards on Refractory Materials Handbook
(Committee C-8).
1.82 CHAPTER ONE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Black, P. H., and O. Eugene Adams, Jr., Machine Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1983. Decker, K.-H., Maschinenelemente, Gestalting und Bereching, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich, Germany, 1971. Decker, K.-H., and Kabus, B. K., Maschinenelemente-Aufgaben, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich, Germany, 1970. Deutschman, A. D., W. J. Michels, and C. E. Wilson, Machine Design--Theory and Practice, Macmillan Publish-
ing Company, New York, 1975. Faires, V. M., Design of Machine Elements, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1965. Honger, O. S. (ed.), (ASME) Handbook for Metals Properties, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1954. ISO standards. Juvinall, R. C., Fundaments of Machine Components Design, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1983. Lessels, J. M., Strength and Resistance of Metals, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1954. Lingaiah, K., and B. R. Narayana Iyengar, Machine Design Data Handbook, Engineering College Co-operative
Society, Bangalore, India, 1962. Mark's Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 8th edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1978. Niemann, G., Maschinenelemente, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Erster Band, 1963. Norman, C. A., E. S. Ault, and I. E. Zarobsky, Fundamentals of Machine Design, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1951. SAE Handbook, 1981. Shigley, J. E., Mechanical Engineering Design, Metric Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1986. Siegel, M. J., V. L. Maleev, and J. B. Hartman, Mechanical Design of Machines, 4th edition, International Text-
book Company, Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1965. Spotts, M. F., Design of Machine Elements, 5th edition, Prentice-Hall of India Private Ltd., New Delhi, 1978. Vallance, A., and V. L. Doughtie, Design of Machine Members, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1951.
