6.3 Macropragmatics6.3 Macropragmatics

Speech act theorySpeech act theory

The cooperative principleThe cooperative principle

The politeness principleThe politeness principle

6.3.1 Speech act theory6.3.1 Speech act theory

Speech act theorySpeech act theory was proposed by J. L. Austi was proposed by J. L. Austin and has been developed by J. R. Searle. They n and has been developed by J. R. Searle. They believe that language is not only used to inform believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do thingor to describe things, it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts. Ex. (1) You’re fired.s”, to perform acts. Ex. (1) You’re fired.Actions performed via utterances are generally cActions performed via utterances are generally called alled speech actsspeech acts, the uttering of the relevant w, the uttering of the relevant words is the action itself; without the utterance the ords is the action itself; without the utterance the action is not done. These are called performative action is not done. These are called performative sentences and the verbs used are called sentences and the verbs used are called perforperformative verbsmative verbs (Vp): (Vp): I (Vp) you that…I (Vp) you that…

Sufficient conditions for “perforSufficient conditions for “performative verbs”mative verbs”

A. the singular form of the first A. the singular form of the first person person

B. present tenseB. present tense

C. declarative sentencesC. declarative sentences

D. the active voiceD. the active voice

6.3.1.1 Illocutionary acts6.3.1.1 Illocutionary acts

a. locutionary acta. locutionary act

Austin suggests Austin suggests

three kinds of acts b. illocutionary actthree kinds of acts b. illocutionary act

c. perlocutinary actc. perlocutinary act

The speech act theoryThe speech act theory

a. Locutionary act:a. Locutionary act: the act of saying, the the act of saying, the literal meaning f the utteranceliteral meaning f the utterance

b. illocutionary act:b. illocutionary act: the extra meaning of the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its lthe utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaningiteral meaning

c. perlocutionary act:c. perlocutionary act: the effect of the utt the effect of the utterance on the hearer, depending on speciferance on the hearer, depending on specific circumstances.ic circumstances.

(1) It’s stuffy in here. (1) It’s stuffy in here.

The locutionary actThe locutionary act is the saying of it with its lit is the saying of it with its literal meaning “There isn’t enough fresh air in hereral meaning “There isn’t enough fresh air in here”. e”. The illocutionary actThe illocutionary act can be a request of th can be a request of the hearer to open the window. e hearer to open the window. The perlocutinary The perlocutinary actact can be the hearer’s opening the window or hi can be the hearer’s opening the window or his refusal to do so. In fact, we might utter (1) to ms refusal to do so. In fact, we might utter (1) to make a statement, a request, an explanation, or foake a statement, a request, an explanation, or for some other communicative purposes. This is alr some other communicative purposes. This is also generally known as the so generally known as the illocutionary force illocutionary force （言外之力）（言外之力） of the utterance. of the utterance.

Felicity conditions Felicity conditions （适切条件）（适切条件） ::Circumstances under which it would be appropriate to interpret somethiCircumstances under which it would be appropriate to interpret somethi

ng as a particular type of speech act.ng as a particular type of speech act.

1. General conditions1. General conditions

2. Content conditions2. Content conditions

Felicity conditionsFelicity conditions 3. Preparatory conditions 3. Preparatory conditions

4. Sincerity condition4. Sincerity condition

5. Essential condition5. Essential condition

(2) a. Husband: That’s the phone.(2) a. Husband: That’s the phone. b. Wife: I’m in the bathroom. b. Wife: I’m in the bathroom.

c. Husband: Okay. c. Husband: Okay.

Its illocutionary acts are: (i) a refusal to Its illocutionary acts are: (i) a refusal to comply with the request comply with the request

(ii) a request to her husband (ii) a request to her husband to answer the phone instead.to answer the phone instead.

6.3.1.2 Classification of 6.3.1.2 Classification of illocutionary actsillocutionary acts

1. Representatives1. Representatives （阐述类）（阐述类） 2. Directives (2. Directives ( 指令类指令类 ))

SearleSearle suggests suggests

fivefive basic basic

categories ofcategories of

illocutionary acts: 3. Commissivesillocutionary acts: 3. Commissives （承诺类）（承诺类） 4. Expressives4. Expressives （表达类）（表达类） 5. Declarations5. Declarations （宣告类）（宣告类）

Classification of illocutionary Classification of illocutionary acts by Searleacts by Searle

6.3.1.3 Indirect speech acts6.3.1.3 Indirect speech acts

A different approach to distinguishing types of speech A different approach to distinguishing types of speech acts can be made on the basis of structure. A simple acts can be made on the basis of structure. A simple structural distinction between three general types of structural distinction between three general types of speech acts is provided, in English, by the three basic speech acts is provided, in English, by the three basic sentences types. As shown in (1), there is an easily sentences types. As shown in (1), there is an easily recognized relationship between the three structural recognized relationship between the three structural forms (declarative, interrogative, imperative) and the forms (declarative, interrogative, imperative) and the three general communicative functions (statement, three general communicative functions (statement, question, command/request). question, command/request). (1) a. declarative: You wear a seat belt. (statement) (1) a. declarative: You wear a seat belt. (statement) b. interrogative: Do you wear a seat belt? (question) b. interrogative: Do you wear a seat belt? (question) c. imperative: Wear a seat belt! (command/request)c. imperative: Wear a seat belt! (command/request)

(2) a. It’s cold outside.(2) a. It’s cold outside. b. I hereby tell you about the weather. b. I hereby tell you about the weather.

c. I hereby request of you that you close the door. c. I hereby request of you that you close the door.

Whenever there is a direct relationship between Whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have a a structure and a function, we have a direct direct speech act. speech act. For example, a declarative used to For example, a declarative used to make a statement is a direct speech act, but a make a statement is a direct speech act, but a declarative used to make a request is an indirect declarative used to make a request is an indirect speech act. As illustrated in (2), the utterance in speech act. As illustrated in (2), the utterance in (2a) is a declarative. When it is used to make a (2a) is a declarative. When it is used to make a statement, as paraphrased in (2b), it is statement, as paraphrased in (2b), it is functioning as a direct speech act. When it is functioning as a direct speech act. When it is used to make a command/request, as used to make a command/request, as paraphrased in (2c), it is functioning as an paraphrased in (2c), it is functioning as an indirect speech act.indirect speech act.

Requests are often performed indirectly. Their Requests are often performed indirectly. Their indirectness has certainindirectness has certain characteristics characteristics that tend that tend

to group requests into the following typesto group requests into the following types

AssignmentsAssignments

I. Define the following terms briefly: I. Define the following terms briefly: Speech act theorySpeech act theoryII. Someone stands between you and the TV set II. Someone stands between you and the TV set you were watching, so you decide to say one of you were watching, so you decide to say one of the following. Identify which would be direct and the following. Identify which would be direct and which would be indirect speech acts.which would be indirect speech acts.(1) Move!(1) Move!(2) You’re in the way.(2) You’re in the way.(3) Could you sit down?(3) Could you sit down?(4) I can’t see anything.(4) I can’t see anything.(5) Please get out of the way.(5) Please get out of the way.

(3) a. Could you pass me the salt, please?(3) a. Could you pass me the salt, please?b. Would you open this for me?b. Would you open this for me?

One of the most common types of indirect One of the most common types of indirect speech act in English, as shown in (3) has speech act in English, as shown in (3) has the form of an interrogative, but is not the form of an interrogative, but is not typically used to ask questions, that is , we typically used to ask questions, that is , we do not expect an answer, but we expect do not expect an answer, but we expect action. action.