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The Theoretical Basis of the Tibetan Epic, with Reference to a 'Chronological Order' of the

Various Episodes in the Gesar EpicAuthor(s): Samten G. KarmayReviewed work(s):Source: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 56,No. 2 (1993), pp. 234-246Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African StudiesStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/619901 .

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THE THEORETICAL BASIS OF THE TIBETAN EPIC 235

activitiesof the heroduringhis lifetime.It also has an end, since at a certain

age Gesarno longer eadsany expeditions.This does not mean that the bardsor those who readthe epic alwaysdo so in the correctorder,or transmit t

orallyin a 'chronologicalorder'. On the contrary,one episodewill be morepopularthan another n a given localityand the bardschoose whichepisodesto tell according o the circumstances.

Thereis, nevertheless, correctsequencefor the episodes,especiallythe

great ones which are regardedas major campaignsand the purpose ofGesar's centralmission on earth,propheticallyoretoldby the hero'sdivineaunt (Mane-nergyal-mo).

The TibetanscholargCod-pa Don-'grub recentlymet a numberof bards

livingin differentpartsof Tibet andcollecteda greatdeal of researchmateri-al on Gesar.He has given specialattentionto the questionof the 'chronolog-ical order' of the various

episodesand

recentlypublisheda most

interestingarticle on the subject n a collection of his other writings,all of whichdealwith whatProfessorSteincalls 'the tracesof Gesar' found in Amdo.4This

particulararticlegives the following 'chronologicalorder' for the episodesrelating o the life of Gesar.

When Gesar is in heaven he is called Thos-pa-dga'.He comes down toearth and is born to Seng-blonand 'Gog-zain orderto bringhappiness o theworld.'

When Gesaris threeyearsold, he subdues he demon childICags-kyi to-Idir.

At theage of one, he shoots and kills the threeblack birds sentby sGom-pa ra-tsaby meansof magicwith the help of Ma-bzhiKhro-thung, n orderto underminehe life of Gesar. He subduessGom-para-tsa,who is himselfa

magician.At the age of two, A-bra.Srin-pomgo-dgucauses various misfortunes o

the peopleof Gling [hereafter:Ling].Gesar,in accordancewith a prophecyreceivedfrom Gong-margyal-mo,subdues the animal with the help of his

walkingstick,calledICang-dkar, n the westbankof the river Bri-chu.6At the age of three,he captures he fort Tsha-bamda'-rdzongn Tsha-ba

and makes its king Mig-brgyabtsan-poa vassal.In this place he finds three

specialbamboo arrows. One of these he offers to the gods, another to thegNyan and the third s keptfor men.7

At the age of seven, he capturesthe Fort of Goats, Kha-serra-yi ra-

rdzongandits king,Kha-serrgyal-po.He thendrivesback to Lingthousandsof goats amongst which there are white ones with conch horns and blackones withgarudahorns.He distributes he animalsequallyamongthe peopleof Ling.8

At the age of eight,his paternaluncleKhro-thung earsthat he may lose

4'Gling gesar

rgyal po i skyes rabs lo rgyus rags tsam brjodpa' (Gling ge sar rgyal po 'i shulrten gyi ngag rgyun ngo mtshar me tog phreng mdzes, Xining 1989), 1-17.1R. A. Stein provides an edition of the IHa-gling and a summarised translation (L' pop&e

tibetaine de Gesar dans sa version lamarquede Ling [hereafter Versionlamatque], (Paris, 1956),19-39; 169-215. For recent publications of the same text, see IHa-gling gab-tse dgu-skor(Chengdu, 1980, 152 pp.); (Lanzhou, 1982, 155 pp.). Another version of the same episode told bythe bard Grags-pa has also been published (Peking, 1984), 84 pp.

*These last three episodes are concerned with the 'Khrungs-gling.R. A. Stein has edited thistext and made a summarised translation (Version lamaTque, 0-86; 216-74). For a recent publica-tion of the same work, see 'Khrungs-skorLanzhou, 1981, 171 pp.). For another, slightly differentversion of the same text, see 'Khrungs-glingme-tog ra-ba (Chengdu, 1980, 186 pp.).

7Tsha-ba mda -rdzong (Lhasa, 1982, 213 pp.)."There does not seem to be any text concerned with this episode.

VOL. LVI. PART 2 18

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236 SAMTENG. KARMAY

his politicalinfluenceamongthe Ling peopleto his nephew.He accordinglybanishesGesar,togetherwith his mother,to rMa-smadg.yu-lungsum-mdoand so causes themto live like yaks.9

At the age of nine, obeying the order given by sPyi-dponKhra-rgan,Gesar,with the helpof his uncleKhro-thung, ets out on a campaignagainstthe king of 'Dan-ma.From the regionof 'Dan-ma he brings barleygrainsbackto Ling.'o

At the age of ten, a great snowfalloccursin Ling country,such as hadnever been seen beforeand men and their herds are unableto move about.On the other hand, in rMa-smadwhere Gesar and his motherlive there issunshine,showersof flowersas well as rainbowsand blossoming ruit trees.

sPyi-dpon,the doyen of the Ling people, despatchesrGya-tshazhal-dkar,Gesar'selder half brother,and Tsha-spyangDan-ma,a hero from the 'Dan

country, to rMa-smad n order to rent the grassland n rMa-smadfor theLingpeople.Gesargivesthem the use of the grassland."

At the age of 12,12a greathorse race is organizedby the threeprincipalclans of Ling. The stake is the throne of Ling and the hand of 'Brug-mo,famedfor her beauty amongnot only the Ling but also the Hor people, the

deadlyenemiesof the Ling. Gesarwins the race and picksup the first scarf

(ka-btags) romthe groundat the gallop.He thereforemarries Brug-moandis enthronedas Kingof Lingwith the name of Seng-chenNor-budGra-'dul.'3

At the age of 13, the time comes to open the treasuryof rMa Shel-brag.There Gesar finds variousarmaments: coat of mail made of gold, silverand

conch-shell;a helmetmade of coral,a noose witha ringat its end, a hook, asword,a garmentmadeof brocadeand a belt.14

At the age of 14,Gesargathers ogetherall the heroesof Lingin orderto

perform heceremonyof purification nd thebsangoffering o all the gods inheaven,the mountainspiritson earth,and those of the underworld.This cer-

emony is called 'Dzam-glingpyi-bsang, he 'universalceremonyof purifica-tion for the world . On this occasion,he shoots and kills a huge wild yak('brong),becausethis beastis the ' residence'of the soul of the greatdemon,Klu-btsanwho lives in the Northand is the targetof Gesar'snextcampaign.'

Episode I

At the age of 15,Gesarembarkson an expedition n order to subdue themost dreadedold demon called Klu-btsanwho lives in the North of Ling.After makingfriendswith A-stag lha-mo, the demon'ssister,he eventuallykills the demon.'6

The text on this period of Gesar's banishment is probably contained in the Bacot manu-script in Paris, but this still awaits study.

' 'Dan-ma nas-rdzong (Xining, 1989, 116 pp.)." No text has so far been seen on this theme.

12The connexion of the horse-race episode with the age of 12 by this author is a mistake. WhenGesar is 12, the concern is with finding him a horse for the race, but the race itself is postponeduntil the following year, and therefore takes place when he is 13, see rTa-rgyug (Lanzhou, 1981),

12-14.-'~The text containing this episode is entitled rTa-rgyugnor-bu-cha-bdun.R. A. Stein has edited

it and provided a translation/summary (Version iamarque,87-140, 275-355). The same text hasalso recently been published in other editions: sTa-rgyug nor-bu cha-bdun (Chengdu, 1981,258 pp.), rTa-rgyug (Dharamsala, 1983, 185 pp.), rTa-rgyug nor-bu cha-bdun(Lhasa, 1981, 173

pp.) and rTa-rgyug dpyid-kyi nyi-ma (Xining, 1981, 276 pp.). The songs in the episode of the

horse race in the text published by Stein have been translated into French; see M. Helffer, Les

chants dans I`popce tibitaine de Gesar d'aprCIse livre de la course de cheval (Gen6ve-Paris, 1977.)14rMa shel-brag (Xining, 1982, 202 pp.). The attribution of this event to the age of 13 is uncer-

tain. The text mentioned gives the age as eight (p. 2) and uses the name Jo-ru as if the event were

taking place prior to the race.

"5 Dzam-gling spyi-bsang (Lanzhou, 1980, 196 pp.).16 bDud-'dul (Lanzhou, 1981, 201 pp.).

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Episode II

At the age of 24, whileGesaris still engagedon his campaignagainstthedemon Klu-btsan the king of Hor, Gur-dkar-rgyal-po,makes an incursioninto Ling and plunders t. He takes away Gesar'swife, 'Brug-mo,by forcetogetherwith many children of the Ling people. Gesar is informed of theevents in Ling when he has alreadyspent nine years in the countryof thedemon.Leadingan army consistingmainlyof the subjectsof the demon,hegoes on a campaign against the Hor. The king of Hor surrenders.After

appointingShan-pa,a greatgeneralof the Hor army,as governorof Hor hereturnswith 'Brug-mo.Thiscampaign akesnine years."

Episode III

At the age of 33, followingthe prophetic nstructions f sManA-ne rgyal-mo, Gesarsets out on an expeditionto 'Jangin the East, one of the fourenemiesof the fourcardinalpoints. The king of 'Jang, giveshimselfup aftera fight.Thisexpedition akes threeyears.'"

Episode IV

At the age of 36, heedingthe prophetic nstructionsgiven by the WhiteBrahma,he leadsan army consistingof soldiersfrom'Jangand Hor to Monin the South. The king of Mon, Shing-khri, inallysubmits. Gesar invites alamaof Mon namedNor-buto Ling.'9

At the age of 39, followingdivineprophetic nstructions,Gesargoes intoretreat or a yearon MountPotala,paradiseof Avalokiteivara. Note:in cer-tain versionsof the story, it is said that Gesar went into retreat becauseotherwisehe would not be able to lead the soul of the king of sTag-gzigtoheaven,thiscountrybeingthe objectiveof his nextcampaign.)

1. At the age of 40, he campaignsagainstsTag-gzig.Its king surrenderstogetherwith his fort, Nor-rdzong.Gesarbringsback to Linga greatquanti-ty of preciousobjectswhichhe distributesamonghis people.This campaignlasts one year.20

2. At the age of 42, he campaignsagainstKha-che. Its king, Khri-btsan,

surrenderswith his

fort, gYu-rdzong,whichis richin

turquoise.Gesar

bringsback to Ling a greatquantityof turquoisewhichhe distributes o his sub-jects. Thiscampaign akes one year.21

3. At the age of 43, when many people from Ling carryingmuch goldleave for Lhasain order to makeofferingsof gold to the ' face' of the threeholy images n Lhasa,they are robbedand manyare killedin ambushby thepeople of Mi-nubrma-bya.Gesar,hearingof theseevents,leadsa campaignagainstthe latter.The king of Mi-nub surrendersogetherwithhis fort, Dar-rdzong,whichis famedfor its wealthof silk. Gesarobtains a largeamount ofsilk in compensation.22

17 Hor-gling g.yul-'gyed (Xining, 1980, vol. 1, 562 pp., vol. 11,668 pp.). The same version ofevents appears in vol. I of the edition published in Lhasa (1980, 441 pp.; I have not seen vol. II).Another, much shorter version is Hor- dul-gyi rtogs-pa brjod-pa g.yul-rgyal l1ha ruga-sgra(Chengdu, n.d., 251 pp.).

'IJang-gling g.yul skor (Delhi, 1965, 382 pp.): Gesar 'Jang-glingsgrung. by Ngag-dbang bsam-gtan phun-tshogs (Gangtok, 1977, vol. 1,596 pp., vol. 11,607 pp.).

'9 Four long texts which are for the most part identical and have the same title, Mon-glingg.yul-'gyed (Lhasa, 1980, 470 pp.; Chengdu, 1982, 519 pp.; Xining, 1982, 353 pp.; Lanzhou, 1983,419 pp.).

2sTag-gzig nor-rdzong (Lanzhou, 1979, 443 pp.). Another, slightly different version of the

same work is published under the title sTag-gling g.yul-'gyed (Lhasa, 1979, 385 pp.).21 Kha-cheg.yu-rdzong (Lhasa, 1979, 236 pp.).

? Mi-nub rma-bya (I have not seen this text).

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238 SAMTENG. KARMAY

4. At the age of 44, the timehas come for himto capture hefort Mu-tig-rdzongin Zhang-zhungwhichpossessesa lot of pearls.Its king, iHun-grubgrags-pa,giveshimselfup and Gesarobtains a greatmany pearlsfor distrib-

utionamonghis peoplein Ling.235. At the age of 46, Gesar'spaternaluncle,Khro-thung, akesthe daugh-

ter of the king of A-grags, Nyi-ma rgyal-mtshan,by force and the Lingpeople clash with those of A-grags.This gives Gesar an excuse to lead his

armyto attacktheA-gragspeople.ThefortgZi-rdzong, nvied for its quanti-ty of the preciousstonegzi, is taken.He carriesawaythe preciousstonesfordistribution monghis people.24

6. At the age of 47, he campaignsagainstGru-gu.Its kingThog-rgodsur-renders ogetherwithhis fort, Go-rdzong,whichcontainsan armoury.Gesartakesawaymuchof the armour or hispeople.25

7. At the age of 49, he campaignsagainst Me-gling.Its king is defeatedand after capturinggSer-rdzong,a fort famous for its gold, Gesar carries

awaymuchof the gold for the Lingpeople.268. At the age of 51, he campaignsagainstsMyug-gu.After the captureof

the fort Drel-rdzong,the king Nyi-ma rgyal-mtshansurrenderswith hismules.Gesar introducesdifferentbreedsof mules into Ling,as well as invit-

ing back the daughterof the king,lHa-lcamMe-tog.279. At the age of 52, he campaignsagainstSog-po. The king of Sog-po,

Nyi-ma lhun-grub,gives himself up after fighting and offers Me-ri thog-rdzong,a fort known for its wealth of weapons.Gesar takes away a great

numberof catapultsand 400 guns.2810. At the age of 53, he campaignsagainst mNga'-ris,Brag-girgyal-po,

the kingof mNga'-ris, urrenders nd the fort of gSer-rdzong,whichcontainsa statueof the buddhamadeof gold, is taken.29

11. At the age of 55, he campaignsagainstGangs-ri.Its king, Gangs-dkar, is defeatedand Shel-rdzong, he fort, is captured.Gesarfinds there acoat of mail and a helmetmadeall of crystal.30

12. At the age of 56, he campaignsagainstTsa-ri.Its king, dBang-chenstobs-grags,surrendersogetherwith his fort, sMan-rdzong, amous for itswealth of medicines.Gesar introducesvariousmedicines nto Ling."3

13. At the age of 58, he campaignsagainstBye-risTag-rtse.The king ofBye-risurrendersogetherwith his fort, Byur-rdzong.The fort houses statuesof Amitayusand Hayagriva,both madeof coral, whichGesartakes to Lingwith other different ypesof coral.32

14. At theage of 61, he campaignsagainstChina.Its kingsTag-bdud ur-rendersand the fort Ja-rdzong s taken.Variouskinds of tea are introducedinto Ling.33

At the age of 63, Gesar goes into retreat n order to undertakeacts of

expiationbecausehe has harmedso many livingbeingswhilst on campaign.23Zhang-gling g.yul-'gyed (Lhasa, 1982, 143 pp.); Zhang-zhungmu-tig-rdzong (Lanzhou, 1984,

328pp.).24 A-grags gzi-rdzong (Xining, 1985, 662 pp.).

25 Gru-gugo-rdzong (Lhasa, 1988-89, vol. 1, 883 pp., vol. 11,246 pp.). The same work was pub-lished in Dharamsala (1982-83) in three volumes.

26Me-gling gser-rdzong (Xining, 1983, 223 pp.); Me-gling g.yul-'khrugs (Lhasa, 1982, 328 pp.).

27 sMyug-gu drel-rdzong (Lhasa, 1982, 662 pp.).2 Me-ri thog-rdzong(I have not seen this text).2

mNga'-risgser-rdzong(Chengdu, 1981, 233 pp.).*

Gangs-ri shel-rdzong(Chengdu, 1982, 377 pp.)."' Tsa-ri sman-rdzong, written by dBang-chen stobs-rgyal of mGo-log and completed in 1987

(Xining, 1990, 408 pp.).32 Bye-ri byur-rdzong (Xining, 1983, 518 pp.). Another text related to this episode is Ge-sar

sgang-gling sgrung (Gangtok, 1977, 675 pp.).•? rGya-nag a-rdzong (I have not seen this text).

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THE THEORETICALBASIS OF THE TIBETAN EPIC 239

15. At the age of 64, he campaignsagainst Dung-dkar.Its king, sTag-thub,surrendersnd his fort sTag-rdzongs taken. Gesar takes from the fort168 coats of mail, 9,800 arrows,a statue of Tardand a noose, all made of

conch-shell?.16. At the age of 67, he campaignsagainstIndia. The king Chos-lung s

defeatedand his fort Chos-rdzongs taken.It contains thousandsof volumesof Prajiidpdramitdexts,written n gold, silverand turquoise.35

17. At the age of 68, he campaignsagainstNepal. Its king, Bal-ri,surren-ders togetherwith his fort 'Bras-rdzong.From there Gesar introducesriceinto Ling.36

18. At the age of 69, he campaignsagainstBhara.Its king, Khyung-khri,is defeatedand his fort Lug-rdzong s taken. From thereGesar introducesthree breedsof sheepinto Ling.37

Between the age of 69-80, Gesar is supposedto have continuedtakingsmallforts,listedbelow,but in fact manyof the titles in this list areepisodesconnectedwith the cavalries dpa'-thul) ather han the hero himself.

1. Thog-glingg.yul-'gyed2. Sog pyi-gling gser-rdzong3. Po-ri gzi-rdzong4. Phyi-gling khrab-rdzong5. sMar-khambyu-ru-rdzong6. sDe-dge chos-rdzong

7. Khyung-chen gro-rdzong8. sPyi-dpon shel-rdzong9. sGa-sdekhro-rdzong

10. rGya-tsha'idngul-chukhro-rdzong11. Go-gu khyi-rdzong12. A-stag sha-rdzong13. Li-khri rta-rdzong3"14. Srin-ino ra-rdzong15. Bal-po lug-rdzong"316. A-bse 'bri-rdzong

17. Zhlang-zhung inan-rdzong4018. rGya-tsha igri-rdzong19. 'Dan-ma'id. a '-rdzong20. Khro-thung cags-rdzong41

4? Dung-dkarstag-rdzong (I have not seen this text).

"? rGya-garchos-rdzong(I have not seen this text).? Bal-ri 'bras-rdzong 1 have not seen this text).

7? Bhara lug-rdzong.At the second International Symposium of the Gesar Epic, held in Lhasain August 1991, the bard bSam-grub recited an episode of the epic which he called Bal-ra lug-rdzong. Cf. no. 15 in the list of minor texts.

"ISog li-khri rta-rdzong, by sGrung-gter Nyi-ma rang-shar in mDo-smad (Amdo), (Chengdu,

1990, 254 pp.). Similar but much longer texts include Sog-stod rta-rdzong (Dharamsala, 1982,585 pp.); Sog-smad khrab-rdzong, by Don-rgyud nyi-ma, the eighth Khams-sprul (b. 1931),(Dharamsala, 1985, 823 pp.). For his other works on Gesar, see below.

" Cf. n. 37.*~It is not Zhang-zhung, but Shang-shang and is probably identical to the text entitled Shang-

shang sman-rdzong written by Grub-rigs khyu-mchog (Lanzhou, 1984, part 1, 1-395, part 2,396-638). Another text related to this episode is mThing-glingg.yul-'gyed (Lhasa 1985, 241 pp.).

4' To this list can be added several more texts that have appeared recently: Sum-gling g.yul-gyed or Sum-pa mdzo-rdzong (Lhasa, 1981, 135 pp.); another version of the same episode andthe same title (Chengdu, 1982, 204 pp.); Shan- dan stag-seng kha-sprod(Chengdu, 1982, 244 pp.);Ri-nub (a-dkar rdo-rdzong) (Xining, 1985, 176 pp.); Byang sgo-ra rgyal-po i tshva-g.yang, by IHa-dge bDud-mdul rnam-rgyal (Dharamsala, 1985, vol 1, 683 pp., vol. 11,284 pp.); Ja-rong "bru-rdzong, by Nang-so Blo-bstan (Lhasa, 1987, 522 pp.); rMi-li gser-rdzong, by 'Brong-stod IHa-dge(Dharamsala, 1985, vol. 1, 513 pp., vol. II,808 pp.); Glang-ru(Xining, 1985, 132 pp.).

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240 SAMTENG. KARMAY

At the age of 87 Gesar returnsto heaven after having appointedhis

nephewdGra-lhartse-rgyalking of Ling.42

Hereends gCod-paDon-grub'sdiscussionconcerning he activitiesof thehero and his cavalries.It is perhapshere that I should mention some of theworks on the epic that do not deal with a particularepisode but presentthemselvesas an accountof the hero's life as a whole. Among these is oneeditedby TashiTsering,whichhas a veryinterestingntroduction.43

FIG. I: The Sino-Tibetan Peace Treaty 821-822 A.D.N

Tru-gu(Turkestan)

W Tazig(Iran) Tibet China E

India

S

FIG. II: Pelliot Tibitain No. 958N

TazigandTru-gu

W Phrom Gesar Tibet China E

IndiaS

42The bards (sgrung-mkhan) do not talk about Gesar's death because he 'never dies '.

However, the dMyal-gling episode is about his 'departure from the earth ', see dMyal-glingrdzogs-pa chen-po ' rediscovered' by Rig-'dzin drag-rtsal rdo-rje in mGo-log (The Epic of Gesar,Thimphu, 1977, vol. 31, 357 pp.). There are other texts which have similar titles but contain dif-

ferent minor episodes: dMyal-ba'i le'u or dMyal-gling, by 'Dan Chos-kyi dbang-phyug (TibetanBonpo Monastic Centre, 1973, 526 pp.). This is concerned with Gesar's rescue of some of his

cavalry who fall into hell after their deaths. A similar text is dMvyal-glingmun-pa rang-gsal(Xining, 1983 109 pp.), which deals with Gesar's rescue of A-stag Iha-mo, demon Klu-btsan's

sister, from hell, and Gesar's complicity. The dmnyal-glingr dmyal-le types of text are thereforenot always connected with his own departure for heaven, but with his actions spread over other

periods of his life.

4• rTsa-ba'i rnam-thar, 1-44 (Gling-rjege-sar-gyi rtsa-ba i mdzad-pamdor-bdus,Burmiok AthingCollection Series, vol. inl,Dharamsala, 1981). Other texts of the same type are: Gling ge-sar rgyal-po 'irnam-thar(Lhasa, 1989, 117 pp.); 'Dzam-glingskyes-bu'i chos-sgrungsil-ma las gser-chos 'og-min bgrod-pa i them-skas gsang-ba'i rgya-can (Chos-sgrung dang bshad-pa rnam-bdun,Chengdu,1990, 1-87); Srid-pa Chags-lugs (Xining, 1987, 332 pp.) This last work deals with the hero's life

only up to the horse race (rTa-rgyug).

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FIG.III:lDe'uchos-'byungN

Gesar

W Tazig Tibet China E

India

S

FIG.IV: IHa-gling

NHor

W Yar-khams Gling China E

'JangS

TheFourAdversariesThe 'chronologicalorder' accordingto which the successivecampaigns

arepresented

hows that the Gesarepic

is not recountedas astory consistingof randomepisodes.The narrative equenceof the epic is primarily elated o

the fourmajorepisodes,knownas the ' four adversaries f the fourquarters'(phyogs-bzhi gra-bzhi).44hese four then lead on to the militaryexpeditionsagainstthe 18 countriesor tribes(rdzong-chenco-brgyad),45.e. those occur-

ring between the age of 40 and 69 (fig. VIII). These are consideredminoractionsby comparisonwith the four major episodes.The majorityof the 18tribes are situated in Tibet whereas the four major campaignsare againstwhataretreatedas foreigncountries.

In the classicaltheory of the 'Four Sons of Heaven', Gesar is usuallypresentedas the kingof Phrom n the north.46 his

theorys furtherrelated o

the fourforeignkingdoms yingbeyondthe bordersof Tibet,the most fearedadversariesof the earlyTibetankings. In this framework, he Tibetanking-dom is conceivedof as beingat the centreand opposedto Chinain the east,India in the south, the Iranianworld in the westand Turkestan n the north.

I Ha-gling (Lanzhou, 1982), 42; bDud- dul (Lanzhou, 1980), 15ff.45 R. A. Stein's translation of the line mtha -bzhi rgyal-khag bco-brgyad as 'Les ennemis

humains venus des dix-huit royaumes des quatre confins' is incorrect (Version lamarque,lHa-gling. 195);bDud- dul (Lanzhou, 1980), 12.

4 Recherches, 254-61; Ariane Macdonald, 'Note sur le diffusion de la"

thtorie des Quatre Filsdu Ciel " au Tibet', Journal Asiatique. CCL,1962, 531-48.

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242 SAMTEN G. KARMAY

These are known as the 'Four kingdomsof the borderlands'(mtha'-bzhirgyal-khab)7and the earlyTibetankingswerethoughtto be predestined ocounter the challenge that these kingdoms might present (see fig. I).

Historically,of course,Tibet had relationsof variouskinds with these coun-tries, but the idealized world view reflectedin the beliefs of the ancientTibetansseem to me to have survived,at least in popularliterature uch asthe epic underdiscussion.

A differentclassificationof the 'four kingdomsof the borderlands, how-ever,occurs in a manuscriptromTun-huang,where t is enmeshed n a cos-

mographicdescriptionof the four greatrivers whose sourcesare situatedinthe regionsof Mount Tise(Kailas).48 hisninth-century ocument s the earl-iest sourcementioningPhromGesar in the frameworkof the 'Four Sons ofHeaven'. Interestingly,PhromGesaris herethoughtto be in the west rather

than the north: i.e. (1) China in the east; (2) India in the south; (3) PhromGesar in the west;(4) Ta-zigand Tru(Dru)-gun the north(fig. II).

FIG. V: bDud-'dulN

Hor

W Yar-khams Gling China E

'JangS

FIG. VI: rTa-rgyugN

bDud (=Yar-khams)

W Mon Gling Hor E

'JangS

47 The bilingual inscription of the Sino-Tibetan peace treaty (H. Richardson, The corpus ofearly Tibetan inscriptions, London, Royal Asiatic Society, 112, 1. 37; 108, 11. 13-14); IHa-gling(Lanzhou, 1982), 79, 84, 87, 104.

48 Pelliot tibttain 958, fol. la-lb, A. Macdonald and Y. Imaeda, Choix de documents tibctainsconservesd la BibliothcqueNationale, tome I (Paris, 1979), pl. 241-2: cf. also Ariane Macdonald,' Note sur la diffusion .. .', 532-5.

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FIG. VII: Mon-gling g.yul-'gyedN

Klu-bdud (dgra-mgo)

Gling Hor-Ser (dgra-sked)

'Jang (dgra-rntha

S

In anotherfairlyancienthistoricalwork,the IDe'uchos-'byungwritten n1261),Gesaris situated n the north, but no mention is made of Phrom. At

any rate, the way in which the four kingdomsare presented s particularlyworthyof consideration.According o the work in question, whenTibetdidnot have a king, it was governedby the twelveprincipalitieswho, however,were unable to opposethe enemies n the four directions phyogs-bzhi'igra).India coiled roundTibet,like a snake;China slunk aroundTibet,like a wolf

lying in wait for sheep; Tazig (Iran)rangedover Tibet, like a hawk over a

flock of birds;Gesar(of Phrom)attackedTibet, like an axe swingingto cutdown a tree' (fig. III).49It is not my intentionhere to take up the argumentsconcerningwhetherLing Gesar has any connexionwith Phrom Gesar thathave occupiedscholars n recenttimes,althoughthereis little doubt that thenameGesaris borrowed romPhromGesar.so he main concernof thispaperis the basicstructureof the Tibetanepicedifice.

Gesar is born with the mission of subduinghis four adversariesof thefour quarters.These are, accordingto the IHa-gling, 1) the demon in theeast, China;(2) the demon in the south, 'Jang;(3) the demon in the west,Yar-khamsbyang-ma; 4) the demon in the north,Hor (fig. IV).5'

The same classification s found in the bDud-'dul.52ere, too, China isincludedas the adversary n the east (fig. V). However,the presentationofKlu-btsanas the demon of the west, but residing n what seems to be thenorth, Yar-khamsbyang-mari-brgyad,has been the sourceof considerableconfusion as we shall see. The demons of the four quartersare furtherdescribedas belongingto four categoriesof spirits:(1) the king of Hor,demon of the gods (lha-bdud);2) the king of 'Jang, demon of the btsan(btsan-bdud); (3) the king of China, demon of the dmu (dmtu-bdud);4) the

kingof Yar-khams,demon of theklu (klu-bdud).3But there is a change in this traditionalpresentationof the four adver-

sariesin theepisode

of thehorse race.China is replacedby Mon and the lat-ter is put in the west and Hor in the east:(1) Yar-khamsn the north; 2) Hor

in the east;(3) 'Jang n the south;(4) Mon in the west(fig. VI).54

4'mKhas-pa Ideus mdzad-pa'i rgya-bod-kyi chos-'byung rgyas-pa (Gangs-can rig-mdzod, 3,Lhasa, 1987), 220-26.

5 R. A. Stein, Recherches, 252-3 and 'Une source ancienne pour I'histoire de 1'6popoetib~taine: Le Rlangs Po-ti bse-ru', Journal Asiatique, CCL,1962, 85.

' IHa-gling (Lanzhou, 1982), 15.

52Lanzhou, 1980, 12, 83, 98, 108, 116, 119.5 Ibid., 108.MrTa-rgyug (Lanzhou, 1981), 2, 238-9.

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244 SAMTEN G. KARMAY

FIG.VIII: Episodes according to the 'chronological order'

Bha-ra IHa-glingKhrungs-gling

Bal-po rTa-rgyug

rGya-garYar-khamsGya-gar

Hor

Dung-dkar

'Jang

rGya-nag

Mon

Bye-ri GLING Tazig

Tsa-ri Kha-che

Gangs-ri Mi-nub

mNga'-risZhang-zhung

Sog-po /A-grags

sMyug-gu Me Gru-gu

The term Hor is known to refer to a country inherited by Mongols or a

people of Turco-Mongol origin, but within Tibet certain regions are also

knownby

this name, andthey

are situated to the north-east in relation to

Ling. It is also in this context, that is in relation to Ling, that Mon is thoughtto be situated in the west.

These four kingdoms or countries are conceived of as being in oppositionto Ling, the 'Central continent,' like Tibet and its neighbours in ancient

times. However, there has been some uncertainty surrounding one of the four

adversaries. As we have seen, in the IHa-gling it is China, but in other texts

China is replaced by Mon. Although the Ma-yig,"5a prophecy which to mymind could represent the original written version of the Gesar epic if such

ever existed, is said to have indicated the four great adversaries and the 18

small principalities that Gesar is destined to capture, there exists yet another

tradition according to which the hero at first had three adversaries: (1) thefirst adversary (dgra-mgo), Klu-btsan in the north; (2) the second adversary

(dgra-sked), Hor-ser in the east; (3) the last adversary (dgra-mtha), 'Jang, in

the south (fig. VII).56In another version still, the last adversary is China and we find a very

long text devoted to the episode in which Gesar's military adventure in China

" Ibid., 239.

H See Mon-glingg.yul-'gyed (Lhasa, 1980), 1-2.

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THE THEORETICALBASIS OF THE TIBETAN EPIC 245

is recounted,"but thisepisodeseems to have beenignoredby those research-

ing the Gesarepic in Tibet and China,perhaps or politicalreasons.In this scheme, t is clear that only the first threeof the four adversaries

are involved,suggesting hat the next major episode,contained n texts suchas the Mon-gling,did not yet exist, but that as the epic continued o developit acquiredmanymoreepisodesand the adversary,Mon, thenseems to havebeen added to make up the four. But in the processsome confusion hasresulted.This is evident in the way in which the author of the articlewhichwas commentedon above,waverseven betweenthe directions n whichYar-khams, Hor and 'Jang should be located. He places them as follows: the

countryof the demonin the west;Hor in the east;'Jang n the north;Mon inthe south(p. 9). This is quite simply mpossible, houghwe have to allowthatthereis a certainamount of illogicality n the presentation f sourcessuchas

the iHa-glingconcerningKlu-btsan,demon of the west but who lives in thenorth. 'Jang,on the otherhand, simplycannot be in the north,or anywherebut in the south. It is strangethat the author of the article shouldhave runinto this geographical onfusion. He clearlyfollows the version of the fourwhich contains both 'Jang and Mon and so is obliged to put 'Jangin thenorthwhich in turnmakeshim locate the countryof the demonin the west.Theremay have been an elementof politicalexpediencyn leavingout Chinaas an enemyof Ling and acceptingMon instead,but the resultingarrange-mentis obviouslyunsatisfactory.

In conclusion, there is definitelya correct sequenceof episodes in the

Gesar epic even though, in oral tradition,a bardmay tell any part of thestory in any order he wishes,and a reader of the epic texts may choose toread whicheverpart he pleasesfirst. The sourcesshow, too, that there hasexistedmore or less a set of the epic storyas a whole,consistingof the IHa-gling, 'Khrungs-skor,rTa-rgyug, the four major episodes and the 18 minorones. The list of theselast differs from one version to another,but they are

essentially he same.The writersof the Gesarepic havechosen and can stillchoose an individ-

ual themefromany of the episodescentringupon the exploitsof one or twocharactersn the epic, and so we find many differentshortchapters,such as

the 20 titles listed earlier n thispaper,which are not connectedwith the maincorpus,but are concernedwith adventures or the most partundertakenbyvariouscavalries.

The threechapters n the AlexandreDavid-Neel collectionin the Mus6eGuimeton whichour team of scholarshas beenworking n Paris for the lastfew years belongsto a similarcategory,"but the protagonistn thesechaptersis the hero himself.The author of these chaptershas chosen the themes hewishedto elaborateon in his own way,often in a condensed orm,butalwayswithin the contextof the epic itself. This bringsus back to ProfessorStein'sobservation hat the Tibetanepic literature s still expanding.We may there-

fore conclude that there will never be an end to its elaborationso long asthere is Tibetan culture.A good example of this is the chapter 'Jar-glingg.yul-'gyed,an episode of Gesar set in Phyi-gling'Jar, probably Hitler's

11 Gesar rgya-gling sgrwlg or Nag-po rgya-gling (Gangtok, 1977, 527 pp.). (da dgra-mtha'nag-po rgya-la gtad/ rgya-nag khrims-sgophye-ran thal, 21)."

They are sMan-lis, Tshe-lis and Hor-lis and belong to a large work of many more chapters,but the three named are the only ones to have reached Paris. The author of these chapters isdBang-chen Nyi-ma, a Bonpo layman and chief of the dMar-ru region in Khams who livedaround the beginning of this century. The French translation of these chapters is now completeand it is hoped that it will be published in the near future.

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246 SAMTENG. KARMAY

Germany,59nd the voluminousTi-dkar,whichis concernedwith the hero's

exploits in a countrycalledTi-dkar whose king is a mu-stegs-patFrthika).60A living epic tradition s indeed a remarkable henomenon,and provides

scholars with an engrossingobject of research. But the result is that analreadytangled web of material is constantly growing in complexity.Thebasicstructure utlinedabove shows that this tangleat least has its origins na systematicprinciple.

". Written by Byang-chub sems-dpa' chos-kyi blo-gros, alias Don-rgyud nyi-ma, the eighthKhams-sprul (Lhasa, 1983, 448 pp.). His other works on Gesar are: U yan-gling (Palampur,H. P., 1974, vol. I, 659 pp., vol. II,512 pp.). For other similar recent works, see also Karma rang-byung phrin-las (Kalu Rinpoche), dBus 'chi-bdag cham-la phab-pa (Bir, 1975, vol. i, 870 pp.,vol. 11to appear).

6"Written by Kha-tsha pra-pa Ngag-dbang blo-bzang from Ri-bo-che in Amdo (Lhasa,

1986-89, vol. 1, 411 pp., vol. II, 761 pp., vol. IlI, 533 pp.; Bhe-gling g.yul-'gyed, another recent

work, is by sNam-snang rdo-rje (Xining, 1989, 386 pp.).

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