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6.1 Biotechnological Tools and 6.1 Biotechnological Tools and TechniquesTechniques
Recombinant DNA & Gel electrophoresis
Recombinant DNARecombinant DNA
Cutting DNA fragments from different sources and recombining them together
Purpose–To investigate genetic disorders–Production of drugs (ie. insulin)
Cutting DNA fragments from different sources and recombining them together
What complications do you What complications do you foresee?foresee?
Consider:– The size of DNA– Where to cut?– How to put back together?
1. Restriction Endonucleases1. Restriction Endonucleases
Also known as restriction enzymes Essentially are molecular scissors Recognize a specific DNA sequence and cuts the
strands at a particular position or “recognition site” Isolated and purified only from bacteria
– Name reflects which bacteria the enzyme originates– ie. EcoRI Escherichia coli, strain R, 1st r.e. isolated
HindII Haemophilus influenzae, strain Rd, 2nd r.e.
1. Restriction Endonucleases: 1. Restriction Endonucleases: Recognition siteRecognition site
Each restriction endonuclease recognizes its own specific recognition site (specific DNA sequence)
Usually 4-8 base pairs long, characterized by a complementary palindromic sequence
Bacteria Restriction Enzyme
Recognition Site
Escherichia coli EcoRI 5’-GAATTC-3’
3’-CTTAAG-5’
Haemophilus parainfluenzae
HindIII 5’-AAGCTT-3’3’-TTCGAA-5’
Arthrobacter luteus
AluI 5’-AGCT-3’3’-TCGA-5’
1. Restriction Endonucleases: 1. Restriction Endonucleases: FunctionFunction
Scans DNA and binds to its specific recognition sequence
Disrupts the phosphodiester bonds between particular nucleotides through a hydrolysis reaction
Hydrogen bonds of the complementary base pairs in between the cuts are disrupted
Result: 2 DNA fragments
http://www.scq.ubc.ca/?p=249
1. Restriction Endonucleases: 1. Restriction Endonucleases: DNA Fragment EndsDNA Fragment Ends
Different DNA fragment ends are produced after digestion by different restriction enzymes– Sticky ends: DNA fragment ends with short single-
stranded overhangs (ie. EcoRI, HindIII)– Blunt ends: DNA fragment ends are fully base paired
(ie. AluI)
Bacteria Restriction enzyme
Recognition site After digestion by restriction enzyme
Escherichia coli EcoRI 5’-GAATTC-3’
3’-CTTAAG-5’
5’-G AATTC-3’
3’-CTTAA G-5’
Haemophilus parainfluenzae
HindIII 5’-AAGCTT-3’3’-TTCGAA-5’
5’-A AGCTT-3’3’-TTCGA A-5’
Arthrobacter luteus
AluI 5’-AGCT-3’3’-TCGA-5’
5’-AG CT-3’3’-TC GA-5’
1. Restriction Endonucleases: 1. Restriction Endonucleases: DNA Fragment Ends DNA Fragment Ends (continued)(continued)
Palindrome
Restriction site
Fragment 1 Fragment 2
http://www.bio-rad.com/LifeScience/docs/Official_Crime_Scene_PowerPoint_Spring_2005_rev_B.ppt
Animation
How do we control the snips?How do we control the snips?
Consider:– What about the organisms own DNA?– Frequency of recognition sequences within the
DNA sequence
1. Restriction Endonucleases: 1. Restriction Endonucleases: Length of recognition sitesLength of recognition sites
Longer recognition sites result in lower frequency of cuts
– EcoRI 5’-GAATTC-3’ = ¼ × ¼ × ¼ × ¼ × ¼ × ¼ = 1/4096– AluI 5’-AGCT-3’ = ¼ × ¼ × ¼ ×¼ = 1/256
Higher frequency of cuts – may cut gene into several fragments
Lower frequency of cuts – may produce large fragments than desired
1. Restriction Endonucleases: 1. Restriction Endonucleases: MethylasesMethylases
Enzymes that add a methyl group to a nucleotide in a recognition site to prevent restriction endonuclease from cutting DNA
Distinguishing between foreign (viral) DNA and bacteria’s own DNA
1. Restriction Endonucleases: 1. Restriction Endonucleases: DNA LigaseDNA Ligase
Enzyme that rejoins cut strands of DNA together by reforming a phosphodiester bond
DNA ligase joins sticky endsT4 DNA ligase (from T4 bacteriophage)
joins blunt ends
How do we sort out the DNAHow do we sort out the DNA
DNA is chopped into many pieces
How to differentiate one piece from other
2. Gel Electrophoresis2. Gel Electrophoresis
Technique used to separate charged molecules based on their size
Acts like a molecular sieve
http://www.biotech.iastate.edu/ppt_presentations/html/Fingerprinting/StudentInstruction-gel/images/image08.jpg
http://www.solve.csiro.au/1105/img/sieve-bloke.jpg
2. Gel Electrophoresis: 2. Gel Electrophoresis: DNA PreparationDNA Preparation
Restriction enzymes digest DNA into smaller fragments of different lengths
Different DNA samples are loaded into wells of the gel (agarose or polyacrylamide)
http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03bio/background/molecular/media/gel_plate_600.jpg
2. Gel Electrophoresis: 2. Gel Electrophoresis: Attraction MigrationAttraction Migration
Negatively charged electrode at the end where wells are located
Positively charged electrode at opposite endNegatively charged DNA migrate towards
positive end due to attraction
2. Gel Electrophoresis: 2. Gel Electrophoresis: Rate of MigrationRate of Migration
Shorter/smaller DNA fragments migrate through gel faster since they can move through the pores in the gel more easily
Longer/larger DNA fragments migrate through gel slower
Rate of migration = 1/log(size)
Different DNA fragment lengths are separated
http://www.answers.com/topic/agarosegel-jpg
A = kilobase DNA ladder
B = uncut plasmid DNA
C = single digestion of the plasmid with EcoRI
D = single digestion with XhoI
E = double digestion - both EcoRI and XhoI.
A B C D E
2. 2. Gel ElectrophoresisGel Electrophoresis: : Visualizing DNA FragmentsVisualizing DNA Fragments
Ethidium bromide is a fluorescent dye that makes DNA fragments visible by staining the gel
DNA fragments can then be isolated and purified
http://www.answers.com/topic/agarosegel-jpg
2. Gel Electrophoresis: 2. Gel Electrophoresis: Proteins too!Proteins too!
Gel electrophoresis can also be used to separate proteins, usually using polyacrylamide gels
http://www.biotechlearn.org.nz/var/biotech/storage/images/multimedia/images/protein_electrophoresis/48251-4-eng-GB/protein_electrophoresis_medium.jpg
http://www.bio-link.org/vlab/Graphics/Tools/ProteinGel2.jpg
3. Plasmids3. Plasmids
Small, circular double-stranded DNA that can enter and exit bacterial cells
Lack a protein coatIndependent of bacterial chromosome1000-200,000 base pairs
3. Plasmids: 3. Plasmids: EndosymbiosisEndosymbiosis
Use host bacterial enzymes and ribosomes to replicate and express plasmid DNA
Carry genes that express proteins to protect bacteria against antibiotics and heavy metals
3. Plasmids3. Plasmids Foreign genes (ie. insulin) can be inserted into plasmids,
so bacteria can express gene and make its respective protein
Higher copy number of plasmids (number of individual plasmids) in bacteria– results in larger number of gene copies, thus more of its
respective protein is synthesized
3. Plasmids3. Plasmids Restriction
endonucleases splice foreign genes into plasmids
DNA ligase reforms phosphodiester bond between the fragments, resulting in recombinant DNA
http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/inserting.html
4. Transformation4. TransformationIntroduction of foreign DNA (usually a
plasmid) into a bacterium
Plasmids can be used as a vector (vehicle that DNA can be introduced to host cells) to carry a specific gene into a host cell
http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/Molbio/MolStudents/spring2003/Siegenthaler/fig2.gif
4. Transformation: 4. Transformation: CompetenceCompetence Competent cell - Bacterium that readily takes up foreign
DNA (ie. able to undergo transformation) Most cells are not naturally competent, but can be
chemically induced to become competent
–Calcium ion in calcium chloride stabilizes negatively charged phosphates on bacterial membrane
4. Transformation: 4. Transformation: CompetenceCompetence