5e ch07

Chapter 7:Chapter 7:

Cognitive Aspects of Cognitive Aspects of PersonalityPersonality

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Roots in Gestalt PsychologyRoots in Gestalt Psychology

Human beings seek meaning in their environments

We organize the sensations we receive into meaningful perceptions

Complex stimuli are not reducible to the sum of their parts


Kurt Lewin’s Field TheoryKurt Lewin’s Field TheoryLife space

◦ All internal and external forces, and their relationships to one another

◦ e.g., family, religion, work, etc.Contemporaneous causation

Behavior is caused at the moment of its occurrence by all the forces acting at that moment

How affected you are by the environmental forces and context of the situation is your level of “field dependence” field = the forces/context around you at a given

moment that can affect your behaviorSee table 7.1 in textbook

Schema TheorySchema TheorySchema

◦ A cognitive structure that organizes knowledge and expectations about one’s environment

◦ Determines how we think and act◦ Different experiences lead to different ways of

“seeing things”◦ We may often expect others to share our schemas

Script◦ Schemas for familiar events◦ e.g., eating at a restaurant

◦ What if your dinner partner has a different script for this? They eat pizza with a fork, don’t usually leave a tip, take 20 minutes to choose something from the menu, and order dessert & coffee. While you use your hands, always tips, make choices quickly, and leave as soon as you are done eating.

CategorizationCategorizationWe tend to organize events, objects, and people

into categoriesPositive effects of categorization

◦ Quickly understand complex information◦ Make likely inferences about new things

Negative effects of categorization◦ Stereotypes◦ Overlook individuating characteristics

One of the first categories we tend to put people into is gender, male or female. When it is ambiguous, we feel uncomfortable and

confused because our normal categorization process isn’t working and our scripts fail us

On the other hand, if we frequently came into contact with gender ambiguity, we would develop a schema, scripts, and a probably a different categorization process

George KellyGeorge Kelly

Personal Construct Theory◦ People actively endeavor to understand

the world and construct their own theories about human behavior

◦ “Every man is, in his own particular way, a scientist” — Kelly


Kelly: The Role Construct Repertory Kelly: The Role Construct Repertory TestTestAssesses personal construct systemsThink of:

◦ A teacher you liked◦ Your boss◦ A successful person you know

Which two are similar? How?Who is different? How?Over many triads, the test-taker’s constructs

emerge by identifying common themes in your assessment of a “type” of person


Social IntelligenceSocial IntelligenceKnowledge and skills relevant to

interpersonal situations◦ Including: empathy, compassion, humor,

etc.◦ Emotional intelligence◦ Emotion knowledge

Similar to Howard Gardner’s “multiple intelligences” theory


Explanatory StyleExplanatory StyleA characteristic way of interpreting life eventsOptimism and Pessimism

◦ Optimistic style is generally associated with better outcomes◦ Implications for achievement

Learned Helplessness (Seligman)◦ Repeated exposure to unavoidable punishment leads to the acceptance

of avoidable punishmentCognitive intervention can reduce the

depressive effect of pessimismPositive Psychology (Seligman)

◦ New ways of thinking can be trained◦ Learned Optimism◦ http://youtu.be/Q-Vhjmdp4nI (Interview with

Seligman)

http://youtu.be/Q-Vhjmdp4nI



Julian RotterJulian RotterBehavior depends upon outcome

expectancy and reinforcement valueOutcome expectancy

◦ Person’s expectation that his or her behavior will be reinforced

Reinforcement value◦ Value of the expected reinforcer to the

individual


Julian RotterJulian RotterBehavior potential

◦ Likelihood that a behavior will be performed in a particular situation

Generalized vs. specific expectancies◦ Generalized expectancies apply to categories of

behaviors and situations General personality traits & behaviors Ex. I don’t enjoy parties as a general rule because I

expect them to be dull and I get nervous talking to new people

◦ Specific expectancies apply to particular instances of behaviors and situations Ex. I am looking forward to my best friend’s birthday

party

Julian RotterJulian RotterSix psychological needs

◦ Recognition-status◦ Dominance◦ Independence◦ Protection-dependency◦ Love and affection◦ Physical comfort

Secondary reinforcers◦ Associated with satisfaction of these needs◦ Subjective value of reinforcers, depending on person

◦ Ex. A promotion at work gives me the ability to have a roof over my head, eat, and meet basic biological needs (primary). It also is important to me because I get more recognition at work, can move into a bigger place to be more comfortable, and get to be work more independently in my new job (secondary). These are things I value, therefore I worked hard to get the promotion.

Julian RotterJulian RotterLocus of control

◦ Beliefs about one’s ability to affect outcomes◦ Stable individual difference

Internal locus of control◦ Outcomes are the result of one’s own actions◦ More achievement-oriented

External locus of control◦ Believe events are beyond their personal control◦ Includes components of chance and powerful others◦ More likely to suffer stress and depression


Albert BanduraAlbert Bandura

Self-system

◦ The set of cognitive processes by which a person perceives, evaluates, and regulates his or her own behavior so it’s functionally efficient and appropriate



How can new behaviors be acquired in the absence of reinforcement?

Observational Learning◦ Vicarious learning and modeling

Learning Aggressive Behavior◦ Bobo doll experiments



Factors that influence modeling:◦ Outcome expectancy

People are more likely to imitate behaviors that they believe lead to positive outcomes

◦ Characteristics of the model Age, gender, status, competence, etc.

◦ Characteristics of the behavior Simple and salient behaviors

◦ Attributes of the observer Self-esteem, dependence, cognitive development


Albert BanduraAlbert BanduraProcesses underlying observational

learning

◦ Attention Got to pay attention when observing

◦ Retention (Symbolic representation) Got to commit it to memory

◦ Motor reproduction (Transformation to action) Got to put into practice what you observed

◦ Motivation Got to want to learn it



Self-efficacy◦ A belief abut how competently one will be

able to enact a behavior in a particular situation

Self-efficacy determines:◦ If we even try to act◦ How long we persist in our behavior◦ How success or failure affects future

behavior


Albert BanduraAlbert BanduraSelf-efficacy is based on:

◦ Past success and failures at similar tasks◦ Mastery of the skill

◦ Vicarious experiences ◦ Seeing others / Social Modeling

◦ Social/Verbal persuasion◦ By others

◦ Emotional reactions◦ How we feel about the behavior

Self-efficacy is specific to the situation/behavior◦ Unlike self-esteem, which is global


Albert BanduraAlbert BanduraSelf-regulation

◦ People’s control over their own achievements Setting goals for themselves Evaluating their success Rewarding themselves

Includes self-efficacy and schemasFocuses on internal control of behavior

◦ Intrapersonal approach◦ Close to social psychological approaches


Humans as ComputersHumans as Computers

People as information processors◦ Similar to how computers manipulate

information

Shortcomings of artificial intelligence◦ Turing Test◦ Personality is difficult to simulate


Cognitive ApproachCognitive Approach

Limits

◦ Often ignores unconscious and emotional aspects of personality

◦ Some theories tend to oversimplify complex thought processes

◦ May underemphasize situational influences on behavior


Cognitive ApproachCognitive Approach

View of free will

◦ Free will through active human thought processes

◦ Individual responsibility for thoughts, feelings, and actions is emphasized


Cognitive ApproachCognitive ApproachImplications for therapy

◦ Uses understanding of perception, cognition, and attribution to change thought processes

◦ Emotion and behavior can be changed by changing cognitions & perceptions of situations

◦ Ex. Cognitive Behavior Therapy


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5e ch07