55-International Tourism a Global Perspective-libre

8/11/2019 55-International Tourism a Global Perspective-libre

1/417

INTERNATIONAL TOURISM:A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

World Tourism Organization

in cooperation with

WTO Education Network

at

University of Hawaii at Manoa, U.S.A.University of Calgary, Canada

James Cook University, Australia

Editor: CHUCK Y. GEEDean

School of Travel Industry Management

University of Hawaii at Manoa

Co-Editor: EDUARDO FAYOS-SOLHead, Education and Training

World Tourism Organization


2/417

Copyright 1997 World Tourism OrganizationTitle: International Tourism: A Global Perspective

1st Edition: October 1997

ISBN: 92-844-0231-X

Published by the World Tourism Organization, Madrid, Spain

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in anyform or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording

or by any information storage and retrieval system without permission from theWorld Tourism Organization.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication donot imply the expression of any opinions whatsoever on the part of the Secretariatof the World Tourism Organization concerning the legal status of any country,territory, city or area or of its authorities or concerning the delimitation of its frontiersor boundaries.

Printed by the World Tourism Organization, Madrid, Spain

Design and layout: Salvador Ten Barrn - ARCA DesignRevised by: Dana Gynther and Rosamond Deming


3/417

SECTION I: PERSPECTIVES OF TOURISM ................................................................1

Chapter 1: Introduction to Global Tourism.........................................................31.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................3

1.2 Defining Travel and Tourism ............................................................................4

1.2.1 The Need for Definitions .........................................................................4

1.2.2 Definitions.................................................................................................5

1.2.3 Forms and Categories of Travel ............................................................7

1.3 History of Travel and Tourism...........................................................................8

1.3.1 Early Ages.................................................................................................9

1.3.2 Middle Ages...........................................................................................10

1.3.3 The Renaissance ...................................................................................11

1.3.4 The Industrial Revolution.......................................................................11

1.3.5 Modern Tourism .....................................................................................12

1.4 Components of the Travel Industry .............................................................13

1.4.1 Transportation and Infrastructure........................................................13

1.4.2 Accommodations and Hospitality Services.......................................14

1.4.3 Travel Distribution Systems....................................................................15

1.4.4 The Roles of the Public and Private Sectors in Tourism.....................16

1.5 Impacts of Travel and Tourism......................................................................17

1.5.1 Economic Impacts................................................................................17

1.5.2 Other Impacts .......................................................................................18

1.6 The Study of Tourism ......................................................................................19

iii

Table of contents


4/417

Chapter 2: Travel Patterns and Trends..............................................................232.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................23

2.2 Tourism Growth...............................................................................................23

2.2.1 International vs. Domestic Tourism ......................................................24

2.2.2 Total International Arrivals ....................................................................242.2.3 World's Top Destinations and Tourism Receipts .................................25

2.2.4 Tourism Generators and Related Expenditures .................................26

2.2.5 Tourism Surpluses and Deficits..............................................................27

2.3 Regional Travel Patterns and Trends ...........................................................28

2.3.1 Europe ....................................................................................................28

2.3.2 Asia and the Pacific..............................................................................29

2.3.3 South Asia...............................................................................................31

2.3.4 Americas ................................................................................................32

2.3.5 Middle East ............................................................................................33

2.3.6 Africa ......................................................................................................33

2.4 External Factors That Affect Tourism ............................................................332.4.1 Changing Demographics ....................................................................34

2.4.2 Technological Advances .....................................................................34

2.4.3 Political Change....................................................................................35

2.4.4 Sustainable Tourism and the Environment .........................................36

2.4.5 Safety and Health.................................................................................372.4.6 Human Resource Development..........................................................37

2.5 Tourism Market Trends....................................................................................37

2.5.1 Changing Consumer Preferences ......................................................38

2.5.2 Product Development and Competition ..........................................39

SECTION II: TRAVEL AND TOURISM COMPONENTS AND SERVICES ..................43Chapter 3: Transportation Services...................................................................453.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................45

3.2 Historical Development of Passenger Travel ..............................................46

3.2.1 Early Modes of Travel............................................................................46

3.2.2 Railroads and Ocean Liners ................................................................46

3.2.3 Automobiles and Airlines......................................................................47

3.3 Rail Service .....................................................................................................48

3.3.1 Significant Developments in Passenger Service................................48

3.3.2 Passenger Service Today .....................................................................48

3.4 Automobile Travel and Ground Transportation..........................................493.4.1 Automobiles...........................................................................................49

3.4.2 Highway Systems...................................................................................50

3.4.3 Other Ground Transportation ..............................................................51

3.5 Water Travel ....................................................................................................52

3.5.1 Cruise Ships ............................................................................................52

3.5.2 Other Water Travel ................................................................................53

3.6 Air Travel..........................................................................................................53

3.6.1 Development of Commercial Passenger Service.............................53

3.6.2 Safety and Security...............................................................................54

3.6.3 Costs .......................................................................................................55

iv


5/417

3.6.4 Airports....................................................................................................56

3.6.5 Other Aspects of the Airline Industry ..................................................57

3.7 Regulation and Deregulation of Air Travel .................................................58

3.7.1 Basic Aspects of Regulation ................................................................58

3.7.2 Pressures on the Bilateral Regulatory System ....................................603.7.3 Economic Aspects of Regulation........................................................61

3.8 Challenges Facing Transportation...............................................................62

3.8.1 Fleet Planning........................................................................................62

3.8.2 Congestion ............................................................................................63

3.8.3 Safety and Security...............................................................................64

3.8.4 Environmental Impacts.........................................................................64

Chapter 4: Accommodations and Hospitality Services.................................694.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................69

4.2 Historical Development.................................................................................70

4.3 Accommodations Classification..................................................................71

4.3.1 Hotels ......................................................................................................72

4.3.2 Resort Properties and Time Shares......................................................74

4.3.3 The Casino/Destination Property.........................................................75

4.3.4 National Heritage Accommodations.................................................75

4.3.5 Bed and Breakfasts ...............................................................................76

4.3.6 The Emergence of the International Hotel ........................................76

4.3.7 Financing of International Hotels ........................................................76

4.4 Food and Beverage Establishment Classification .....................................78

4.4.1 Hotel-related Food Establishments .....................................................78

4.4.2 Independent Food Service Establishments .......................................79

4.5 Hotel Guests ...................................................................................................79

4.6 Food Service Clientele..................................................................................80

4.7 Ownership and Management of Accommodations................................81

4.7.1 Company-Owned and Operated Systems .......................................81

4.7.2 Franchising .............................................................................................82

4.7.3 Management Contract .......................................................................83

4.7.4 Management Measures for Hotels .....................................................84

4.7.5 Food Service Management and Operations....................................86

4.8 Hotel Operations............................................................................................87

4.8.1 Reservations...........................................................................................87

4.8.2 Marketing...............................................................................................87

4.8.3 Hotel Staffing..........................................................................................89

4.8.4 Use of Technology.................................................................................89

4.9 Travel Industry Linkages.................................................................................90

4.9.1 Marketing Partnerships .........................................................................90

4.9.2 Hospitality-related Industry Organizations .........................................91

Chapter 5: Travel Distribution Systems..............................................................955.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................95

5.2 Historical Background ...................................................................................96

5.3 Types of Distribution Systems ........................................................................97

5.3.1 Direct Distribution System.....................................................................97

5.3.2 Indirect Distribution System..................................................................99

v


6/417

5.4 Travel Intermediaries....................................................................................100

5.4.1 Tour Wholesalers ..................................................................................100

5.4.2 Tour Operators .....................................................................................104

5.4.3 The Travel Agent..................................................................................105

5.4.4 Regulation of Intermediaries .............................................................1075.5 The Impact of Technology on Travel Distribution Systems ......................109

5.5.1 The Link Between Technology and Tourism .....................................109

5.5.2 Computer Reservation Systems (CRS)..............................................110

5.5.3 Ticketing Automation..........................................................................111

5.5.4 The Internet..........................................................................................112

5.5.5 The Future.............................................................................................112

Chapter 6: Special Services and Products ....................................................1176.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................117

6.2 Special Segments of Leisure Travel............................................................118

6.2.1 Reasons for the Growth of

Special Leisure Travel Services and Products ..................................1186.2.2 Ecotourism............................................................................................118

6.2.3 Cultural Tourism....................................................................................120

6.2.4 Rural Tourism ........................................................................................121

6.2.5 Adventure Tourism...............................................................................122

6.2.6 Health Tourism......................................................................................123

6.2.7 "New Age" Tourism ..............................................................................124

6.2.8 Educational Tourism............................................................................124

6.3 Special Segments of Business Travel..........................................................125

6.3.1 Meetings...............................................................................................125

6.3.2 Incentive Travel....................................................................................126

6.3.3 Expositions ............................................................................................127

6.3.4 Conventions.........................................................................................128

6.3.5 Major Components of the MICE Market..........................................129

SECTION III: TOURISM MARKETING AND PROMOTION....................................135

Chapter 7: Tourism Market Segments and Travel Psychology.....................1377.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................137

7.2 Describing Tourists by Purpose of Travel....................................................138

7.2.1 Leisure vs. Business Travelers...............................................................139

7.2.2 Visiting Friends and Relatives (VFR)...................................................141

7.2.3 Special Interest Travel .........................................................................1427.2.4 Group vs. Independent Travelers ......................................................144

7.3 Sociodemographic Factors and Life Circumstances .............................144

7.3.1 Age .......................................................................................................144

7.3.2 Gender .................................................................................................145

7.3.3 Education.............................................................................................146

7.3.4 Other Factors.......................................................................................146

7.4 Approaches to Tourist Motivation..............................................................148

7.4.1 History of Tourism and Motivation .....................................................149

vi


7/417

7.4.2 Theories of Travel Motivation .............................................................149

7.4.3 Market Research and Motivation.....................................................153

Chapter 8: Tourism Marketing .........................................................................1598.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................159

8.2 Marketing Concepts ...................................................................................159

8.3 Characteristics of Services Marketing.......................................................161

8.3.1 The Tourism Industry's Service Characteristics .................................161

8.3.2 The Tourism Industry's Unique Marketing Challenges .....................162

8.4 Market Segmentation .................................................................................163

8.4.1 Characteristics of Effective Market Segments ................................163

8.4.2 Bases for Market Segmentation........................................................164

8.5 The Market Mix.............................................................................................165

8.5.1 Product.................................................................................................167

8.5.2 Place (Distribution)..............................................................................168

8.5.3 Price......................................................................................................168

8.5.4 Promotion.............................................................................................170

8.6 Marketing Plans............................................................................................177

8.6.1 NTA Marketing Plans ...........................................................................177

8.6.2 Environmental Analysis .......................................................................179

8.6.3 Competitive Analysis ..........................................................................180

8.6.4 Market Trend Analysis .........................................................................180

8.6.5 Market Segmentation Analysis ..........................................................180

8.6.6 Strategic Goals and Objectives........................................................181

8.6.7 Action Plans.........................................................................................181

Chapter 9: Tourism Research and Forecasting..............................................185

9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................1859.2 Tourism Research .........................................................................................186

9.2.1 The Functions of Tourism Research....................................................186

9.2.2 The Tourism Research Process............................................................186

9.2.3 Sources of Information........................................................................189

9.3 Organizations Conducting Research........................................................192

9.3.1 Tourism Organizations .........................................................................192

9.3.2 Educational Institutions.......................................................................193

9.3.3 Private Organizations or Firms............................................................194

9.3.4 Consulting Firms...................................................................................194

9.4 Relationship Between Marketing and Research .....................................194

9.4.1 Destination Marketing Research asa Planning and Evaluation Tool .........................................................194

9.4.2 The Tourism Market Research Program ............................................196

9.4.3 Accountability Research for Destination Marketing.......................198

9.4.4 Making Research Understandable to Practitioners........................200

9.5 The Importance of Forecasting Tourism Demand ...................................200

9.5.1 How Tourism Demand is Measured...................................................200

9.5.2 Elements of Tourism Demand ............................................................201

9.5.3 Forecasting Tourism Demand ............................................................201

vii


8/417

SECTION IV: TOURISM IMPACTS ........................................................................209

Chapter 10: Contributions of Tourism to Economic Development ..............21110.1 Introduction ................................................................................................211

10.2 Understanding Economic Impacts..........................................................212

10.2.1 Tourism in the Global Economy.......................................................212

10.2.2 Tourism in the National Economy....................................................213

10.2.3 Impact of Tourism on Employment .................................................213

10.3 Measuring Tourism Economic Impacts....................................................214

10.3.1 Identifying Tourism Activity ...............................................................214

10.3.2 Structure of the Tourism Industry .....................................................216

10.3.3 Supply-Demand and Price Elasticities............................................217

10.3.4 Direct, Indirect and Induced Benefits.............................................217

10.3.5 Multiplier Model of Tourism Revenue Turnover ..............................218

10.3.6 Input-Output Analysis........................................................................220

10.3.7 Tourism Satellite Accounts................................................................221

10.3.8 Cost-Benefit Analysis .........................................................................221

10.4 Monitoring Economic Impacts.................................................................223

10.4.1 Indicators in Tourism Monitoring ......................................................224

10.4.2 The Assessment Process....................................................................225

10.5 Obstacles to Economic Development Through Tourism.......................225

10.6 Facilitating Employment in the Tourism Sector.......................................226

Chapter 11: Social and Cultural Aspects of Tourism.....................................23111.1 Introduction ................................................................................................231

11.2 Sustainable Tourism....................................................................................232

11.3 The Sociocultural Impacts of Tourism ......................................................234

11.3.1 Defining Society and Impacts .........................................................23411.3.2 Major Sociocultural Impacts............................................................234

11.3.3 Cultural Change ...............................................................................235

11.3.4 Other Impacts ...................................................................................237

11.3.5 Factors Influencing the Sociocultural Impacts of Tourism............237

11.3.6 Factors Related to Individual Perceptions of Tourism...................238

11.3.7 Factors Related to the Size andNature of Tourism Development.......................................................239

11.4 Strategies to Manage Sociocultural Impacts of Tourism ......................239

11.4.1 Obstacles to Sociocultural Understanding....................................240

11.4.2 Strategies to Manage Sociocultural Impacts................................240

11.5 The Relationship Between Culture and Tourism .....................................24311.5.1 Culture Shaping Outbound Tourism................................................244

11.5.2 Culture Shaping Inbound Tourism ...................................................245

11.6 Interpretation for Sustainable Tourism .....................................................247

11.6.1 Principles for Enhancingthe Effectiveness of Interpretation ...................................................248

Chapter 12: Sustainable Tourism and the Environment ................................25312.1 Introduction ................................................................................................253

12.2 Sustainable Development ........................................................................254

12.3 The Physical Environment: A Core Component of Tourism ..................254

viii


9/417

12.4 The Impacts of Tourism on the Physical Environment............................256

12.4.1 Negative Impacts .............................................................................256

12.4.2 Positive Impacts.................................................................................259

12.4.3 Factors Which Influence Tourism Impacts ......................................259

12.5 Strategies for Managing Impacts ............................................................26012.5.1 Planning Strategies ...........................................................................261

12.5.2 Marketing and Education Strategies..............................................268

12.5.3 Research and Monitoring ................................................................270

12.6 Tourism and the Physical Environment: Three Case Studies .................270

12.6.1 The Great Barrier Reef,Australia......................................................270

12.6.2 Venice, Italy........................................................................................272

12.6.3 Mt. Huangshan Scenic Area, People's Republic of China...........273

12.7 Alternative Tourism.....................................................................................274

SECTION V: TOURISM POLICY AND PLANNING ...............................................279

Chapter 13: The Role of Governmentin Tourism Policy and Administration ..............................................................28113.1 Introduction ................................................................................................281

13.2 Government Involvement in Tourism .......................................................282

13.3 Reasons for Government Involvementin Tourism and the Economy....................................................................283

13.3.1 Promoting Economic Development...............................................283

13.3.2 Facilitating and Supporting Industries ............................................284

13.3.3 Raising Revenues ..............................................................................284

13.3.4 Creating a Stable Business Environment ........................................285

13.3.5 Pursuing Other Policy Goals.............................................................285

13.4 Roles of the Public Sector in Tourism .......................................................286

13.4.1 Policy...................................................................................................286

13.4.2 Planning..............................................................................................288

13.4.3 Development.....................................................................................290

13.4.4 Regulation..........................................................................................290

13.5 Levels of Government Involvement.........................................................292

13.5.1 International Involvement................................................................292

13.5.2 National Involvement .......................................................................293

13.5.3 Local Involvement.............................................................................294

13.6 National Tourism Administrations (NTAs)..................................................295

13.6.1 Role of NTAs .......................................................................................29513.6.2 NTA Structure .....................................................................................297

13.6.3 NTAs and the Issue ofPublic Sector Involvement in Tourism ...............................................298

Chapter 14: The Role of Internationaland Regional Organizations in Tourism..........................................................30314.1 Introduction ................................................................................................303

14.2 Types of Tourism Organizations.................................................................304

14.3 Purposes and Objectives of Tourism Organizations...............................305

14.3.1 Promotion of Industry Interests ........................................................305

14.3.2 Regional Marketing and Cooperation...........................................306

ix


10/417

14.3.3 Providing Data and Advice.............................................................306

14.3.4 Providing Direct Assistance..............................................................306

14.3.5 Addressing Trade Issues ....................................................................307

14.3.6 Addressing Environmental and Social Issues .................................307

14.4 Important Tourism and Tourism-related Organizations..........................30914.4.1 World Tourism Organization (WTO)..................................................309

14.4.2 Organization for Economic Cooperationand Development (OECD) ..............................................................310

14.4.3 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)...........................311

14.4.4 International Air Transport Association (IATA) ................................312

14.4.5 World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) ......................................31214.4.6 Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA)

and Other Regional Organizations .................................................313

14.4.7 International Bank forReconstruction and Development (IBRD).......................................315

14.4.8 International Trade in Services and GATS......................................315

14.5 Challenges for Tourism Organizations .....................................................317

Chapter 15: Tourism Planning and Destination Development .....................32115.1 Introduction ................................................................................................321

15.2 The Forms of Tourism Planning..................................................................322

15.2.1 Tourism and Economic Development ............................................323

15.2.2 Tourism Master Planning ...................................................................324

15.3 The Need for Tourism Planning.................................................................324

15.4 Levels of Tourism Planning in the Public Sector......................................326

15.4.1 National Planning..............................................................................326

15.4.2 Local Planning...................................................................................326

15.4.3 Destination Planning.........................................................................327

15.5 Actors Involved in the Planning Process .................................................328

15.6 Organizing the Planning and Development Process............................329

15.7 Elements of a Tourism Plan .......................................................................330

15.7.1 Demand Analysis...............................................................................330

15.7.2 Supply Analysis ..................................................................................331

15.7.3 Tourism Impact Analysis....................................................................333

15.7.4 Economic and Financial Analysis ...................................................336

15.7.5 Action Plan and Recommendations..............................................337

15.8 Factors Affecting Tourism Planning..........................................................337

Chapter 16: Tourism Human Resources Planning and Development .........34116.1 Introduction ................................................................................................341

16.2 Human Resources Planning......................................................................342

16.2.1 Assessing Labor Demand.................................................................343

16.2.2 Assessing Labor Supply.....................................................................343

16.3 Tourism Employment and Career Opportunities ...................................344

16.4 Quality of Service and the Work Force...................................................347

16.4.1 Service Expectations of Travelers....................................................347

16.4.2 Sustaining Quality Through Skill Standards .....................................347

x


11/417

16.5 Tourism Education and Training Providers...............................................350

16.5.1 Formal Programs and Courses ........................................................351

16.5.2 Employer-based Education and Training.......................................353

16.5.3 Education and Training Providers and Skill Standards..................354

16.6 Issues Facing Tourism Human Resources Development........................35516.6.1 Geopolitical .......................................................................................355

16.6.2 Economic...........................................................................................356

16.6.3 Social ..................................................................................................356

16.6.4 Information Technology ...................................................................356

16.6.5 Constant Change.............................................................................357

Chapter 17: Conclusion ...................................................................................36117.1 Tourism and Sustainability: Issues for 2000 and Beyond ........................361

17.2 The Challenges of Growth........................................................................362

17.2.1 Where Will Tourism Growth Occur?.................................................363

17.2.2 What Kinds of Tourism Experiences Will Meet the Market?..........364

17.2.3 Who Will Benefit from Tourism Growth? ..........................................364

17.2.4 What are the Human ResourceImplications of Tourism Growth?......................................................365

17.2.5 Learning from Other Destinations ...................................................366

17.3 Sustainable Tourism and the Future.........................................................366

17.3.1 Growth Towards What? ....................................................................366

17.3.2 Sustainable Tourism ...........................................................................367

17.3.3 Cross-cultural Understanding and Peace......................................367

Glossary.............................................................................................................373

About the Authors.............................................................................................395Bibliography ......................................................................................................399

xi


12/417


13/417

1 Section

Perspectives of TourismCHAPTER 1

Introduction to Global Tourism

CHAPTER 2Travel Patterns and Trends


14/417

CHAPTER 1Introduction to Global Tourism Learning Objectives

Learning objectives

To define the terms used in the travel and tourism industry.

To obtain an overview of the historical development of tourism.

To appreciate the scope and importance of international tourism.

To identify the major components of the travel and tourism industry.

To understand the impacts and contributions of tourism to the economic

and social well-being of societies.

To understand the importance of the study of tourism.

Key terms and concepts

domestic tourism

inbound tourism

infrastructure

international tourism

mass tourism

outbound tourism

same day visitor

tourism

tourists

transportation

travel

travel distribution systems

travel industry components

visitors


15/417

1.1 IntroductionThe travel and tourism industry is the worlds largest and most diverse

industry. Many nations rely on this dynamic industry as a primarysource for generating revenues, employment, private sector growth,

and infrastructure development. Tourism development is encouraged,

particularly among the developing countries around the world, when

other forms of economic development, such as manufacturing or the

exportation of natural resources, are not commercially viable.

The reasons people desire to travel are complex and varied.

Contributing to the powerful growth tourism has experienced in a

relatively short time frame has been the increased accessibility to the

many components of the travel experience. Transportation to, from, and

within parts of the world once considered remote has become more

affordable for, and within the reach of, the majority of residents in many

nations. Accommodations and restaurants in assorted budget categories

are universally found in major cities, resort locations, adjacent to

airports and thoroughfares, and in rural areas. Professional services

provided by travel agencies and tour operators, marketing efforts by

public sector tourism offices, advanced technology that rapidly brings

the tourism components together in a flash for the potential travelerall

make todays travel experience safe, comfortable, and enjoyable.

3

1Introduction to Global Tourism

Learning Objectives

Travel: easier

and cheaper


16/417

This chapter will help students of the travel and tourism industry

understand the many positive impacts travel and tourism have on countries

throughout the world. The importance of tourism terminology is

explained, and definitions for the most common terms are provided. Travel

and tourism through a historical context is also treated. The role of tourism

as a major contributor to the global economy is explored, as well as

indicators which reflect the industrys rapid growth. Other contributions of

tourism are discussed, as is the concept of sustainable tourism. Key

components of this multifaceted industrytourism distribution,

transportation, hospitality, tourism administrationare summarized.

Finally, basic approaches to studying this dynamic industry are reviewed,

bringing us to the 20th century and the mass tourism movement.

1.2 Defining Travel and Tourism

1.2.1 The Need for Definitions

The terminology used within this dynamic industry is worthy of

discussion. The simple word travel, defined as the act of moving by

most dictionaries, has a different definition within the context of the

tourism industry. For the purpose of this book, travel is defined as the

act of moving outside ones community for business or pleasure but not

for commuting or traveling to or from work or school (Gee, Makens, &Choy, 1989, p. 12). With respect to travel as an industry, there must also

be the creation of economic value resulting from the travel activity.

Understanding fundamental definitions and concepts used within the

context of the travel and tourism industry provides an essential

framework from which most discussions on the industry are based.

Because of tourisms intangible nature, common definitions of

terminology benefit the industry in a number of ways.

Standardized definitions help insure that all parties are speaking aboutthe same term or concept with little or no room for variables. This is

essential for tourism developers and executives from different regions

or countries when they discuss travel and tourism matters.

In addition, having standardized definitions enables planners to use

comparable data in which to make more informed business decisions.

Exact definitions, however, cannot be taken for granted. For the first

half of the 20th century, tourism visitor arrivals were barely recorded

by many countries and, when they were recorded, methods varied by

countries. It was not possible to effectively compare the total number

4

Chapter 1: Introduction to Global Tourism Learning Objectives

Defining "travel"

Importance of

standardization


17/417

of visitors from one country to another which defined visitors differently,

usually counting arriving foreign passport-holding individuals.

Finally, having standardized definitions enables tourism researchers to

make scientifically valid assumptions about the tourism industry. Thisbecomes increasingly important as travel and tourism researchers continue

to enlighten public policy makers and private industry executives about the

extraordinary role tourism plays in the worlds overall economy. As a

relatively new academic discipline, the tourism field lacks the depth of

research found in other forms of commerce. As standardized definitions

become more accepted, researchers will have an easier time collecting

comparable data and performing meaningful tourism studies.

1.2.2 DefinitionsThe World Tourism Organization (WTO), the major intergovernmental body

concerned with tourism, has led the way in establishing a set of definitions

for general use. In 1991, the WTO and the Government of Canada organized

an International Conference on Travel and Tourism Statistics in Ottawa,

Canada which adopted a set of resolutions and recommendations relating to

tourism concepts, definitions, and classifications. The following definitions

are based on the WTO definitions and classifications and explain the

various types of visitors (see Figure 1.1):

Tourism - The activities of persons traveling to and staying in

places outside their usual environment for not more than one

consecutive year for leisure, business, and other purposes.

Tourist - (overnight visitor) visitor staying at least one night in a

collective or private accommodation in the place visited.

Same Day Visitor (Excursionists) - visitor who does not spend the

night in a collective or private accommodation in the place visited.

Visitor - any person traveling to a place other than that of his/herusual environment for less than 12 consecutive months and whose

main purpose of travel is not to work for pay in the place visited.

Traveler - any person on a trip between two or more locations

(WTO, 1995b, p. 17).

Unfortunately, there is still confusion over these very basic definitions.

Even within the same country such as the United States, for example,

different states may use different definitions for data gathering and

statistical purposes.

5

Defining Travel and Tourism

Definitions in

research


18/417

6Figure 1.1: Visitors and Other Travelers

Source: Adapted from World Tourism Organization, Concepts, Definitions, and Classifications for Tourism

Travelers

Visitors

Same-dayvisitor

Overnight visitor(tourist)

For fhe purpose of:

Leisure, recreationand holidays

Visiting friends andrelatives

Business andprofessional

Health treatment

Religion/pilgrimages

Other


19/417

1.2.3 Forms and Categories of Travel

Just as there are different types of visitors, there are different forms and

categories of travel which take place, varying by traveler, destination,

and motive for travel, such as international vs. domestic travel, intra-regional vs. interregional travel, as well as inbound vs. outbound travel.

International and Domestic Tourism

According to the WTO, international tourism differs from domestic

tourism and occurs when the traveler crosses a countrys border. Not

every international traveler is a visitor, however. The traveler is a visitor

only if the trip takes him or her outside the usual environment, e.g.,

workers who cross borders for employment are not considered visitors.

The interest in international tourism has always been strong, primarilyfor economic reasons, as this form of tourism plays an important role

in trade and monetary flows among nations.

Domestic tourism has been overshadowed by the interest in

international tourism, for it was thought initially to have little or no

international impact, and statistics on the subject were felt to be a

countrys own business. It has become clear, however, that international

and domestic tourism do relate to each other. Travelers choices change

depending on circumstances, and domestic tourism can be substituted

for international tourism and vice versa under the influence of externalfactors, such as relative growth in real incomes, price differences

between countries, and international political conditions. Over the past

few decades, in many Western countries domestic holidays were largely

replaced by outbound holidays, influenced by the rise in living

standards and discretionary incomes, while developing countries have

seen sharp increases in domestic tourism (WTO, 1995b, p. 34).

Regional Travel

Regions are geographically united subdivisions of a larger area

characterized by definitive criteria or frames of reference. Three types

of regions are used in tourism research. The first one refers to

geographical location. Regions such as the north or the west, are

examples of this type. The second type refers to administrative areas,

such as Province X. The third combines criteria referring to location

with criteria of a more physical nature. Examples of this type of region

are the lake district or the Pacific Basin. Regions of functional type

can also be constructed, such as urban areas or coastal areas. The

term interregional travel refers to travel among various regions, whether

in regions found within the same province or state, a country, or various

7

Defining Travel and Tourism

Relationship

between

international and

domestic

Regional divisions

Interregional and

intra-regional


20/417

regions throughout the world. Intra-regional, on the other hand, refers

directly to travel contained within the same defined region, whether

domestic or international such as travel between countries of East Asia.

Inbound and Outbound TourismThere are three forms of tourism at any level, in relation to a given

area, e.g., domestic region, country, or group of countries:

Domestic tourism, involving residents of the given area traveling

(as visitors) only within that area;

Inbound tourism, involving non-residents traveling as visitors in

the given area;

Outbound tourism, involving residents traveling as visitors in anarea other than the given area.

If a country is the area of reference, the terms domestic, inbound

and outbound tourism can be combined in various ways to derive the

following categories of tourism:

Internal tourism, which comprises domestic and inbound tourism;

National tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and outbound

tourism;

International tourism, which consists of inbound tourism and

outbound tourism.

To avoid misunderstanding the terms inbound, outbound,

domestic, internal, national, and international tourism are

generally used with a country as the unit of reference. However, it

should be recognized that there are political subdivisions which are

less than countries and differ from states such as the Commonwealth

of Puerto Rico and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana

Islands, both part of the United States (WTO, 1995b, p. 27).

1.3 History of Travel and TourismWhile the concept of travel and tourism is as old as civilization itself,

history, reveals that travel was not always a pleasurable experience. A brief

review of tourisms historical development is in order to fully appreciate

todays modern tourism environment and to understand tourisms

challenges as the worlds population approaches the new millennium.

8



21/417

1.3.1 Early Ages

Logical motivators for the earliest of peoples in prehistoric

civilizations to travel focused on gathering food, avoiding danger, and

moving to more favorable climates. As humankinds skills andtechnologies increased, there was a decreased need in the nomadic

existence, resulting in yet another travel motivator: the trade and barter

of goods. As ancient world empires grew in Africa, Asia, and the

Middle East, the infrastructure necessary for travel such as land routes

and waterways was created and vehicles for travel were developed. The

beginnings of official government travel were a direct result of rulers

who sent their emissaries to observe the progress of wars throughout

sprawling empires or to collect taxes from the citizenry. During the

Egyptian dynasties, travel for both business and pleasure began toflourish, and hospitality centers were built along major routes and in

the cities to accommodate travelers between central government posts

and the outlying territories. During the height of the Assyrian empire,

the means of travel were improved, largely for military use, and roads

were improved, and markers were established to indicate distances. The

Persians who defeated the Assyrians made further improvements to the

road systems and developed four-wheeled carriages for transportation.

The early Greeks advanced travel and tourism developments in two

particular areas. First, through the development of a coin currency, replacingthe need for travelers to carry goods to barter at their final destination for

other goods and services. Secondly, the Greek language spread throughout

the Mediterranean area, making it easier to communicate as one traveled.

Since most of the Greek towns and cities were located along the coast, travel

was primarily by sea. Travel for government business was kept to a

minimum because of the independent nature of the city-state system, but the

Greeks liked to visit other cities for pleasure, particularly Athens. They also

enjoyed traveling to religious festivals, and events like the Olympic games

held every four years at Olympia.

At the height of the Roman empire, the ruling patrician class enjoyed

their leisure during the periods of relative peace. Like the Greeks before

them, they observed their own athletic and religious events and traveled

to these sites. Sightseeing was also popular with the wealthy Romans,

and many visited Greece. A ten-volume travel guide was published in

170 A.D. by the Greek, Pausanias. EntitledA Guide to Greece, the guide

targeted the Roman tourist market and described the Grecian

monuments, sculptures, and the stories and myths behind them. Romans

also toured Egypt to see the Sphinx and the Pyramids. Alexandria was

9

History of Travel and Tourism

Early civilizations

The Greeks'

contribution

Ancient Romans


22/417

a cosmopolitan oasis for Roman aristocracy, since many nationalities

were represented there including Egyptians, Greeks, Jews, Ethiopians,

Indians, and Syrians. Egypts weather was also a travel incentive for the

Romans, as it offered a sunny, hot, and dry environment. The citizens of

the Roman Empire also liked to shop when abroad, as most tourists do

today. The practice of hiding purchases from custom officials probably

originated with this class, a result of high duties, typically 25 percent,

placed on imported purchases.

Asian civilizations also have a history of leisure travel to resorts, with

known examples of second homes or seasonal retreats in China as well

as in Japan. Chinese nobility and their guests retreated to the summer

pavilions and villas in Suzhou, Hangzhou and other scenic areas.

1.3.2 Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages from about the 5th to 14th century A.D., trade

and travel declined as roads fell into disrepair and overall travel

conditions became difficult as well as dangerous. During this period,

the Christian Church was the primary impetus for travel with the

spreading of monasteries and the Christian religion. Monks and priests

encouraged the public to go on pilgrimages, and by the 14th century,

pilgrimages were an organized mass phenomena served by a growing

network of charitable hospices with growing ranks of participants frommost social classes. Christians went to Jerusalem and Rome, and even

though the pilgrimages had a religious basis, they were also seen as

social and recreational journeys.

In the latter part of the 13th century, Marco Polo explored the land routes

from Europe to Asia. In China, Polo discovered a well-developed road

system, the first having been built during the Chou dynasty (1122-1221

B.C.). Polos book on his travels was the Wests main source of information

about life in the East during this period. Other travel books began to appear

with the advent of the printing press, and Sir John Mandevilles Travels in

1357 was printed in several foreign languages, with descriptions of travel

to places as far away as southeast Asia.

By the 15th century there is a record of an actual package tour which

originated in Venice to the Holy Land. For the price of the package, the

tourist received passage, meals, accommodations, donkey rides, and

the bribe money necessary to avoid red tape. Early versions of todays

10


Leisure travel

in Asia

Christian

pilgrimages

Early travel

accounts

"Modern" tourism

in medieval era


23/417

convenience fast food stands popped up along heavily trafficked

pilgrim travel ways. Roadside hawkers during high seasons would sell

wine, fruits, fish, meats, bread and cakes from roadside tents.

1.3.3 The Renaissance

Travelers between the 14th and 17th centuries used as their travel

motivator the desire to broaden ones experience and knowledge. In

England, Queen Elizabeth I approved a form of travel to groom future

diplomats, and the universities such as Oxford and Cambridge in

England and Salamanca in Spain provided travel fellowships. England

also issued a travelers license which was good for two to three years and

it disclosed travel restrictions, how much money, how many horses, and

servants (usually three) the traveler could take. Tourists also were issuedpassports, but surrendered them at exit posts, and picked up new ones for

each country they visited. Little cash was carried, instead they used a line

of credit which worked like the modern day travelers checks. The

Elizabethan traveler usually went to Italy, by way of Paris and Frankfurt.

The loosely organized Elizabethan tour later became more highly

structured into what became known as the Grand Tour. The organized

Grand Tour had its start in the mid-1600s, and its popularity ran through

the mid-1800s. The desire to gain new knowledge and experiences were

still the prime motivators of travel for participants of the Grand Tour; andthe Grand Tour was seen as the capstone to educational and cultural

attainment of the upper classes. Typically, sons of well-to-do families

traveled to specific countries to visit historical sites and ruins as well as

to study art, architecture and history. There was even a tour guidebook

for the Grand Tour travelers, the 1778 bestseller by Thomas Nugent.

1.3.4 The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution, which lasted from about 1750 to 1850

created the base for mass tourism as we know it today. This period

brought profound economic and social changes as workers moved

away from basic agriculture in rural areas into the manufacturing

plants and urban way of life familiar to many people today. The

Industrial Revolution also introduced new machinery powered by

steam for trains and ships. Social changes brought on by changes in

occupations led to the expansion of a new middle class, an increase in

leisure time, and for many, a demand for recreational travel activities

leading to a decline in popularity of the elitist Grand Tour.

11

History of Travel and Tourism

Travel for

knowledge

Passports and

traveler's checks

The Grand Tour

Groundwork for

mass travel


24/417

Initially, recreation tourist trips were generally only day trips because

most people still had only limited discretionary income and a five-day

work week was not commonplace. Toward the end of the 19th century,

workers began to get annual vacations. In order to escape congested and

polluted urban areas, many turned to spas and seaside resorts for their

holidays which set the tone more or less for the modern leisure tourist.

Some destinations, until then visited primarily by the wealthy, were

expanded, while others were newly established to capture this growing

middle class market. To these destinations, the middle class represented

a huge market compared with the small number of the earlier wealthy

and aristocratic visitors. What the new tourists lacked in individual

spending power, they more than compensated in terms of the total

volume of arrivals.

1.3.5 Modern Tourism

It was the combination of desire, mobility, accessibility, and affordability

that made mass travel possible. With the 20th century came new

technologies such as aviation, computers, robots, and satellite

communications, which have transformed the way that people live, work,

and play. Modern technology is credited with the development of mass

tourism for a number of reasons: it increased leisure time, provided

additional discretionary income, enhanced telecommunications, andcreated more efficient modes of transportation.

As the world looks ahead to the next millennium, there is little doubt

that tourism will continue to be one of the most dynamic growth

sectors of the global economy. Despite periodic recessions, political

upheavals, wars, and uncertainties about the price and availability of

fuel, international tourism is now the largest single item in the worlds

foreign trade budget. It is three times bigger than world expenditures

on defense. No longer an activity reserved only for the privileged few,

tourism is now engaged in by millions of people who enjoy new places,

seek a change in their environment, and look for meaningful

experiences. As the new age of tourism evolves, it will be affected by

a number of exogenous factors (see Figure 1.2) such as economic and

financial developments, technological developments and innovations,

environmental issues, and marketing factors affecting the structure of

the travel and tourism operating sector and product development.

12


Beginnings of

vacations

Middle class

market

Reasons for

mass tourism

Growth and

future prospects


25/417

1.4 Components of the Travel Industry

1.4.1 Transportation and Infrastructure

How visitors get to, from and within a given destination is the

responsibility of the transportation component of tourism as discussed

in Chapter 3. Whether travel is by air, sea, or ground transportation,

adequate facilities and services must be in place for the development

13

Components of the Travel Industry

Need for facilities

and services

Figure 1.2: Factors Shaping the Development of Tourism

Source: World Tourism Organization, Global Tourism Forecasts to the Year 2000 andBeyond, (Madrid: WTO, 1995),p. ix.

Economic and

FinancialDevelopments

MARKETFORCES

EXOGENOUSFACTORS

Structure of theTravel Trade

Operator Product andService Development

Destination ProductDevelopment

TradingDevelopments

TransportInfrastructure

Demographic andSocial Change

Political, Legislative,

and RegulatoryChanges

TechnologicalDevelopments

Safety of Travel

Marketing

ComputerReservations Systems

and DestinationDatabases

HumanResources

Development


26/417

of a successful destination. For existing tourist destinations, domestic

and international tourism is dependent upon the maintenance and

improvements of airport terminals, harbors, and road systems.

Sufficient transportation is integral to the success of all other

components of tourism. The various modes of transportation work to

get visitors, for example, from the airport to their accommodations.

From the hotel, the visitor needs transportation to various restaurants

and evening entertainment, to attractions or convention sites the next

day, and back to the airport when the departure date arrives.

The infrastructure refers to components found on or below the

ground level that provide the basic framework for effective functioning

of development systems such as urban areas, industry, and tourism

(Inskeep, 1991, p. 119). Infrastructure components such as watersupply, electric power, sewage and solid waste disposal, drainage, and

telecommunications are but a few of the more critical elements

required for the various tourism dimensions to operate efficiently.

1.4.2 Accommodations and Hospitality Services

Tourism facilities covered in Chapter 4 include the services which

provide basic necessities, comfort, and aid to travelers. Because the

visitor is away from home, basic needsa place to stay, food and

beverage, storesmust be accessible, safe, and convenient.

Accommodations

Accommodations or lodging facilities and their related services are

where tourists stay overnight during their travels, accounting for a good

portion of the tourists total expenditure, typically 20 to 30 percent

depending on quality of accommodation, destination, and purpose of

trip. There are a wide variety of types of accommodations which meet

the demands of various budgets, including bed and breakfast

establishments, European style pensions, youth hostels, campgrounds,recreational vehicle parks, and cruise ships. The hotel, the most common

type of accommodation, has its own categories, extending from

luxurious urban or resort properties, to smaller budget-oriented motels or

motor lodges. Most countries have classification or rating systems for

accommodations, particularly between the hotels and motels, which help

distinguish the level of service provided to the guests.

14


Varieties of

accommodations


27/417


28/417

1.4.4 The Roles of the Public andPrivate Sectors in Tourism

It was thought at one time that tourism was primarily a private sector

concern, since the tourism-related business made the profits and

reaped the rewards. It was considered the private sectors responsibility

to develop and produce services and products for visitors. The public

sector, represented by government, saw little need to invest scarce

resources and funds toward an activity that benefited private interests.

However, once governments realized the great economic importance of

tourism, especially as an engine of employment and source of tax

revenue, this attitude changed. Today, there are many interests

concerned with tourisms growth and development from the private

sector businesses, both large and small, to the various public sectorgovernment structures (e.g., national, regional, state, provincial,

municipalities), and international, regional, and national organizations.

Tourism consists of both public and private goods based on the supply

and allocation of tourism resources. While the private sector is likely to

limit its activities to goods or services that can realize profits, the public

sector represented by governments must look beyond profit motives to

those which will benefit the society as a whole. Public goods might

include natural, cultural, and historic attractions and resources which

are maintained and protected by government for the benefit of societyas a whole, and users are likely to benefit from these goods, such as

visiting a national park, without paying for the benefit. Other public

goods and services provided by government which affect tourism

include regulation, promotion, and marketing of tourism resources.

National tourism administrations or organizations, whether government-

sponsored national tourism offices or private associations, help promote

and monitor tourism development within the context of a particular

country, while state, provincial, and even municipal organizations

promote and define the growth of tourism for a smaller area of influence.

International organizations, some of which are regional or developmental

in nature, provide forums for discussion as well as assistance in tourism

marketing and research, the removal of barriers to travel, and a number of

other functions. Foremost among intergovernmental organizations is the

World Tourism Organization (WTO), a subagency of the United Nations

representing 130 member states and over 300 affiliate members in 1996.

The roles of governments and regional and international organizations are

discussed in Chapters 13 and 14.

16


Government and

business interests

Tourism

organizations


29/417

Because tourism has the ability to increase the public coffers and create

employment opportunities, the public sector has actively assisted in the

promotion of both international and domestic tourism. A series of government

tourism offices for marketing purposesnational, regional, or at the

state/province levelare found in most countries. The goals are to promote the

region they represent and ensure sustainable tourism development.

Tourism organizations are found in both the public and private sectors

and are organized by:

Geography - international, regional, national, state or provincial, local;

Ownership - government, quasi-government, or private;

Function or type - regulators, suppliers, marketers, developers,

consultants, researchers, educators, publishers, etc.;

Industry - transportation, travel agents, tour wholesalers, lodging,

attractions;

Motive - profit or nonprofit (Goeldner, McIntosh, & Ritchie, 1995, p. 71).

1.5 Impacts of Travel and Toursim

1.5.1 Economic ImpactsThe travel and tourism industry is a group of economic activities which

combined makes it the worlds largest industry, the number one generator

of jobs, one of the worlds biggest exports, and a major stimulus for

investment and growth. Since 1950, when international travel started to

become accessible to the general public, international tourist arrivals

have risen each year at an average rate of 7.2 percent and international

tourists receipts by 12.3 percent (WTO, 1994a, p. 1). In 1995,

international tourist arrivals exceeded 563 million worldwide and

tourism revenues (excluding transport) exceeded U.S. $399 billion (seeTable 1.1). The World Tourism Organization forecasts that by the year

2000, international tourist arrivals will reach 702 million, and by the year

2010, 1.108 billion arrivals. International tourism receipts grew faster

than world trade in the 1980s, and now constitute a higher proportion of

the value of world exports than all sectors other than petroleum products,

and motor vehicles/parts/accessories. The contributions of tourism to

economic development are covered in Chapter 10.

17

Impacts of Travel and Toursim

Tourism: the

world's largest

industry


30/417

1.5.2 Other Impacts

The travel and tourism industry, however, contributes much more to the

world than bolstering economies and providing employment

opportunities. One of the major themes of this book is to explore how

sustainable tourism can be accepted universally and applied to tourism

development. The concept of sustainable tourism, loosely defined as the

meeting of the needs of present tourists and host regions while

protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future, will also be

explored in this book. Tourism can have positive environmental benefitswhich include efforts to protect the Earths natural and manmade

resources through the establishment of wildlife preserves, the

restoration of historical sites and landmarks, and the preservation of

pristine environments. It also has beneficial social and cultural impacts.

It helps recognize and promote distinctive cultures and heightens local

awareness of indigenous traditions. Tourism has assisted in the revival

of the arts and handicrafts of some host communities, creating a

demand for performance centers and cottage industry craft shops.

18


Source: World Tourism Organization,Yearbook of Tourism Statistics,48ed., 1996 and 49ed., 1997.

Year Arrivals (mn)Receipts ($Bn, excl.

Transport)

1950 25.3 2.1

1960 69.3 6.9

1970 165.8 17.9

1980 286.2 105.2

1990 459.2 264.7

1995 563.6 399.0

Period (% p.a. growth)Average Annual

Percentage IncreaseAverage Annual

Percentage Increase

1950-1960 10.6 12.6

1960-1970 9.1 10.1

1970-1980 5.6 19.4

1980-1990 4.8 9.7

1990-1995 4.1 7.5

Table 1.1: International Tourism Activity 1950-1995.

Sustainable

tourism


31/417

Among the tourism industrys many supporters, it is believed that tourism

can ease political tensions, and in effect, act as a catalyst for world peace.

As foreign borders disappear, whether literally or figuratively, there is an

emerging use of the term global village, making the world smaller and

more intimate. The tourism industry and the countries which rely on

tourism for overall development, must provide tourists a safe and secure

atmosphere, as tourism can only prosper in a peaceful environment.

1.6 The Study of TourismThe study of tourism can be approached through a variety of

disciplines including economics, business, history, geography, and

sociology, to name a few. The travel industry has made both positive

and negative impacts on these disciplines and has become a globalplayer in activities, organizations, and businesses.

Throughout this book, many exciting facets of the travel and tourism

industry will be explored, but it is important to realize that no one part

is more important than the other. This industry is unlike any other as

collaborative efforts are not only encouraged but necessary, due to the

interdisciplinary nature of the tourism experience. Each of the key

components required for a tourism destination to flourishtravel

distribution, transportation and infrastructure, accommodations and

other facilities, and tourism administrationrequires the assistance ofeach other in combination with marketing, promotion, facilitation and

other software aspects of travel delivery. The interdisciplinary

approach to travel then provides students a means to study tourism,

particularly as it has become an increasingly complex industry with

sophisticated, informed, and demanding consumers.

Rapid global changes and advancements in technology make the study

all the more essential for todays tourism managers and planners.

Tourism leaders must be familiar with the challenges of meeting the

escalating demands of todays traveling public. Tourism providers

know that if they cannot please or exceed their customers needs, the

competition will be more than happy to fill that demand. To compound

an already challenging environment, todays tourism developers and

management teams must work within the confines of an

environmentally-sensitive and socially responsible approach to

sustainable tourism. Careful attention to the earths finite natural

resources, and a sense of social responsibility to host communities and

cultures influenced by tourism will continue to be a major factor in

what encompasses a prosperous tourism industry.

19

The Study of Tourism

Benefits of

tourism

An interdisciplinary

field

The necessity

of study


32/417

SUMMARYThis chapter has presented the background on the travel and tourism

industry as the largest service industry in the world. The growth of

domestic and international tourism, the importance of tourismexpenditures, and the contributions of tourism to gross domestic

product and employment opportunities provide many positive effects.

Travel and tourism, when properly planned and managed also bring

other benefits than economic ones such as maintaining cultures,

preserving the environment, and contributing to peace efforts.

Travel and tourism is a multifaceted industry with many components

including travel distribution, transportation and infrastructure, tourism

facilities such as accommodations, food and beverage establishments,

and support services. Both the private and public sectors are involved in

the industry. The challenge for tourism planners and management in both

sectors will be to meet the needs of a more sophisticated traveler, while

balancing the precious resources of a finite world, preserving native

traditions and cultures, and taking social responsibility for negative

impacts on the host community. The next chapter will take a closer look

at travel during the 20th century, travel trends of various countries, as

well as regional and international travel patterns. External factors and

their possible effect on tourism and other world trends will also be

explored.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1. What are the tourism-related definitions for your state/province and

country? Do they differ from the WTO definition?

2. Within a historical context, what have been some of the motives for

travel?

3. Besides economic, environmental and cultural benefits, what aresome other benefits of tourism development?

4. What are examples of the various travel industry components where

you live? How are they interdependent?

5. List some reasons for studying the tourism industry, including your

own.

20



33/417


34/417

CHAPTER 2Travel Patterns and Trends

Learning objectives

To understand the size and significance of international travel.

To understand the patterns and trends of domestic, regional, and

international travel.

To describe the factors that affect the development of tourism.

To review top tourism trends which will have a significant impact on the

industrys growth worldwide.

Key terms and concepts

computerized reservation system (CRS)

domestic travel

global distribution system (GDS)

international travel

sustainable tourism

tourism expenditures

tourism generators

tourism receipts

travel deficit

travel surplus


35/417

2.1 IntroductionThe previous chapter examined the broad-based travel and tourism

industry and illustrated that through most of recent history, travel was

often an exhausting undertaking. With societal and technological changes,travel transformed itself into a much desired and accessible leisure

activitytourismwhich has provided enriching experiences to travelers.

This chapter will direct its attention to the current state of modern tourism.

International and regional travel trends such as visitor arrivals, tourism

receipts, top destinations, and tourism expenditures will be examined, in

addition to regional travel patterns, both inbound and outbound. The

understanding of trends is important as they provide a clue to what is likely

to occur in the future, thus providing a basis for destination and tourist

product planning and marketing. External factors including political,demographic, social and technological changes must also be considered

for their impact on tourism when trends are being analyzed.

2.2 Tourism GrowthBoth domestic travel or travel between two points in the same country,

and international travel, where a person travels to a country other than

his or her own country of residence, have experienced remarkable

growth within a relatively short period of time. It was not until the 1960s

that working-class Britons, for example, could enjoy leisure travel

23

2Travel Patterns and Trends

Importance

of trends


36/417


37/417

By 1970, this figure had grown to 160 million. In 1980, international

arrivals totaled well over 280 million. By 1995 international tourist

arrivals in all destinations was over 563 million. The WTO projects

worldwide tourism will grow to around 702 million arrivals in the year

2000, and over 1 billion by 2010 (WTO, 1996i; see Table 2.1).

25

Tourism Growth

Source: World Tourism Organization.

Year Arrivals Receipts

1995 563,641,000 US$ 399 billion

2000 702,000,000 US$ 621 billion

2010 1,018,000,000 US$ 1.5 trillion

Table 2.1: WTO Forecast International Tourist Arrivals and Receipts

2.2.3 Worlds Top Destinationsand Tourism Receipts

From an international perspective, the most popular destinations in theworld in 1995 were France, followed by United States and the Spain

(WTO, 1996c). It is important to note that an extremely high portion of

travel is received, as well as generated, by relatively few countries. The

top ten destinations account for 54 percent of the world volume of

tourism flows, with seven of the top ten countries located in Central

and Western Europe. Of the top ten receiving countries, seven are

European nations (see Table 2.2), but this may be explained by the

close geographic proximities and accessibility of countries (except for

the Central Independent States of the former U.S.S.R.) within thecontinenta sharp contrast to the wide geographic spread and distance

among the countries of Asia.

The pattern for tourism receipts is similar to tourism arrivals: the top ten

earners represent 55 percent of the world total. The U.S. leads the world

in tourism receipts, with France and Italy in second and third place,

respectively. With the swift increase in recent years of international

tourism to and within East Asia and the Pacific, two Asian destinations

are among the top ten earner list (WTO, 1996d; see Table 2.3).

Europe: top

destinations

Travel receipts


38/417

2.2.4 Tourism Generatorsand Related Expenditures

Tourism generator countries is a category of information on outbound

tourists, and is of great importance to countries seeking inbound tourism.

Sources of these data include national tourism administrations (NTAs) as

well as international tourism organizations. Sixty-seven percent of all

international outbound travelers are attributed to nationals of only 10

countries, of which six are European countries (WTO, 1996k, p. 78).

26

Chapter 2: Travel Patterns and Trends


Rank Destination No. of Arrivals

1 France 60,110,000

2

Spain

43,318,000

3

United States

39,324,000

4 Italy 31,057,000

5

China

24,008,000

6

United Kingdom

20,690,000

7

Hungary

20,162,000

8

Mexico

20,034,000

9 Poland 19,200,000

10 Austria 17,173,000

Table 2.2: Top Ten Tourism Destinations 1995


Rank Destination Internatio

Documents

55-International Tourism a Global Perspective-libre