4 th Edition of Study Guide Chapter 7

Chapter Outline

Rise of IslamRole of MuhammadTeachings of Muhammad

Arab Empire and Its SuccessorsCreation of an EmpireSuccession Problems and the Rise of the UmayyadsAbbasidsSeljuk TurksCrusadesMongols

Islamic CivilizationWealth of Araby: Trade and Cities in the Middle EastIslamic SocietyCulture of Islam

Philosophy and ScienceIslamic LiteratureIslamic Art and Architecture

Byzantine Empire and the CrusadesReign of Justinian (527-565)

Codification of Roman LawLife in Constantinople

From Eastern Roman to Byzantine EmpireByzantine Empire in the Eighth Cnetury

Zenith of Byzantine CivilizationMacedonian Dynasty

New Challenges to Byzantine EmpireImpact of the Crusades

Conclusion

Chapter Summary

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, the eastern portion of the Empire continued to thrive. Centered on the magnificent city of Constantinople, a unique Christian culture developed known as Byzantium. The Byzantines eventually converted the peoples of Eastern Europe to Christianity and established the Eastern Orthodox Church. After the seventh century, Byzantium came under increasing pressure from the new Islamic Arab Empire.

Islam was founded by the prophet Muhammad, and his teachings led to the development of a code of law and a written language. As the Arabs sought to spread their faith, they created a vast and wealthy trading empire that eventually stretched from Western Africa to East Asia. In addition to trade goods, ideas, culture and technology were exchanged. This vast wealth also brought corruption and internal strife that would weaken the empire from within and lead to its downfall. The Islamic faith, however, remained and is one of the great religions of the world.

Terms and Persons to Know

Arabs

Bedouins

sheikh

majlis

caravan trade

polytheism

Allah

Ka'aba

Muhammad

Khadija

Mecca

Gabriel

Koran or Qur'an

Islam

Muslims

Medina

Hegira

umma

monotheism

suras

"five pillars"

ulama

Shari'ah

Hadith

Abu Bakr

caliph

imam

jihad

Arab expansion

Muhammad Ali

Umar

Uthman

Mu'awiyah

Umayyads

North Africa

Iberian Peninsula

Battle of Tours (or Poitiers)

Byzantine Empire

Mesopotamia and Persia

Hussein

Shi'ite

Sunnite

Abu al-Abbas

Abbasid dynasty

Baghdad

Harun al-Rashid

al-Ma'mun

diwan

vizier

disintegration

Fatimids

Seljuk Turks

sultan

crusades

Alexius I

Saladin

Mongols

Genghis Khan

Hulegu

Mamluks

Ottoman Turks

Sultan Mehmet II

Constantinople

urban centers

trade

egalitarianism

slaves

women

Ibn Rushd

paper

mathematics

sciences

Ibn Sina or Avicenna

poetry

Rabe'a of Qozdar

Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam

The Tales from 1001 Nights or The Arabian Nights

Sadi

proverbs

Rumi

Sufism

al-Mas'udi

Dome of the Rock

kibla

mosques

Mosque of Samarra

mihrab

minaret

mosque at Córdoba

palace of UkhaidirAlhambra

rugs

arabesques

figurative representations

Tabriz and Herat schools of painting

Eastern Roman Empire

Justinian

Belisarius

Corpus Iuris Civilis

Byzantine Empire

Constantinople

Theodosius II

Hagia Sophia

Hippodrome

Macedonian emperors

Seljuk Turks

Alexius I

Urban II

first crusade

second crusade

third crusade

fourth crusade

children's crusade

European Jews

Heraclius

Bulgars

Icons

Leo III

Patriarch of Constantinople

Orthodox Christianity

Michael III

Patriarch Photius

Michael Paleologus

Mapwork

Map 7.1. The Middle East in the Time of Muhammad

What challenges was the Roman (Byzantine) Empire facing at the time of Muhammad? How is its territory transformed in the centuries after his death?

Why are Mecca and Medina important in the life story of Muhammad? What was the original name of this city? Why was it changed?

Who were the Bedouins? Where did they live on the Arabian peninsula? Into which Bedouin tribe was Muhammad born?

Where did Muhammad receive his recitations from Gabriel?

Map 7.2 The Expansion of Islam

What is jihad? Consider all possible interpretations of this Arabic word. How does this concept explain Islamic expansion?

Did Muhammad himself ever engage in jihad? Why?

What hindered Islamic expansion in the west at Poiters (Tours) and in the east at Constantinople?

Map 7.3. The Abbasid Caliphate at the Height of its Power

How was power transferred between the Ummayad and the Abbasid dynasties? Where did each caliphate locate its capital?

What is a caliph? What controversy surrounded this office after the death of Muhammad?

Who were the Seljuk Turks? How did the Fatimids contribute to their rise to power?

Map 7.4. The Turkish Occupation of Anatolia

What happened in 1071 that led to a crisis in the Byzantine Empire? How did this lead to the Crusades?

Why were the powers in Europe eager to embark on the crusades? Was Jerusalem or Constantinople their main concern? Why?

What was the role of Saladin in these Islamic-Christian conflicts?

Map 7.5 The Byzantine Empire in the Time of JustinianWhat lasting effect was the Byzantine empire to have on Russian culture?

What are the differences between Roman and Eastern Orthodox forms of Catholicism? Where on this map would the line be drawn between the two?

How did the Fourth Crusade affect the Byzantine empire? Why did Alexius I call to the West for help?

Why were Justinian's successors unable to hold the vast territories Belisarius had gained?

What role did the Seljuk and Ottoman Turks play in the history of Constantinople?

Map 7.52 The Byzantine Empire, c. 800 and Map 7.52a The Byzantine Empire, c. 1025

How had the empire changed from 800 to 1025? Why?

What was the greatest threat to the empire in the period between 800 and 1025?

Datework

Chronology 1. Islam: The First Millennium

Compare this chronology with the maps in this chapter (7.1 through 7.4 above), and as you consider the importance of each event on this chronology, locate the following: Mecca and Medina, Cairo, the northern boundary of Islamic Spain, Baghdad, Cairo, Constantinople.

What schism within Islam did the election of Ali to the caliphate initiate?

How many crusades were there? Why were they unsuccessful in the end?

Were the Seljuk Turks Muslims? Were the Mongols?

Chronology 2. The Byzantine Empire

What impact did Justinian have upon the Byzantine Empire? Was it positive or negative?

What was the “Macedonian dynasty?” How did it effect the empire?

What threats to its borders did the Byzantines face?

Who finally brought down the empire?

Chapter Timeline: From the birth of Muhammad to the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks

Why does the Islamic calendar begin not with the birth of the Prophet, but with his flight to Medina? What is the Arabic word for this event?

When scholars consider the spread of Islam as a religious faith into Spain and northwestern India (and elsewhere), what political and cultural changes must also be considered important?

Under whose leadership do the Mongols destroy Baghdad?

Why are the Ottomans able to conquer Constantinople finally?

Primary Sourcework

Islamic Primary Sources:

Document 1. The Koran and the Spread of the Muslim Faith: The Koran: Chapter 47, "Muhammad, Revealed at Medina"

In addition to the Koran, in what other sacred work are the sayings of Muhammad to be found?

Why was this Paradise attractive to the original Bedouin tribes?

According to this passage, what justifies the spread of Islam? What motivates believers?

Why did Muhammad conquer Mecca, the city of his birth? How did he accomplish this?

Document 2. A Pilgimage to Mecca: Ibn Jubayr, Travels

What was the original meaning of sacred stones among the Bedouins?

What is the Ka'aba? Where did it come from, and what was its original purpose? How did Muhammad transform it?

Why is an understanding of the "five pillars" central to a comprehension of Islam? What are the other four pillars?

Document 3. The Crusades in Muslim Eyes: Usamah, Book of Reflections

The Crusaders were often collectively termed "Franks" after the region of France. Where (in addition to France) did crusaders actually come from? At whose instigation did they come to the Middle East?

Why was Usamah concerned about the direction of his prayer? Why was the Frankish crusader? What is a qiblah?

On what grounds does Usamah base his superiority to the Franks?

What evidence do you see here that the Frankish Knight Usamah calls "King Fulk" felt superior to Usamah in turn?

Given this mutual feeling, why did the two men form a close friendship? Or did they?

Document 4. Draw Their Veils Over Their Bosoms: The Koran: Chapter 24

Why have Muslim theologians concerned themselves with feminine attire?

What changes in women's dress occurred during the centuries after Muhammad's death?

How did Arabic women dress prior to the arrival of Islam? To what extent were later changes a class issue?

How does this passage support the full veiling and the seclusion of women? How does it not?

Arabic Literature:

Document 5. Love for a Camel: The Ode of Tarafah

Compare the concern of the poet Tarafah to the concerns of the consumer above (in A Consumer's Guide to the Ideal Slave). Why is careful attention given to physiognomy in both passages?

What role did the camel play in Arabic society? What effect did its presence have on the economy?

Is the "singing-wench" at all similar to the author's camel? Why might the audience be invited to make such a comparison?

Sufi Primary Source:

Document 6. The Passions of a Sufi Mystic: Rumi, Call to the Dance

What evidence do you see here that the goals and beliefs of Sufism contrasted with those of orthodox Islam?

Consider this passage in light of the concept of nirvana from Chapter Two. Can Indian and Sufi mysticism be compared? How?

Although the dervishes are not mentioned here, how are their rituals implicitly present?

According to this excerpt, what was the definition of a human being according to Sufism?

Byzantine Primary Source:

Document 7. A Western View of the Byzantine Empire: Liudprand of Cremona, Antapodosis

What evidence do you detect in this passage of Liudprand's mixed feelings about Byzantium?

Do you suppose that Constantine VII was impressed by Liudprand's gifts from Berengar? Why or why not?

How does the appearance of Constantine VII in this excerpt reflect the Byzantine emperor's role in society? How was this role different from that of emperors in the west?

Artwork

Islamic Shrine:

Illustration 7-1. The Ka'aba in Mecca

How did the Ka'aba become a symbol of Islamic monotheism? What was its original purpose?

Are the other "five pillars" of Islam meant to be performed once in a lifetime? How do each of those practices strengthen the idea of the "wheel" of Islam or the community of believers (umma)?

Modern Photographs:

Illustration 7-2. The Quiet Spirit of a Mosque

What functions does the mosque fulfill for Islamic society?

Why do women normally pray at home rather than in a mosque?

What are some of the best known mosques in the world? Why is each considered important in the history of architecture and art?

Architecture and Art

Illustration 7-3. Castle of the Nights

How does this structure resemble the more familiar European medieval castle?

Why did Muslim rulers build citadels in the desert? What were they protecting?

What about the architecture of this structure provides it with protection from attackers? How would its position and size be used to thwart attackers?

Illustration 7-4. Royal Incense Burner

Why is the symbol of the sun so often used to illustrate rulers or kings?

Why was the use of incense and perfume important in Muslim society?

Illustration 7-5. An Entrance Portal

Why are geometric designs characteristic of Islamic art? What craft especially disseminated the artistic use of arabesques?

The word "mosque" in Arabic means "the place where a man prostrates himself to pray." Why is this an appropriate name for a place of Islamic worship? What does the Arabic word "Islam" mean?

Why would the mosaics adorning mosques begin with austerity and evolve into more free use of color? What similarity do you see between this evolution and contemporary changes in painting?

Illustration 7-6. The Mosque at Córdoba

How has the architect of this mosque created a paradox between mass and lightness in his structure? What might be the meaning of such a paradox?

When did Islam first encompass Spain? By what route was this achieved?

Illustration 7-7. The Alhambra in Granada

The Caliph for whom this palace was built is said to have desired it to be an earthly expression of Paradise. How was this achieved?

What features of Islamic architecture would be an important influence on European architecture of the Middle Ages? Are any of these features present here?

Illustration 7-8. The Koran as Sculptured Design

Why does Islamic art not include portraits of Muhammad?

What purposes does Islamic art serve? The use of Koranic verse in artwork has what effect when used to decorate mosques?

Byzantine Art:

Illustration 7-9. The Emperor Justinian Surrounded by His Court

How is the Eastern Roman emperor depicted here in both his civic and religious role? How is the military included?

Why is Justinian remembered for his contribution to Roman law? To the law of Europe?

What were the achievements of Justinian's general Belisarius? Of the Macedonian rulers of the Byzantine empire? What external pressures cause the decline of this culture?

In the earlier primary source reading "The Achievements of Charlemagne," Einhard noted that Charlemagne had to import columns from Rome and Ravenna for his building projects. What does such a statement indicate about the relative wealth and power of the Byzantine and Carolingian empires?

Illustration 7-10. Interior View of Hagia Sophia

Why are Koranic inscriptions now decorating what was built to be an Orthodox church? What historical event is reflected in this transformation?

With what other architectural monuments did Justinian adorn Constantinople? Why is this city sometimes called "the second Rome"?

How does Hagia Sophia differ from the Romanesque and Gothic churches pictured earlier in this chapter?

Quiz

Multiple Choice:

1. Bedouin society wasa. organized on a tribal basis.b. led by a sheikh.c. based on a sedentary lifestyle.

* d. both a & b.Ans. a. correct, p. 7-4.

b. correct, p. 7-4.c. incorrect, Bedouins are nomadic peoples, p. 7-4.d. correct, p. 7-4.

2. Muhammada. was born in Medina.b. considered himself divine.c. believed that Allah talked to him through the angel Gabriel.d. was born into great wealth.Ans. a. incorrect, he was born in Mecca, p. 7-4.

b. incorrect, he believed he was only a messenger, p. 7-5.* c. correct, p. 7-5.

d. incorrect, his father died before he was born and he was orphaned at six, p. 7-4.

3. _______ is the holy scriptures of Islam.a. The Majlis

* b. The Koranc. The Hijrahd. The Shari’ahAns. a. incorrect, the Majlis are the Bedouin council of elders, p. 7-4.

b. correct, p. 7-5.c. incorrect, the Hijrah is the name of Muhammad’s flight to Yathrib, p. 7-5.d. incorrect, the Shari’ah is the Islamic law code, p. 7-7.

4. All of the following are part of the five pillars of Islam, EXCEPTa. standard prayer five times a day.b. observation of the holy month of Ramadan.c. giving alms to the poor.

* d. polygyny.Ans. a. incorrect, prayer five times a day is required of Muslims, p. 7-7.

b. incorrect, Muslims fast and pray during the month of Ramadan, p. 7-7.c. incorrect, Muslims must give alms to the poor, p. 7-7.d. correct, while polygyny is allowed in Islam it is not one of the five pillars of the

faith, p. 7-7.

5. After Muhammad’s death the ulama drew up an Islamic law code known as the* a. Shari’ah.

b. Hadith.c. Suras.d. Jihad.Ans. a. correct, p. 7-7.

b. incorrect, the Hadith is the collection of the Prophet’s sayings, p. 7-7.c. incorrect, the suras are the chapters of the Koran, p. 7-6.d. incorrect, the Jihad is a term often used to describe the struggle to spread Islam,

p. 7-8.

6. Who succeeded Abu Bakr as caliph?a. Alib. Uthman

* c. Umard. Mu’awiyahAns. a. incorrect, Ali succeeded Uthman, p. 7-9.

b. incorrect, Uthman succeeded Umar, p. 7-9.c. correct, p. 7-9.d. incorrect, Mu’awiyah assassinated Ali and became caliph, p. 7-9.

7. At what battle in 732 were the Arabs defeated in southern France by Charles Martel?* a. Tours

b. Tariqc. Yarmukd. ConstantinopleAns. a. correct, p. 7-9.

b. incorrect, Tariq was Bedouin commander, p. 7-9.c. incorrect, Yarmuck was a Muslim military victory over the Byzantines, p. 7-8.d. incorrect, Constantinople was the capital of the Byzantine empire, 7-10.

8. The two major sects within Islam are the Shi’ites and the a. Umayyads.b. Abbasids.

* c. Sunnite.d. Husseinites.Ans. a. incorrect, the Umayyads are the first ruling Muslim dynasty following the first 4

caliphs, p. 7-9.b. incorrect, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads, p. 7-10.c, correct p. 7-10.d. incorrect, the Husseinites were followers of Ali’s second son, p. 7-10.

9. The Abbasids established their capital ata. Damascus.

* b. Baghdad.c. Constantinople.d. Mecca.Ans. a. incorrect, Damascus had been the Umayyad capital, p. 7-9.

b. correct, p. 7-10.c. incorrect, Constantinople was the capital of the Byzantine empire, p. 7-10.d. incorrect, Mecca was the religious capital but not the political capital, p. 7-10.

10. All of the following contributed to the disintegration of the Muslim Empire under the Abbasids, EXCEPT

a. the increase in wealth from trade also brought financial corruption.b. many non-Arab peoples were recruited into the military.

* c. the caliphs used brutality to suppress provincial rulers.d. disputes over succession created internal destruction.Ans. a. incorrect, the expanded empire and wealth led to favorites of the caliph being

rewarded, p. 712.b. incorrect, the shortage of Arab manpower led the Abbasids to turn to non-Arabs

such as Turks to fill the military ranks, p. 7-12.c. correct, the provincial rulers wee able to pull away from central control, p. 7-12.d. incorrect, succession disputes created internal fighting, p. 7-12.

11. Which nomadic peoples of Central Asia converted to Islam and eventually overthrew the Abbasids?

a. the Barmakids* b. the Seljuk Turks

c. the Persiansd. the UmayyadsAns. a. incorrect, the Barmakids were a powerful Arab family, p. 7-12.

b. correct, p. 7-13.c. incorrect, the Persians were a threat but did not displace the Abbasids, p. 7-12.d. incorrect, the Umayyads were the Muslim dynasty prior to the Abbasids, p. 7-9.

12. Who led the Muslims in driving the Crusaders out of Jerusalem in 1187?a. the Seljuk Turksb. Bassan ben Sabbah

* c. Saladind. Khubilai KhanAns. a. incorrect, the Seljuk Turks took no action against the Crusaders, p. 7-15.

b. incorrect, Sabbah led a rebel group known as the “assassins,” p. 7-14.c. correct, p. 7-15.d. incorrect, Khan was the Mongol leader who threatened the Muslims, p. 7-15.

13. Who led the defeat of the Byzantine empire and conquest of Constantinople?a. Khubilai Khanb. Saladinc. Basan ben Sabbah

* d. Mehmet IIAns. a. incorrect, Khan was leader of the Mongols, p. 7-15.

b. incorrect, Saladin led Muslims in defeat of the Crusaders, p. 7-15.c. incorrect, Sabbah led a rebel group known as the “assassins,” p. 7-14.d. correct, p. 7-16.

14. Which of the following incorrectly matches the trade goods with the area from which those goods originated?* a. the Sahara – linens, dates and precious stones

b. China – silk and porcelainc. East Africa – gold and ivoryd. South Asia – cotton and wheatAns. a. correct, the Sahara provided gold and slaves, p. 7-17.

b. incorrect, p. 7-17.c. incorrect, p. 7-17.c. incorrect, p. 7-17.

15. Who wrote a medical encyclopedia that became a basic European textbook?a. Ibn Rushdb. Omar Khayyam

* c. Ibn Sinad. Rabe’a of QozdarAns: a. incorrect, Ib Rushd was s Muslim philosopher who helped preserve Greek texts,

p. 7-20.b. incorrect, Khayyam was a poet, p. 7-21.c. correct, p. 7-20.d. incorrect, Rabe’a was a female Persian poet, p. 7-21.

16. Emperor Justiniana. re-conquered most of the western empire.b. created a codified system of Roman law written in Latin.c. rebuilt the city of Constantinople.

* d. all of the above.Ans. a. correct, p. 7-28.

b. correct, p. 7-28.c. correct, p. 7-28.d. correct, Justinian did all of the above, p. 7-28-29.

17. At what battle did the Byzantine Empire lose Syria and Palestine to the Muslims in 636?* a. Yarmuk

b. Manzikertc. Heracliusd. ToursAns. a. correct, p. 7-31.

b. incorrect, Manzikert was a Muslim victory in 1071, p. 7-34.c. incorrect, Heraclius was a Byzantine emperor, p.7-31.d. incorrect, the Franks defeated the Muslims at Tours in 732, p. 7-10.

18. The Byzantine Empirea. was a Christian state.b. was a Greek state.c. was the heir to the Roman Empire.

* d. all of the above.Ans. a. correct, p. 7-32.

b. correct, p. 7-32.c. correct, p. 7-32.d. correct, p. 7-32.

19. In what year did the two branches of Christianity – Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox – formally split when the pope and patriarch excommunicated each other?* a. 1054

b. 1056c. 1453d. 987Ans. a. correct, p. 7-33

b. incorrect, the split occurred two years prior to this, p. 7-32.c. incorrect, Constantinople fell to the Muslims in 1453, p. 7-35.d. incorrect, the slit occurred in 1054, p. 7-32.

20. The Macedonian emperors oversaw a great missionary movement. What was this movement’s greatest accomplishment?

a. the conversion of the Mongols.b. the conversion of the prince of Kiev in Russiac. the conversion of the pope in Romed. the conversion of the BulgarsAns. a. incorrect, the Mongols did not convert to Orthodoxy, p. 7-15.

b. correct, p. 7-33.c. incorrect, the pope and the western empire were Roman Catholic, p. 7-33.d. incorrect, the Bulgars did convert but this was not as important as the prince of Kiev, p. 7-33 & 34.

True/False

1. Under the Macedonian dynasty, the Byzantine Empire regained much of its former territory and was capably administered through a strong civil service.a. true *b. false

a. correct, pp. 7-33 &34.b. incorrect, the Macedonians provided solid leadership for the empire, pp. 7-33 & 34.

2. Muhammad is not considered divine.a. true *b. false

a. correct, p. 7-5.b. incorrect, Muhammad is only the messenger of Allah, p. 7-5.

3. Muslims are required to give alms to the poor as part of their faith.a. true *b. false

a. correct, p. 7-7.b. incorrect, Zakat or alms to the poor is part of the five pillars of the Islamic faith, p. 7-7.

4. The Abbasids did not allow non-Arab Muslims to hold civilian offices.a. trueb. false *

a. incorrect, the Abbasids opened civilian and military offices to non-Arab Muslims, 7-10.b. correct, p. 7-10.

5. The Mongol invasion brought an end to the caliphate at Baghdad.a. true *b. false

a. correct, p. 7-15.b. incorrect, the Mongols seized Persia and Mesopotamia in1258 and ended the caliphate at Baghdad, p. 7-15.

Essay/Short Answer

1. What are the five pillars of Islam and how do they help create an “Islamic” way of life?Ans., p. 7-7

Belief in Allah and Muhammad as his Prophet Standard prayer five times a day and public prayer on Friday at midday Observation of the holy month of Ramadan including fasting from dawn to sunset Making a pilgrimage to Mecca in one’s lifetime, if possible Giving alms to the poor, or zakat Basic ethical code Shari’ah or code of laws to regulate daily life Strict sexual mores Forbidden to eat pork, gamble or drink alcohol

2. Why did Muhammad flee to Medina?Ans. 7-5

He was discouraged by the lack of converts he had made. His followers were being persecuted He went to try and convert the Jewish community in Medina to his beliefs

3. In what ways did the takeover by the Seljuk Turks benefit the Islamic world?Ans. p. 7-13

Brought an end to the internal fighting between Shi’ites and Sunnis Revitalized Islamic law Revitalized Islamic institutions Provided political stability which allowed return of prosperity

4. What is the importance of the knotted woolen rug in Islamic society?Ans. pp. 7-26 & 27

Originally insulated against cold floors Used as prayer mats when saying ritualistic prayers Large ones given as rewards by rulers for political favors Bedouins covered sandy floors of their tents The art of rug making passed from mother to daughter Good weaving skills were attraction to bridegrooms Wife could sell rugs to supplement family income Part of a woman’s dowry

5. Describe the achievements of the Macedonian dynasty in the Byzantine Empire.Ans. pp. 7-33 &34

Capable civil service restored Strong military recaptured lost territories especially from Bulgars as well as adding

islands of Crete and Cyprus Re-established order within the empire Strengthened the free farmers position within the empire Expanded trade relations with western Europe Converted peoples of Eastern Europe, particularly the prince of Kiev, to Orthodox

Christianity

Internet Exploration

To learn more about the Ka’aba and is significance visithttp://www.lcsc.edu/mlevine/Islam/ka'aba.htm

To see how the Islamic calender is created and to compare it to the Western calender to gohttp://islamicity.com/Science/islamic_calendar.shtml

For biographies of Muslim scientists and their contributions visithttp://islamicity.com/Science/Scientists/

To explore the travels of Ibn Battuta visithttp://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/ibn_battuta/