Upload
merima-dzaferadzovic
View
219
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
1/26
Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
Promotor: Prof. Paul Cruysberghs W0EB6A Bachelor Paper (6 sp.)
By Sophie Menasse
Leuven, May 2010
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
2/26
Table of Contents
Introduction ... 3
Part One: Self-consciousness in HegelsPhenomenology of Spirit..3
Consciousness ... 4
Self-consciousness . 5
Desire . 5
Recognition .... 8
Life and Death Struggle . 9
Master and Slave . 10
Part Two: Implications and Relevance ... 14
Work .... 14
Mutual Recognition . 16
Conclusion ... 23
Works Cited .... 25
2
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
3/26
Introduction
The chapter on the master-slave relationship in Hegels analysis of self-consciousness
is, to be sure, the most famous and influential part of thePhenomenology of Spirit. It has left
its mark on Marxist thought as well as on existentialist, feminist and psychoanalyst thinkers.
Leo Rauch discerns Christian, Marxist and existential readings of the Self-consciousness
chapter. 1 And Merleau-Ponty was willing to write that all the great philosophical ideas of the
past century the philosophies of Marx and Nietzsche, phenomenology, German
existentialism, and psychoanalysis had their beginnings in Hegel.2
This paper shall give a close discussion of Hegels conception of self-consciousness in
the Phenomenology of Spirit intended both as a basis for understanding the influence this
chapter has had on so many and diverse thinkers during the past century, and also the
relevance it can still have today. The first part of the paper will recapitulate the argument of
the chapter as it is situated within the framework of the Phenomenology. In the second part,
certain key notions and their implications will be analysed more closely. In this second part,
these ideas will also be considered insofar as they point beyond the context of the
Phenomenology, and their relevance for social and political thinking today will be discussed.
Part One: Self-consciousness in HegelsPhenomenology of Spirit
The following pages discuss the notion of self-consciousness in Hegels
Phenomenology of Spirit. Before turning to the respective chapters however it is necessary to
sketch roughly the broader context. The Phenomenology is the Darstellung des
erscheinenden Wissens3. It shows the development of knowledge. The book is divided into
three parts4. In the first section (consciousness), the individual is concerned with the objective
world and tries to attain knowledge thereof. In the second part (self-consciousness),1 Rauch, Leo & Sherman, David.Hegels Phenomenology of Self-Consciousness. p. 125.2 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. Sense and Non-Sense. p. 63.3 Hegel, G.W.F.Phnomenologie des Geistes (Werke 3).p. 72 (hereafter referred to as PG).4 In the table of content, two different schedule lines appear. Hence a certain difficulty to
partition the book, with which most comentators struggle. Hegel uses letters as well asnumbers to structure his book, yet the relation between those two kinds of division is notclear. The schedule line suggested by the letters, results in three parts with the third one beingdivided into four subparts. Following the numerical division however, the book consists ofeight parts. The first part of the letter-division is thereby three parts of the number-sectioning.
Or, to give another example, the part onspirit, can thus either (following the letters) be thesecond subdevision of the third part, or (following the numbers) the sixth part. The scheduleline of the book is thus everything but clear and would give enough material for an extensiveresearch. For reasons of simplicity, I shall here follow the division suggested by the letters.
3
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
4/26
consciousness turns back onto itself and takes itself as its object. In the third part, finally, the
object of consciousness is thought (Gedanke). This last and longest section is itself divided
into four subparts: Reason, Spirit, Religion and Absolute Knowing. While in the part titled
Reason spirit is still subjective, it becomes objective in the part titled Spirit and finally
absolute in the parts titled Religion and Absolute Knowledge.
Consciousness
The quest and failure of consciousness to attain knowledge of the world of objects
is described in the first part of the Phenomenology. Sense certainty, the most immediate form
of knowing proves unable to attain its goal: It wants to deal with the particular in its
particularity as it appears to it here and now, but when it tries to grasp it in that way it finds
itself able to deal with only the most universal: the universal here emptied from all particular
heres, as purely negative; and likewise the universal now emptied from all particular nows.
Both are mere universal containers to be filled with particulars, yet in themselves are none of
the particulars. The here is neitherthis tree northis house nor any other specific here5. It is the
mere empty form which can be filled by any possible particular here. Thus it is the absolute
universal. Likewise the now, and likewise as well the perceiving I.
Being unable to say what it means and failing to find any truth in its immediate
certainty of the particular, consciousness moves on to the next step: In perception
consciousness takes the consequences of what it experienced in sense certainty and poses the
universal (rather than the particular) as its truth. Yet due to its concept of universality, which
is rooted in the sensual and is thus a mere negation of sensual particularity, perception finds
itself stuck in a seemingly irresolvable opposition between particularity and universality. The
object is conceived as a thing with many characteristics. Insofar as it is a thing, it is one. Yet
with regard to its many different characteristics, it is manifoldness. Furthermore, its
characteristics can change, and yet there seems to be a stable essence as well which stays the
same.
On the level ofunderstandingthese oppositions are resolved by the introduction of the
notions of force, law and the supersensible world. The things of perception are looked at as
mere appearances subjected to change, and consciousness turns toward the inner of things as
the stable realm of force and law, i.e. the supersensible world. After a long and difficult
5 Not only is the here an empty universal, even the particulars with which it can be filled,
cannot be communicated as particulars. When I say this house, I only say the mostuniversal. I can neversay the particular which I am meaning: This! Which? This canrefer to everything, everything can be a this. It is a mere empty container. House likewise isonly an universal and as far away from the particular house which I actually mean as can be.
4
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
5/26
struggle in which the perceiving individual tries to make sense of the oppositions it
encounters, it is forced to recognize that there is no independent inner of things, no inner of
things as such. The inner of things is simply the thought or the notion that the individual itself
forms of objects. Thus the inner of things exists only insofar as there is an individual
perceiving it. The individual has to go behind the Vorhange, welcher das Innere verdecken
soll () ebensosehr damit gesehen werde, als dass etwas dahinter sei, das gesehen werden
kann.6 Consciousness therefore makes the experience that there is no object as it really is,
independent of consciousness. The Kantian distinction ofDing an sich andDing fr mich is
rejected. The Ding an sich is only fr mich. My experience of an object always already
presupposes the I that experiences. Consciousness therefore turns away from the objective
world, towards itself, and Hegel moves on to discuss the development of self-consciousness.
Self-consciousness
After its attempt to get knowledge of the outside world, consciousness turns back onto
itself. It poses itself as its object. It turns away from the outside world and only considers
itself in itself. The result can only be the tautology of I am I from which no further step can
be taken. Hegel refutes the Cartesian positing of the immediate individual self-consciousness
as the starting point from which a whole system, encompassing the entire world can be
derived. One of Hegels great achievements is his strong case for the impossibility of
solipsism.7 Not only is the individual stuck in the tautology of I am I from which it can
move no further. It also immediately experiences an internal splitting and contradiction: It is
subject, but it also is object: It is split, it is two, yet it also is an absolute unity, it is one.8
Desire
The unity has to become the essential, and so the splitting has to be negated and the
opposition overcome. This is only possible if the difference is placed outside of self-
consciousness and then negated in order to (re-)constitute its unity. Thus self-consciousness
poses its object outside of itself again and negates it: it is desire. By negating the object
outside of itself and using it for itself, it poses itself as the absolute and only important being
and at the same time shows the inessential character of everything else. The thing is for self-
6 PG pp. 135f.7 This is instructively pointed out by Sartre in Husserl, Hegel, Heidegger (Das Sein und das
Nichts).8 In this split the previous experiences of consciousness with the objective world are
preserved: the opposition between unity and manifoldness and between particularity anduniversality.
5
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
6/26
consciousness a mere nothingness. By, for example, eating up this apple, I show that it is
nothing to me, that I can use it for my own interest, that I am its truth and the only important
part in my relationship with it. It is important to note that, for Hegel, desire stems from a
double motivation: it has a negative and a positive side. Firstly the individual wants to negate
everything that is other to it in order to achieve a true unity with itself. Secondly it wants to
objectify its own being in the world and posit itself as the true essence of everything other
and thus attain true unity with itself. By negating the object and using it for itself,
consciousness experiences its unity with itself and becomes self-aware. It now has two
objects: first the thing which it desires and negates, and second itself which is the true object,
but which exists only in opposition to the first one: Bewutsein hat als Selbstbewutsein
nunmehr einen gedoppelten Gegenstand, den einen, den unmittelbaren, den Gegenstand der
sinnlichen Gewiheit und des Wahrnehmens, der aberfr es mit dem Charakter de Negativen
bezeichnet ist, und den zweiten, nmlichsich selbst, welcher das wahre Wesen und zunchst
nur erst im Gegensatze des ersten vorhanden ist.9 Self-consciousness is thus not, as was
supposed in the beginning, an immediate experience, but rather it is always and necessarily
mediated through another object outside of itself: das Selbstbewutsein ist hiermit seiner
selbst nur gewi durch das Aufheben dieses Anderen.10
The sensual object of desire, however, turns out to be not satisfying, not suitable for
attaining this end. For while consciousness at first believes to attain independence and self-
consciousness by negating the dependent, un-autonomous thing, it comes rather to experience
that the opposite is true. Consciousness wird daher vielmehr die Erfahrung der
Selbststndigkeit [des Gegenstandes] machen11. For if the individual can attain self-
consciousness only through the object, it is in fact dependent on it. And at the very moment it
negates it and the thing ceases to exist, the individual loses its self-certainty as well. The
desire therefore has to be perpetually renewed and directed towards a new object in order to
ensure the persistence of self-consciousness. The other possibility would be not to negate the
object in the first place. But then the desire would not be satisfied at all and self-certainty
never attained. From this paradoxical situation, i.e. that the individual needs to negate the
object yet cannot do so without negating itself as well, it follows that the individual actually
needs an object of desire which negates itself, and so does not cease to exist after being
negated. That is, the object has to be negated in the dialectical sense rather than in the
absolute sense (i.e. it has to be a Negation des Bewusstseins rather than an abstrakte
9 PG p. 139.10 PG p. 143.11 PG p. 140.
6
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
7/26
Negation12): it has to be negated and at the same time preserved. And it has to perform this
negation on itself.
What could such a self-negating object be? According to Hegel there are three ways of
negating13: Firstly an object can be negated by another, that is through desire: I negate this
apple, I eat it. Secondly it can have the negation in its particularity as opposed to something
else: this apple is nota pear. Thirdly it can have its negation in its universal nature, i.e. in its
species (Gattung): insofar as it is universal, its particularity is negated. Only in this third case
does the object have its negation in itself, and Hegel calls this third kind of object a self-
consciousness. Self-consciousness is the only thing capable of negating itself. Any other
being simply is what it is. Only a self-consciousness reflects on its own being and is thus able
to negate it as well. A stone is not aware of its own being, and accordingly does not say I do
not want to be a stone anymore or I am a round stone, but I would much rather be a square
one. An animal does have self-awareness or a feeling for self, but it does not reflect on itself.
It likewise simply is what it is. Neither is it able to commit suicide in the full meaning of the
word, nor does it consciously change its way of being. It just fulfils, or tries to fulfil, its
immediate desires and to sustain its life. The human being, as a fully developed self-
consciousness, is the only being capable of negating its own being, it is the only being which
is able to understand itself not only as an individualbut also as belonging to a species and in
this sense being universal. It is capable of negating its own particularity in the light of its
universal character, i.e. to negate its own particular interests for the universal interests of
others.
From this it is already visible where the endpoint of the development of self-
consciousness must be: If it is characteristic of self-consciousness that it should be able to see
itself as universal and to negate itself (i.e. its own particularity) in this universality, then self-
consciousness necessarily needs mediation through the other for its self-reflection. It needs to
recognize itself in the other, it needs to understand the universality which unites the different
particular self-consciousnesses. It needs to becomespirit, an Ich, das Wir, und Wir, das Ich
ist.14 The way in which self-consciousness reaches this end is thus mutual recognition,
though this is not yet apparent for self-consciousness.15
12 PG p. 150.13 Cf. PG p. 144.14 PG p. 145.15 The concept of mutual recognition plays a crucial role in the self-consciousness part of the
Phenomenology, yet it is never extensively discussed. It is almost omnipresent and Hegelemphasises repeatedly that it indeed constitutes the endpoint, where self-consciousness istruly realized. This endpoint however, is not yet reached by the end of the self-consciousnesschapter and the concept of mutual recognition is dropped without properly being taken up
7
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
8/26
Recognition
Because of its experiences with the object of desire, it is clear now for self-
consciousness that it has to direct its desire towards another self-consciousness, and that it can
attain satisfaction only through that other self-consciousness. Only through such an other can
it avoid the paradox experience of self-consciousness that needs to, but cannot, negate the
object of its desire. Another self-consciousness can solve this problem, for it can perform the
negation on itself and so be preserved even in its negation.
But what does it mean to direct ones desire towards another individual? Drawing the
consequences from the above, I now do not want to negate the other, rather I want the other to
negate himself. I want the other to posit me as his essence; I want him to recognise himself in
me. I want the other persons recognition. At the same time I do not want to recognize the
other, because for myself only my own being contains truth, everything else, everything
outside myself means nothing to me. And I want to display this fact by negating everything
that does not belong to myself. I want to be purelyfor-myself. This has been apparent already
in the analysis of desire above. Desire arose because the individual needed a way of dealing
with its intrinsic split. Its being subject andobject, pure self-consciousness andsensual object
in the world (i.e. body), being-for-selfand being-for-other. This duality, however, has to be
overcome in order to conceive of itself as a unity, to become true, undisturbed being-for-self
and thus to attain true self-certainty. In order to do so self-consciousness became desire.
Now self-consciousness is still faced with the same problem. It has realized that its
desire has to aim at another self-consciousness rather than at an object, but it still wants the
same thing: to overcome this split and be fully reflected back onto itself. Its action is a
doubled one: It is directed towards the other as well as towards itself. It is directed towards
again later. TheEncyclopedia appears more straight foreward in this respect. In the third andlast section of the discussion of self-consciousness, entitled Das allegmeineSelbstbewusstsein, mutual recognition is actually achieved. Self-consciousness is universal(allgemein) insofar als es im freien anderen sich anerkannt wei und dies wei, insofern esdas andere anerkennt un es frei wei. (p. 226). In theZusatzHegel explicates that this thirdstep in the development of selfconsciousness is constituted by universal self-consciousness,d.h. dasjenige freie Selbstbewusstsein, fr welches das ihm gegenstndliche andereSelbstbewusstsein nicht mehr, wie auf der zweiten Stufe, ein unfreies, sondern eingleichfalls
selbstndiges ist (ibid.). In thePhenomenology this third step is not reached by the end of theself-consciousness chapter, though it is apparent that this is the aim and endpoint of thedevelopment. The focus then shifts however, to different matters and the notion of mutual
recognition is dropped before its full realisation. I shall simply follow Hegel as far as he goeswith developing the concept of mutual recognition in the self-consciousness chapter of the
Phenomenology. In the second part of this paper I will come back to this notion and explore ita bit further, transcending the frame of the respective chapter.
8
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
9/26
the other insofar as self-consciousness puts one of the extremes outside of itself: it takes the
other as object in order to be able to be its own object, mediated through the other, that is it
puts its essence outside itself. Now it wants to negate the other in order to negate the split and
to get its essence back; to be truly one and truly self-certain through the mediation.
The positive and negative side present in the movement of desire can again be
observed here. In immediate desire I wanted to negate the object of desire (negative aspect),
and I want to objectify my own being in the world and posit myself as the true essence of the
object (positive side). Having turned towards another self-consciousness has the advantage
that it is equally the action of the other, as it is mine. That means that I want the other to
negate himself (negative), and I want him to objectify my own being and to posit myself as
his true essence (positive). That is, I want him to recognize me and to see himself in me.
But there is a second element: The action that stems from this desire to (re-)establish
the unity of self-consciousness is directed not only towards the other but towards itself as
well. For there is a second split, which the individual experiences and wants to overcome. It
conceives of itself as pure (self)consciousness, as pure being-for-itself. Yet also it is body, a
sensual object in the world, and thus also for-others. Thus not only is the other a nothing for
self-consciousness, but also itself insofar as it belongs to the sensual world and is for-others
and not merely for-itself. The second activity is thus directed towards itself insofar as it is
being-for-others. It wants not only to negate the other in order to come back to itself, it also
wants to negate its own being-in-the-world in order to be truly and only for-itself, pure self-
consciousness.
Life and Death Struggle
What are the results of this double movement? It is evident that the positive side of its
action towards others (i.e. the objectification of ones own essence) leads to the quest for
recognition. Yet it is equally evident that this recognition cannot immediately be a mutual one
since neither of the individuals is willing immediately to give it. For such giving appears to
imply a loss of ones essence to the other. Yet every individual strives for pure being-in-and-
for-itself.
But which consequences follow from this negative aspect of the movement of desire
directed towards the other (i.e. the negation of the other)? Insofar as it is directed towards the
other, each individual strives for the negation of the other. It does so both actively and
passively: it wants to negate the other and at the same time wants the other to perform thisnegation himself. Insofar as the negative moment is directed towards himself, towards his
own being-for-others, the individual strives to negate himself and thus actually to fulfil what
9
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
10/26
the other wants him to do. Each of them therefore wants to kill the other and at the same time
is risking his own life. Both of these moments follow not only accidentally but necessarily. It
corresponds to the intrinsic logic spelled out above. Each of the individuals is not only willing
but actually has to risk his own life as it is valueless for it. And both are also necessarily
going for the death of the other, because as we have seen, the other is nothing as well and has
to be negated. Thus each is doing to itself what it does to the other, and is doing to the other
what it does to itself. This results in a life and death struggle for recognition.
It is evident however that if one of them succeeds in killing the other, nothing is won
rather is everything lost. For a dead person cannot recognize anyone, and so the victor did not
attain what he was fighting for. He is, of course, certain now that he risked his own life and
treated it, as well as the other, as valueless, but he did not attain recognition. And this
certainty is only a vanishing moment as it was in the case of the satisfaction of desire for an
object. No lasting self-certainty can come from that. What is necessary is indeed recognition,
which can only come about if both individuals stay alive. One of them therefore has to realize
that life is as essential to him as pure consciousness. Unwilling to risk his life, he surrenders.
He recognizes the other as his master, and becomes a slave.
Master and Slave
It may seem that the master has now got what he desired and thus achieved absolute
self-consciousness. Yet a closer analysis of the resultant situation will reveal that in fact the
opposite is true. The one who will eventually attain self-consciousness is the slave.
But before turning to an analysis of the development of the slave, consider the
situation of the master. He has an immediate and a mediated relation to both the slave and the
world. His relation to the slave is mediated through the world insofar as the master proved in
the fight that objective being is nothing to him, while the slave clung to his life. Thus, insofar
as the master is master over being while the slave is subjugated to it, the master is indirectly
the slaves master. Secondly, the masters relation to the world is mediated by the slave
insofar as the former lets the latter work for him in and on the world. What the master
consumes is thus prepared by the slave.
At first sight it seems as though the master has fully reached his goal. He gained
recognition without being forced to recognize someone himself. He is the essence for both,
himself and the other. He achieved what he desired. Yet, perhaps he did not know what he
wanted. For it is evident that he does not truly have his essence in himself if his self-certaintydepends on the others recognition. Much rather does he have his truth in the other. He is not
free, as he believes himself to be, but actually depends on the other.
10
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
11/26
Furthermore, it is clear that a one-sided recognition can be of no value. For what can it
mean for the master to be recognized by someone he himself does not recognize? Not
recognizing the recognizer means not recognizing the recognition; such recognition is as
much as no recognition at all. Recognition is only valuable if it stems from an equal, from
someone whom I recognize as a human being as well. The slave however, is not recognized
and thus his recognition cannot give satisfaction. What he would need is recognition by an
equal. Yet this is impossible since the master, by definition, refuses to recognize anyone. For
to recognize someone as equal would mean to give up his superiority and independence,
which is exactly what the master was notready to do in the life and death struggle. Thus by
definition the master prefers death to slavish recognition of anothers superiority.16 The
master can never (by himself) reach the point of mutual recognition. For that would mean to
change the relation of oppression into a relation of equals, which the master is unwilling to
do. He does not want to change the situation. He wants to stay master and be recognised as
such. Hence he can never be satisfied by recognition, and so never attains his aim.
The slave by contrast has every reason to will a change of the situation. He has no
interest in staying enslaved, he wants to be free, to be recognised as well. Furthermore, as
soon as he gets the other to recognize him, this recognition will be satisfying for it will be
mutual. It will come from someone he himself recognizes as well. It is evident from the above
that the masters consciousness is necessarily trapped in a dead end. All development, all
change and progress of history thus has to stem from the slaves consciousness.
But it seems the master can attain satisfaction (if not through the recognition by the
other) at least, after all, through the objective world. In letting the slave work for him and
prepare the objects of desire, it seems as though the initial problem of desire (the autonomy of
the objects) can be resolved. For now that the master has the slave in between him and the
world, he lets the slave deal with the autonomy of the objects while he himself takes only
their un-autonomous aspect and is thus able fully to enjoy them. Yet this too turns out to be a
wrong and hasty conclusion. It is true that the master indeed gets the enjoyment, while the
slave is stuck with the autonomy of the objects. But contrary to the first intuition this actually
benefits the slave. For the enjoyment, as something disappearing (non-lasting), is of no value
for the formation of a lasting sense of self-certainty as has been shown above.
The slaves work on the autonomous objects, however, is gehemmte Begierde,
aufgehaltenes Verschwinden17, i.e. is lasting. Precisely because he is not able fully to negate
the object, it is actually he who overcomes the problem of desire which is, namely, the
16 Kojve, Alexandre.Hegel. p. 55.17 PG p. 153.
11
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
12/26
disappearing character of the object of desire, or its inability to satisfy because it is not lasting
and thus has perpetually to be renewed. In the slaves case now, it is no longer disappearing
and can therefore give satisfaction. The slave is able to negate the object while at the same
time still preserving it (he has to keep it for the master). Through workingon it, changingit he
negates its nature without destroying it. The object remains there and the slaves negation
(change) is thus objectified. The slave can look at it, can realize it, can be proud of it, can be
satisfied: he puts his being as the essence which determines the being of the object. What the
master was unable to attain, the slave thus attains.
But this is not all, the slaves development goes further. For it still seems as though he
is dependent on the master, and as though the essence he impressed on the object is not really
his but actually the masters. It seems, that is, as though he still has his essence outside
himself in the master (being-for-other). Through his experiences, the slave is thrown back
onto himself (and thus attains real self-reflection, true being-for-self and thus true self-
consciousness). The cornerstone of this development was already lain in the life and death
struggle. In the experience of the fear of death, where it has durchaus in sich selbst erzittert,
und alles Fixe hat in ihm gebebt18, the individual was thrown back onto himself. In fearing
death, one realizes what is essential for oneself. One becomes aware of what one is, what
ones essence is, and one realises the nothingness of everything else. The individual had thus
already experienced the essence of self-consciousness, but up to now only implicitly. Through
service it becomes explicit. For it is in the work he does in the service of the master that the
slave can re-form reality and objectify his essence. In this work the slave also is able to
overcome his fear because in it he becomes master over the objective world to which he was
formerly subjugated and which he had formerly feared.
It is essential for this development that the slaves work isservice, labour for another,
rather than self-determined work for the satisfaction of ones own desires. If one was
producing for oneself, one would not be able to overcome the problems inherent in the
dialectics of desire. Only because it is impededdesire, only because one is working for the
other and hence is not able to really negate (i.e. destroy) the object, one actually attains
satisfaction through the objectification of ones negating (i.e. forming) powers and the insight
that the other is depending on oneself rather than the other way round. Furthermore, by
putting aside ones own interests and needs in order to fulfil those of the master, one creates
the preconditions for the development of all culture. If one would stay at the level of
immediate fulfilment of every need, one would never rise above animal life.
18 PG p. 153.12
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
13/26
Only action carried out in anothers service is work (Arbeit) in the proper sense of the word:an essential human and humanizing action. The being that acts to satisfy his own instincts,which as such are always natural, does not rise above nature: it remains a natural being, ananimal. But by acting to satisfy an instinct that is notmy own, I am acting in relation to anidea, a nonbiological end. And it is this transformation of nature in relation to a nonmaterialidea that is work in the proper sense of the word: work that creates a nonnatural, technical,humanized world 19
Only through deferring immediate desires space for thinking, and for formulating ideas, aims,
ideologies etc. is created. Likewise art, as something not immediately useful, is only possible
when the satisfaction of immediate desires loses importance.
Finally, it is crucial to understand that both moments fear of death, and service are
necessary for the slave to attain self-consciousness. If he was only labouring without having
experienced fear of death, his action would be merely idle deed and stubbornness (Eigensinn).It would not have the existentialcharacter and would therefore lack the power to change the
individual. If, on the other hand, a person had experienced fear of death without afterwards
entering the service of the one whom he fears, the fear would remain inward and silent, would
lack a way of expressing itself, and thus one would not be able to process and overcome it.
Again the element of service rather than mere self-determined work is essential because it
ensures that the fear takes over the entire conscious reality of the individual through which the
whole process gets its necessary existential character.
It is thus the slave and not the master who attains real self-consciousness.
Nevertheless, he does not immediately dare to free himself from his submission to the master.
Rather, first he invents various ideologies or worldviews (stoicism, scepticism and
Christianity) intended to justify this very submission. Yet none satisfies, which leads
consciousness to move on to reason. Only in full mutual recognition, the end-point of its
development, can the individual reach real satisfaction.
19 Kojve Alexandre, Desire and Work in the Master and Slave. p. 52.13
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
14/26
Part Two: Implications and Relevance
The key notions in this chapter raise very interesting questions, important both with
regard to socio-political issues as well as concerning the history of development of the
individual. Which meaning does work have for the individual, what does humane work have
to look like, and what are the implications of long-term unemployment for the self-image of
the individual? What does mutual recognition mean on a socio-political level in times of
multiculturalism and frequent clashes between different cultures, religions and worldviews?
What does it imply with regards to tolerance of different cultures and religions? And what can
we learn from Hegels depiction of the life and death struggle for recognition about situations
where mutual recognition is refused? Would parties indeed, if pressed, employ any means
whatsoever in order to attain recognition?
Work
To discuss the meaning and importance of work is topical enough in times of financial
crisis and increasing unemployment. In Hegels analysis of the development of self-
consciousness, work plays a crucial role. On the one hand work appears as the possibility to
create something, and thus to objectify ones own being in the world. On the other hand it is
also important insofar as work is something which the other can appreciate and for which the
individual is recognized.20 Without work, the individual would not be able to attain a feeling
of self-worth and would never be able to free himself from his subjugation and enslavement.
The influence of work on individuals self-understanding and its role in the creation and
maintenance of self-esteem has been clearly shown by many psychological studies over the
past century.21
However in Hegel there is another aspect. He stresses the importance ofslave labour
over against self-determined work. It is only from this serving another that the development
towards full self-consciousness is possible. Hegels argument is that self-determined work
lacks the necessary existential character and would thus not lead to real self-objectification
through the work. Secondly, the whole development of satisfying desire in a sustainable way
is possible only because the slave is forced to work for another and his work is therefore a
20 To put it into the terms of the master-slave dialectic: the master has to recognize the slavebecause he is forced to realise that he is fully dependent on the slave, on the slaves work,
who is pre-paring everything for his use.21 See for example Jahoda, Marie; Lazarsfeld, Paul & Zeisel, Hans.Die Arbeitslosen von
Marienthal. Ein soziographischer Versuch ber die Wirkungen langandauernder
Arbeitslosigkeit. (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1975).14
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
15/26
kind of delayed gratification or impeded desire. And thirdly, it is only in this unequal
relationship that the slave is able to overcome nature and create culture and science:
the slave who works for the master represses his instincts in relation to an idea, a concept.
And this is exactly what makes his activity a specifically human activity, a work, anArbeit. Byacting, he negates, he transforms the given, nature, his nature; and he does it in relation to anidea, to what does not exist in the biological sense of the word, in relation to the idea of amaster that is, to an essentially social, human, historical notion. Now, to be able to transformthe natural given in relation to a non-natural idea is to possess a technique. And the idea thatengenders a technique is a scientific idea, a scientific concept. Finally to possess scientificconcepts is to be endowed with understanding, Verstand, the faculty of abstract notion.Understanding, abstract thought, science, technique, the arts all these, then, have their originin the forced work of the slave.22
Even in this apparently negative aspect of work (as forced, un-free activity, exploitation)
Hegel sees positive aspects which are necessary for the development of humanity23. Slave-
labour does not only bilden in the sense offormingreality but indeed also in the sense of
educating the worker and leading to the progress in history Hegel believes to be able to
observe. This perhaps too positive view of labour is also a key element of Marxs Hegel-
critique,24 and indeed can be understood only from the point of view of historical
development. In order to create the possibility (or even the necessity) of a progress towards an
increasing realisation of freedom, there has to be a starting point of inequality. In his theses
for his state doctorate, Hegel writes: Der Naturzustand ist nicht ungerecht, und gerade
deshalb muss man aus ihm herausgehen25, one has to leave the fair natural state and enter into
an unequal state of lordship and bondage which forms the beginning of civilisation. And the
more extreme the inequality in the beginning, the more tautly the bow is drawn the more
strain there is and the more powerful the resultant movement towards full realisation of
22 Kojve, Desire and Work. p. 57.23 It is noteworthy once more, that the entire development of consciousness via stoicism,
scepticism and Christianity up to reason and finally absolute knowledge is actually thedevelopment of the slave-consciousness. The fact that Hegel sees the whole development ofcontemporary societies and culture as resulting from slave-consciousness, reminds very muchof Nietzsche. On his account, likewise, the entire current culture is a development of slave-morality. There is however a huge difference in their respective attitudes towards this fact.
Nietzsche views it entirely negative, as something that has to be overcome in order to allowfor the evolvement of the bermensch. Hegel, on the other hand, has a very positive andoptimistic attitude. He is convinced that history develops, indeed necessarily develops, in theabsolute good and right direction towards continuous improvement, reaching its highest pointwhen its final goal, i.e. absolute realisation of freedom, is realised.24 Hegel steht auf dem Standpunkt der modernen Nationalkonomie. Er erfat dieArbeitals
das Wesen, als das sich bewhrende Wesen des Menschen; er sieht nur die positive Seite derArbeit, nicht ihre negative. (Marx, Karl. Texte zu Methode und Praxis II Pariser
Manuskripte. p. 114.)25 Cf. Lukcs, Georg.Der Junge Hegel. p. 406.
15
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
16/26
freedom shall be. This is an idea that was taken over by Marx in his analysis of social
transformation: the poorer the working class, the more certain that it will come to revolution.
And the worse the situation of the working class, the stronger will be its uprising. As actual
history has shown, however, this development is perhaps not so necessary as Marx thought.26
Which conclusions can be drawn from Hegels analysis of work in the master-slave
relation? The positive effects of work on the individual for his self-understanding and self-
esteem are undisputed. It could, however, be more present in public discourse and shed a new
light on discussions about (conditions of) work27, and also on other contemporary ideas such
as basic income, etc. The positive effects Hegel sees in the negative aspects of work (in his
emphasis on the importance of slave-labour) are more questionable. But of course even this
positive attitude should not be taken as a legitimatisation of exploitation. For Hegel it was
simply a conceptual step, a conceptually preliminary stage, meant to be overcome by a
progressive realisation of freedom. Yet such legitimisation is possible only retrospectively,
once its logic and role within historical development can be seen. This, of course, cannot be
taken as a legitimatisation of slavery in the present, for nowadays it would mean a regress
towards less freedom. And even the retrospective legitimisation as a necessary first step can
of course be doubted, as the apparent historical inapplicability of Marxist theories would
suggest.
Mutual Recognition
Mutual recognition as necessary condition for attaining true self-consciousness is a
key concept in the self-consciousness chapter and in the Phenomenology as a whole. One
commentator, Siep28, calls mutual recognition the telos of the Phenomenology: real mutual
recognition is reached only in the very end of the development of consciousness. Furthermore,
recognition also is a very topical notion in contemporary social and political thought. Very
often, therefore, authors look back at Hegels conception of it. Another commentator for
example, Cobben, links Hegels understanding of recognition with human rights and
26 The insight that the grade of suppression and the likelihood of a successful revolt are notinterconnected in such a simple way, has also led to the rethinking of this position on post-and neo-Marxist thought. What comes to mind especially is Gramscis analysis of thesituation of socialism in western-European countries and especially in Italy, as opposed toRussia, and especially his pointing towards the importance of hegemony in order tounderstand contemporary societies.27 Knowledge of the importance of work for the creation of self-esteem and knowledge also of
the facets of work that are important for that (i.e. self-realisation, objectification andrecognition) could induce new deep-going discussions about ideal conditions of work andcharacteristics of truly humane and humanizing work.28 Cf. Siep, Ludwig.Der Weg der Phnomenologie des Geistes. p. 98.
16
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
17/26
democracy.29 Makowski brings up a comparison with the emphasis on tolerance in the
UNESCO Declaration of Principles on Tolerance.30 And Charles Taylor sees in democracy
and individualism the social developments which made the importance of the question for
recognition grow.31
What features of this concept make it so important and topical? And how might it be
applied to contemporary social and political questions? What conclusions can we draw what
can we learn from Hegel in this respect? Before linking the notion of recognition with
contemporary political questions, I shall first look again at Hegels concept thereof.
For Hegel mutual recognition is a necessary condition for achieving true self-
consciousness. Only recognition, as we have seen above, can overcome the problems inherent
in an individuals engagement with the world. And in order to be really effective, recognition
has to be mutual. Yet this is something that individuals are not immediately aware of, they
have to discover it. It is interesting that there appear two distinct reasons for the individual to
commit to such a relation of mutual recognition, i.e. to agree to recognize the other as well. 32
Firstly there is an egoistic reason resulting from the masters starting to comprehend the
situation: he realizes that a slaves recognition is worthless and that at the same time he is
dependent on it and hence not free (as he thought he was). Both master and slave become
aware of the fact that they are only really free when they recognize the other as free as well.
Der dem Knecht gegenberstehende Herr war noch nicht wahrhaft frei, denn er schaute im
anderen noch nicht durchaus sich selber an. Erst durch das freiwerden des Knechtes wird
folglich auch der Herr vollkommen frei.33 Both will to be free themselves and hence will the
other to be free as well in order to attain their goal. This means that they are willing exactly
the same: freedom for both of them. Their wills are identified and, from their particular and
egoistic aim, a universal goal results.
A political reading of this immediately suggests itself. Close to social contract
theories, this argument could be formulated in the following way: in order to ensure my
possession of certain rights, I also have to acknowledge that others have equal rights; I have to
accept certain duties as well. In order to ensure my own freedom, I have equally to recognize
29 Cobben, Paul. Anerkennung als moralische Freiheit Grundmotive in derPhnomenologie des Geistes. pp. 44ff.30 Makowski, Piotr. Hegel on Recognition. Moral Implications of the Lordship and BondageDialectic. p.119.31 Taylor, Charles. The Politics of Recognition. pp. 26ff.32 Cf. Michalakis, Andreas. Hegel and Honneth: Recognition and the Justification of theMoral Point of View. pp. 270f.33 Hegel, G.W.F.Enzyklopdie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse (1830):
Dritter Teil: Die Philosophie des Geistes: Mit den mndlichen Zustzen (Werke 10).p. 226f.17
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
18/26
the freedom of others.
But Hegels conception of recognition goes much further than a Hobbesian social
contract theory. The interesting and valuable feature of Hegels model of recognition is that it
is not restricted to an egoistic will of fulfilling my own interest and understanding that it is
necessary therefore to recognize others as well. Rather, Hegel creates a space for a non-
egoistic reason to commit to a relation of mutual recognition as well. This attitude is based on
the thought of species (Gattung). I see you not only as another particular individual with your
own particular needs and interests, I also see in you the universal aspect of the human. I
understand both you and me as belonging to the same species. I see myself in you. From this
results a universal, moral claim to mutual recognition, which is independent of personal and
egoistic interests and attitudes in a way reminiscent of Kants second formulation of the
categorical imperative: i.e., that one should always treat humans as ends in themselves and
never merely as means. Hegels position differs from Kants, however, in at least two
respects: in that it is still founded in the immediate experience of individual consciousness,
and in the fact that this mutual recognition is finally constitutive of self-consciousness. 34
Can we understand from this why Hegels concept of recognition, or recognition in
general, gained such an importance in contemporary social and political thought? I have
already touched upon Taylors analysis of this question, yet it deserves further comment.
Taylor35 argues that there were two developments in society which gave rise to a new view on
recognition. The first is related to the disappearance of social hierarchies and replacement of
the notion of honour (which is connected to social inequalities, for if everyone would be
honoured equally then honour would be meaningless) by the concept of dignity (which is
expressive of an attitude of equality, for dignity is something that belongs to everyone on a
most basic level). Democracy thus is an expression of this quest for abstract universal equality
and hence an instance of mutual equal recognition.
The second change leading to a new emphasis on the concept of recognition is related
to individual personality. Whereas over long periods identity was defined by society, i.e. by
the social function one was fulfilling, we are now living in a time in which everyone makes
his own identity, which is expressed in the ideal of authenticity. Therefore, however, we are
more than ever dependent on recognition from others. This is so exactly because our identity
is no longer defined by society and hence no longer automatically (a priori) recognized.
Rather the attainment of recognition now can fail. This is the reason why the question of
34 For a closer discussion of the moral implications of Hegels concept of recognition relatingit to Kants categorical imperative, see Cobben, Anerkennung als moralische Freiheit.35 Cf. Taylor, The Politics of Recognition and The Need for Recognition. (esp. pp. 46f.)
18
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
19/26
recognition is nowadays of such prime importance. The recognition we are striving for in
these new circumstances is, however, fundamentally different than it was formerly. Now we
are looking not for universal recognition of everyones abstract equality, but rather for a
recognition of my very personal, particular individuality, i.e. exactly my being differentthan
the others.
In contemporary societies therefore two opposite quests for recognition may be
identified: the seeking for recognition of universal equality on the one hand, and the striving
for recognition of individual particularity and difference on the other. Taylor identifies them
with a politics of equality and a politics of difference.36
Interestingly these converse needs for recognition are present already in Hegel. In the
two motivations for recognizing the other, discussed above (i.e. the egoistic search for
individual freedom, and the non-egoistic, moral demand based on the understanding of
species) the emphasis lies on the universal equality. Yet the emphasis on an individuals
particularity is strongly present as well. Thus the will of the persons to negate the other and
even their own body: they want to be purely for-themselves, purely individual. Therefore they
want to negate their body as something that is universal about them, that makes them species
as well as pure singular individual.37 Furthermore it wants to negate the other in order to stress
its particularity: I am different than you.
This second kind of recognition recognition of particularity, of difference is even
more apparent in Hegels earlier writings of the Jena period, most of all in his System der
Sittlichkeit.38 Here Hegel talks about crime (the precursor of what is to become the life and
death struggle in the Phenomenology). The reason why someone commits a crime is, he
argues, that the person sees that his relation to law is always one-sided, either universalising
or particularising him and thus never grasping him truly. Law universalises me insofar as
law is always universal, applying to all humans which fall under its scope. In this sense it sees
me as merely a member of the species, whereas I experience myself as a particular individual.
Yet law also particularises me. That is so because insofar as a law (or punishment) applies to
me, it never refers to my whole person, it always concerns only one very particular aspect of
myself and prescribes one particular conduct. As such however, it can never do justice to me
as a whole person, and so I conceive of myself as something more universal than that as
which the law treats me.
Out of this twofold relation to the law arises fear. The individual is afraid that these
36 Taylor, The Politics of Recognition, pp. 37f.37 This is why Hegel talks about the self-negation of self-consciousness as a negation of
particularity in universality, i.e. in species. (cf. PG p. 144)38 Hegel, G.W.F. System der Sittlichkeit. pp. 41f.
19
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
20/26
two sides of himself, his particularity and his universality, will fall apart. It is this fear that
leads a person to crime, in the hope that his negation of the law will (re-)unite those two
aspects of himself. Of course this is bound to fail. The individual realises that by negating the
law (and thus the others) it much rather negates himself, it understands that what is needed is
mutual recognition which cannot be attained by committing crimes. But it is not necessary to
go into more detail here. Crucial only is the fact that both sides of being recognised in ones
universality as an equal human being, as well as in ones particularity as a different individual
are explicitly worked out by Hegel.39
This demand to recognize a person in his entirety, i.e. in his particularity as well as in
his universality without abstraction, is also central in Hegels short text Wer denkt abstrakt?
Here Hegel accuses people, in dem Mrder nichts als dies Abstrakte, da er ein Mrder ist,
zu sehen und durch diese einfache Qualitt alles brige menschliche Wesen an ihm [zu]
vertilgen.40
The fact that Hegel pays attention to the recognition of particularity as well, might be
one of the great advantages of his theory over against Fichtes. In Fichte recognition is a
purely formal and hence universal matter whereas Hegel also points towards the more
concrete, personal, and emotional aspects.41
With this background we can now turn to contemporary issues again. Taylor points out
correctly that there seems to be a conflict between those two sides, i.e. between the politics of
equality and the politics of difference. This becomes apparent when thinking of recognizing
minority groups. Different attitudes are displayed here. On the one hand there are those who
fight for equal treatment of everyone on the grounds that all are equal. On the other there are
people who fight precisely fordifferenttreatment sensitive to the differences between distinct
social groups. This was visible in early feminism when some movements fought for equal
treatment of men and women, while others, who saw essential differences between the sexes,
fought for different treatment. Likewise, in questions of minority groups, which are always
under threat of being absorbed into the predominant culture, the same counter-movements can
be observed.42
The politics of equality stresses the universal equality of all persons; the politics of
39 For a more detailed analysis cf. Kloc-Konkolowicz, Jakub. Kampf um Anerkennung alsTriebkraft der Gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung: Hegels Realphilosophie.40 Hegel, G.W.F.Jenaer Schriften (1801-1807).p. 578.41 Cf Siep, Ludwig. Anerkennung in der Phnomenologie des Geistes und in der heutigen
praktischen Philosophie. And Wildt, Andreas. Der Kampf um Anerkennung inAutonomieund Anerkennung Hegels Moralittskritik im Lichte seiner Fichte-Rezeption.42 Think for example of the French speaking Canadians, who are having their own (different)laws in order to ensure their persistence.
20
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
21/26
difference teaches us to see diversity as something valuable, enriching and positive as well.
By reconsidering his analysis of crime, we can learn from Hegel that neither approach is
satisfactory on its own. Both emphases, on universality and on particularity, are one-sided and
over-simplifying. What the individual (and, on a larger scale, the social group) needs is the
unification of both; it needs to be recognised as being particular as well as universal. A
reconciliation of both attitudes is necessary.
In a somewhat different sense this opposition between equality and difference is also
observable in the nowadays very present debates about Islam and integration of Islamic
persons in Western societies. Discussions about whether or not Islamic women should be
allowed to wear headscarves or even burqas in public, whether Muslims should be allowed to
built mosques with or without minarets, etc., are omnipresent. These questions have
everything to do with the recognition of difference. Of course it does not have to be restricted
to debates relating to Islam, it is equally true for any other minority group in a country, yet
debates about Islam today seem especially emotional and ubiquitous. The question of
recognition (or rather the failure to grant recognition) lies at the heart of contemporary policy
making related to immigration and xenophobia. Hence also the particular importance of
recognition in times of globalisation and multiculturalism.
Alongside these questions about recognizing social groups, an analysis of the
recognition of individuals can reveal important aspects of contemporary social life and
persons self-understanding. As Hegel points out, being recognized by the other is a necessary
condition for attaining self-consciousness and self-esteem. What then, are the consequences
when such recognition fails? Taylor writes, that
our identity is partly shaped by recognition or its absence, often by the misrecognition ofothers, and so a person or group of people can suffer real damage, real distortion, if the peopleor society around them mirror back to them a confining or demeaning or contemptible picture
of themselves. Nonrecognition or misrecognition can inflict harm, can be a form ofoppression, imprisoning someone in a false, distorted, and reduced mode of being.43
The idea is, that people adopt the image of themselves, which others display to them.
In 1968 Jane Elliott came up with a very informative experiment illuminating exactly
this feature of the human psyche. As a reaction to the assassination of Martin Luther King,
she decided to do an exercise with a class of high-school students in order to help them
understand what racism means. She started discriminating among them on the basis of their
eye-colour, treating some as inferior and others as superior. The children adopted this pictureof themselves very quickly and their conduct as well as their intellectual achievements
43 Taylor, The Politics of Recognition, p. 25, see also p. 26 and pp. 64f.21
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
22/26
changed dramatically according to this new self-understanding.44 But this notion appears
already in Hegel, as when he writes dass das andere Bewusstsein [the slave] sich als
Frsichsein aufhebt und hiermitselbst das tut, was das erste [the master] gegen es tut.45
With this background, recognition of individuals in their individuality and as fully-
fledged persons appears in a new light. For it becomes clear how much a persons self-esteem
and self-conception depends on its being recognized by others. And this again is a question
very much present in contemporary societies, where discrimination unfortunately remains a
commonplace. This analysis of recognition also reveals the vicious circle in which many
misrecognized individuals find themselves. If, for example hostile attitudes towards
foreigners are displayed and slogans equating foreigners with criminals are overtly
propagated, then maybe we should not be surprised if criminality amongst immigrants indeed
increases. But it is also of capital importance on a less extreme level, regarding every single
person. For everyone is dependent on the others recognition for the attainment of his own
self-understanding and self-esteem. This is especially so in a time of increasing
individualisation and emphasis on fabricating ones own particular identity.
Another interesting aspect in the discussion of recognition is that, in Hegel, the
struggle for recognition is an absolute, a life and death struggle. This can shed some light on
another major phenomenon in contemporary social and political life: terrorism. Terrorism
could be explained as a struggle indeed as life and death struggle for recognition, a cry of
certain political groups to be perceived and acknowledged as equal (on the dance floor of
world politics) and as different (in the particularity of their worldview and self-
understanding). To them such violent action may appear as the only means of fighting for this
recognition still available to them. It is the most immediate and most existential quest for
acknowledgement. Following a Hegelian analysis, it has to come to this life and death
struggle. In the light of denied recognition, the terrorist group wants to negate the other (the
western world) in order to demonstrate its own importance and to force the other to recognize
it. Furthermore, when self-esteem and self-understanding are at stake, life itself becomes
valueless. Life can therefore easily be sacrificed for the attainment of this higher good. A
struggle for life and death is only the logical consequence.
This is how far the analogy goes for, because the fight has not yet ended (and it is
questionable whether there will ever be a clear victory of the one side over the other), it is
44 For a description and discussion of Elliotts blue eyed/brown eyed exercise see i.a. Infinito,
Justen. 'Jane Elliot Meets Foucault: The Formation of Ethical Identities in the Classroom',And Schlicher, Jrgen. Die Braunugig-Blauugig bung Ein Trainingskonzept zurThematisierung von Diskriminierung anhand der Augenfarbe.45 PG p. 151f. (my emphasis).
22
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
23/26
impossible to think of the two parties of master and slave in a way strictly analogous to
Hegels analysis. It might be worthwhile to play through the possibilities nevertheless. The
terrorists are willing to go all the way; they are willing to risk, or rather renounce, their lives.
And it is exactly this that is so frightening for the western world. We want to live. We are
willing to fight, but life is dear to us. In that sense it seems as though the western world is
becoming the slave and the terrorists the master. And indeed it seems as though we are the un-
free ones: all the anti-terror politics is simply a reaction, it does not happen by free choice.
Yet at the same time to drive the Hegelian dialectics further one could argue, that we are
attaining self-consciousness (i.e. a group feeling, feeling of unity, belonging together,
solidarity, or unanimity that could never be attained otherwise) through this very opposition.46
What becomes apparent through this is a relation of mutual dependence underlying the
supposed independence of both parties. Terrorist groups depend on their being recognized in
order to establish their own self-esteem and identity. And likewise the western world depends
on this outside other, this enemy, for its sense of unity and belonging together and thus for its
ability to remain a functioning political entity.
Conclusion
To be sure Hegel has pointed towards some very interesting phenomena in his
discussion of self-consciousness. The thematisation of work was not only very influential on
subsequent thinkers but could enrich discussions still today. Questions on work-conditions,
the right of individuals to work, or the influence work has on a persons self-image are topical
enough in times of financial crisis and increasing unemployment. Hegels emphasis on work
as self-realisation and precondition for personal as well as societal development may shed an
interesting light on contemporary discussions.
In the analysis of recognition particularly with linking recognition to the realisation
of a persons self-understanding Hegel has pointed to a very important aspect of the human
psyche. Furthermore recognition should be neither a mere calculative action for egoistic
purposes, nor a purely altruistic deed. Hegel connects the selfish interest with a real moral
demand in the incitement for recognizing. Furthermore, the counter-movements, apparent in
contemporary politics and identified by Taylor as the politics of equality and of difference, are
present already in Hegel as well. He indeed has an eye for the opposition of particularity and
universality present in every individual and experienced in ones relations to the other and to
46 Cf. Schmitts analysis of the political as a friend-enemy relation developed inDer Begriffdes Politischen. The other, outside, is always necessary in order to constitute a group identityand a sense of belonging together and forming a unity.
23
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
24/26
the law. Hegel argues that we need to unify these two ambitions, toward universality and
particularity, and this is perhaps his most central lesson for us: we should not think too one-
sidedly. If we want to recognize someone in his entirety, as a full person, being universal and
particular, we have to see ourselves in him: We are equally particular and universal. This
means that the other, the stranger, has to become familiar without thereby loosing his
distinctness in an undifferentiated sameness.
It is apparent that we can learn a lot from Hegels analysis of self-consciousness on a
(world-)political level as well as on a social and also on a psychological plane; concerning
inter-personal relationships on a great scale as well as on the intimate level. One need not take
all his conclusions for granted undisputedly in order to acknowledge that he does address
important issues in a way still relevant today, and that an examination of his writings can
continue to stipulate our thinking and practice.
24
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
25/26
Works Cited
Hegel, G.W.F.Enzyklopdie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse
(1830): Dritter Teil: Die Philosophie des Geistes: Mit den mndlichen Zustzen
(Werke 10). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1970.
---.Jenaer Schriften (1801-1807) (Werke 2). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1970.
---.Phnomenologie des Geistes (Werke 3). Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1986.
---. System der Sittlichkeit. Hamburg: Verlag von Felix Meiner, 1967.
Cobben, Paul. Anerkennung als moralische Freiheit Grundmotive in derPhnomenologie
des Geistes.Phil. Jahrbuch 116: I (2009): 42-58.
Infinito, Justen. 'Jane Elliot Meets Foucault: The Formation of Ethical Identities in the
Classroom',Journal of Moral Education, 32: 1 (2003): 67-76.
Jahoda, Marie; Lazarsfeld, Paul & Zeisel, Hans.Die Arbeitslosen von Marienthal. Ein
soziographischer Versuch ber die Wirkungen langandauernder Arbeitslosigkeit.
Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1975.
Kloc-Konkolowicz, Jakub. Kampf um Anerkennung als Triebkraft der Gesellschaftlichen
Entwicklung: Hegels Realphilosophie.Hegel-Jahrbuch: Hegels politische
Philosophie II(2009): 274-279.
Kojve, Alexandre.Hegel. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1975.
---. Desire and Work in the Master and Slave.Hegels Dialectic of Desire and Recognition.
Ed. J. ONeill. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.
Lukcs, Georg.Der Junge Hegel. Berlin: Luchterhand, 1967.
Makowski, Piotr. Hegel on Recognition. Moral Implications of the Lordship and Bondage
Dialectic.Hegel-Jahrbuch: Hegels politische Philosophie I(2008): 119-124.
Marx, Karl. Texte zu Methode und Praxis II Pariser Manuskripte. Ed. Gnther Hillmann.
Reinbeck bei Hamburg: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, 1972.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. Sense and Non-Sense. Transl. H. Dreyfus & P. A. Dreyfus.
Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1982.
Michalakis, Andreas. Hegel and Honneth: Recognition and the Justification of the Moral
Point of View.Hegel-Jahrbuch: Hegels politische Philosophie II(2009): 268-273.
Rauch, Leo & Sherman, David.Hegels Phenomenology of Self-Consciousness. Albany:
State University of New York Press, 1999.Sartre, Jean-Paul. Husserl, Hegel, Heidegger.Das Sein und das Nichts. Transl. J. Streller.
Hamburg: Rowohlt Verlag, 1952.
25
7/29/2019 4.Hegels Conception of Self-Consciousness
26/26
Schlicher, Jrgen. Die Braunugig-Blauugig bung Ein Trainingskonzept zur
Thematisierung von Diskriminierung anhand der Augenfarbe. Nov 2005. Heinrich
Bll Stiftung. 3 May 2010
Schmitt, Carl.Der Begriff des Politischen. Berlin: Duncker & Humboldt, 2009.
Siep, Ludwig.Der Weg der Phnomenologie des Geistes. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp
Verlag, 2000.
---. Anerkennung in der Phnomenologie des Geistes und in der heutigen praktischen
Philosophie.Deutsche Zeitschrift fr Philosophie: Anerkennung. Sonderband 21
(2009): 107-124.
Taylor, Charles. The Politics of Recognition.Multiculturalism. Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1994.
---. The Need for Recognition. The Ethics of Authenticity. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 1991.
Wildt, Andreas. Autonomie und Anerkennung Hegels Moralittskritik im Lichte seiner
Fichte-Rezeption. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1982.
http://www.migration-boell.de/web/migration/48_368.asphttp://www.migration-boell.de/web/migration/48_368.asphttp://www.migration-boell.de/web/migration/48_368.asphttp://www.migration-boell.de/web/migration/48_368.asp