45. SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS: DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT …45. SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS: DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT LEG 58, PHILIPPINE SEA Stan M. White,1 Hervé Chamley*2 Doris Curtis,3 George

45. SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS: DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT LEG 58,PHILIPPINE SEA

Stan M. White,1 Hervé Chamley*2 Doris Curtis,3 George deVries Klein,4 and Atsuyuki Mizuno,5 with a specialcontribution on physical properties by David M. Fountain6

INTRODUCTION

Five sites were drilled on DSDP Leg 58 in the northPhilippine Sea (Figure 1). The total penetration was2971.5 meters, with 1591.8 meters recovered (54%).One re-entry operation was completed (Site 442).

Primary objectives of Leg 58 (see also introductorychapter in this volume) were to examine the geologic his-tory of the north Philippine Sea and to test two modelsfor the origin of back-arc basins. Those two models are:(1) origin of marginal basins by a rifting process iden-tical to sea-floor spreading, and (2) origin of marginalbasins by entrapment of older oceanic crust behind ayounger active trench. Three sites were drilled in theShikoku Basin, where surveys suggested a symmetricalarrangement of magnetic anomalies, to test the spread-ing model, and two sites were drilled in the Daito Ridgeand Basin province to test the entrapment model.

Leg 58 provided an opportunity to answer severalquestions relevant to the problems of the sedimentologyof back-arc basins in the western Pacific. These prob-lems include (1) an analysis of the variability of sedi-ment styles and processes in each of the basins; (2) thecauses of sediment variability; (3) the effect of paleocir-culation on sedimentation in the basins; and (4) the rela-tionship of sediment facies to tectonic evolution in suchback-arc basins.

The purpose of this chapter is to synthesize the sedi-mentology of the north Philippine Sea.7 Our synthesis isbased on sedimentological studies from Leg 58 sedimentcores and focuses on specific problems posed by drillingduring Leg 58.

1 Deep Sea Drilling Project, Scripps Institution of Oceanography,La Jolla, California. Present address: Robertson Research (U. S.)Inc., Houston, Texas.

2 Sedimentologie et Géochimie, Université des Sciences et Tech-niques de Lille, U.E.R. des Sciences de la Terre, Villeneuve d'Ascq,France.

3 Shell Development Company, Bellaire Research Center, Houston,Texas. Present address: 16730 Hedgecroft, Suite 306, Houston, Texas.

4 University of Illinois/Urbana-Champaign, Department of Geol-ogy, Urbana, Illinois.

5 Geological Survey of Japan, Kawasaki, Japan6 University of Montana, Department of Geology, Missoula,

Montana.7 With contributions by Dorothy Echols, Hisatake Okada and Jon

Sloan (paleontology); Douglas Waples (organic geochemistry); andHajimu Kinoshita (Paleomagnetism).

SOURCES OF DATA

Major sources of data are analyses and interpreta-tions of the visual core descriptions and smear-slide dataprepared during the cruise and information derivedfrom post-cruise studies. DSDP laboratories at ScrippsInstitution of Oceanography provided grain-size, organ-ic-carbon, and calcium-carbonate data (see White, thisvolume).

The introduction to this volume discusses back-ground and objectives of the Leg 58 drilling programand contains explanatory notes relating to core-hand-ling and sediment conventions, as well as specific dataon age determinations. The reader is also referred to thesite-summary chapters in this volume, as well as tospecial chapters on selected sediment studies, for de-tailed information on the drilling sites and material con-tained in this synthesis.

GEOLOGIC SETTING, SITE OBJECTIVES, ANDSTRATIGRAPHY

Shikoku BasinThe Shikoku Basin (Figure 1) is an elongate, trough-

shaped marginal basin; its axis is oriented approximate-ly north-northwest to south-southeast. A previous (pre-Leg 58) seismic study of the basin indicated that it has arough acoustic-basement topography mantled by threeclastic wedges (Karig, Ingle, et al., 1975; Marauchi andAsanuma, 1974, 1977).

The objectives of drilling in the Shikoku Basin (seealso site reports, this volume) included (1) a test of thevalidity of a symmetrical-spreading model developedfrom mapping of magnetic anomalies (Tomoda et al.,1975; Kobayashi and Isezaki, 1976; Watts and Weissel,1975); (2) determination of the petrology of basementrocks from this back-arc basin; (3) the study of paleo-magnetic nature and history of the basin and determina-tion of the source of the magnetic anomaly signal; and(4) a determination of the sediment distribution andsedimentation patterns and, where possible, the natureof paleocirculation in the basin.

Site 442Site 442 is on the west side of an extinct spreading

center, on magnetic anomaly 6 (19-21 m.y.), where theanomaly has strong intensity. A total of 286 meters ofsediment and 160 meters of basalt were penetrated. A

963

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

60 N

4 ‰, %. \%, ' SI /—-si) U ^3000

135°W 150° 165° 180°W

Figure 1. Location of sites drilled during Leg 58.

complete sedimentary section was recovered at Hole442A, whereas at Hole 442B, offset 70 meters to thenorth of Hole 442A, sediments were recovered whichare equivalent to the sediment units in Hole 442A be-tween 267.5 meters sub-bottom and the top of basalticunit 1 (286.1 m sub-bottom).

The stratigraphic section consists of five lithologicunits of Quaternary to early-Miocene age (Figure 2).The lowermost sedimentary unit, unit V, a 0.4-meter,pink-gray limestone, directly overlies basaltic unit 1 (seeDick et al., this volume).

The following are some significant characteristics ofthe sediment section drilled:

1. The sampled section is a continuous representa-tion of the early Miocene (M6-19 m.y.) to the late

Quaternary and is dominated by muds and(or) clayswith a tendency toward coarser sediments in Cores442A-1 through 442A-4. Sediments of units I to III arehemipelagic, whereas sediments of unit IV are pelagic.The latter are characterized by micronodules and evi-dence of bioturbation.

Explosive volcanic activity which occurred near thesite is evident throughout the sediment sequence: vol-canic glass and pumice are irregularly disseminated inall sediments.

2. The entire sediment sequence above unit V is char-acterized by the rarity of calcium carbonate; however,nannofossils are common to abundant in Cores 442A-1to 441A-4. The remainder of the section below Core 4 isvirtually barren of calcareous microfossils, except for

964

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

the limestone of unit V, which contains smaller-fora-minifer tests. Therefore, the depositional surface waseither slightly above or slightly below the carbonate-compensation depth (CCD). Deposition during earlyand early middle Miocene occurred above the CCD, butapparently below the lysocline. From the late middleMiocene through the early Pliocene, deposition oc-curred below the CCD, while during the late Plioceneand Quaternary deposition occurred slightly above theCCD. The exact depth of deposition cannot be deter-mined exactly, because no data exist concerning presentor past elevations of the CCD in the Shikoku Basin (seeSite 442 report, this volume).

3. Sedimentation rates range from 0.8 to 17.5 m/m.y. for the Miocene through the Pliocene (units Vthrough II), increasing to 30.9 m/m.y. for the Pleisto-cene.8 (See Site 442 report, this volume, and section onsedimentation rates in this paper.)

4. Hemipelagic clays and claystones of units I, II,and III were deposited in a distal or basinal facies. TheKyushu-Palau Ridge appears to be the most likelysource area, inasmuch as the site is on the eastern edgeof a clastic wedge which thickens westward against theKyushu-Palau Ridge, but this is not proved.

Site 443Site 443 is on the east side of a supposed extinct

spreading center, on magnetic anomaly 6A (21-22m.y.), where the anomaly has moderate intensity. Atthis site, 457 meters of sediment and 125 meters of ba-salt were penetrated.

Five sedimentary units were distinguished, from latePleistocene to early or middle Miocene (Figure 3, backpocket, this volume). Unit V (358.5-457.0 m), a dark-green-gray sequence of interbedded claystone, mudstone,ash, and nannofossil chalk, is the oldest sediment recov-ered (15 m.y.), suggesting a basement age at variancewith the age of magnetic anomaly 6A.

Below unit V, the basaltic rocks includes pillowbasalts, produced by crust generation at a spreadingcenter, and intrusive basalt sills formed by off-ridge vol-canism.

Significant characteristics of the sedimentary se-quence are:

1. The sediment section represents a probably con-tinuous sequence from the early or middle Miocene(about 15 m.y.) to the late Pleistocene and Holoceneand is dominated by mud and mudstone. Clay mineralsare the main components, throughout associated withminor quantities of quartz, feldspars, and volcanicglass. (See Chamley, this volume.)

The sediments are chiefly hemipelagic, terrigenouscomponents being abundant throughout the section andmixed in variable proportions with planktonic compo-nents. Sediments deposited after the formation of thebasin (unit V) show evidence of strong current activity,possibly indicating moderate and temporary turbidite

8 Assuming the Pliocene/Pleistocene boundary at 1.6 m.y.

deposition. Explosive volcanic activity near the drill siteis apparent from the well-defined ash layers throughout.Major volcanic activity occurred during the early middleMiocene (when sedimentation began), the early lateMiocene, and the middle to late Pleistocene.

2. Calcareous and siliceous fossils occur throughoutthe sedimentary sequence; however, there are wide vari-ations in the amounts of nannofossils and foraminifers,indicating changes in the CCD. This suggests that thedepositional surface was above or near the CCD andprobably below the lysocline.

3. Sedimentation rates were high during the earlymiddle Miocene and the Pleistocene.

Site 444Site 444 is on the east side of a supposed extinct

spreading center, on magnetic anomaly 6A (21-22 m.y.)where the anomaly has moderate intensity. A single-bithole penetrated 272.7 meters of sediment and 37.3 me-ters of basalt.

The sedimentary succession consists of five lithologicunits, which range in age from early or middle Mioceneto Quaternary. The two basalt units are diabase sills,one of which intrudes middle-Miocene mudstones (Fig-ure 4).

The lowest sedimentary unit, unit V (272.0-272.7 me-ters), a reddish-brown and greenish-gray, zeolitic, cal-careous claystone (middle Miocene), overlies basalt unit2, a plagioclase phyric basalt and diabase. The age ofthis sediment is 14 to 15 m.y., whereas the age of intru-sion of the basalt sill of unit 1 is 14.7 ±2.1 m.y. (seeMcKee and Klock, this volume). Both basalt units ap-pear to be younger than the initial sedimentation andprobably indicate an episode of off-ridge volcanism inthe Shikoku Basin that post-dates the youngest age ofspreading, reported as 17 m.y. by Kobayashi and Ise-zaki (1976) and Kobayashi and Nakada (1977).

Significant aspects of the sediments at Site 444 are asfollows:

1. In general, the sediments are predominantly hemi-pelagic mud, with abundant volcanic glass and largeproportions of terrigenous clay and silt. The pyroclas-tics occur either as discrete layers, or as components ofthe mudstone. Hard, well-lithified mudstone and clay-stone occur in several cores above and between basalts.Pelagic, zeolitic nannofossil claystone or ooze is presentin the lowest meter of sediment above the second basaltlayer.

2. Volcanic activity was intense in the site vicinityduring deposition of most of the sedimentary sequence;it was less intense during the late Miocene and Pleisto-cene than at other times. Variations in nearby volcanicactivity are reflected also in distribution and thicknessof ash beds, which show graded, upward-fining bed-ding. Where the ash is a relatively pure glass associatedwith nannofossil mud, it represents settling of ash fromsuspension in the absence of currents, rather than tur-bidity-current deposition. In these cases, the ash contentdecreases upward as the nannofossil content increases.

3. Calcareous nannofossils are present in varyingquantities in most of the section. Siliceous microfossils

965

OON

Site: 442Water Depth: 4639 m Total Penetration: 313.5 m (Hole 442A); 455.0 m (Hole 442B).

50-

150-

Age

200 (?)

early

LithologicUnit

Unit 1Dark-green andgray mud, clay.

-164.0 m-

Unit IIYellow-brown tobrown and dark-brown mud.

Unit IIIIlia: Yellow-brownnaud witrxsiliceousfossils.Illbr Gray and dark-green intermixedash and mud.

*Unit IV_285.7 m.Unit V--286.1 m~289.7 m

Basalt

Lithofacies Sand

0 40

Silt

0 100

Clay

0 100

CaCO3

0 20

Organic Carbon

0 20

Sonic Velocity(km/s)

2.0 3.0 4.0

Hemipelagic mudand mudstonewith pyroclastics

-123.5 m-

Hemipelagicmud andmudstones

-256.0 m-Pyroclastics withhemipelagicmudstone

-276.0 m-Pelagic sediment(non biogenic) with

| biogenic (calcareous)-286.1m

-286.1 m-

*Unit IV (Hole 442A), recovered from 277.1to 285.7 meters,is dark-brown clay and claystone, with zeolites.Unit V (Hole 442A), recovered from 285.7 to 286.1 meters,is hard fine grained,pink limestone; basalt was encounteredat 28 6.1 meters. Unit IV (Hole 442B), recovered from277.0 to 289.7 meters.is dark brown zeolithic clay andaltered ash beds; basalt was encountered at 289.7 meters.

Figure 2. Stratigraphy, lithofacies, and sediment data, Site 442.

Thermal Conductivity

(mcal/cm2- C•s)Shear Strength

( 1 0 5 dynes/cm2)

8.0

Wet-Bulk Density

(g/cm3)

1.4

Grain Density

(g/cm3)

2.2 3.0

Water Content

(wt. %)

40 50

Porosity (%)

70

mZHCΛ

ZHacmCO

Figure 2. (Continued).

ON00 Site: 444

Water depth: 4843 m. Total penetration: 91.5 (Hole 444), 310.0 m(Hole 444A).

50-

100-

150-

200-

250-

Age

c

i%K.

§q

CD

cu

1

s

-S!T3

ε

S

LithologicUnit

Unit 1la: Dark-green-grayand gray mud, vitricmud

°8 6 mIb: Olive and olive-grayvitric mud, mud, andcalcareous mud

48 m

Unit IIOlive-gray-brownmud, vitric mud

Unit IIIIlia: Brown mud,vitric mud, ash;

calcareous andsiliceous mud

120 m

I l ib: Brown mud,siliceous mud.pumice

Unit IVIVa: Brown mud,siliceous mud.nannofossil ash,ash

196 m

IVb: Greenish-gray andgray mudstone, ash;vitric, siliceous, andcalcareous mudstone

228.6 m

IVc: Gray claystone,mudstone, andsandstone; basalt sill(240.6-253 m)

Lithofacies Sand

(%)0 2 0 4 0

Silt

(%)0 100

•Hemipelagic mud *and mudstonewith pyroclastics

?R R m a n S 6 m fHemipelagic mud andmudstone with «pyroclastics, andpelagic sediment

""I (biogenic .calcareous)CO —

• - — &J m1 53 m *

Hemipelagic mud andmudstone withpyroclastics

Hemipelagic mud and 2*mudstone withpyroclastics, andpelagic sediment

"1 (biogenic, calcareous)

••IΛO m

• *1 02 m 1

Hemipelagic mud and # Φ

mudstone with # «pyroclastics

•Hemipelagic mud *and mudstone withpyroclastics, and

π pelagic sediment1 (biogenic,calcareous)1 .. -v—

1 / / m

2 ^ m

••Hemipelagic mudand mudstone * *resedimented; # «mudstone withpyroclastics, # #

pelagic sediment(biogenic.calcareous,and siliceous)

•?7? 7 m 979 7 m

Clay

(%)0 80

CaCO3

(%)0 20 40 60

••••• t

•

•••••••••••«•

Organic Carbon

(%)

0 20

••

•

S

••

#Φ•

*

I

*•

•*Φ

Φ

Φ

Φ

#

Sonic Velocity(km/s)

1 2 3 4

{

k _

UnitVRed-brown and green-gray,zeolitic calcareous, pelagicclaystone and nannofossilooze

Figure 4. Stratigraphy, lithofacies, and sediment data, Site 444.

Thermal Conductivity(mcal/cm2- C-s)

1 2 3

Shear Strength(10 5 dynes/cm2)

4 8 12

Wet-Bulk Density(g/cm•5)

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Grain Density(g/cm3)

2.2 2.6 3.0 30

Water Content(wt. %)

40 50 60 50

Porosity (%)

60 70 80

Figure 4. (Continued).

oON

S. M. WHITE ETAL.

are discontinuously common in samples from the mid-dle Miocene to late Miocene. Foraminifers are rare orabsent throughout. The depositional surface appears tohave fluctuated both above and below the CCD, but itremained well below the lysocline. Deposition of thehemipelagic clays of unit II and the basal part of unit IBwas below the CCD. The remaining units were depos-ited slightly above the CCD.

4. The sediment-accumulation rate is generally mod-erate throughout, the greatest rates occurring during thePleistocene and the middle Miocene, when there was anincrease in the volume of ash. The sediment accumula-tion rate for the unit V pelagic red clay is extremely low(<l m/m.y.). Possible hiatuses occur at the Pliocene/Pleistocene and Pliocene/Miocene boundaries at theboundaries of Lithologic units.

Daito Ridge and Basin Region

Two sites were drilled in the Daito Ridge and Basinregion in a triangular area west of the Kyushu-PalauRidge and east of the Ryuku Trench, in the northwestPhilippine Sea. Objectives of drilling at these sites were(1) to determine the age of the oldest sediment and thebasement in this region, and (2) to determine the subsi-dence history of the Daito Ridge. Dredge hauls on theDaito Ridge and the nearby Amami Plateau and Oki-Daito Ridge recovered samples of greenschist, horn-blende schist, serpentine, andesite, basalt, and grano-diorite, indicating an older, highly complex igneous andmetamorphic basement (Mizuno et al., 1977; Shiki etal., 1977; Yuasa and Watanabe, 1977). Younger sedi-mentary rocks have been reported from the dredge haulson topographic highs. Oligocene nannofossil chalkfrom the eastern part of the Daito Ridge (Nishida et al.,1978) and Pliocene pelagic calcareous mudstone fromthe Oki-Daito Ridge (Mizuno et al., 1975) indicate thatthe young sediments are pelagic. Several limestonesamples containing the large Eocene foraminifer Num-mulites boninensis (Konda et al., 1975; Mizuno et al.,1975) from the Daito Ridge, Oki-Daito Ridge, and Am-ami Plateau, dredged from water depths ranging from1160 to 2340 meters, were redeposited from Eoceneshallow-water sediments.

Other objectives included determination of (1) thechange in paleolatitude of the Daito Ridge and Basinarea, (2) the paleocirculation of the region, and (3) thesediment distribution and sedimentation processes.

Site 445Site 445 is in a narrow, east-west trending depression,

(at a depth around 3400 meters) on the east side of theDaito Ridge; it is open toward the northwest and con-nected to the KitaDaito Basin through a channel. Thedepression is surrounded by topographic highs to thenorth, south, and east, with heights of 1900 to 2000meters relative to the bottom of the depression. Con-tinuous seismic-reflection records show accumulation ofthick sedimentary fills overlying possible basementrocks. The sediments, which are for the most partacoustically well-stratified, appear to abut against thetopographic highs.

970

A single-bit hole penetrated 892.0 meters of sedi-ment. The stratigraphic section consists of five units(Figure 5, back pocket, this volume).

The following points characterize the sediment se-quence:

1. The 892-meter-thick section represents a redepos-ited sequence of the middle Eocene (47-48 m.y.) to lateQuaternary, interrupted by a late-Eocene/early-Oligo-cene hiatus. There was resedimentation of biogenic pel-agic oozes and terrigenous and volcaniclastic sands andconglomerates by turbidity currents, slumping and slid-ing, and fluidized-sediment and debris flow. The vol-ume of sediment deposited by resedimentation rangesfrom 30 to 70 per cent.

Terrigenous materials, which exclusively occupy thelowest part of the section, decrease upward and becomea very minor component within the late Eocene to Qua-ternary. On the contrary, calcareous biogenic compo-nents (mainly nannofossils) gradually increase upwardwithin the middle to late Eocene sequence and form anessential component of the Oligocene to Quaternary.Radiolarians are a dominant component only in themiddle Eocene to late Eocene. Volcanic ash is present inthe late Eocene to Quaternary sequence, but not signifi-cant; however, some intervals of the early to middleOligocene, the late Miocene, and the Pliocene to Qua-ternary are relatively rich in disseminated volcanic ashand glass.

2. The sequence is dominated by various sedimen-tary structures related to resedimentation by turbiditycurrents, including graded cycles and different types ofcomplete Bouma (1962) and partial Bouma sequences.Middle-Eocene sediments of unit V are characterized byother sedimentary structures characteristic of debris orfluidized-sediment flows.

3. Preservation of tropical foraminifers and nanno-fossils is excellent in the Pleistocene, Pliocene, and up-per Miocene. However, in the lower Miocene and upperOligocene, the foraminifers and nannofossils indicatecolder waters. The Eocene fauna is tropical.

The depth of deposition was well above the CCDfrom the late Eocene to present, and probably above thelysocline from the latest Eocene to the present. Thedepth of deposition during the middle Eocene was likelyat or slightly below the CCD.

4. Rates of accumulation are low for the purely pela-gic intervals, moderate for the resedimented biogenicpelagic carbonates, and high for the sandstones andconglomerates of unit V. This history of early rapid sed-imentation which slows with time is similar to changesin sediment accumulation rates reported by Andrews,Packham et al. (1975) for the New Hebrides Basin(DSDP Site 286) and the South Fiji Basin (Site 285).

A slow sedimentation rate for the early Oligocene tomiddle Oligocene markedly interrupts the nearly contin-uous sedimentation from middle Eocene to Quaternary.Micropaleontology suggests that the top of the Eoceneis missing at this site, which may be interpreted as a hiat-us caused by nondeposition and/(or) submarine erosionduring the late Eocene through early Oligocene. An Oli-gocene/Eocene hiatus is widespread in the southw

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

Pacific (Kennett et al., 1977) and the Indian Ocean(Davies et al., 1975); it may be a result of climatic eventsin Antarctica and paleocirculation changes (van Andelet al., 1975).

The hiatus at Site 445 suggests similarity of paleocir-culation patterns in the Daito region to those in thesouthern oceans, a finding consistent with the equator-ial paleolatitude of the site during deposition.

5. Paleomagnetism measurements on sediment sam-ples illustrate a systematic change in magnetic inclina-tion with depth (see also Kinoshita, this volume). Thechange in magnetic inclination indicates that the site hasdrifted in a net northerly direction over the last 47 m.y.At 45 to 47 m.y. ago, the site was close to the presentequator, and it has migrated nearly 2000 km to its pres-ent position at an average rate of 4.4 cm/yr. These dataare in agreement with results obtained by Louden (1976,1977) in the west Philippine Basin.

Site 446Site 446 is in the Daito Basin, immediately south of

the Daito Ridge and north of the Oki-Daito Ridge, inthe northwestern Philippine Sea. A single-bit hole pene-trated 628.5 meters of sediment, the lower portion ofwhich was intruded by numerous basalt sills.

The stratigraphic succession (Figure 6, back pocket,this volume) consists of four lithologic units, one ofwhich comprises sedimentary rocks interlayered withbasalt sills. This lower unit (unit IV, 362.5-628.0 m)consists of interlayered dark-greenish-gray, calcareousclaystone, mudstone, siltstone, and turbidite sandstone,and is the only unit with significant amounts of ash.

Some sediment interbeds overlying or underlying thebasalt sills appear baked and assume dark brown toblack colors. Recovered sediment types occurring as in-terbeds include (in general order of abundance) mud-stone and claystone; glauconitic sandy mudstone, mud-stone, and claystone; calcareous mudstone and clay-stone; ashy mudstone and siltstone; and ash and alteredash beds or zones. Sediments present in small amountsare zeolitic claystones, chalk or clayey chalk, lithic sand-stones and siltstones, and chert. The sediments for themost part have the following characteristics: laminatedbedding (1 mm to 1-2 cm), silty laminations that fineupward into claystones, evidence of bioturbation, andsoft-sediment deformation features; other sedimentarystructures include cross-beds, graded beds, and rippledor undulating bedding surfaces.

Although basement was not reached, the age of theoldest recovered sediment is early Eocene (52 m.y.).This date suggests that, if basement is not far below thedepth of penetration, the basement may be as young asearly Eocene. A basalt sill at 459 to 460.5 meters wasdated at 48.2 ±1.0 m.y. (McKee and Klock, this vol-ume).

Other significant facts concerning the lithology atSite 446 are:

1. Sedimentation has mostly consisted in early(mostly Eocene) resedimentation by turbidity currents,and later (latest Eocene to present) deposition of pelagicclay.

2. During the last 44 m.y., rates of sediment ac-cumulation were very slow because of the dominance ofpelagic processes, whereas during the first 8 m.y. ofdeposition the rates were moderate to fast because ofdeposition by turbidity currents (see also Andrews,Packham, et al., 1975).

3. The relative depth of deposition of the sedimen-tary units suggests that the depositional surface was ator just below the CCD. Deposition was clearly belowthe CCD during deposition of the clays in units I and II.Although calcareous foraminifers and nannofossilswere recovered, they were poorly preserved and appearto have been reworked by currents. During depositionof unit III, when turbidite deposition prevailed, re-worked nannofossils are common, suggesting that thedepositional depth of this unit was also below the CCD.Most of unit IV was also deposited below the CCD.

4. Paleomagnetism of the sediments and sedimen-tary rocks indicates that the site drifted in a net norther-ly direction over the past 52 million years, and hasmigrated nearly 2000 km to its present position. Thesedata are in agreement with Paleomagnetism measure-ments by Louden (1976, 1977) from the west PhilippineBasin. (See Kinoshita, this volume.)

SEDIMENTARY FACIESSix major lithofacies and seven subordinate lithofac-

ies were recognized in Leg 58 cores (Tables 1 and 2).These facies were distinguished by grain-size distribu-tion, mineralogy, lithology, association of sedimentarystructures and fabric, and mode of origin. Subdivisionof lithofacies in this paper follows designations com-monly used in sedimentological studies of outcrops onland, such as those suggested by DeRaaf et al. (1965)and subsequently extended to studies of DSDP cores byBerger and von Rad (1972) and Klein (1975a,b), amongothers. Figures 2 to 6 portray the vertical distribution ofthese facies at each drill site.

Hemipelagic Clay FaciesHemipelagic sediments (clays) are the most common

sediments recovered in Leg 58 cores, especially at Sites

TABLE 1Lithofacies Recognized in Leg 58 Sediment Cores

Major Facies Subordinate Facies

Hemipelagic

Resedimented clastic

Resedimented carbonate

Pelagic non-biogenic

Pelagic biogenic

Pyro clastic

Hemipelagic clayHemipelagic mudstone

Resedimented mudstoneResedimented sandstoneResedimented conglomerate

Calcareous pelagic biogenicSiliceous pelagic biogenic

971

S. M. WHITE ETAL.

TABLE 2Litliofacies by Depth at Leg 58 Sites

Site 442

Site 443

Site 444

Site 445

Site 446

Sub-bottomDepth(m)

0-123.5123.5-256

256-276276-286.7

0-44.845-121

121-181181-199199-216

217-233233-263.5

263.5-314314-358358-447

447-457

0-3030-53

53-83.583.5-102

102-158158-J77

177-272.7

0-141.8141.8-208

208-303

303-518518-549

549-609

609-645645-660660-888

0-4040-116

116-173173-362.5

362.5-514

514-630

Lithofacies

Major

Hemipelagic mudstoneHemipelagic mudstonePyroclasticPelagic non-biogenic

Hemipelagic mudstoneHemipelagic mudstone

Hemipelagic mudstoneHemipelagic mudstoneHemipelagic mudstone

Hemipelagic mudstoneHemipelagic mudstoneHemipelagic mudstoneHemipelagic mudstoneHemipelagic mudstoneResedimented mudstonePyroclasticHemipelagic mudstonePyroclasticCalcareous pelagic biogenic




Hemipelagic mudstoneResedimented mudstone

Calcareous pelagic biogenicResedimented carbonateResedimented carbonate

Resedimented carbonateResedimented carbonate

Resedimented carbonate

Siliceous pelagic biogenicSiliceous pelagic biogenicResedimented mudstoneResedimented sandstoneResedimented conglomerate

Hemipelagic clayHemipelagic clay

Hemipelagic clayResedimented mudstone

(as interbeds)Resedimented mudstone

(as interbeds)Resedimented mudstone

Minor

Pyroclastic

Hemipelagic mudstoneCalcareous pelagic biogenic

PyroclasticPyroclasticCalcareous pelagic biogenicPyroclastic

Calcareous pelagic biogenicPyroclasticCalcareous pelagic biogenic

PyroclasticCalcareous pelagic biogenic

PyroclasticPyroclasticCalcareous pelagic biogenicPyroclasticPyroclasticCalcareous pelagic biogenicPyroclasticPyroclasticSiliceous pelagic biogenic

PyroclasticCalcareous pelagic biogenicSiliceous pelagic biogenicPyroclastic

PyroclasticCalcareous pelagic biogenicCalcareous pelagic biogenicPyroclasticCalcareous pelagic biogenicCalcareous pelagic biogenicPyroclasticCalcareous pelagic biogenicSiliceous pelagic biogenicHemipelagic clayPyroclastic

Resedimented conglomerate

Calcareous pelagic biogenic

Pelagic non-biogenicPelagic non-biogenicPyroclasticPelagic non-biogenicHemipelagic mudstoneCalcareous pelagic biogenic

PyroclasticHemipelagic mudstoneCalcareous pelagic biogenicResedimented sandstoneResedimented conglomerate

Hemipelagic mudstoneCalcareous pelagic biogenic

442, 443, and 444 (early Miocene to Pleistocene), in theShikoku Basin. Variably colored (brown, yellow, gray,green) according to site location and age, they consistchiefly of terrigenous clay from volcanic arcs, theJapanese Islands, and continental Asia. The dominantsources of clay changed with time, because of variationsin volcanism, tectonic activity, and continental climates(see Chamley, this volume). Clay minerals, dominatedby smectite or illite, are accompanied by detrital feld-spars, quartz, and micas, and sometimes by amphiboles

and other heavy minerals. Volcanic material occursthroughout the sedimentary column at all drill sites,consisting chiefly of glass. Its proportion is generallylow, but in some intervals, especially the oldest, distinctash or glass levels exist. (See section on pyroclasticfacies.) Calcareous and siliceous tests are often poorlypreserved, likely because of dissolution, except at Site445 (depth less than 3400 m). Calcareous nannofossilsare the most frequent component, followed by radiolar-ians, planktonic foraminifers, and diatoms. Variationsin the proportion of organic debris depend on changesin the CCD with time and on plankton productivity, ordilution by terrigenous material.

Resedimented Clastic Facies

Resedimented Mudstone

The resedimented mudstone facies occurs as inter-beds with hemipelagic clays at Sites 443 and 444 in theShikoku Basin, and as interbeds with the resedimentedconglomerate and resedimented sandstone facies at Site445 (Daito Ridge) and Site 446 (Daito Basin) (Table 2).

The main attributes of the mudstone that indicateresedimentation are the variety of very small-scale sedi-mentary structures. These include thin (2-cm) gradedbeds of siltstone; parallel laminae of alternating silt andclay (Plate 1, Figure 1); fining-upward gradation of vol-canic-ash laminae into siltstone and claystone laminae;micro-cross-laminae; and sporadic thin breccia zonesconsisting of intraformational clay. At Site 445, inter-vals of the resedimented mudstone facies which are ar-ranged in slump blocks or slump folds commonly con-tain interbedded mudstone layers, which suggests resed-imentation by gravity processes. In addition, the associ-ation of this facies with the resedimented sandstonefacies and the resedimented conglomerate facies furtherindicates resedimentation in the formation of thesemudstones.

Resedimented Sandstone

The resedimented sandstone facies occurs at bothSites 445 and 446 (Table 2). It consists of thin tomedium-thick layers of sandstone ranging in grain sizefrom very coarse sand (2 mm) to very fine sand (1/16mm). Conglomeratic sandstones are also present, par-ticularly at Site 445; clasts never exceed fine-pebble size.Most sands are moderately well sorted; individual clastsare sub-rounded to angular.

The sandstone is compositionally variable, but domi-nantly volcaniclastic, with recognizable fragments ofandesite, phyric basalt, aphyric basalt, and microdoler-ite. Augite, detrital olivine, orthopyroxene, and clino-pyroxene were also observed. Clasts of Nummulitiesboninensis, oolites, pelecypods, and limestone are alsopresent. These sandstones show complex diagenetic andcementation change with depth (discussed more fully byKlein et al , this volume).

The resedimented sandstone facies shows a varietyof sedimentary structures, including parallel laminae,graded bedding, micro-cross-laminae, dish structures,

972

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

load casts, slump folds, micro-faults, and slump faults.Many of these structures are organized into partial orcomplete Bouma sequences.

Dish structures. A volcaniclastic-bioclastic sandstoneat 445-57-7, 0-40 cm contained dish structures (Plate 1,Figure 2). These dish structures are concave upward anddemarcated by finer-grained sediment. These dish struc-tures appear to be related to debris flow: grain flow andinternal shear (Stauffer, 1967), fluid escape (Lowe,1976; Lowe and LoPiccolo, 1974), and later shearing ac-tion on unstable surfaces of a debris flow. Later resedi-mentation smooths slope surfaces on such a flow to pro-duce the dish structures (Busch, 1976a,b). Busch'smechanism applies to the dish structures observed atSite 445.

Load casts. Load casts are common in the resedi-mented sandstone facies, particularly at the base ofsandstone overlying mudstone, or at the basal contactof Bouma sequences, such as at 445-89-2, 73 cm. Theload casts are formed by rapid deposition of the overly-ing sediment on soft, water-saturated clay and ash.

Microfaults. Microfaults occur within very thinsandstone beds (Plate 1, Figure 3). Vertical displace-ment on these faults is on the order of 5 mm. The micro-faults cut across bedding almost at right angles to thebedding planes, indicating tension related to intrabedslumping.

Slump blocks and slump folds. Thick intervals ofslump folds and slump faults are very common withinthe resedimented sandstone facies. Cores show inclinedlaminae truncated at the base and the top by horizontallaminae, clearly indicating large-scale mass movementby slumping of certain intervals. Similar slump foldswith near-horizontal or steeply inclined fold axes (70°from horizontal) are common, and the folded intervalsranged from 3 to 5 meters thick. Such intervals alsowere truncated by horizontally laminated sediment.Both the inclined stratified zones and the folded zonesindicate transport of sediment by slumping along un-stable depositional slopes.

Graded bedding. This structure is very common inthe resedimented sandstone facies and generally ischaracterized by a sharp basal contact with underlyingsediments. The grain-size changes observed in gradedbeds is either from small pebble gravel to medium sand,or from coarse sand to a very fine sand or coarse silt.Graded beds are transitional into overlying units, whichmay consist of parallel-laminated sand or resedimentedmudstone or siltstone.

The graded beds show a broad range of thickness,ranging from 1 cm to 1.3 meters. The graded beds lessthan 30 cm thick show a particle-size range from a basalcoarse-grained sandstone to a fine-grained sandstone atthe top (Plate 1, Figure 4), whereas graded beds thickerthan 30 cm tend to show a size range from a basal con-glomerate of fine pebble size to coarse sandstone at thetop (Plate 2, Figure 1). These graded beds generally passupward into finer-grained siltstone or mudstone (Plate2, Figure 2).

Most of the graded beds comprise parts of Bouma se-quences (Plate 1, Figure 1; Plate 2, Figure 1) and clearlyare due to deposition by turbidity currents.

Parallel laminae. Parallel laminae are common inthe resedimented sandstone (Plate 2, Figure 1), or as theTb interval of partial or complete Bouma sequence(Plate 1, Figure 1; Plate 2, Figure 2). In both instances,the parallel laminae are separated by distinct changes ingrain size from coarse- to medium-grained sand or me-dium- to fine-grained sand. Parallel laminae independ-ent of Bouma sequences also show alternating layers ofthin sand laminae and clay laminae, or clay laminae andnannofossil-rich laminae, such as at 445-68-1, 93-94cm.

The origin of the parallel laminae appears to be two-fold. Laminae independent of Bouma sequences prob-ably were deposited by ocean currents characterized byregular velocity fluctuations. The parallel laminae as-sociated with Bouma sequences resulted from deposi-tion by decelerating turbidity currents.

Micro-cross-laminae. This sedimentary structure oc-curs invariably as part of complete or partial Bouma se-quences, representing the Tc interval. The micro-cross-laminae are distinguished by textural, color, and com-positional changes for each lamina (Plate 1, Figure 1;Plate 2, Figure 1). Grain-size changes between suchlaminae normally range from medium sand to fine sand.Some of the micro-cross-laminae are oversteepened intoconvolute laminae (Plate 2, Figure 1).

The micro-cross-laminae are related to decelerationof turbidity currents.

Vertical sequences. The sedimentary structures ob-served in the resedimented sandstone facies are orga-nized into preferred sequences showing a systematic ver-tical change in grain size, lithology, and sedimentarystructures. The observed sequences represent completeor partial Bouma sequences. Two examples of such se-quences are shown in Plate 1, Figure 1 and Plate 2, Fig-ure 1.

The origin of Bouma sequences has been debatedsince they were described in detail by Bouma (1962) andinterpreted hydraulically by Walker (1965). Basically,the sequence records deposition by a decelerating tur-bidity current showing diminishing flow velocity, com-petence, and capacity. Such sequences commonly arerelated to submarine fans (Nelson and Kulm, 1973;Walker and Mutti, 1973; Walker, 1978). Complete se-quences normally are limited to the submarine-channelzone, partial sequences indicating either levee overspilldeposition, or deposition in suprafan lobes or in distalzones. In our opinion, these processes account for thepresence of the Bouma sequences observed in thisfacies.

The resedimented sandstone facies appears to berelated to deposition by turbidity currents on submarinefans. The source of the sediments was the remnant arcsof the Daito Ridge and Oki-Daito Ridge. Deposition bythese turbidity currents occurred on submarine fanswhich filled the small sediment pond on the Daito Ridge

973

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

at Site 445, and which prograded basin ward in the DaitoBasin, an inner-arc basin.

Resedimented Conglomerate Facies

The resedimented conglomerate facies occurs at bothSites 445 and 446 (Table 2).

The resedimented conglomerate facies consists ofthin to medium-thick layers of conglomerate. The clastsrange from granules to small cobbles, and are eitherdispersed and enclosed in a matrix of volcaniclasticsandstone and mudstone or are in framework contactPlate 2, Figure 3 and 4). In one instance, resedimentedconglomerates are imbricate in the basal portion ofBouma sequences of turbidite sandstone of the resedi-mented sandstone facies (Plate 2, Figure 1). Frameworkconglomerates comprise also the basal graded portionof several partial and complete Bouma sequences.

The mineralogy of the conglomerate is varied; thereare two compositional categories. One category is dom-inated by fossil fragments consisting mostly of completeor broken fragments of the larger foraminifer Nummul-ites boninensis. In addition, other foraminifers com-monly occur in the matrix, and pelecypod fragments,algal fragments, and oolites have been reported. Round-ed limestone clasts also occur. The second composi-tional category comprises volcaniclastic grains. Theseare mostly basaltic but include micro-dolerite, andesite,phyric basalt, and aphyric basalt, all of oceanic-crustand island-arc derivation. In addition, some clasts ofschist, gneiss, and granodiorite were present. Our obser-vations are consistent with rocks obtained by dredgehauls from the Daito Ridge and the Oki-Daito Ridge byMizuno et al. (1977) and by Shiki et al. (1977) (Table 3).

This facies shows almost no sedimentary structures,although a few samples show a crude fabric on the coresurfaces. Most of the conglomerates correspond to Wal-kers (1975) disorganized-bed model: random orienta-tion of clasts either in framework contact or dispersed(Plate 2, Figure 3). Imbrication of clasts was observed insome of these disorganized units (Plate 2, Figure 4)although opposite-dipping imbrication was found atone horizon (Plate 2, Figure 3). Most of this particlealignment is emphasized by the shape of fragments ofNummulites boninensis, but that alignment also paral-lels the orientation of associated disc-shaped clasts ofvolcaniclastic material and limestone fragments (Plate2, Figure 3).

Imbricated and stratified conglomerates conformingto Walker's (1975) graded stratified model were ob-served in association with the basal portion of Boumasequences, both partial and complete, in interbeddedresedimented sandstones (Plate 3, Figure 1). Normalgrading and a suggestion of reversed grading occurwithin this basal conglomerate zone, which correspondsto both the Bouma Ta and Tb intervals (Plate 3, Figure1).

The resedimented conglomerate facies very clearlywas emplaced in both a small sediment pond on the rem-nant arc of the Daito Ridge (Site 445) and in an inner-arc basin (Daito Basin) (Site 446). Sedimentation clearlywas by subaqueous gravity processes, including both

TABLE 3Summary of Resedimented-Conglomerates from Site 445

and Dredge Hauls from the Daito Ridge

Site 445 (Unit V)

Rock Type

Basalt

Igneous Alkalibasalt

Andesite

Grano-diorite

Ultrabasic

Lithic Clasts

Plagioclasephyric basalt

Micro-doleriteApyric basaltPlagioclase

clinopyroxenephyric basalt

_

_

_

-

DetritalMinerals

PlagioclaseAugite

AegiiineTitaniferous

augite

i

•>

PicotiteDiopsideEnstatiteMagnetiteSerpentine

pseudomorphafter olivine

Dredge Hauls from theDaito Ridge

Dolerite

Two-pyroxene andesiteHornblende andesiteAugite andesite

Hornblende-biotitegranodiorite

Peridotite(metamorphosed)

Metamorphic

Sedimentary

Biogenic

Hornblende schist

ChertNummuli res-bearing

limestoneSandstone

Nummulitesboninensis

Asterocyclina sp.PenuriaOperulinoides sp.

Greenhornblende

LpidoteMagnetitellmenite

1

-

Epidote-horn blendeschist

Hornblende schist

Nummulites-beaiinglimestone

SandstoneClaystoneCalcareous rock

Nummulites boninensisA s tero cy clinα sp.Discocyclinα sp.

debris flow deposition, represented by the disorganizedconglomerates and conglomerates showing a dispersed-clast fabric, and the transition from debris flow to a tur-bidity current, represented by the imbricated and strati-fied conglomerates associated with Bouma sequences.The source of the sediments was the island arc now rep-resented by the Daito Ridge and the Oki-Daito Ridge.Both volcanic material and coastal carbonate depositswere transported from a shoreline and island setting in-to deeper water by these processes.

Resedimented Carbonate Facies

The resedimented carbonate facies was observed onlyat Site 445 on the Daito Ridge; it is interbedded with thepelagic biogenic carbonate facies, the biogenic siliceousfacies, and the hemipelagic clay facies (Table 2).

The resedimented carbonate facies consists of fora-minifer-nannofossil oozes, chalks, and limestones; nan-nofossil-foraminifer oozes, chalks, and limestones; andinterbedded laminae and beds of volcanic-ash-rich ooze,chalk, and limestone. The carbonate grains range frommedium sand to clay, depending on the proportions offoraminifers and nannofossils in the sample. These car-bonates consist mostly of calcite shells of foraminifersand nannoplankton; they contain accessory hemipelagic

974

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

clay and, in some horizons, interbeds of volcanic ashand sand-sized volcanic-rock fragments.

This facies is characterized by many types of sedi-mentary structures and fabric, indicating a variety ofresedimentation processes by subaqueous gravity flows.Among the observed structures and fabrics were distor-ted burrows, microfaults, slump folds, slump blocks,load casts, graded bedding, parallel laminae, and micro-cross-laminae. Many of these structures are organizedinto partial or complete Bouma sequences and showdefinite affinities with identical structures in the resedi-mented sandstone facies.

Distorted burrows. Some of the bioturbated zonesshow evidence of shearing and disruption as a result ofresedimentation. Plate 3, Figure 2 shows part of a coreconsisting of bioturbated, clayey nannofossil ooze, inwhich the upper part of the bioturbated zone is un-disturbed, but the lower part is sheared, and the bur-rows are distorted and smeared. The distorted burrowsare aligned in parallel and demarcate a crude type oflaminar structure. These types of disturbed bioturbatedintervals are fairly common in the resedimented car-bonate facies and suggest a mode of transport of someof this facies by debris flow. The disturbed zone repre-sents the laminar-flow zone associated with debris flows(Hampton, 1972), whereas the overlying undisturbed in-terval may well represent the rigid plug of this debris flow.

Microfaults. Microfaults were observed in resedi-mented chalks and limestones and occur in beds whichshow sedimentary structures generated by slumping.The microfaulted intervals are generally confined tothin beds of clayey limestone and the enclosing layers(Plate 3, Figure 3). The microfaults cut bedding nearlyat right angles. Some of the faulted blocks show evi-dence of rotation. We interpret these microfaults torepresent a phase of tensional deformation associatedwith down-slope slumping.

Slump structures. Many varieties of slump structureswere observed in the resedimented carbonate facies.These included slump fractures (or faults), slump blocks,blocks, and slump folds. Each of these structures occursin intervals ranging from 10 cm to 3 meters in thicknessand are demarcated above and below by horizontallybedded carbonate. Slump folding (Plate 3, Figure 4) isaccentuated by changes in bedding controlled by changesin color and composition and invariably shows fold axi-al planes inclined 10 to 20 degrees from the horizontal.Slump blocks (Plate 4, Figure 1) range from 2 cm to 2meters in diameter and are usually set off from enclos-ing sediment by changes in color and composition.

Vertical slump fractures are also common, either asbounding surfaces of slump blocks, or as planes inter-secting bedding, other sedimentary structures, or partialBouma sequences (Plate 4, Figure 2). These fracturestend to be oriented normal to bedding and show singleor compound vertical displacements ranging from 0.5 to3 cm. They appear as a syndepositional or post deposi-tional resedimentation structure.

It is our interpretation that these structures are inter-preted to have formed during down-slope mass trans-

port of sediment by sliding and slumping on unstableslopes.

Load casts. Load casts were observed in the resedi-mented carbonate facies where carbonate rock litholo-gies were overlying interbedded volcanic ash with sharpcontact. The limestones and chalks overlying the load-cast contact showed well-developed slump folds, slumpblocks, or slump fractures, indicating rapid depositionof carbonate sediments on water-saturated ash beds. Theload casts represent a physical record of this event of rap-id deposition.

Graded bedding. Graded bedding is one of the mostcommon sedimentary structures in the resedimentedcarbonate facies. Graded bedding always overlies asharp contact and grades upward into the overlying sed-iment. Grading tends to be coarse-tail, and graded inter-vals range from 0.5 to 20 cm in thickness.

The graded bedding is defined by a transition fromnannofossil-foraminifer ooze, chalk, or limestone intoa foraminifer-nannofossil ooze, chalk, or limestone.These graded beds occasionally contain up to 15 percent siliceous or terrigenous and volcaniclastic grains(Plate 4, Figure 3). Most of these graded beds pass up-ward into a clayey nannofossil ooze, chalk, or limestonewith a gradational contact. Most of the graded bedscomprise parts of complete or partial Bouma sequences(Plate 4, Figure 2) and were deposited by turbidity cur-rents.

Parallel laminae. This structure is also very commonin the resedimented carbonate facies. The parallel lami-nae are demarcated by changes in grain size from fora-minifer-rich to nannofossil-rich zones and from bio-clastic constituents to clayey limestones, by alternationof carbonate and volcaniclastic components (Plate 4,Figure 3; Plate 5, Figure 1), and (as disclosed by radio-graphy) by alternation of carbonate laminae with hemi-pelagic clay laminae (Plate 5, Figure 1). Some of theselaminae appear as faint, discontinuous laminae on coresurfaces, but are shown to be continuous by a radio-graphy (Plate 5, Figure 1). Most of the parallel laminat-ed beds comprise complete or partial Bouma sequences,and they were produced by deposition from turbiditycurrents.

Micro-cross-laminae. Micro-cross-laminae also oc-cur in the resedimented carbonate facies. The laminaeare demarcated by changes in grain size from foramini-fer-rich sand to nannofossil-rich clay and silt-sized par-ticles, or by changes in composition from carbonate toclay or from carbonate to volcaniclastic grains. Some ofthese micro-cross-laminae occur in lenses (Plate 1,Figure 1) and appear only in radiographs. A few inter-vals of micro-cross-laminae also grade laterally intoconvolute laminae (Plate 6, Figure 1). The micro-cross-laminae comprise part of complete or partial Bouma se-quences and were deposited by turbidity currents.

Vertical sequences. The lithologies, grain sizes, andsedimentary structures observed in the resedimentedcarbonate facies are organized into distinct vertical se-quences. One of these sequences is a resedimented-de-bris-flow sequence consisting of a basal clayey nanno-

975

S..M. WHITE ETAL.

fossil limestone containing disrupted burrows and over-lying identical limestone with undisturbed burrows.This sequence indicates transport by debris flow, andthe transition in the nature of the burrows suggestsa lower laminar-flow phase of debris-flow transport,whereas the undisturbed upper phase indicates a rigid-plug phase of the same debris flow.

By far the most common sequence is the partialBouma sequence; a few complete Bouma sequenceswere observed. In the resedimented carbonate facies,these members are preserved, although complete se-quences are rare. The most commonly preserved partialsequence consists of the basal graded interval (Ta), theparallel-laminated interval (Tb), and the pelagic interval(Te) (Plate 4, Figure 2). A second common type of par-tial sequence (Plates 5 and 6) shows a basal parallel-laminated interval (Tb) overlain by the micro-cross-laminated interval (Tc), capped by the pelagic-clay inter-val (Te). These sequences indicate resedimentation byturbidity currents.

The most noteworthy aspect of this facies is its thick-ness. Other resedimented carbonates have been reportedby Klein (1975a, b) and Cook et al. (1976) from otherDSDP sites, but the examples they report involve re-stricted, thin intervals perhaps no more than 100 metersthick. At Site 445, resedimented carbonates reach a totalthickness of 468 meters. Within this interval, thin,pelagic, clayey, biogenic, carbonate beds comprise theTe interval of Bouma sequences. Fully 80 per cent of this468-meter interval consists of resedimented carbonatesediment. Resedimentation was by debris flow, slump-ing, sliding, and turbidity currents.

Pelagic Non-Biogenic Facies (IV)

Pelagic clays occur in fairly thin sequences in the Shi-koku Basin at Site 442 (Holes 442A and 442B), and Site444, representing some of the first sediments depositedin the basin. They consist of firm, dark-brown, more orless bioturbated clay to claystone; they contain clayminerals (chiefly smectite), amorphous metal oxides,often manganese-iron micronodules, and sometimeszeolites. At Site 444, a reddish-brown mudstone overly-ing the last basalt sill includes a variable amount ofcalcareous nannofossils.

The pelagic clay facies also occurs in the Daito Ridgearea at Site 446, in the late Eocene and late Miocene.This facies consists of dark-brown to very dark-grayish-brown clay with 95 per cent or more clay-sized particles.The sediments chiefly include clay minerals, sometimeswith zeolites and micronodules; however, throughoutthey also contain small amounts of quartz, feldspars,volcanic glass, carbonates, and sometimes siliceous fos-sils and chert, suggesting a non-typical pelagic sedimen-tation.

Pelagic Biogenic Facies

The pelagic biogenic facies occur as mostly biogenicoozes (calcareous or siliceous) or as transitional sub-facies.

Distribution of the pelagic biogenic facies in the Leg58 holes is shown in Table 4. The tabulation does not

reflect the type of occurrence for the facies (lens, bed,etc.) but simply records the presence or absence of thefacies within the cored intervals. A general descriptionof this facies is mose simply presented as follows:

Biogenic siliceousa•b f

Biogenic calcareousa'c'e

Transitional siliceousa b'd>f

(>50% siliceous: usesiliceous modifer)

(<50% siliceous: usetextural modifer, e.g."muddy")

Transitional calcareousa>c>d>e

(modifer: "marly")

>30% Siliceous skeletons<30% Non-biogenic compon-

ents (silt and clay)<30% CaCO3

>30% CaCO3 (incl. non-bio-genic CaCO3)

<30% Non-biogenic compon-ents (silt and clay)

<30% Siliceous skeletons

>30% Non-biogenic compon-ents (silt and clay)

<30% CaCO3

>10% Diatoms

>30% CaCO3

>30% Non-biogenic compon-ents (silt and clay)

aSee Introduction to this volume.bOoze, diatomite, radiolarite, porcellanite, chert.cOoze, chalk, limestone.dSand, silt, clay, mud, or indurated equivalent (shale, if fissile).eSiliceous modifer if 10-20% identifiable siliceous remains.fCalcareous modifer if 10-30% CaCO3.

Site 442The transitional siliceous facies occurs only in the up-

permost Pleistocene and Miocene cores at the site. It is asiliceous mud with diatoms, radiolarians, and spongespicules and up to 20 per cent volcanic glass. The colorsare dark gray and dark greenish gray, extremely mottledbecause of drilling disturbance.

The calcareous facies has a very minor occurrence asa nannofossil-rich mud and limestone (Table 4). The lat-ter overlies lightly weathered aphyric basalt and red-brown pelagic mud. This limestone (early Miocene), isattributed to inorganic precipitation or recrystallizationof a nannofossil ooze by low-temperature diagenesis orthermal metamorphism (Fischer, Heezen, et al., 1971).

Foraminifers encountered in Holes 442, 442A, and442B are sporadic and poorly preserved. Well- to mod-erately well-preserved nannofossils of the Quaternaryand early to middle Miocene were recovered. The occur-rence of nannofossils at this site is similar to that of Site297 (Leg 31), except for the absence of Pliocene nanno-fossils at Site 442.

Site 443Except for the transitional siliceous facies in Core 31

(4.5 meters of gray-brown, upper-Miocene siliceousmudstone; diatoms > radiolarians > spicules) and thebiogenic calcareous facies in Core 35 (olive-gray, mid-dle- or upper-Miocene nannofossil chalk), the transi-tional calcareous facies dominates (Table 4).

976

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

TABLE 4Distribution of Pelagic Biogenic Facies, Leg 58a

Site 442 Site 443 Site 444 Site 445 Site 446

(Hole 444)

ua a « ua, ft- H H

2 Uo a a «U ft- a, H

w u

(Hole 444A)

αo UO ffi

(Hole 446)

a wo. H

(Hole 446A)

10

15

20

30

35

40

45

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

10

10

15

20

'

30

35

10

15

!

30

35

40

45

50

65

70

75

90

10

15

20

35

40

45

10

15

30

Symbols (see text): PBS = pelagic biogenic siliceous; PBC = pelagic biogenic calcareous;TS = transitional siliceous; TC = transitional calcareous; = presence ofthe facies within 9-meter core interval.Limestone above basalt.

The Pleistocene sequence contains the transitionalcalcareous facies as a predominantly dark-green-graynannofossil mud (up to 40% nannofossils) to a dark-green-gray to dark-gray carbonate mud (up to 15%,CaCO3) with minor ash intervals. The Pliocene is repre-sented by 2 to 30-cm units of gray, calcareous mud andnannofossil mud, interbedded with more-massive unitsof ashy mud. Facies in the Miocene consist of nannofos-sil muds and nannofossil mudstones and claystones withclayey nannofossil chalks, generally olive gray, gray, orgreen gray. A restricted Miocene biogenic facies isrepresented by olive-gray nannofossil chalk (up to 90%nannofossils). Core 36 to the first cored basalt containbeds up to 3 meters thick of nannofossil claystone andmudstone, as well as clayey nannofossil chalk. Interbeds

are mudstone, claystone, and ashy mudstone and clay-stone.

Site 444

Upper-Miocene to Quaternary deposits at Site 444primarily contain the transitional calcareous and bio-genic calcareous facies. Below the middle Miocene atHole 444A, only the transitional and biogenic calcare-ous facies are present.

Calcareous facies at Holes 444 and 444A consist ofcalcareous muds, nannofossil muds, clayey nannofossilooze, nannofossil ooze, and nannofossil mud. All de-posits are brown (olive brown, pale brown, light graybrown, etc.). Calcareous fossils constitute up to 20 percent in the transitional facies.

977

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

Other facies include siliceous nannofossil oozes, radi-olarian muds, muddy and muddy siliceous (radiolarian)nannofossil oozes, siliceous muds, muddy siliceous(radiolarian) ashes, muddy nannofossil ashes, zeolitic(and radiolarian-bearing) calcareous claystone andmudstone, and chalk. The latter two deposits occur asinterbeds between basalt units.

Site 445All four subdivisions within the pelagic biogenic fa-

cies were recovered at Site 445 (Table 4). In order of de-creasing abundance, the subfacies present are the bio-genic calcareous, the transitional calcareous facies, thepelagic siliceous facies, and the transitional siliceousfacies.

Calcareous facies contain nannofossil and foramini-fer-nannofossil oozes, varying ash or clay content yield-ing the transitional facies. Lower in the section, theoozes become chalks, with similar consolidation of thetransitional facies. Beginning in Core 59, the siliceouscomponent becomes high, yielding siliceous nannofossilchalks, radiolarian nannofossil chalks, and other pelag-ic biogenic or transitional categories.

In general, foraminifers are abundant in the Pleisto-cene and Pliocene and decrease in numbers, size, anddiversity from the Miocene to the middle Eocene.

Site 446The pelagic biogenic facies is minimal at Site 446

(Table 4).Pelagic biogenic calcareous deposits occur as cal-

careous oozes and/(or) chalk, whereas the siliceousbiogenic facies is absent.

Pyroclastic Facies

The pyroclastic facies consists principally of volcanicash, with sporadic and minor quantities of lapillae andbombs. The ash may occur as laminae or thin beds in amajor lithology, or as a lithologic component in anotherlithofacies. Table 5 shows the distribution of pyroclasticmaterials at each site, according to mode of occurrence.Table 6 is a summary of the distribution of ash by sedi-ment age time slices, showing the principal periods ofexplosive volcanism in the Shikoku Basin and the DaitoRidge-and-Basin province.

Shikoku Basin

The pyroclastic sediments of Shikoku Basin sites con-sist of ash, pumice, and altered ash. The ash is generallywell-sorted and sand-sized, sand-silt-sized, or silt-sized,but altered ash is clay-like material. Pumice occurs aslapillae or bombs up to 4 cm in diameter. Colors of ashbeds include from light gray to black and pale brown todark brown; altered ash may be yellowish brown, pink,reddish yellow, reddish brown, and reddish black. Theash is composed mostly of clear glass (rhyolitic ?), but ablack, opaque basaltic glass is prominent between 91and 165 meters (late Miocene) in Hole 444A.

The laminae or beds may be distinctly layered, withsharp contacts above and below, or they may be part ofa normal, fining-upward graded sequence. Sharp basal

TABLE 5Distribution of Pyroclastic Sediments

Core

Site 44212345

6789

1(1

11121314151617181920

2122232425

2627282930

Site 443

12345

6789

10

1112131415

1617181920

21222324252627282930

As Distinct Bedsor Laminae

XX

XX

X

X

XXXX

XXXXX

X

X

XX

As a CommonConstituent

XXXXX

X

X

XX

X

XXXXX

XX

X

XX

XXXX

XXX

As a RareConstituent

X

XX

X

X

X

X

XXX

XX

978

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

TABLE 5 - Continued TABLE 5 - Continued

Core

Site 443

3132333435

3637383940

4142434445

46474849

Site 444

12345

6789

10, Al

A 23456

789

1011

1213141516

212223

Site 445

12345678

1011


XX?X?X?

XX

XXXXX

XXXX

X

X

X

XX

XX

XXX

XX

X


XX

XXX

X

XXXX

XX

XX

XX

XX

X

X

XXX

X

XXX

XX

XX

X

X


XX

X

XX

XX

Core

Site 445

1213141516

1718192021

2223242526

2728293031

3233343536

3738394041

4243444546

4748495051

5253545556

5 758596061

6263646566

6768697071


XX

X

X

XX

X

X

X


X

X?

X

X

X

X

XX

XXXX?

X


XX

X

X

X

X

XX

X

X

X

XXX

XX

X

X

979

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

TABLE 5 - Continued TABLE 5 - Continued

As Distinct Beds As a Common As a RareCore or Laminae Constituent Constituent

Site 445

7273 X747576

7778798081

8283848586

87(No reported pyroclastics in cores 88-94)

Site 446

1• 2

345

678910

1112131415

1617181920

2122232425

2627282930

3132333435

3637383940

41,Al42, A2

XX

XX

XX

XX

XXX

X

X

X

X

;

As Distinct Beds As a Common As a RareCore or Laminae Constituent Constituent

Site 446

43, A3A69

1012131416

1718192223

2425262728

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

XX

XX

X

contacts are not common. Mild to intense bioturbationis common and is intense enough in some cases to havedestroyed the laminae. Bioturbation occurs frequentlyat the top of the graded sequences.

The pyroclastics occur principally within mud-mud-stone and clay-claystone sequences in the Shikoku Ba-sin. In the lower sections at each site, the sequence maybe: mudstone-claystone, pyroclastic, calcareous biogen-ic; or mudstone-claystone, pyroclastic, siliceous biogen-ic. Altered ash overlies a pelagic clay (with manganesenodules, and zeolites) at the base of Hole 442B.

The wide vertical and lateral distribution of glass as acomponent of a mudstone or claystone lithofacies, andthe discrete ash beds composed almost entirely of vol-canic glass suggest that the pyroclastics in the ShikokuBasin have two origins: laminae and well-defined ashbeds are the direct result of explosive volcanism fromrelatively nearby volcanoes; the ash as a component isprobably resedimented, along with the sediments inwhich it is contained, or in some cases it may be from avery distant source. In the latter case, aerially oraquatically transported ash could have drifted into thebasin and become incorporated into the sediment col-umn, diluted by local hemipelagic sediments.

The basaltic ash in the upper Miocene at Site 444 issignificant. The tephra layers at Site 442 likely werederived from the Japanese Islands, while those at Sites443 and 444 were derived from a nearby, low-silica vol-canic source.

The principal explosive volcanic events affecting Site442 were in the Pleistocene (0-1.6 Ma) and in the middleMiocene (13-15 Ma). The principal explosive volcanicevents affecting Sites 443 and 444 were in the Pleisto-cene, Pliocene (1.6-5 Ma), late Miocene (5-10.5 Ma),late middle Miocene (10.5-12 Ma), and early middleMiocene (14-16 Ma). The Pleistocene events appear tobe most frequent and most intensive, judging from the

980

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

TABLE 6Correlation of Volcanic Events

Age

PleistocenePliocene

Late MioceneLate Middle MioceneMid Middle MioceneEarly Middle MioceneEarly MioceneLate Oligocene

Middle Oligocene

Middle to early OligoceneLate EoceneMiddle EoceneEarly Eocene

Site

Cores withAsh inLayers

51

000(1?)4(3?)

-

_

-__-

442

Cores withAbundantAdmixed

Ash

91

0000

-

_

___-

Site 443


72

1 (0?)3(4?)0

11

-

-

___-


Ash

86

39

010

_

_

___-

Site 444


12

250?2

_

_

___-


Ash

42

56•)

2 1

_

_

___-

Site 445


12

100

I? (age?)

0

0

320-


Ash

23

300

0

2

0

23(4?)2-

Site 446


missingmissing

or 0__

2 (age?)

2

0?

0?

0?0?44(3?)


Ash

_-

-_

1 (age?)

4

0? (notidentified?)

0? (notidentified?)

0?0?53

number of cores which contain more than one ash layerand the number of cores which contain ash as a promi-nent lithologic component. Events of the early middleMiocene, apparently associated with intrusion of basal-tic sills and extrusion of sea-floor basaltic flows, arealso conspicuous. The arc supplying pyroclastics to theShikoku Basin from the east appears to have been con-tinuously active during the Neogene, except possibly fora period from 14 to 12 Ma. (The exception may be an ar-tifact of questionable biostratigraphic determinations inthis interval.)

Daito Ridge and BasinThe pyroclastics at Sites 445 and 446 are much less

abundant than at Shikoku Basin sites. They consist ofsand- and silt-sized glass, except where ash has been al-tered to clay. Colors are less varied than in the ShikokuBasin: light gray to black, with bluish gray, olive gray,greenish gray, pinkish gray, and grayish brown. Onlythe acidic (rhyolitic?), clear glass is present.

The ash occurs as laminae or as fining upward, grad-ed beds, some with sharp or even scoured basal con-tacts. The ash in Hole 446A, Cores 12 and 13, is cross-bedded. Bioturbation is not common. Slump structuresare present where pyroclastics are part of a slumped sed-imentary sequence, but such occurrences are rare.

At Site 445, pyroclastics occur within calcareous bio-genic sequences, such as calcareous biogenic, volcanic,calcareous biogenic—repeatedly alternating. In severalsections calcareous biogenic facies alternate with sili-ceous biogenic and volcanic-ash facies. Clay stone is partof the sequence calcareous biogenic, volcanic, clay-stone, calcareous biogenic in a short interval (549-609m) in the upper Eocene. Volcanics are conspicuously ab-sent in the thick resedimented middle-Eocene sequence,except as resedimented pebbles, fragments, or grains oftransported volcanic debris.

At Site 446, the pyroclastics occur as part of the hem-ipelagic facies, either in clay-clay stone or mud-mud-stone sequences. We observed only one example of vol-

canic ash as a prominent lithologic component in a re-sedimented conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone se-quence. Claystone, volcanic, calcareous biogenic se-quences are rare. Pyroclastics as ash beds are most com-mon as interbeds between basalt flows, or as part of abasalt, claystone, mudstone, volcanic, basalt sequence.

The only prominent expressions of explosive vol-canism at Site 445 are in the upper Miocene to Pleisto-cene, near the middle/lower Oligocene boundary, andin the upper Eocene. (Drilling stopped before reachingthe early middle Eocene.) At Site 446, there is some in-dication of early-Miocene volcanism, and possibly somein the middle Miocene, in sections whose age is indoubt. The late Eocene-early Oligocene episode was notrecorded in the sediments, possibly because of a missingsection. The prominent volcanism associated with basaltflows is of early-and middle-Eocene age.

SummaryFor a summary of this discussion of lithofacies, the

reader is referred to a companion paper in this volumeby Curtis and Echols. They have categorized the domi-nant facies sequences in each basin according to timeand region.

Northern Shikoku Basin

Late Pleistocene

Early Pleistocene andPliocene

Pliocene andLate Miocene

Late Miocene andMiddle Miocene

Middle Mioceneand Early Miocene

Pelagic biogenic (calcareous and sili-ceous), hemipelagic, pyroclastic

Hemipelagic mudstone

Hemipelagic mudstone, resedimentedsandstone

Hemipelagic mudstones

Pyroclastics

981

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

Eastern Shikoku Basin

Pleistoceneand Pliocene

Late Miocene

Middle Miocene

Early Miocene

Western Shikoku Basin

Pleistocene,Pliocene,late Miocene

Middle Miocene

Early Miocene

Hemipelagic mudstones, minorpyroclastics

Hemipelagic mudstones, pyroclastics

Resedimented sandstones, pelagicbiogenic sediments, pyroclastics

Pelagic clays

Hemipelagic mudstones, possibly vol-caniclastic clays in the Pliocene

Hemipelagic mudstones, pyroclastics

Pelagic clays, pyroclastics

SPECIAL TOPICS

The following summarizes results of detailed studiesof the Leg 58 sediments, or information pertaining tothe lithofacies already described. The reader is alsoreferred to specific chapters in this volume for furtherinformation.

Physical Properties9

Sediments recovered by deep-sea drilling in the Shi-koku Basin and Daito Ridge and Basin area vary consid-erably in composition, grain size, and texture. Thisvariability is directly reflected in the physical propertiesof the sediments. The lithofacies established for Leg 58sediments provide a convenient framework in which toexamine the physical properties. Physical properties bydepth for each site are presented in Figures 2-6, and forthe various facies discussed in Figures 7-18.

Resedimented Clastic Lithofacies

The compositionally and texturally most varied litho-facies is the resedimented clastic lithofacies, representedby mudstones, sandstones, and conglomerates at Site445 between 600 and 888 meters, and by mudstones be-tween 363 and 504 meters at Site 446. Systematic varia-tions with depth for the mudstones at Site 446 are shownin Figure 6. Sonic velocity increases from 1.5 to 2.0km/s downhole; water content decreases; porosity de-creases; and wet-bulk density increases. Thermal con-ductivity and grain density show no apparent variationwith depth. The porosity-depth and wet-bulk-densi-ty-depth relationships derived for pelagic clay and ter-rigenous clay (Hamilton, 1976) adequately describe thevariations with depth for the resedimented clastic sedi-ments at Site 446.

Down-hole variations for Site 445, however, are notsimilar to those at Site 446, or to the empirical relation-ships of Hamilton (1976). Variations of physical proper-

2? 2.0

Δ

Δ

-

1

&v A

I

• Site 445

Δ Site 446

Δ

I

Δ

1

-

Δ ^ ^

i

60

Porosity (%)

Figure 7. Wet-bulk density versus porosity for samplesof the resedimented clastic lithofacies. Hemipelagicmuds are plotted at the high-porosity end. Regressionparameters are given in Table 8.

• Site 445

Δ Site 446

40

Water Content (wt. %)

60

9 By David Fountain, shipboard physical-properties specialist.

Figure 8. Sonic velocity versus water content for sam-ples of the resedimented clastic lithofacies. Hemipe-lagic muds are plotted at the high-water-content end.Regression parameters are given in Table 8.

ties for the resedimented clastic lithofacies at Site 445are shown in Figure 5. There is very little systematicchange in any property between depths of 660 meters

982

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

• Site 445

Δ Site 446

Hamilton (1978)

1.2 1.6 2.0

Wet-Bulk Density (g/cm3)2.4

Figure 9. Some velocity versus wet-bulk density for sam-ples of the resedimented clastic lithofacies. Hemipe-lagic muds are included at the low-density end. Alsoshown are the empirical relationship for shales (Ha-milton, 1978) and the best fit derived in this study.Regression parameters are given in Table 8.

• Site 445

Δ Site 446

20 40 60

Porosity (%)

80

Figure 10. Sonic velocity versus porosity for samples ofthe resedimented clastic lithofacies. Hemipelagic mudsare included for values of high porosity.

2.0

• Site 445

Δ Site 446

Ratcliffe(1960)

20 40


60

Figure 11. Thermal conductivity versus water contentfor samples of the resedimented clastic lithofacies.Hemipelagic muds are included for high values of wa-ter content. Also shown are relationships establishedby Ratcliffe (1960) and in this study. Regression pa-rameters are given in Table 8.

and 800 meters. Below 800 meters, wet-bulk density in-creases, sonic velocity increases, porosity decreases,and water content decreases. Thermal conductivity andgrain density show only minor down-hole variations.

Down-hole variations for the resedimented clasticlithofacies can be understood best by examining the var-iations in porosity of the studied samples. The averagesand standard deviations of physical properties of thesamples are tabulated in Table 7. The lithofacies is di-vided into mudstones, sandstones, and conglomerates.At Site 445, the sandstones are below the mudstones,and the conglomerates are below the sandstones. Poros-ity is least in the coarse-grained conglomerates, andgreatest in the fine-grained mudstones, as demonstratedby Hamilton (1974). The decrease of porosity down-hole,therefore, reflects the general increase in grain sizedown-hole.

All other physical properties are dependent onporosity. Wet-bulk density is inversely proportional toporosity, as demonstrated by the excellent linear fit inFigure 7, and the high negative correlation coefficient(Table 8). Hemipelagic mudstones from Site 446 areincluded in Figure 7 to define the large-porosity portionof the relationship. The regression parameters are givenin Table 8. The intercept of the line is 2.722 g/cm3,

983

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

? 4.0j

|

|

>-

,onα

uctiv

| 3 • °

C

2.0

1

-

• l .V

1 1

• Site 445

Δ Site 446

-

Δ

\

\ . Δ

Δ Δ ^ Δ

i i20 40 60

Porosity (%)

Figure 12. Thermal conductivity versus porosity for sam-ples of the resedimented clastic lithofacies. Hemipe-lagic muds are included at the high-porosity end ofcurve. Regression parameters are given in Table 8.

2.2 -

ù 1.

1.4

•

Δ

•

Site 445

Site 446

i

oyce (1976b)

••

•••

»

c s s % .• * * #20 40 60

Porosity (%)

80

Figure 13. Wet-bulk density versus porosity for samplesof the carbonate lithofacies. The dashed line is a the-oretical relationship from Boyce (1976b).

which would be the density of a non-porous material ofthe composition of the samples plotted in Figure 7. Thisvalue is within the range of measured grain densities forthe resedimented clastic lithofacies samples (Table 7),suggesting that most of these samples are similar enoughin composition to have nearly the same grain density.Mineralogical differences, therefore, should be a muchless important control on physical properties than po-rosity.

X 2 -


Figure 14. Sonic velocity versus water content for sam-ples of the carbonate lithofacies. Regression parame-ters given in Table 10.

1.4 1.8

Wet-Bulk Density (g/cm3)

2.2

Figure 15. Sonic velocity versus wet-bulk density forsamples of the carbonate lithofacies. Also shown arethe theoretical relationship of Boyce (1976b) and therelationship derived in this study. Regression param-eters are given in Table 10.

Figures 8, 9, and 10 show the dependence of sonicvelocity on water content, wet-bulk density, and porosi-ty, respectively. Data for hemipelagic mudstone fromSite 446 is also plotted in these diagrams. Because grain

984

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

Porosity (%)

Figure 16. Sonic velocity versus porosity for samples ofthe carbonate lithofacies. Also shown are the theoret-ical relationship of Boyce (1976b) and the relation-ship derived in this study. Regression parameters aregiven in Table 10.

Water Content (%)

Figure 17. Thermal conductivity versus water contentfor samples of the carbonate lithofacies. Also shownare the relationships derived by Ratcliffe (1960) andin this study. Regression parameters are given in Ta-ble 10.

Porosity

Figure 18. Thermal conductivity versus porosity forsamples of the carbonate facies. Regression parame-ters are given in Table 10.

density can be regarded as constant, both water contentand wet-bulk density are dependent on porosity. The re-lationships displayed in Figures 8 and 9, therefore, areconsequences of the porosity dependence established inFigure 10. These relationships can be either linear or ex-ponential. Regression parameters for these fits are givenin Table 7. Also shown in Figure 9 is the velocity-densi-ty relationship of Hamilton (1978) for shales. The curvepredicts velocities too large for given densities of sam-ples of the resedimented clastic lithofacies.

Figures 11 and 12 show the dependence of thermalconductivity on water content and porosity, respective-ly. Thermal conductivity is inversely proportional towater content, as demonstrated by Ratcliffe (1960), butthe curve does not follow Ratcliffe's empirical relation-ship for high-water-content values. Linear or powerlaws can be fit to the thermal-conductivity data. Theregression parameters for these fits are given in Table 8.

Water content, wet-bulk density, sonic velocity, andthermal conductivity are all related to sediment porosityfor the resedimented clastic lithofacies. The down-hole

985

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

TABLE 7Summary of Physical Properties of Resedimented Clastic Lithofacies, Sites 445 and 446 a

Site

445445445

446

Lithology

MudstonesSandstonesConglomerates

Mudstones

Porosity

Avg.

43.5833.80826.170

56.980

>)

σ

4.8216.0800.226

9.907

Water Content(wt.

Avg.

21.71016.04011.355

32.995

a

2.6434.0280.106

8.166

Wet-BulkDensity

(g/cm3)

Avg. a

2.008 0.0502.135 0.1542.305 0.003

1.764 0.158

GrainDensity

(g/cm3)

Avg. σ

2.801 0.1822.710 0.1022.770 0.00

2.785 0.092

SonicVelocity(km/s)

Avg. σ

2.149 0.1292.691 0.4943.153 0.132

2.074 0.390

ThermalConductivity

(mcal/cm2-°C-s)

Avg. σ

3.195 0.1604.208 1.7062.799 0.402

2.799 0.402

See also Table 8.σ = standard deviation.

TABLE 8Regression Parameters for Physical-Property Relationships,

Resedimented Clastica and Hemipelagic Mudstone^ Lithofacies

X

PorosityWater contentWet-bulk densityPorosityPorosityWater content

y

Wet-bulk densitySonic velocitySonic velocitySonic velocityThermal conductivityThermal conductivity

y

m

-0.0167-0.0268

1.3943-0.0253-0.0246-0.0270

= mx + b

b

2.7222.918

-0.4543.4374.2713.814

r*

-0.978-0.8140.820

-0.854-0.840-0.848

k

_

8.5571.030

24.70815.789

7.766

y = kx™

m

_

-0.4271.163

-0.632-0.430-0.293

_

-0.8990.848

-0.904-0.825-0.850

^See also Table 7.See also Table 11.

*r = correlation coefficient.

variations in physical properties for the lithofacies aretherefore best understood by the down-hole decrease inporosity, which is at least partly controlled by grain size(Hamilton, 1974).

Resedimented and Pelagic Biogenic Carbonate Lithofacies

Table 9 summarizes the averages and standard devia-tions of physical properties for both the resedimentedcarbonate lithofacies and the pelagic biogenic carbonatelithofacies. Because the average grain densities and cal-cium-carbonate contents are so similar for samples fromeach lithofacies, the two will be considered together.

Table 9 shows that the physical properties of theresedimented lithofacies consistently differ from theproperties of the pelagic biogenic lithofacies. Bothlithofacies occur at Site 445, where the pelagic car-bonates occur above the resedimented carbonate litho-facies. Inspection of Figure 6 shows that there are syste-matic down-hole changes in physical properties which

cause the discrepancy in average physical properties forthe two lithofacies. Systematic down-hole variations inthe carbonate sediments include an increase in wet-bulkdensity, sonic velocity, and thermal conductivity, and adecrease in porosity and water content. Most changesare large and occur between the sea floor and the500-meter level. Sonic velocity increases from 1.7 toabout 2.0 km/s; thermal conductivity increases from 2.7to 4.5 mcal/cm2-°C-s; and water content decreases by30 per cent. Down-hole variations are similar to thosereported by van der Lingen and Packham (1975) for Leg30 carbonates, and to those summarized by Hamilton(1976) and Scholle (1977). The porosity-depth and wet-bulk-density-depth relationships derived by Hamilton(1976) adequately describe the down-hole variations ofcarbonates displayed in Figure 6.

Figure 13 shows the dependence of wet-bulk densityon porosity. Also shown in Figure 13 is the theoreticalrelationship between wet-bulk density and porosity for a

TABLE 9Summary of Physical Properties of the Pelagic Biogenic Carbonate and Resedimented Carbonate Lithofacies, Site 4 4 5 a

Site

445445

Lithology

Pelagic biogenicResedimented

aSee also Table 10.

Porosity

(%)

Avg. σ

65.608 3.48053.032 7.267

WaterContent(wt. %)

Avg. σ

40.654 3.33629.5 82 6.500

Wet-BulkDensity(g/cm3)

Avg. σ

1.618 0.0681.831 0.176

GrainDensity(g/cm3)

Avg. σ

2.805 0.1862.763 0.214

SonicVelocity

(km/s)

Avg. σ

1.544 0.0401.883 0.256

Thermal

Conductivity

(mcal/cm2-°C-s)

Avg. σ

2.864 0.1603.524 0.696

986

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

porous solid with the grain density of calcite (e.g.,Boyce, 1976b). The least-squares linear fit is indisting-uishable from the theoretical curve and is not plotted.The regression parameters are given in Table 10. Wet-bulk density is primarily controlled by porosity, but thescatter displayed in Figure 13 may indicate a secondarycontrol, such as minor mineralogical differences amongsamples.

Properties such as sonic velocity and thermal conduc-tivity are also related to porosity. Figures 14, 15, and 16show the relationships between sonic velocity and watercontent, wet bulk density, and porosity, respectively.The dependence of velocity on wet-bulk density andwater content is a reflection of the dependence of thosetwo parameters on porosity. Also shown in Figures 15and 16 are theoretical curves for porous sediments com-posed entirely of calcite (e.g., Boyce, 1976b). In bothcases, a greater sonic velocity is predicted by theory.The samples from Site 445, however, have a significantamount of clay minerals, which would cause the dis-crepancy. There is also considerable scatter of data inFigures 14, 15, and 16, which may be related to mineral-ogical variations or grain-size variations in the samples.

Thermal conductivity is inversely related to watercontent (Figure 17) as demonstrated by Ratcliffe (1960),and therefore is inversely related to porosity (Figure 18).Thermal conductivity values, however, are greater thanRatcliffe's curve predicts. The discrepancy is caused bythe high thermal conductivity of calcareous sediments(e.g., Clark, 1966; Hyndman et al., 1974).

Porosity is the primary control of physical-propertyvariations for the carbonate lithofacies samples. Grainsize variations and mineralogical differences, however,are apparently responsible for the scatter in the data.The down-hole decrease in porosity is similar to thatobserved in thick sections of chalk (Scholle, 1977) andmay be related to cementation involving pressure solu-tion and local re-precipitation (e.g., Scholle, 1977).

Hemipelagic Clay and Mudstone LithofaciesHemipelagic clays are the dominant lithofacies at the

Shikoku Basin sites, whereas the hemipelagic mudstonelithofacies appears in the upper part of the section atSite 446 in the Daito Basin. All hemipelagic lithofaciessections occur between the sea floor and 360 meters be-low the sea floor. Smectite and illite are the dominant

TABLE 10Regression Parameters for Physical-Property Relationships,Resedimented Carbonate and Biogenic Pelagic Lithofacies3

.V

PorosityWater contentWet-bulk

densityPorosityPorosity

Water content

y

Wet-bulk densitySonic velocity

Sonic velocitySonic velocityThermal

conductivityThermal

conductivity

aSee also Table 9.*r = correlation coefficient.

y

m

-0.0182-0.0280

0.9822-0.0245

-0.0626

-0.0763

= mx + b

b

2.7972.678

0.0353.153

6.839

5.784

r*

0.846-0.819

0.743-0.826

-0.826

-0.855

k

_

8.173

1.01128.824

139.242

30.335

y = kx<n

m

_-0.445

0.979-0.696

-0.934

-0.647

r*

_-0.833

0.746-0.832

-0.832

-0.875

clay minerals at the Shikoku Basin sites, and the hemi-pelagic mudstones at Site 446 are almost entirely smec-tite (Chamley, this volume). The averages for each phys-ical property (Table 11) are very similar for all sites.

There are, however, subtle differences between theShikoku Basin data and the Daito Basin data. This isdemonstrated particularly by the greater average sonicvelocity, grain density, water content, and porosity, andthe slightly smaller average wet-bulk density at Site 446.Because the depth of recovery is similar for all sites, theDaito Basin site differences must result from the smec-tite-dominated mineralogy.

In general, physical properties of the hemipelagiclithofacies show no systematic down-hole variations, orare nearly constant down-hole. Wet-bulk density, how-ever, usually increases somewhat down-hole, and thetrends are adequately described by the pelagic-clay orterrigenous-clay curves derived by Hamilton (1976). Ei-ther the pelagic-clay or the terrigenous-clay curves ofHamilton (1976) can describe the general decrease ofporosity with depth within the hemipelagic sections.

The range of values of physical properties for thehemipelagic lithofacies is too small to use for studyingrelationships between the properties. Figures 7 through12, however, display the hemipelagic data for Site 446 atthe small-density or large-porosity ends of the relation-ships plotted. Data from the Shikoku Basin sites wouldnot differ appreciably from the relationships displayedin those figures. The velocity-density relationship es-tablished by Hamilton (1976) for marine silts, clays, andturbidites at the sea floor or between 0 and 500 metersdepth adequately describes the velocity-density relation-ship for Leg 58 hemipelagic sediments.

Shear strength varies considerably in the hemipelagiclithofacies. The average shear strength of sedimentsfrom the hemipelagic lithofacies at Site 446 is greaterthan that for the hemipelagic sediments from the Shiko-ku Basin sites. (See site report chapters in this volume.)Site 446 sediments are smectite-rich in the upper eightcores and are 100 per cent smectite below that. ShikokuBasin hemipelagic sediments are composed of varyingamounts of smectite, illite, and other minerals (seeChamley, this volume) and, in general, are small-shear-strength sediments. The mixture of different clay min-erals in the Shikoku Basin hemipelagic sediments maycause the sediment to behave as a more-granular solidwith little cohesion, whereas monomineralic smectitesediments may have great cohesive strength.

Non-Biogenic Pelagic LithofaciesSamples for this lithofacies come from a thin interval

(13 meters thick) at Site 442. Table 12 summarizes thephysical properties of this lithofacies. In general, theaverage values for the various properties are similar tothose of the hemipelagic sediments. (See Table 11.)Average values of thermal conductivity, grain density,and wet-bulk density are slightly less than for most ofthe hemipelagic sediments. The larger values of shearstrength (Figure 2) reflect the burial depth and the smec-tite mineralogy of this small interval.

987

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

TABLE 11Summary of Physical Properties of Hemipelagic Clay and Mudstone Lithofacies, Sites 442, 443, 444, 446 a

Porosity

Site Lithology Avg. <

WaterContent(wt. %)

Avg.


Avg. σ

GrainDensity(g/cm3)

Avg. c

SonicVelocity(km/s)

Avg.

Thermal

Conductivity

(mcal/cm-°C-s)

Avg. σ

442443444446

ClaysClaysClaysMuds

71.14171.77772.56575.156

6.3.4.8.

342333106528

48.09148.07249.49652.585

4348

.505

.038

.797

.389

1.4811.4941.4721.445

0.0630.0530.0640.106

2.6932.7642.7272.835

0.3350.2320.1120.198

1.5571.5521.5191.539

0.2020.0780.0420.059

2.1642.3152.3272.277

0.5390.2880.1530.132

See also Table 8.

TABLE 12Summary of Physical Properties of Pelagic Non-biogenic and Pyroclastic Lithofacies, Site 442

Porosity

Site Lithology Avg.

WaterContent(wt. %)

Avg.


Avg. σ

GrainDensity(g/cm3)

Avg. c

SonicVelocity(km/s)

Avg. σ

Thermal

Conductivity

(mcal/cm-°C-s)

Avg. σ

442 Pelagic non-biogenic 72.905 4.685 51.048 5.378 1.433 0.063 2.610 0.178 1.581 0.023 1.941 0.588443 Pyroclastic 68.513 5.313 51.350 10.377 1.367 0.117 2.705 0.332 1.754 0.491 1.843 0.463

Pyroclastic Lithofacies

A few samples from the pyroclastic lithofacies comefrom a thin interval (20 meters thick) at Site 442. Prop-erties within this lithofacies are variable, as indicatedby large standard deviations tabulated in the summary(Table 12). Average sonic velocity is greater than theaverages for hemipelagic sediments (Table 11). Ther-mal conductivity, wet-bulk density, grain density, andwater content, however, are smaller than averages forthe hemipelagic sediments (Table 11). The variabilityof properties for this lithofacies reflects the varyingamount of volcanic ash in the sediment.

Conclusions

Physical properties of Leg 58 sediments and sedimen-tary rocks are directly related to sample porosity andcomposition. Properties within each lithofacies are di-rectly related to down-hole variations in porosity. Min-eralogical and grain-size variations within each lithofa-cies are minor influences on physical properties. Thelithofacies, however, differ considerably in composi-tion, texture, and grain size. Thus, the carbonate litho-facies is easily distinguished from the other lithofacieson the basis of various physical properties. The down-hole variability in properties (Figures 2-6) is the resultof overall changes in sediment composition and closureof pore space.

Site 445 is particularly interesting because drillingpenetration was deep enough to allow study of down-hole variations in thick sections of the pelagic biogeniccarbonate and resedimented carbonate lithofacies andresedimented clastic lithofacies. In both the carbonateand clastic lithofacies, physical properties change syste-matically as pore space closes. Pore closure in the car-bonates is probably related to diagenetic processes (e.g.,van der Lingen and Packham, 1975; Scholle, 1977),

whereas porosity loss in the resedimented clastic faciescan be related to a general down-hole increase in grainsize (e.g., Hamilton, 1974).

Sections of hemipelagic sediments within a few hun-dred meters of the sea floor (Sites 442, 443, 444, and446) show neither the range of properties nor themagnitude of changes with depth that the composition-ally and texturally varied sediments of Site 445 do.Although the clay mineralogy may vary at each site,there are no significant associated changes in the physi-cal properties. Thick sections of hemipelagic sediments,however, will show substantial property changes down-hole as pore space is reduced.

Paleomagnetism of Sediments

Approximately 925 minicores were sampled from thecores of Sites 442 through 446 for Paleomagnetism stud-ies. The results of the present work (see Kinoshita, thisvolume) are in agreement with other Paleomagnetismresults from the area.

Three significant results have been obtained. First,the paleolatitude obtained from Pleistocene sediments issmaller by about 10 degrees than the present value. Thisappears to result from distortion of the NRM inclina-tion of the sediments by drilling and handling. Second,the present latitude of the Daito region is significantlygreater than the paleolatitude during the Eocene. There-fore, the Daito region must have drifted northwardsince the Eocene by about 2000 km. Assuming a con-stant rate of motion and due-north drift of the region,the rate of spreading is at least 5 cm per year. Third,although it is not clear whether the Daito region was inthe northern or the southern hemisphere during the Eo-cene, the region seems to have crossed the equator about45 Ma, although this is not definite. A similar argumentis presented by Louden (1977) in a Paleomagnetism

988

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

study of sediment cores from the western PhilippineBasin.

Measurement of NRM over a 15-meter interval ofnannofossil-chalk cores from Site 445 revealed fourmagnetic-polarity transitions about 25 Ma.

Two of the four polarity transitions were rapid, andthe polarity changed within 6000 years. The remainingtransitions were slow, and the polarity switched over25,000 to 30,000 years. The present results support themodel of field reversal in which the main dipole fielddecays to a low value and then builds up in the oppositedirection. The present data also show that the geomag-netic dipole moment of reversed polarity is less stablethan that of normal polarity. Normal polarity lastedmuch longer than reversed polarity around 24 Ma. Thissupports the statistical argument presented by Wilson etal. (1972) and Dagley et al. (1974).

Organic Geochemistry

The Leg 58 sediments, in terms of organic geochem-istry, are unusual in that they represent a system inwhich the post-depositional effects can be isolated (see Wa-ples, this volume). The vast majority of the recoveredsediments are either hemipelagic (Sites 442, 443, and 444)or pelagic (Sites 445 and 446), and the quantity of organicmatter is consistently very low (<0.5% organic carbon).The organic matter probably arrived in the sediments intwo ways: adsorbed on clay particles, or attached to thetests of microplankton. There is no evidence of any de-trital organic debris within the sequences or organic-mat-ter-rich layers.

The deposition of organic material appears to havebeen constant in intensity, chemical composition, andmode of transport. It seems apparent that any signifi-cant variations in the organic material preserved in thesediments are due to post-depositional processes.

In general for all sites, organic carbon and nitrogendecrease steadily in the first 50 to 200 meters, then re-main constant at very low values throughout the lowerpart of the section. The decrease appears to be related tobacterial diagenesis of the organic material. This sug-gests that bacterial changes in this abyssal ecosystem oc-curs at much greater sub-bottom depths (up to 200 me-ters) and over much longer intervals (up to 5 m.y.) thanhas been previously accepted for such environments.

Several of the holes drilled on Leg 58 penetratedalternating layers of basalt and sediment. Recovery ofthe interbedded sediments was often poor, and only afew actual sediment/basalt contacts were recovered. AtSite 444, organic-geochemistry data were used to esti-mate the age of a sill. As Waples and Sloan (this vol-ume) observe, a gradual decrease in organic carbon andnitrogen occurs with increasing sediment depth in all theLeg 58 sedimentary profiles. In a plot of organic carbondata versus depth at Site 444 (see fig. 1, Waples andSloan, this volume), three features are apparent imme-diately. First, there is a steady decrease in organic car-bon from the sediment/water interface to a depth ofabout 90 meters, below which organic carbon remainsconstant at about 0.06 per cent. Second, organic-carbonvalues in the first 10 meters below the sill are significant-

ly greater than in the 150 meters immediately above thesill. Third, the organic-carbon contents of sedimentsmore than 10 meters below the sill are similar to those inthe sediments overlying the sill.

When an igneous sill or dike comes into contact withsediments in which organic diagenesis is not yet com-plete, the resulting pyrolysis of sedimented organicmaterial may bring about a premature cessation of bac-terial degradation of organic material. At Site 444, thispyrolysis has resulted in the preservation of greater con-centrations of organic carbon in the pyrolyzed sedi-ments. Comparison of the anomalous carbon contentswith the normal carbon-diagenesis curve (fig. 3, Waplesand Sloan, this volume) for non-pyrolyzed Site 444sediments allowed estimation of the age of the basaltbetween 12.2 and 13.5 m.y. If this approach is correct,then it also can be concluded that the basalt was in-truded into unconsolidated sediments, rather than ex-truded at the sediment/water interface, because thesediments are 14.2 m.y. old.

Additional organic-geochemistry studies were aimedat gaining a better understanding of the early diagenetichistory of sedimentary chlorophyll (see Baker and Lou-da, this volume). In this investigation, 19 core-samplesfrom the Shikoku Basin and the Daito Ridge and Basinprovinces were examined for products of chlorophylldiagenesis.

The paucity of chlorophyll derivatives in sedimentssampled during Leg 58 reflects both the lack of organ-ic-matter influx and the predominance of an oxidativemode of diagenesis. Tetrapyrrole pigments isolated fromLeg 58 sediments indicate an early oxic depositional mode.Because these sediments were generated from low-pro-ductivity pelagic regions, are reworked, are high in car-bonate, and contain abundant fecal organic matter, sed-imentary chlorophyll was exposed to oxidation and, hence,removal from the fossil record.

Paleoecology

RadiolariansRadiolarian material from Leg 58 generally is poorly

preserved. (See also Sloan, this volume.) Due to thesparse radiolarian record, paleoecological interpreta-tions are tentative.

The three sites drilled in the Shikoku Basin showsimilar radiolarian preservation and ecology. The Kuro-shio Current is clearly the dominant factor influencingthe ecology of the area. Near it, there is a larger tropicalcomponent; when it has lesser influence, cold-water spe-cies from the north and east are more abundant. Whenthe Kuroshio meander is not present, colder waters fromthe east move over the area, causing the observed mixeddeath assemblage. Diatoms show this same mixed deathassemblage, common fragments of the tropical diatomEthmodiscus rex occurring with abundant Coscinodis-cus marginatus, a cold-water species (L. Burckle, pers.comm.).

Sites 445 and 446 are characterized by poor radio-larian preservation throughout the sequence. Oligoceneto middle-Miocene radiolarians occur at Site 445, and

989

S. M. WHITE ETAL.

Miocene species occur at Site 446. However, the relativelack of radiolarians in the Eocene at Sites 445 and 446 islikely due to mobilization of silica and the formation ofchert.

Miocene radiolarians are believed to represent a mid-latitude assemblage. Because of poor preservation, thismay be more apparent than real. Cold-water speciestend to be more robust than warm-water species, andthey resist solution better. Because of selective dissolu-tion of tropical species, the resulting Miocene assem-blage appears more non-tropical than it may have beenat the time of deposition. Eocene radiolarians (Sites 445and 446) were rarely found, but are common where pre-served. A typical tropical assemblage was found, butwithout other high-latitude studies of the Eocene this isdifficult to interpret. The paleomagnetic data for thesetwo sites also suggest an equatorial latitude during theEocene. It is not known why the Pliocene sedimentsyielded no radiolarian fossils, but it is thought to be aneffect of taphonomy and not ecology.

NannofossilsMiocene to Quaternary calcareous nannofossils were

observed at the three sites in the Shikoku Basin,whereaslower-Eocene to Quaternary assemblages wererecovered at the two sites in the Daito Ridge and Basinprovince. (See also Okada, this volume.) Nannofossilsare sporadic at all sites, except at Site 445, where abun-dant nannofossils occur continuously in most recoveredcores.

ForaminifersForaminifers recovered from sites in the Shikoku

Basin were rare and poorly preserved. (See also Echols,this volume.) At the three sites, the only assemblagesidentified with any confidence were in the Pleistocene(N.23, N.22) to the Pleistocene/Pliocene boundary(N.21), and even here the fauna is meager and showsmuch dissolution. Only the most heavily calcified,robust planktonic forms survived solution. No age-determinate forms were encountered from the Plioceneto the middle Miocene. At 14 to 15 m.y., a tentative cor-relation of the three sites and a very speculative date issuggested.

At Site 442, the barren sequence through the Mioceneis interrupted by the occurrence of replaced casts ofwhat appear to be benthic foraminifers. This must be alocal phenomenon; it was not observed in contempora-neous sediments at the other sites. The presence of thesecasts is not easily explained if at the time of depositionthe area was below the CCD (which has been con-cluded). The benthic foraminifers, although also spo-radic, indicate deep water. Marked reworking and dis-placed shallow-water assemblages were not seen in thisbasin.

In the Daito Ridge and Basin province, at both sites,post-Eocene deposits consist of pelagic sediments,whereas Eocene sediments are resedimented elastics.At both sites, redeposited Eocene larger shallow-waterforaminifers were recovered. The fauna indicates a

warm, shallow, carbonate environment and was nodoubt resedimented from surrounding ridges.

Dissolution of ForaminifersIt is possible to use solution stages of the foraminifer

assemblages to detect proximity to the lysocline andCCD (Figure 19). A lysocline based on a dissolvingforaminifer assemblage would be the depth separatingthe well-preserved from the poorly preserved assem-blages. The solution stages are defined and listed forcores of Leg 58 sites in Table 13.

Rhodochrosite Replacement of ForaminifersEchols et al. (this volume) document an unusual

replacement of foraminifer tests (?) by rhodochrosite.At Hole 442A, Core 21 contains rare internal molds

of what appear to be replaced foraminifers. In Core 22they are fairly common, and in Cores 23 and 24 they areabundant and show an increase in morphological diver-sity. Under the light microscope, the shapes and diversi-ty of forms suggest planktonic foraminifers. Althoughthey are not identifiable to genus, the forms seem to beclosely related to and morphologically resemble plank-tonic foraminifers. Chamber arrangements also sugges-tive of planktonic forms were detected.

Surface features revealed in SEM photographs showthat replacement has occurred in rhombic crystals. Afragmented diatom on the surface of a foraminifer (?)and a coccolithid showing some overgrowth and nestledin the diatom were seen.

4639 m 4372 m

442A 442B 443

4843 m

444 444A

100

1.6 m.y.

Miocene14/15 m.y.?

_ 17/19 m.y.?

111.5 m.y.

stageTotalforamdestruction

O dates

Figure 19. Solution profiles, Leg 58 Sites.

990

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

TABLE 13Foraminifer-Solution Profiles, Leg 58 Sites

Site 442 (4639 m; below present CCD?). Throughout thesection, the solution effects are obvious, and depositionwas within zones designated as intermediate (II) and totaldissolution (III). (See also Figure 19.)

Cores(Hole 442A)

Sub-bottom Depth ofBase of Core

(m) Solution Stage

UI(?)

Site 443 (4372 m; at or below present CCD?). This sitedisplays the same pattern as Site 442. The water depth of4372 meters appears to be below the present CCD.

1-45-12

13-30721-28

(Hole 442B)

11'•

38114285

190-266

277286.5353


(m) Solution Stage

1-66-12

13-2122-2526-3233-4141-4546-4848-51

54.5115197222.5301.5387425453.5477.5

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Site 444 (4843 m; below present CCD). The solutionpattern is very similar to that at Sites 442 and 443.

Sub-bottom Depth ofCores Base of Core

(Hole 444) (m) Solution Stage

1-77-10

(Hole 444A)

1-3?6-910-1213-22

23

66.595

110.5167.5196272.0278.0

IIIIII

IIIIIIIIIIII

III<

Site 445 (3382 m; above present CCD). No dissolution;the site was above the foraminifer lysocline throughoutdeposition. Rare and barren sections local (?). Rapiddeposition masking fauna?Site 446 (4980 m; below present CCD). Depositionthroughout shows advanced foraminifer destruction. Ap-parent total destruction in the Pleistocene and much ofthe Pliocene. Very rare foraminifer recovery (stage II,advanced) in a few cores in the Miocene.

Cores(Hole 446)

1-45-43

(Hole 446A)

1-28


(m)

30400

628

Solution Stage

IIIIII

III

Definitions of Solution Stages:

Selective destruction of solution-susceptible, thin-walled, and spinose planktonic forms.

Complete destruction of fragile, thin-walled forms; therobust, resistant forms show some dissolution. Also, someworkers believe that all juveniles and tiny forms have beendissolved at this intermediate stage. (This, however, maynot be the case in the present study, and it needs furtherinvestigation.)

Stage HI

Advanced intermediate solution. Foraminifers frag-mented and rare, very low diversity. Few benthic formsstill present.

Stage IV

All foraminifers have been dissolved.

It is not possible to satisfactorily explain the occur-rence of these replaced forms, but it should be observedthat this may be a very local phenomenon, for they werenot detected in any of the other studied foraminifersamples from other sites drilled on Leg 58. The generalappearance of the assemblage, the abundance, and thelack of evidence of transport indicate a replaced plank-tonic fauna that locally escaped obliteration by rapidburial and rapid replacement.

Trace FossilsThree major lithofacies groups present in Leg 58

cores — terrigenous turbidites (resedimented clastic),biogenic ooze (pelagic biogenic), and pelagic clay (pe-lagic non-biogenic) — are certainly of deep-water ori-gin, and each contains a diagnostic suite of bioturbationfeatures. (See Ekdale, this volume.)

The hemipelagic and resedimented terrigenous faciesoccur in the upper parts of cores from Sites 442, 443,444, and 446. The upper, fine-grained sub-units of theturbidites in Leg 58 cores typically are finely laminatedand non-bioturbated through most of their thickness.However, some burrowing does occur in the uppermostsub-units of many sequences, which display no lamina-tions, but common Chondrites. Middle-Eocene depositsat Site 445 typify this pattern. The well-defined bur-rowed horizons sometimes are only one or two centi-meters thick, even though the entire turbidite may bemore than half a meter thick. The Chondrites in thesefine-grained sub-units typically are small. Branching isprimarily horizontal or subhorizontal, suggesting thatlabile organic material (usable as food) was concen-trated along laminations rather than distributed uni-formly through the hemipelagic mud.

The pelagic biogenic facies, particularly the carbon-ates at Site 445, contain the richest trace-fossil assem-blages. Trace fossils characterizing the biogenic oozefacies include Chondrites, Planolites, .Skolithos, andZoophycos. This association is particularly well-pre-served in upper-Miocene deposits at Site 445. These ich-nogenera are superimposed on wholly bioturbated sedi-ment, so they are thought to have been introducedbelow the mixed layer and in the transition zone of thesediment.

The pelagic brown-clay facies, exemplified in thelower part of Hole 442B, includes sediments depositedat or below the CCD beneath low-productivity regionsof the oceans. Distinctive burrows preserved in pelagicclays in DSDP cores are less diverse than those in otherfacies, although the intensity of bioturbation is com-monly just as high. The trace fossils characterizingbrown abyssal clays in cores are dominated by Plano-lites.

An approximate bathymetric zonation of the threedeep-sea ichnofacies would be, in order of increasingwater depth: (1) the sharply defined bioturbated hori-zons of hemipelagic sediments containing Chondrites,(2) the Chondrites-Planolites-Zoophycos association ofthe biogenic ooze, and (3) the smeared Planolites of thepelagic brown clay.

991

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

Palynology

A palynological study was made on samples fromcores collected below 410 meters at Site 445 and between86 and 365 meters at Site 446. (See Tokunaga, thisvolume.)

Pollen and spores generally are very rare in the lime-stone and calcareous rocks at Sites 445 and 446. In con-trast, pollen and spores in the middle-Eocene mudstoneare common. The Oligocene sediments between 86 and150 meters at Site 446 are composed of clay with ash,and they contain almost no pollen or spores. The mid-dle-Eocene sediments below these are dark-gray clay-stone and muddy sandstone and contain many pollengrains and spores.

Among these pollen and spore assemblages of themiddle Eocene at the two sites, Taxodiaceaepollenites,Sciadopityspollenites, and Sequoiapollenites indicate atemperate climate; Palmaepollenites, Ephedripites, andZonocostites (Rhizophora) are subtropical and tropicalelements, and Osmundacidites and Lygodioisporitesgenerally are indicators of warm-temperate conditions.

Tephra

On the basis of petrographic characteristics, chemicalcomposition, and paleontological age, tephra layersfrom the Shikoku Basin (Furata et al., this volume) aredivided into the following groups: (1) layers of non-alkali rhyolitic tephra in the Pleistocene and Pliocene atSites 442, 443, and 444, (2) layers of non-alkali rhyolitictephra in the Miocene at Site 444, (3) layers of non-alkali tholeiitic basalt tephra in the Miocene at Sites 443and 444, (4) layers of alkali rhyolitic tephra in theMiocene at Site 443, and (5) layers of alkali basaltictephra in the Miocene at Site 444.

It is clear that most Pleistocene and Pliocene tephralayers originated from non-alkali volcanism, whereasMiocene tephra layers originated from two different,simultaneous volcanic activities.

Glass shards of the tephra layers from the three sitesseem to be hydrated, but visible alteration or hydratedrims of glass shards cannot be detected by optical obser-vation. Electron-microprobe analysis of glass shardsshows that most with the chemical composition of rhyo-lite or basalt are homogeneous from rim to core.

A correlation was established between refractive in-dex and SiO2 content of glass shards. This is summar-ized as follows: (1) at SiO2 contents of 72 to 73 weightper cent, the refractive index is about 1.5; (2) as the SiO2content decreases, the refractive index increases pro-portionately, but the trend deviates slightly from alinear relationship at SiO2 contents between 55 and 65weight per cent. The correlation between refractive in-dex and total iron oxide is better than that betweenrefractive index and SiO2 content. There is a linear rela-tion between refractive index and total iron oxide.

It is clear that the tephra layers from the central partof the Shikoku Basin have been derived from severaldifferent volcanic sources with different rock series.Most of the Pleistocene and Pliocene tephra layers inthis region range in composition from rhyolite to dacite(non-alkali). These tephra layers are assumed to be ejec-

ta produced by relatively large-scale eruptions in anisland arc and transported toward the east.

In contrast, the Miocene tephra layers range in com-position from rhyolite to basalt and belong to both thenon-alkali and alkali series. In these tephras, the grainsize of basaltic glass shards is usually greater than thatof rhyolitic shards. This implies that sources of basaltictephras were closer to the drilling sites than those ofrhyolite and andesite tephras. Tephras with large alkalicontent may be from alkali rocks of the Kinan seamountchain in the central part of the Shikoku Basin. There isalso the Izu-Shichito-Iwo Jima volcanic arc east of thedrill sites; however, the history of this arc is not wellunderstood. Activity of this arc probably spans the earlyMiocene to the Holocene; thus, this arc may be one ofthe sources of the tephra layers.

Clay Mineralogy

Shikoku Basin

Except in basalts, rare ash beds, and thin pelagicclays overlying basalts, clay minerals of late-Cenozoicdeposits of the Shikoku backarc basin were derived es-sentially from alteration and erosion of emergent rocks.(See Chamley, this volume). That the clay minerals aremainly terrigenous is supported by geochemical studies(Sugisaki, this volume). The distribution of each min-eral at each of the three sites and their main distributioncharacteristics in continental rocks and recent sedimentsallow presentation of a scheme for the dominant detritalsources: Japanese Islands and then eastern Asia forchlorite and illite; Asia for vermiculite and attapulgite(palygorskite); volcanic arcs for smectite; southwestAsia through Kuroshio for kaolinite; Japan, Asia, andisland arcs for the irregular mixed-layer clays.

The stratigraphic evolution of clay sedimentation inShikoku Basin since its formation appears to have beenunder the control of geodynamic factors from the earlyto late Miocene, and climatic factors from the latestMiocene to the present. This evolution corresponds to avery progressive passage from one influence to theother; gradual diminution of volcanic effects duringearly basin formation, followed by gradual augmenta-tion of climatic effects in moving toward the Plio-cene-Pleistocene cooling. No significant change affectskaolinite abundance, which suggests the establishmentof major current systems (Kuroshio) in the north Philip-pine Sea during the early stages of basin formation.

Detrital clay sedimentation at the three ShikokuBasin sites appears to be a reflection of physiographicchanges since the formation of the northern PhilippineSea. The main cause of mineralogical variations re-corded in marine sediments is the formation and subse-quent subsidence of emergent barriers formed by vol-canic ridges, which influence oceanic circulation, localor distant supplies, and resedimentation mechanisms.The most important structures intervening since themiddle Miocene are the Iwo Jima-Bonin and the Kyu-shu-Palau Ridges. The latter apparently was very activeuntil the late Pliocene and subsided in two stages duringthe Pleistocene.

992

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

Daito Ridge and Basin Region

The following points are significant in consideringthe distributions of clay minerals in the Daito Ridge-and-Basin sites.

1. If it can be assumed that the clay fraction in thebasalt sills was formed by in situ alteration, then theclay fraction of the interbedded sediments was chieflyderived by detrital supply from volcanic rocks on sur-rounding island arcs which formed in the early Eocene.This assumes strong volcanic activity and a wide distri-bution of volcanic rocks in the Daito Ridge area, proba-bly contemporaneous with the development of the Phil-ippine back-arc basin. The warm climate prevailing dur-ing the Eocene in numerous areas of the world favoreddegradation of emergent rocks and formation of smec-tite, especially in the Daito Ridge area, which had tosub-equatorial conditions (Kinoshita, this volume).

2. During the middle Eocene to middle Oligocene,the Daito Ridge area was still strongly affected byisland-arc volcanic activity. Compared to the early Eo-cene, the consequence was either a slight decrease ofvolcanic activity, allowing significant erosion of pre-existing non-basaltic rocks on the Daito Ridge, or alocal uplift of the entire area, leading to sub-aerial ero-sion of the old ridge substratum. The abundance ofmiddle-Eocene coarse rock fragments in the sequencefavors the second hypothesis.

From the late Eocene to middle Oligocene, the reoc-currence of an almost exclusively smectitic clay supplyindicates either resurgence of volcanic activity or partialsubsidence of Daito Ridge area. The transition fromcoarse epicontinental sediments (angular lithic frag-ments, large Nummulites) to finer deposits suggests pro-gressive subsidence of the Daito Ridge, described formany aseismic ridges. Volcanic activity probably wasstill extensive, as shown by the relative abundance ofglass particles and ashy levels in the Cenozoic sedi-ments. (See Site reports, this volume.)

3. During the late Oligocene to Pleistocene, theDaito area received clay minerals from more-distantareas, implying the establishment of large-scale waterexchange. This interpretation assumes a general sub-sidence of the aseismic ridge, probably accompanied bydiminution of local volcanic activity. The increaseddetrital contribution from crystalline and older sedi-mentary rocks (chlorite, illite, quartz, amphiboles) andfrom moderately altered continental material (irregularmixed-layer clays, degraded smectite) is a worldwidephenomenon and corresponds to general Cenozoic cool-ing (Chamley, in press).

Sandstone Diagenesis

The sandstones in the basal part of the sequence atSite 445 consist of andesitic volcaniclastic fragmentsand fragments of larger foraminifers. These sandstoneswere derived from an island arc. Transport of this sedi-ment was by gravity processes, mostly turbidity cur-rents, debris flow and slumping.

Progressive down-hole changes occur in authigeniccomponents. These include initial rim cementation of

grains by smectite and mordenite, subsequent pressurewelding and pore-space reduction, and later pore fillingby sparry-calcite cement. Carbonate materials recrystal-lize with depth. Carbonate minerals replace plagioclaseand volcaniclastic rock fragments at increasing depth.Another replacement, also depth-dependent, is chertifi-cation of rock fragments; this replacement increasesdown-hole.

These vertical changes are clearly a function of depthof burial. The effect of regionally high heat flow couldnot be evaluated because of lack of temperature datafrom the drill site.

Sediment-Accumulation Rates

Age-depth plots for Sites 442, 443, 444, 445, and 446are shown in the respective site reports (this volume).These plots are uncorrected for compaction or watercontent.

Sediment-accumulation rates were determined foreach lithofacies (Table 14) and by geological age (Table15). Table 14 shows that sediment-accumulation ratestend to vary with each lithofacies. Thus, high rates ofsediment accumulation would be expected in and arecharacteristic of the resedimented clastic facies of Site445 and the resedimented mudstone facies at Site 446.Moderate rates of accumulation are characteristic ofhemipelagic mudstones. A comparison of sediment-ac-cumulation rates at Site 445 in the resedimented carbon-ate facies and the pelagic biogenic carbonate facies is in-structive: the pelagic facies shows a higher rate of accu-mulation than the resedimented carbonate facies. Al-

TABLE14Sediment-Accumulation Rates at Sites 442, 443, 444,

445, and 446 by Lithofacies (m/m.y.)

Major Lithofacies

Hemipelagic clayHemipelagic mudstoneResedimented mudstoneResedimented sandstoneResedimented conglomerateResedimented clasticResedimented carbonatePelagic non-biogenicPelagic calcareousPelagic siliceousPyroclastic

442

_

18.2-—--—

13.0--

11.0

443

_

-28.1

--——-3.0-

33.0

Sites

444

_

16.011.8

---_-—-—

445 446

3.8- -- 65.2- -- -

82.5 -11.6 -

-28.2 -20.4 -

— —

TABLE 15Sediment-Accumulation Rates at Sites 442,

443, 444, 445 and 446 by Age (m/m.y.)

Age

PleistocenePlioceneMioceneOligoceneEocene

442

102.57.19.2

--

443

75.07.6

19.6-—

Sites

444

30.08.9

20.9——

445

40.929.317.317.641.0

446

3.11.55.01.9

29.5

993

S. M. WHITE ET AL.

TABLE 16Comparison of Sediment-Accumulation Rates by Lithofacies from

Sites 285 and 286a and Sites 445 and 446 (m/m.y.)

Sites

Facies 285 286 445 446

Resedimented sandstone and mudstone 207 150 - 65Resedimented conglomerate — 200 — —Resedimented clastic — — 82.5 —Pelagic carbonate 30 17 28.2Resedimented carbonate — — 11.6 —Pelagic clay 5 7-13 - 3.8

aKlein, 1975b, table 1.

though 80 per cent of the total carbonate section at Site445 is resedimented, the accumulation rates are lessersimply because the rate is dependent on the availabilityof carbonate pelagic materials which are subsequentlyresedimented. Thus, although resedimentation of car-bonate components is a dominant feature of carbonatesedimentation at Site 445, the rate of sediment accumu-lation of the resedimented carbonate facies is dependenton availability and original rate of accumulation ofpelagic biogenic carbonate sediment. The sediment-ac-cumulation rate of resedimented carbonates may notnecessarily be higher than that for associated pelagiccarbonate sediments. Caution must be exercised in usingsediment-accumulation rates as a criterion of resedi-mentation of pelagic biogenic carbonate sediments.

Within individual lithofacies (Table 14), variability insediment-accumulation rates appears to be a function ofdistance from probable sediment sources. Thus, the dif-ference in sediment-accumulation rates for the resedi-mented mudstone facies at Sites 443 (28.1 m/m.y.) and444 (11.8 m/m.y.) clearly represents a difference be-tween deposition on the medial portion of a clasticwedge and a distal portion of a clastic wedge, respec-tively. The difference in rates in the pyroclastic facies atSite 442 (11.0 m/m.y.) and 443 (33.0 m/m.y.), is con-trolled by the proximity of the Kinan Seamounts nearSite 443.

Table 15 shows that at all sites the Pleistocene ischaracterized by relatively high rates of sediment accu-mulation compared to those of the Pliocene or Miocene.The Miocene is characterized by higher rates of accumu-lation than the Pliocene, and (at Site 446) the Oligoceneand the Eocene are characterized by high rates of sedi-ment accumulation. The Eocene rates are high at Sites445 and 446 only because they represent the resedi-mented clastic lithofacies and its subfacies. This facies,consisting of interbedded debris flow conglomeratesand turbidite sandstones and mudstones, also extendsinto the Oligocene at Site 445, accounting for a higherOligocene accumulation rate there. The Miocene ratesembrace a variety of sediment facies and appear more tobe related to increased volcanism, known both in thewestern Pacific (Donnelly, 1975; Kennett et al., 1977)and the circum-Pacific (Kennett et al., 1977). The ashbeds in the Miocene supports this interpretation. Anoth-er factor contributing to slightly higher rates of accumu-

lation during the Miocene is the increased influx ofcontinental-derived clays in the Shikoku Basin, a trendwhich apparently persisted through the late Cenozoic in-to the Quaternary. The known Pliocene decrease in vol-canism in the western Pacific (Donnelly, 1975) may wellaccount for lower rates of accumulation during thattime.

The high sediment-accumulation rates observed forPleistocene sediments at all sites can be related to twofactors. The first is an increase in regional volcanismcommon to much of the circum-Pacific during Pleisto-cene time (Kennett et al., 1977); the recovery of volcanicash in Pleistocene sediments at several of the sites (443,444, 445) supports this interpretation. A second factor isthe effect of lower stands of sea level during periods ofPleistocene glacial advance, and it clearly accounts forthe higher content of terrigenous hemipelagic clays inPleistocene sediments from the Shikoku Basin. Suchlower stands of sea level would expose shelf areas andareas marginal to coastlines of land sources such as theAsian mainland and the Japanese Islands; they alsowould entrench river systems to a lower base level.These rivers would be extended across former shelf andcoastal regions and increase sediment supply to theback-arc basins of the northwest Pacific. The increasedvolume of terrigenous sediment and rate of sediment ac-cumulation for the Quaternary of Leg 58 cores clearlyresult from this increased sediment yield.

In summary, analysis of the sediment-accumulationrates for Leg 58 sites has demonstrated that (1) withinindividual lithofacies, variations in rates of sediment ac-cumulation are a function of distance from both con-tinental and volcanic sources; (2) rates of accumulationof resedimented biogenic pelagic carbonates are depen-dent on the original volume and rate of sediment accu-mulation of pelagic biogenic carbonate deposition, andnot the resedimentation process per se; (3) the increasedrates of sediment accumulation observed for the Eoceneat two sites is a function of the dominance of gravitysedimentation; (4) the increased rates of accumulationduring the Miocene were dependent on increased region-al volcanism, and (5) the increased rates of sediment ac-cumulation during the Pleistocene were a function ofboth increased regional volcanism and increased sedi-ment yield from land during lower stands of sea level.

Comparison of Shikoku Basin and Daito Ridge andBasin Sedimentation to that in Other Back-Arc Basinsin the Western Pacific

The sedimentary facies successions in the ShikokuBasin and the Daito Ridge and Basin province showboth differences and similarities with the sedimentaryfacies encountered in other back-arc basins of the west-ern Pacific. Drilling during DSDP Legs 6, 20, 21, 29,30, and 31 disclosed a variety of sedimentation styles ineach of the back-arc basins in the western Pacific. Mostof these basins are characterized by wedges of volcani-clastic turbidites (Fischer, Heezen, et al., 1971; Burns,Andrews, et al., 1973; Karig, Ingle, et al., 1975; An-drews, Packham, et al., 1975; Klein, 1975a,b, 1977;Karig and Moore, 1975) which intertongue with and are

994

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

overlain by pelagic sediments. The pelagic sediments areeither biogenic calcareous or siliceous oozes, or clays.

Pelagic sedimentation occurred simultaneously withdeposition of volcaniclastic wedges, but such pelagicsediments were subordinate in volume to the volcani-clastic material accumulated by subaqueous gravityflows. Pelagic processes appear to become dominantonly when supply of volcaniclastic sediments ceased. Insome basins, facies are asymmetrically distributedacross the basin, as in the west Philippine Basin (Karigand Moore, 1975), whereas in other basins, such as theSea of Japan (Schlanger and Combs, 1975) and theSouth Fiji and Hebrides Basins (Klein, 1975a,b, 1977),clastic wedges are disposed symmetrically with respectto the mid-basin spreading center.

The Shikoku Basin sediment succession reveals a his-tory much different from that of any of the otherbasins. Seismic study of the Shikoku Basin showed thatit is floored by a rough acoustic-basement topography(Karig, Ingle, et al., 1975; Marauchi and Asanuma,1974, 1977) and that during earliest sedimentation thetopographic lows were filled as sediment ponds, fol-lowed by regional deposition. Seismic profiles obtainedby Marauchi and Asanuma (1974, 1977), during DSDPLeg 31 (Karig, Ingle, et al., 1975) and during Leg 58(this volume) also demonstrated that the sediment coverover the basin consists of a series of coalescing clasticwedges. To date, three clastic wedges have been recog-nized from seismic study and contouring of the sedi-ment cover overlying acoustic basement (Figure 20).

These clastic wedges include one on the north side ofthe basin penetrated at DSDP Site 297; one on the westside of the basin, penetrated at Site 442; and one on theeast side of the basin, penetrated at Sites 443 and 444.Site 297 was drilled in the medial part of the northernclastic wedge, whereas Sites 442, 443, and 444 are ondistal toes of both the western and eastern wedges(Figure 20).

These clastic wedges apparently were derived fromsources in the direction of thickening of these wedges.Thus, the northern wedge was probably derived fromthe Japanese Islands (Karig, Ingle, et al., 1975), whereasthe western and eastern wedges were derived from theremnant arc of the Kyushu-Palau Ridge, and from theIwo Jima Ridge (an active arc), respectively. Supply ofsediment from the remnant arc of the Kyushu-PalauRidge appears to have been continuous, but the supplyof sediment to the northern clastic wedge was presum-ably reduced or eliminated with the Pliocene develop-ment of the Nankai Trough, into which most of thenortherly derived sediment accumulated since that time(Karig, Ingle, et al., 1975).

Evidence for the relative proximity of Site 297 in thenorthern clastic wedge consists in turbidites with well-developed Bouma sequences and the overall thickness ofthe early Pliocene. Proof of the distal location of thehemipelagic sediments at Sites 442, 443, and 444 con-sists in dominantly hemipelagic clay and, at Site 444,biogenic pelagic sediments interbedded with hemipelag-ic mud. Sediments at Site 444 were deposited in a more-distal part of the eastern clastic wedge than at Site 443,

30°N -

25°N -

135°E 140°E

30°N -

25°N135°E

Figure 20. A. Isopach map of sediment thickness in theShikoku basin (in seconds), above acoustic basement(from Karig, 1975, fig. 3, p. 862). B. Location of clas-tic wedges, general sediment-dispersal trends (arrows),and direction of clastic-wedge derivation over the past15 m.y. in the Shikoku Basin.

as inferred from the lower volume and lesser thicknessof hemipelagic clays and the lower rates of sedimenta-tion. A few layers of well-developed interbedded nanno-fossil and radiolarian oozes indicate periods of slight in-creases in biogenic pelagic sedimentation. These inter-beds are rare at Site 443 and absent at Site 442.

Figure 21 summarizes the stratigraphy of Sites 297,442, 443, and 444. The thick Pliocene sequence at Site297 clearly reflects deposition in the medial to distal partof the northern clastic wedge (Karig, Ingle, et al., 1975),whereas the relatively thin Pliocene sections at Sites 442,443, and 444 reflect distal deposition. The Quaternarysections at Sites 442 and 443, however, are relativelythick for a distal position, whereas the Quaternary sec-

995

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

Site 2970

I

II

100

Site 442 Site 443 Site 444

200

III

300 -

600

400 - -s^--^--^z

IV -

500 -

Quaternary

100 -

Upper Pliocene

... 2°o -

Lower Pliocene

Quaternary

Pliocene Early

Quaternary

100

*** Upper Pliocene

Lower Pliocene 200 Upper Miocene .200

. *(14-15m.y.)

Quaternary

300

Middle Miocene

14-15m.y.)

30°

25°

Index Map

^ 2 9 7 ' 4 4 3

Vv442 \ ^

\ Shikoku\ 'y Basing\

135° 140°

Figure 21. Time-stratigraphic correlation of sediments of Sites 297, 442, 443, and 444.

tion at Site 444 is consistent with distal clastic-wedgedeposition. Thicker Quaternary deposits at Sites 297,442, and 443 are consistent with known greater rates ofsediment accumulation at those sites. The greater ratesresulted from active Quaternary circum-Pacific volcan-ism (Donnelly, 1975; Kennett et al., 1977) and fromfluctuations in sea level. During low stands, the effluentof high-yield streams would enter the ocean closer to thebasin center than during higher stands of sea level. In atypical distal location, such as Site 444, the influence ofsuch lowering of sea level would be lesser.

The centripetal pattern of sedimentation from at leastthree sources into the Shikoku Basin is one of its uniquefeatures in comparison with the other back-arc basins ofthe western Pacific. The clastic wedges and associateddispersal patterns in the other back-arc basins of thewestern Pacific are highly variable. Karig and Moore(1975) showed that in the Parece Vela Basin and thesouthern half of the Philippine Sea clastic wedges areasymmetrical with respect to a single, linear island-arcsource, from which they thin towards the basin center.

Klein (1975a,b) suggested a symmetrical disposition ofsuch clastic wedges from island-arc sources in the SouthFiji and New Hebrides Basin, and later (Klein, 1977)suggested that this disposition was a function of theradius of curvature of the island-arc sources. The Phil-ippine Sea and Parece Vela Basin are filled with an asym-metrical clastic wedge, because the island-arc source isnearly linear, whereas in the South Fiji Basin the radiusof curvature of the bounding island arc is small, givingrise to a symmetrical disposition of clastic wedges. TheSea of Japan differs from the South Fiji Basin becausethere symmetrically disposed clastic wedges are both ter-rigenous (Asian mainland) and from an island-arcsource (Japanese Islands) (Schlanger and Combs, 1975).The Shikoku Basin is unique among Pacific Ocean back-arc basins, having clastic wedges derived from two ac-tive island arcs oriented normal to each other (JapaneseIslands, Iwo Jima Ridge), and from a remnant arc (Kyu-shu-Palau Ridge).

The dominance of hemipelagic sediment is a secondmajor difference between the Shikoku Basin sediments

996

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

and other Pacific Ocean back-arc basins. The hemi-pelagic sediments were derived from several sources andappear to show a systematic change in clay mineralogythrough time. These mineral changes reflect increasingsupply from the Chinese mainland and global coolingsince the Miocene. No such systematic changes in claymineralogy have been reported from other back-arcbasins.

The depth of deposition of all the Shikoku Basin sitesis near the CCD. At Sites 297, 442, 443, and 444, a fewhorizons barren of fossils were documented, indicatingdeposition below the CCD. The poorly preserved nan-noplankton and lack of foraminifers suggest depositionabove the CCD, but below the lysocline. Short periodsof known deposition below the CCD in the ShikokuBasin include parts of the Pleistocene, the early Plio-cene, and the late Miocene. The alternation of calcare-ous and sometimes siliceous fossil deposits and inor-ganic terrigenous deposits at Site 443 indicates somechanges in the CCD, perhaps related to the general cur-rent system and sea-level variations during the lateCenozoic.

The Daito Ridge and Basin province is a complex ter-rain subdivided into deeper-water basins and relativeshallower ridges which are remnant arcs (Mizuno et al.,1975; Karig, 1975; Shiki et al., 1974). Site 445 is in asmall basin in the Daito Ridge, whereas Site 446 is in theDaito Basin.

The succession of sedimentary facies in the DaitoRidge and Basin province shows similarity to the faciessuccession at Site 285 (South Fiji Basin) and Site 286(Hebrides Basin), drilled during DSDP Leg 30 (An-drews, Packham, et al., 1975) (Figure 22).

The stratigraphic and sedimentological framework ofdeposition of the two sites is very different, but despitethese differences, the two sites show much similarity.The younger part of the section (post-Eocene) at bothsites consists of pelagic sediments, whereas the Eoceneat both sites consists of well-developed terrigenous mud-stones, siltstones, sandstones, and (at Site 445) con-glomerates. These Eocene sediments were deposited bythe complete range of subaqueous gravity processes, in-cluding slumping, debris flows, fluidized-sediment flows,and turbidity currents. The rates of sediment accumula-tion at both sites show a nearly identical pattern, low tomoderate for the post-Eocene pelagic section, and mod-erate to high for the Eocene terrigenous sediments. Thispattern of sediment-accumulation rates is identical tothat reported from Site 285 in the South Fiji Basin andSite 286 in the New Hebrides Basin by Andrews, Pack-ham et al. (1975) and Klein (1975a,b).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors, first of all, thank their shipboard and shore-based colleagues who contributed time, efforts, and data con-tributing to this paper. Dr. Peter Borella of Riverside City Col-lege and C. John Mann of the University of Illinois, Urbana,reviewed the manuscript and made helpful criticisms, com-ments, and suggestions. Mrs. Lola Boyce of DSDP went aboveand beyond the call of duty to type, retype, and proofread themany drafts.

REFERENCES

Andrews, J. E., Packham, G. H., et al., 1975. Init. Repts.,DSDP, 30: Washington (U. S. Govt. Printing Office).

Berger, W. H., 1973. Cenozoic sedimentation in the easterntropical Pacific. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 84, 1941-1951.

Berger, W. H., and von Rad, U., 1972. Cretaceous and Ceno-zoic sediments from the Atlantic Ocean. In Hays, D. E.,Pimm, A. C , et al., Init. Repts. DSDP, 14: Washington(U. S. Govt. Printing Office), pp. 787-954.

Berggren, W. A., 1972. A Cenozoic time-scale—some implica-tions for regional geology and paleogeography. Lethaia, 5,195-215.

Berggren, W. A., and Van Couvering, J. A., 1974. The lateNeogene biostratigraphy, geochronology and paleoclima-tology of the last 15 million years in marine and continentalsequences. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeo-ecology, 16, 1-216.

Bouma, A. H., 1962. Sedimentology of Some Flysch Deposits:Amsterdam (Elsevier).

Boyce, R. E., 1976a. Definitions and laboratory techniques ofcompressional sound velocity parameters and wet-watercontent, wet-bulk density, and porosity parameters bygravimetric and gamma ray attenuation techniques. InSchlanger, S. O., Jackson, E. D., et al., Init. Repts. DSDP,33: Washington (U. S. Govt. Printing Office), pp. 931-951.

, 1976b. Sound velocity-density parameters of sedi-ment and rock from DSDP drill Sites 315-318 on the LineIslands Chain, Manihiki Plateau, and Tuamotu Ridge inthe Pacific Ocean. In Schlanger, S. O., Jackson, E. D., etal., Init. Repts. DSDP, 33: Washington (U. S. Govt. Print-ing Office), pp. 695-728.

Bukry, D., 1975. Coccolith and silicoflagellate stratigraphy,northwestern Pacific Ocean, Deep Sea Drilling Project, Leg32. In Larson, R. A., Moberly, R. M., Jr. et al., Init.Repts. DSDP, 32: Washington (U. S. Govt. Printing Of-fice), pp. 677-718.

Burns, R. E., Andrews, J. E., et al., 1973. Init. Repts. DSDP,21: Washington (U. S. Govt. Printing Office).

Busch, W. H., 1976a. A model of the origin of dish structuresin some ancient subaqueous sandy debris flow deposits.Geol. Soc. Am. Abs. with Programs, 8, 799.

, 1976b. Dish structures in some ancient subaqueoussandy debris flow deposits, M. S. thesis, University of Illi-nois, Urbana.

Chamley, H., in press. North Atlantic clay sedimentation andpaleoenvironment since the late Jurassic: Second EwingSymposium, New York.

Clark, S. P., Jr., 1966. Thermal conductivity. In Clark, S. P.,Jr., (Ed.), Handbook of Physical Constants: Geol. Soc.Am. Mem., 97,459-482.

Cook, H. E., Jenkyns, H. C. and, Kelts, K. R., 1976. Rede-posited sediments along the Line Islands, Equatorial Pacif-ic. Schlanger, S. O., Jackson, E. D., et al., Init. Repts.DSDP, 33: Washington (U. S. Govt. Printing Office), pp.837-847.

Dagley, P., and Lawley, E., 1974. Paleomagnetic evidence forthe transitional behavior of the geomagnetic field. Geo-phys. J. Royal Astron. Soc, 36, 577-598.

Davies, T. A., Luyendyk, B. P., et al., 1975. Init. Repts.DSDP, 26: Washington (U. S. Govt. Printing Office).

DeRaaf, J. F. M., Reading, H. G., and Walker, R. G., 1965.Cyclic sedimentation in the Lower Westphalian of NorthDevon, England. Sedimentology, 4, 1-52.

Donnelly, T. W., 1975. Neogene explosive volcanic activityof the western Pacific, Sites 292 and 296. In Karig, E. D.,

997

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

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900-1

Figure 22. Comparison of sedimentary facies and stratigraphy between Sites 285 and 286(from Andrews, Packham, et al, 1975; Klein, 1975b) and Sites 445 and 446.

998

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

Ingle, J. C , et al., Init. Repts. DSDP, 31: Washington (U. S.Govt. Printing Office), pp. 577-598.

Fischer, A. G., Heezen, B. C , et al., 1971. Init. Repts. DSDP,6: Washington (U. S. Govt. Printing Office).

Hamilton, E. L., 1974. Prediction of deep-sea sediment prop-erties: state of the art. In Inderbitzen, A. L. (Ed.), DeepSea Sediments, Physical and Mechanical Properties: NewYork (Plenum Press), pp. 1-43.

, 1976. Variations of density and porosity with depthin deep-sea sediments. /. Sediment. Petrol., 46, 280-300.

., 1978. Sound velocity-density relations in sea-floorsediments and rocks. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 63, 366-377.

Hampton, M. A., 1972. The role of subaqueous debris flow ingenerating turbidity currents. / . Sediment. Petrol., 42,775-793.

Hilde, T. W. C , Uyeda, S., and Kroenke, L., 1977. Evolutionof the western Pacific and its margin. Tectonophysics, 38,145-165.

Hyndman, R. D., Erickson, A. J., and von Herzen, R. P.,1974. Geothermal measurements on DSDP Leg 26. InDavies, T. A., Luyendyk, B. P., et al., Init. Repts. DSDP,26: Washington (U. S. Govt. Printing Office), pp. 451-464.

Ingle, J. C , Jr., 1975. Summary of late Paleogene-Neogeneinsular stratigraphy, paleobathymetry, and correlations,Philippine Sea and Sea of Japan region. In Karig, D. E.,Ingle, J. C , Jr., et al., Init. Repts. DSDP, 31: Washington(U. S. Govt. Printing Office), pp. 837-855.

Karig, D. E., 1970. Ridges and basins of the Tonga-KermadecIsland arc system. /. Geophys. Res., 75, 239-255.

, 1971. Origin and development of marginal basins inthe western Pacific. /. Geophys. Res., 76, 2542-2561.

., 1975. Basin genesis in the Philippine Sea. In Karig,D. E., Ingle, J. C , et al., Init. Repts. DSDP, 31: Wash-ington (U. S. Govt. Printing Office), pp. 857-879.

Karig, D. E., Ingle, J. C , et al., 1975. Init. Repts. DSDP, 31:Washington (U. S. Govt. Printing Office).

Karig, D. E., and Moore, G. F., 1975. Tectonically controlledsedimentation in marginal basins. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.,26, 233-238.

Kennett, J., Houtz, R., et al., 1975. Init. Repts. DSDP, 29:Washington (U. S. Govt. Printing Office).

Kennett, J. P., McBirney, A. R., and Thunell, R. C , 1977.Episodes of Cenozoic volcanism in the circum-Pacific re-gion. J. Volcanol. Geochem. Res., 2, 145-163.

Kennett J. P., and Thunell, R. C , 1977. Comments on Ceno-zoic explosive volcanism related to east and southeast Asianarcs. In Talwani, M., and Pitman W. C. (Eds.), IslandArcs, Deep Sea Trenches and Back Arc Basins, (MauriceEwing Series 1): Washington (Am. Geophys. Union), pp.348-352.

Klein, G. deV., 1975a. Depositional facies in Leg 30 Deep SeaDrilling Project cores. In Andrews, J. E., Packham, G. H.,et al., Init. Repts. DSDP, 30: Washington (U. S. Govt.Printing Office), pp. 423-442.

, 1975b. Sedimentary tectonics in southwest Pacificmarginal basins based on Leg 30 Deep Sea Drilling ProjectCores from the South Fiji, Hebrides and Coral Sea Basins.Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 86, 1012-1018.

., 1977. Subaqueous gravity flow sedimentation in themarginal basins of the western Pacific Ocean. Geol. Soc.Am. Abs. Programs, 9, 1052.

Kobayashi, K., and Isezaki, N., 1976. Magnetic anomalies inthe Sea of Japan and the Shikoku Basin: possible tectonicimplications. In The Geophysics of the Pacific Ocean Basinand its Margin: Am. Geophys. Union Mon., 19, pp. 235-251.

Kobayashi, K., and Nakada, M., 1977. Local magnetic anom-aly profiles, Shikoku Basin, northwestern Pacific Ocean.Contr. Geodynamics Project Japan, 77-2. [map]

Konda, I., Harada, K., Kitazato, H., Matsuoka, K., Nishida,S., Nishimura, A., Ohno, T., and Taka-ama, T., 1975.Some paleontological results of the GDP-1, -8, -11 cruises.In Geological Processes of the Philippine Sea: Tokyo(Geol. Soc. Japan), pp. 185-196.

Louden, K. E., 1976. Magnetic anomalies in the West Philip-pine Basin. In Sutton, G. H., Manghnani, M. H., andMoberly, R. (Eds.), The Geophysics of the Pacific OceanBasin and its Margin: Am. Geophys. Union Geophys. Mon.,19, pp. 200-232.

, 1977. Paleomagnetism of DSDP sediments, phaseshifting of magnetic anomalies and rotation of the WestPhilippine Basin. J. Geophys. Res., 82, 2989-3002.

Lowe, D. R., 1976. Subaqueous liquified and fluidized sedi-ment flows and their deposits. Sedimentology, 23, 285-308.

Lowe, D. R., and LoPiccolo, R. D., 1974. The characteristicsand origins of dish and pillar structures. /. Sediment. Pe-trol., 44, 484-501.

Matsuda, J., Saito, K., and Zashu, S., 1975. K-Ar age and SRisotope of rocks of manganese nodule nuclei from AmamiPlateau, West Philippine Sea. In Nakazawa, K., et al.(Eds.), Geological Problems of the Philippine Sea, pp.99-101.

Mizuno, A., Okuda, Y., Tamaki, K., Kinoshita, Y., Nohara,M., Yuasa, M., Nakajima, M., Murakami, F., Terashima,S., and Ishibashi, K., 1975. Marine geology and geologicalhistory of the Daito Ridge area, northwestern PhilippineSea. Mar. Sci., 1, 484-491, 543-548.

Mizuno, A., Shiki, T., and Aoki, H., 1977. Dredged rock andpiston and gravity core data from the Daito Ridges andKyushu-Palau Ridge in the North Philippine Sea. InGeological Studies of the Ryuku Islands (Vol. 2), pp.107-119.

Mizuno, A., Okuda, Y., Nagumo, S., Kagami, H. and Nasu,N., 1979. Subsidence of the Daito Ridge and associatedbasins, North Philippine Sea. In Watkins, J. S., Monta-dert, L., and Dickerson, P. (Eds.), Geological and Geo-physical Investigations of Continental Margins: Am. As-soc. Petrol. Geol. Mem., 29, pp. 100-116.

Moore, C , 1974. Turbidites and terrigenous muds, DSDP Leg25. In Simpson, E. S. W., Schlich, R., et al., Init. Repts.DSDP, 25: Washington (U. S. Govt. Printing Office), pp.441-480.

Murauchi, S., and Asanuma, T., 1974. Seismic reflection pro-files and Sonobuoy refraction measurements during GDP-6to -8 voyages. Mar. Sci., 6, 23-27. [in Japanese withEnglish abstract]

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Nelson, C. H., and Kulm, L. V. 1973. Submarine fans andchannels. In Middleton, G. V., and Bouma, A. H. (Eds.),Turbidites and Deep-Water Sedimentation: Tulsa (Soc.Econ. Paleontol. Mineral.), pp. 97-109.

Ninkovich, D., and Donn, W. L., 1977. Cenozoic explosivevolcanism related to east and southeast Asian arcs. In Mid-dleton, G. V., and Bouma, A. H. (Eds.), Turbidites andDeep-Water Sedimentation: Tulsa (Soc. Econ. Paleontol.Mineral.), pp. 337-347, 353-354.

Nilsen, T. H., and Kerr, D. R., 1978. Turbidites, redbeds, sed-imentary structures and trace fossils observed in DSDP Leg38 cores and the sedimentary history of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea. In Talwani, M., Udintsev, G., et al., Init.

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PLATE 1

Figure 1 Resedimented mudstone facies showing parallellaminae. 445-74-5, 10-65 cm.

Figure 2 Resedimented sandstone facies showing dish struc-tures in volcaniclastic, carbonate sandstone. 445-57-7, 22-40 cm.

Figure 3 Resedimented sandstone facies showing micro-faults. 445-71-1, 14-25 cm.

Figure 4 Resedimented sandstone facies showing coarse-tail graded bedding. 445-73-2, 98-127 cm.

1002

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

PLATE 1

-15

- 2 0

1003

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

PLATE 2

Figure 1 Resedimented sandstone facies showing completeBouma sequence, with basal graded, stratified,sandy, pebbly conglomerate (Ta, 74-89 cm), theparallel-laminated interval (Tb, 59-74 cm), theconvolute-laminated and micro-cross-laminatedinterval (Tc, 48-59 cm), and the siltstone-mud-stone interval (Td, 39-48 cm), capped by pelagicclay (35-39 cm). 445-71-1, 35-90 cm.

Figure 2 Resedimented sandstone facies, showing thin,graded beds and interbedded resedimented mud-stone facies with parallel lamination. 445-74-1,65-118 cm.

Figure 3 Resedimented conglomerate facies, showing disor-ganized conglomerate with opposite-dipping, im-bricated clasts of Nummulites boninensis (at 66cm) and imbricated clasts of volcanic rock frag-ments. 445-74-3, 47-74 cm.

Figure 4 Resedimented conglomerate facies, showing disor-ganized conglomerate fabric. Clasts consist ofNummulites boninensis, andesitic and basalticrock fragments, and limestone clasts. 445-69-2,41-67 cm.

1004

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

.v>•v •*

. .

. •

•35

-40

•45

•50

-55

-60

-65

-70

-75

•80

-85

PLATE 2

-65

-70

-75

•80

-85

-90

-95

-100

-105

-110

-115

—50

60

— 65

— 70

65

•90

1005

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

PLATE 3

Figure 1 Complete Bouma sequence in resedimented sand-stone facies, showing basal graded, pebbly sand(Ta) from 144 to 149 cm, parallel-bedded, graded,stratified conglomerate and sand (Tb) from 134 to144 cm; parallel-laminated sandstone (Tb) at 132to 133 cm; micro-cross-laminated interval (Tc)from 127 to 132 cm; interbedded siltstone-mud-stone interval (Td) from 199 to 127 cm; andpelagic-clay interval (Te) from 114 to 119 cm.446-37-1, 110-149 cm.

Figure 2 Resedimented carbonate facies, showing lime-stone with undisturbed bioturbation (upper half)and disturbed bioturbation in lower half. Thelower half is interpreted to represent laminar-flowzone of a debris flow, whereas the upper half isinterpreted to represent a rigid plug of the samedebris flow. 445-52-2, 120-148 cm.

Figure 3 Resedimented carbonate facies, showing micro-faults. 445-51-4, 7-25 cm.

Figure 4 Resedimented carbonate facies, showing slumpfolding. 445-51-3, 22-48 cm.

1006

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

PLATE 31—110

- 1 1 5

-120

—125

-130

-135

- 1 2 0

ė—145

- 1 4 0

- 1 4 5

- 2 0

- 2 5

i—25

1-30

-35

-40

1-45

1007

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

PLATE 4

Figure 1 Resedimented carbonate facies, showing slumpblocks. 445-38-4, 66-88 cm.

Figure 2 Resedimented carbonate facies, showing partialBouma sequence disrupted by slump fractures.Bouma intervals include parallel-laminated inter-val (Tb, 94-103 cm), interbedded silt-sized andclay-sized carbonate parallel laminae (Td, 85-94cm), and pelagic interval (Te, 62-85 cm). 445-36-4,62-104 cm.

Figure 3 Resedimented carbonate facies, showing partialBouma sequence with graded, sandy carbonateand volcaniclastic interval (Ta, 25-26 cm), paral-lel-laminated interval (Tb, 4-25 cm), and pelagicinterval (Te, 0-4 cm). 445-38-4, 0-28 cm.

1008

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

PLATE 4

- 7 0

—75

- 8 0

- 8 5

- 6 5

- 2 0

- 2 5

- 9 0

- 9 5

-100

1009

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

PLATE 5

Resedimented carbonate facies. A shows basal parallel-laminatedinterval overlain by diffuse-laminated zone. B shows X-ray radio-graph of A; diffuse-laminated zone consists of micro-cross-lami-nated lenses of coarse-grained, foraminifer-rich carbonate. 445-58-2,43-100 cm.

1010

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

PLATE 5

-45

50

55

60

65

70

-75

80

85

90

95

100

1011

S.M. WHITE ETAL.

PLATE 6

Resedimented carbonate facies, showing partial Bouma sequencewith micro-cross-laminae and oversteepened convolute bedding(Tc), overlain by silty and clayey limestone (Td). A: core slab. B:X-ray radiograph. 445-41-1, 7-31 cm.

1012

\

r

PLATE 6

10

15

20

25

30

SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS

1013

Documents

45. SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS: DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT …45. SEDIMENT SYNTHESIS: DEEP SEA DRILLING PROJECT LEG 58, PHILIPPINE SEA Stan M. White,1 Hervé Chamley*2 Doris Curtis,3 George