44581970-MIS-001250165 - Copy.doc

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Contents

Foreword vii

Preface to the Second Edition ix

Preface to the First Edition xi

PART I: CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATIONS

1. Management Infomation S!stems: A Fame"o# $

1.1 Im%otan&e of MIS $

1.' Management Infomation S!stems: A Con&e%t (1.$ MIS: A Definition 1'

1.) Nat*e an+ S&o%e of MIS 1$

Summary 1,

Review Questions 1,

Assignments 1-

References 1-

Case St*+! 1: ote/ Sta!&oo/ '0

Case St*+! ': MIS an+ Conto/ S!stem at S*+es an+ Com%an! ''

'. St*&t*e an+ C/assifi&ation of MIS ')

'.1 St*&t*e of MIS ')'.' MIS C/assifi&ation '-

Summary )2

Review Questions ),

Assignments )-

References )-

Case St*+! 1: MIS Fai/*e at A3C La4s. Limite+ (0

Case St*+! ': Si4a Intenationa/ an+ F*n&tiona/ Infomation S!stems

()

$. Infomation an+ S!stem Con&e%ts ((

$.1 Infomation: A Definition (($.' T!%es of Infomation

((

$.$ Infomation 5*a/it! (6

$.) Dimensions of Infomation (,

$.( S!stem: a Definition 60

$.6 7in+s of S!stems 61

$.2 S!stem Re/ate+ Con&e%ts 6'

$., E/ements of a S!stem

6(

$.- *man as an Infomation Po&essing S!stem 62

Summary 21

Review Questions 2$

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Assignments 2$

References 2$

). Infomation S!stem as an Ena4/e 2(

).1 Into+*&tion 2(

).' Canging &on&e%ts of IS 2(

).$ IS as an Ena4/e 26

Summary ,'

Review Questions ,'

Assignments ,$

References ,$

Case St*+! 1: 8ei&/e 3oo#ing Infomation S!stem ,)

Case St*+! ': Po+*&tion Des%at& Management Infomation S!stem ,(

PART : INFORMATION TECNOLO9IES

(. 3asi&s of Com%*te S!stem -1

(.1 A Com%*te S!stem -1

(.' Com%*te a+"ae C/assifi&ation

10-

(.$ Com%*te Soft"ae 11(

(.) Pogamming Lang*ages 112

Summary 1'0

Review Questions 1'1

Assignments 1''

References 1''

6. Data4ase Management 1'$

6.1 Into+*&tion 1'$

6.' Data4ase ieae! 1'$

6.$ Fi/es Te Ta+itiona/ A%%oa& 1'(

6.) Data4ases Te Mo+en A%%oa& 1'6

6.( Data4ase St*&t*e 1'-

6.6 Data4ase Management S!stem 1$0

6.2 T!%es of Data4ase St*&t*es o Data Mo+e/s 1$'6., St*&t*e+ 5*e! Lang*age ;S5L<

1$6

6.- Noma/isation

1$,

6.10 A+van&es in Data4ase Te&no/og!

1)'

Summary 1)$

Review Questions 1)$

Assignments 1)(

References 1)(

Case St*+! 1: Pa!ing 9*est Data4ase Management S!stem 1)6

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Case St*+! ': SMS Instit*te Data4ase Management S!stem

1),

2. Te/e&omm*ni&ations an+ Net"o#s 1(0

2.1 Te/e&omm*ni&ations 1(0

2.' T!%es of Signa/s 1(12.$ Comm*ni&ation Canne/ 1(1

2.) Caa&teisti&s of Comm*ni&ation Canne/s

1()

2.( Comm*ni&ations a+"ae

1(6

2.6 Comm*ni&ation Net"o#s 1(,

2.2 Com%*te Net"o#s in In+ia

16'

2., A%%/i&ations of Comm*ni&ation 121

Summary 12'

Review Questions 12' Assignments 12$

References 12$

Case St*+! 1: Net"o#ing at a Te&no/og! Instit*te 12(

PART I: 3USINESS APPLICATIONS OF IS

,. e3*siness an+ eComme&e 1,1

,.1 Into+*&tion 1,1

,.' CossF*n&tiona/ Ente%ise Infomation S!stem

1,'

,.$ eComme&e 1-1

Summary 1--

Review Questions '00

Assignments '00

References '01

-. De&isionMa#ing an+ De&isionS*%%ot S!stems '0'

-.1 De&isionMa#ing: A Con&e%t '0$

-.' Simon=s Mo+e/ of De&isionMa#ing

'0$

-.$ T!%es of De&isions '0(-.) Meto+s fo Coosing among A/tenatives

'0,

> -.( De&isionma#ing an+ MIS

'1(

-.6 De&ision S*%%ot S!stems ?!@ '12

-.2 De&ision S*%%ot S!stems: A Fame"o# '1,

-., Caa&teisti&s an+ Ca%a4i/ities of DSS '1,

Summary ''0

Review Questions ''0

Assignments ''1

References ''1

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PART I8: DE8ELOPMENT OF MANA9EMENT INFORMATION

SSTEMS

10 S!stem Deve/o%ment A%%oa&es ''(

10.1 S!stem Deve/o%ment Stages ''(

10.' S!stem Deve/o%ment A%%oa&es '$0 Summary '$)

Review Questions '$(

Assignments '$(

References '$(

Case St*+! 1: MIS at Mani# Man*fa&t*ing '$6

11. S!stems Ana/!sis an+ Design '$,

S!stems Ana/!sis

11.1 Into+*&tion

'$,

11.' ReB*iement Detemination'$-

11.$ Stategies fo ReB*iement Detemination

')0

11.) St*&t*e+ Ana/!sis Too/s ')'

S!stem Design

11.( Design O4e&tives ')-

11.6 Con&e%t*a/ Design ')-

11.2 Design Meto+s '()

11., Detai/e+ S!stem Design '((

Summary '61

Review Questions

'6'

Assignments '6'

References '6$

Case St*+! 1: S!stem ReB*iement S%e&ifi&ation: An I//*stative Case

'6)

Case St*+! ': MIS at 3an#

'21

Case St*+! $: Sigma In+*sties Limite+ ;SIL<: A Case St*+!

',2

Case St*+! ): P*&ase O+e S!stem: A%%/i&ation Case St*+!'-0

PART 8: MANA9EMENT OE INFORMATION RESOURCE

1'. Im%/ementation Maintenan&e Eva/*ation an+ Se&*it! of IS $11

1'.1 Im%/ementation Po&ess $11

1'.' a+"ae an+ Soft"ae Se/e&tion

$12

1'.$ S!stem Maintenan&e $'0

1'.) Eva/*ation of MIS $''

1'.( IS Se&*it! $',1'.6 Pote&ting Infomation S!stem $$1

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1'.2 IS Conto/s $$'

Summary $$$

Review Questions $$)

Assignments $$(

References $$(

Case St*+! 1: Effe&tiveness of MIS: A Case St*+! $$6

1$. Infomation S!stem P/anning $)0

1$.1 Infomation S!stem P/anning $)0

1$.' P/anning Temino/og! $)0

1$.$ Te No/an Stage Mo+e/ $)'

1$.) Te Fo*Stage Mo+e/ of IS P/anning $)(

1$.( Se/e&ting a Meto+o/og! $(1

1$.6 Infomation Reso*&e Management ;IRM<

$('

1$.2 Oganisation St*&t*e an+ Lo&ation of MIS $($

Summary $() Review Questions $((

Assignments $((

References $((

9/ossa! $(2

In+ex $6$

Management Infomation S!stems:A Fame"o#

Leaning O4e&tives

Afte going to*g tis &a%te !o* so*/+ 4e a4/e to:

• &/ea/! *n+estan+ te &on&e%t of Management Infomation S!stems in

tems of its vaio*s &om%onents an+ as an integate+ s!stemG

• *se 4*siness oganisation to i//*state te &om%onents an+ f*n&tions of te genei& &on&e%t of a s!stemG

• #no" a4o*t te nat*e s&o%e im%otan&e an+ &aa&teisti&s of MI(G an+

• +es&i4e te f*n&tions of MIS.

1.1 IMPORTANCE OF MIS

It goes "ito*t sa!ing tat a// manageia/ f*n&tions ae %efome+ to*g

+e&isionma#ing fo ta#ing ationa/ +e&ision time/! an+ e/ia4/e infomation is

essentia/ an+ is %o&*e+ to*g a /ogi&a/ an+ "e//st*&t*e+ meto+ of infomation &o//e&ting %o&essing an+ +isseminating to +e&isionma#es. S*& a

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meto+ in te fie/+ of management is "i+e/! #no"n as Management Infomation

S!stems ;MIS<.

In to+a!=s "o/+ of evein&easing &om%/exities of 4*siness as "e// as

management eve! 4*siness oganisation in o+e to sevi&e an+ go" m*st

ave a %o%e/! %/anne+ ana/!se+ +esigne+ an+ maintaine+ MIS so tat it%ovi+es time/! e/ia4/e an+ *sef*/ infomation to ena4/e te management to

ta#e s%ee+! an+ ationa/ +e&isions.

MIS as ass*me+ a// te moe im%otant o/e in to+a!=s envionment 4e&a*se

a manage as to ta#e +e&isions *n+e t"o main &a//enges:

• Fist 4e&a*se of te /i4ea/isation an+ g/o4a/isation in "i&

oganisations ae eB*ie+ to &om%ete not /o&a//! 4*t g/o4a//! a

manage as to ta#e B*i&# +e&isions ote"ise is 4*siness "i// 4e

ta#en a"a! 4! is &om%etitos. Tis as f*te enan&e+ te

ne&essit! fo s*& a s!stem.

• Se&on+ in tis infomation age "eein infomation is +o*4/ing *%

eve! t"o to tee !eas a manage as to %o&ess a /age vo/*mino*s

+ataG fai/ing "i& e ma! en+ *% ta#ing a "ong +e&ision tat ma!

%ove to 4e ve! &ost/! to te &om%an!.

In s*& a sit*ation manages m*st 4e eB*i%%e+ "it some too/ o a s!stem

"i& &an assist tem in tei &a//enging o/e of +e&isionma#ing. Tan#s to te

a+van&es in Infomation Te&no/og! ;IT< tat as &ome to te es&*e of to+a!=s

manage.

It is 4e&a*se of te a4ove&ite+ easons tat to+a! MIS is &onsi+ee+ to 4e of

%aamo*nt im%otan&e sometimes ega+e+ as te neve &ente of anoganisation. S*& s!stems assist +e&ision ma#es in oganisations 4! %ovi+ing

Infomation at vaio*s stages of +e&isionma#ing an+ t*s geat/! e/% te

oganisations to a&ieve tei %e+etemine+ goa/s an+ o4e&tives. On te ote

an+ te MIS "i& is not a+eB*ate/! %/anne+ fo ana/!se+ +esigne+

im%/emente+ o is %oo/! maintaine+ ma! %ovi+e +e/a!e+ ina&&*ate

ie/evant o o4so/ete infomation "i& ma! %ove &ost/! o even fata/ fo te

oganisation In ote "o+s oganisations to+a! *st &annot s*vive an+ go"

"ito*t %o%e/! %/anne+ +esigne+ im%/emente+ an+ maintaine+ MIS. It as

4een "e// *n+estoo+ tat MIS ena4/es even sma// oganisations to moe tan

offset te e&onomies of s&a/e eno!e+ 4! tei 4igge &om%etitos an+ t*s e/%s

in %ovi+ing a &om%etitive e+ge ove ote 8 oganisations.

MIS?!@

A 4asi& B*estion tat &omes to one=s min+ is "! so*/+ one st*+! MIS@ It

ma! 4e a st*+ent as%iing to 4e&ome a manage a manage "o#ing in some

oganisation an ente%ene* o a %ofessiona/. No"a+a!s infomation s!stems

E infomation te&no/og! ave 4e&ome a vita/ &om%onent of an! s*&&essf*/

4*siness an+ is aea *st /i#e an! ote f*n&tiona/ aeas of a 4*siness

oganisation /i#e finan&e %o+*&tion an+ *man eso*&es T*s it is im%otant

to *n+estan+ te aea of infomation s!stems *st /i#e an! ote f*n&tiona/ aea

in 4*siness. F*te infomation te&no/ogies in&/*+ing Intenet4ase+

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infomation s!stems %/a! an+ in&easing/! im%otant o/e in oganisation. To+a!

infomation s!stems %/a! tee vita/ o/es fo a 4*siness oganisation name/!:

• S*%%ot te 4*siness %o&esses an+ o%eations of an oganisation.

• S*%%ot of +e&isionma#ing 4! em%/o!ees an+ manages of an

oganisation.

• S*%%ot te stategies of an oganisation fo &om%etitive a+vantage.

T*s ies%e&tive of !o* f*n&tiona/ aea ;ie. finan&e *man eso*&es

ma#eting %o+*&tion<G es%onsi4i/it! /eve/ in an oganisation ;i.e. stategi&

/eve/ mi++/e management o o%eations management /eve/<G siHe of te

oganisation in "i& !o* "o# ;sma// me+i*m o /age< infomation s!stem is

a//%evasive. o"eve tis +oes not mean tat !o* m*st 4e an ex%et in

%ogamming o ote &om%/ex te&no/ogies ;if !o* ae not going to s%e&ia/ise in

infomation te&no/og!<.

1.1.' MIS ?at !o* nee+ to #no"@

Anote im%otant B*estion is "at one nee+s to #no" on tis s*4e&t to 4e

&om%etent eno*g to manage te a+"ae soft"ae +ata net"o# eso*&es of

a 4*siness an+ a%%/! tat #no"/e+ge fo te stategi& s*&&ess of te oganisation.

Te fie/+ of infomation s!stems en&om%asses man! &om%/ex te&no/ogies

4eavio*a/ &on&e%ts an+ a /age n*m4e of s%e&ia/ise+ a%%/i&ations in 4*siness

an+ non4*siness aeas. ?at !o* nee+ to *n+estan+ is:

• Te 4asi& &on&e%ts of infomation s!stems an+ infomation

te&no/og!G• 3*siness a%%/i&ations of infomation s!stems fo te o%eations

management an+ &om%etitive .a+vantage of a 4*siness.

• Te +eve/o%ment %o&ess of infomation s!stemsG an+

• Te &a//enges in managing IT an+ ote iss*es in te *se of IT.

1.' MANA9EMENT INFORMATION SSTEMS: A CONCEPT

Te tem MIS is of e&ent oigin. 3*t it +oes not mean tat oganisations

"ee +oing "ito*t s*& a s!stem. In fa&t MIS as 4een in existen&e sin&e te

a+vent of 4*siness oganisations. Unti/ e&ent/! MIS o&&*%ie+ te stat*s tatox!gen +i+ 4efoe Lavoisie=s +is&ove! of te gas it "as 4ot vita/ an+

*ne&ognise+. o"eve 4*siness as "e// as management a%%ene+ to te sim%/e

in !este!eas.

?eeas to+a! 4ot ave go"n to *n%e&e+ente+ /eve/s of &om%/exit!. A/so

as as a/ea+! 4een mentione+ "it te a+vent of &om%*tes an+

&omm*ni&ation te&no/og! it as no" 4e&ome %ossi4/e to tansmit /age

amo*nts of infomation a&oss /ong +istan&es &ea%/! an+ "ito*t /oss of time.

T*s envionmenta/ %ess*es ave ne&essitate+ tat infomation 4e &onsi+ee+

as a fift im%otant eso*&e a/ong "it te ta+itiona/ fo* eso*&es of mone!

mateia/s men an+ ma&ines. In fa&t some management eseaees ave goneas fa as to +efine a manage as a tans+*&e tat tansfes infomation to

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+e&ision. T*s tee is no +en!ing te fa&t tat MIS to*g "as ve! m*& in

*se sin&e te stat of te fist 4*siness oganisation it emaine+ man*a/ ve!

sim%/e an+ *ne&ognise+ "eeas to+a! it as got a geat/! efine+

nomen&/at*e a/ong "it a "e//+esigne+ &om%*te4ase+ st*&t*e "i&

fo//o"s te s!stems a%%oa&.

Management Infomation s!stem is an a&on!m of tee "o+s viH.

Management Infomation an+ S!stems In o+e to f*//! *n+estan+ te tem

MIS /et *s t! to *n+estan+ tese tee "o+s.

1.'.1 Management

Management as 4een +efine+ vaio*s/! 4! +iffeent s&o/as. o"eve

7oontH=s +efinition of management is "i+e/! e&ognise+ an+ *se+ "i& *ns as

fo//o"s. Management is te at of getting tings +one to*g an+ "it te

%eo%/e in foma//! oganise+ go*%s= ;7oontH 1-2'< o"eve a manage in te

oganisation +oes not get tings +one to*g a magi& sti&#G ate e +oes it 4!%efoming +iffeent f*n&tions in a s!stemati& "a!. Te 4asi& f*n&tions "i& a

manage %efoms in an oganisation ae /iste+ *n+e manageia/ f*n&tions.

Managerial Functions

;I< P/anning

;II<Oganising

;III< Staffing

;I8< Die&ting an+

;8<Conto//ing.

To get an insigt into te tem Management it "o*/+ 4e fai to 4ief/!

+is&*ss tese 4asi& f*n&tions of management. Let *s *n+estan+ tese f*n&tions

one 4! one.

Planning

P/anning is a %o&ess of foeseeing te f*t*e in a+van&e. It 4i+ges a ga%

4et"een "ee "e ae an+ "ee "e "ant to 4e.

JFigK

As %/anning is to &at te f*t*e &o*se of a&tion it so*/+ ans"e te

fo//o"ing B*estions:

• ?at to +o@

• ?en to +o@

• ?o is to +o@

• o" is it to 4e +one@

• ?ee is it to 4e +one@

•

?! is it to 4e +one@ et&.

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Managers %/an 4! setting goa/s an+ o4e&tives an+ /a! +o"n %o/i&ies

%o&e+*es */es %ogammes 4*+gets stategies an+ s&e+*/es to a&ieve te

%/an.

Organising

Oganising is te %o&ess of i+entif!ing te entie o4 +ivi+ing te o4 into

&onvenient s*4e&tstas#s a//o&ating s*4o4s to %esongo*% of %esons an+

+e/egating a*toit! to ea& so tat te o4 is &aie+ o*t as %/anne+. Manages

oganise tas#s 4! +ivi+ing a&tivities assigning +*ties an+ +e/egating a*toit!

fo effe&tive o%eation an+ a&ievement of goa/s.

Staffing

Staffing is te %o&ess of %*tting te igt %eson at te igt o4. Tis f*n&tion

invo/ves a&tivities /i#e +efining te eB*iements "it ega+ to te %eo%/e fo te

o4 to 4e +one se/e&ting s*ita4/e %esons fo tese %ositions an+ taining an++eve/o%ing tem to a&&om%/is tei tas#s as effe&tive/! as %ossi4/e. Te t"o

f*n&tions i.e. oganising an+ staffing so*/+ not 4e &onf*se+ 4e&a*se of tei

&/ose e/ationsi%. Oganising fo&*sses attention on te st*&t*e an+ %o&ess of

a//o&ating o4s so tat &ommon o4e&tives &an 4e a&ieve+G "eeas staffing

%etains to te %eo%/e in te o4s. T*s oganising is o4oiente+ "eeas

staffing is "o#eoiente+.

Directing

Te f*n&tion of +ie&ting as 4een i+entifie+ "it &omman+ 4! eni Fa!o/.

o"eve mo+en management %i/oso%es ae of te vie" tat +ie&ting

in&/*+es:

;I< Comm*ni&ation

;II<Motivation an+

;III< Lea+esi%.

Die&ting is im%otant 4e&a*se in o+e to a&ieve %e+etemine+ goa/s an+

o4e&tives %eo%/e manning te oganisation ave to 4e g*i+e+ motivate+ an+ /e+

4! te manage.

Controlling

Conto//ing an+ %/anning ae te t"o si+es of te same &oin. Conto//ing ens*es

tat a&tivities ae 4eing %efome+ as %e %/ans. Conto//ing is a %o&ess "i&

invo/ves:

;I< Fixing stan+a+s fo meas*ing "o# %efoman&e

;II<Meas*ement of a&t*a/ %efoman&e

;III< Com%aing a&t*a/s "it stan+a+s an+ fin+ing o*t +eviations if

an! an+

;I8< Ta#ing &oe&tive a&tions.

Manages &onto/ te %efoman&e of "o# 4! setting %efoman&e stan+a+s

an+ avoi+ing +eviations fom stan+a+s.

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T*s it emanates fom te a4ove +is&*ssion tat in o+e to get tings +one

to*g %eo%/e a manage %efoms te a4ovementione+ f*n&tions. F*te to

%efom tese f*n&tions a manage as to ta#e a vaiet! of +e&isions. In ote

"o+s decisionma!ing is a f*n+amenta/ %eeB*isite fo ea& of te foegoing

%o&esses. Pete D*&#e as gone to te extent of sa!ing ?ateve a manage

+oes e +oes it to*g +e&isionma#ing. In 4ief De&isionMa#in is te essen&eof Management.

To f*te *n+estan+ te f*n&tioning of a 4*siness oganisation /et *s

4ief/! +is&*ss management ieae!.

Management "ierarehy

Tee ae sevea/ "a!s to +es&i4e te vaio*s management /eve/s. A/to*g

tee ae no &on&ete /ines of +emaeation one &an +isting*is 4et"een /a!es

"itin te oganisation. Ro4et 3. Anton! +es&i4e+ tee /eve/s of 4*siness

a&tivities &aie+ o*t in o%eating an oganisation. Tese tee /eve/s viH.

O%eationa/ Conto/ ;o%eating management<G Management Conto/ ;mi++/emanagement<G an+ Stategi& P/anning ;to% management< ae %ota!e+ in Fig.

1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Leve/s of 3*siness A&tivit!

Te stategi& %/anning /eve/ +etemines "at ma#ets o 4*sinesses te &om%an!

so*/+ 4e in at %esent o %/an to 4e in te nea f*t*e.

Te next /eve/ management &onto/ in&/*+es %o&esses o f*n&tions tat

fa&i/itate te management of te %o&esses +e/egate+ to te o%eationa/ &onto/

/eve/. An exam%/e of a management &onto/ %o&ess is %o+*&tion s&e+*/ing

"ee a s!stem is esta4/ise+ to s&e+*/e %o+*&ts to*g te vaio*s

fa4i&ation an+ assem4/! %oints "itin a fa&to!. Te fee+4a&# fom te

%o+*&tion s&e+*/ing %o&ess ena4/es te management to &onto/ te o%eation.

Te 4ottom /eve/ o%eationa/ &onto/ in+i&ates %o&esses %efome+ to

&onto/ te 4asi& %o+*&t o sevi&es %o+*&e+ 4! te &om%an!. It is &on&ene+

"it in+ivi+*a/ tas#s o tansa&tions s*& as %o&*ement of a" mateia/ as %ete %es&i4e+ B*antit! an+ B*a/it! o se//ing of %o+*&ts to s%e&ifi& &*stomes.

In a 4an# o%eationa/ &onto/ a&tivities in&/*+e %!si&a/ soting e&o+ing an+

%osting of &eB*es.

eome 7ante ;1--6< s*mmaises te intea&tion amongst te tee /eve/s of

management. At te stategi& %/anning /eve/ to% management esta4/ises te

%o/i&ies %/ans an+ o4e&tives of te &om%an! as "e// as a genea/ 4*+get

fame"o# *n+e "i& te vaio*s +e%atments "i// o%eate. Tese fa&tos ae

%asse+ +o"n to te mi++/e management "ee te! ae tans/ate+ into s%e&ifi&

even*e &ost an+ %ofit goa/s. Tese ae evie"e+ ana/!se+ an+ mo+ifie+ in

a&&o+an&e "it te ovea// %/ans an+ %o/i&ies *nti/ ageement is ea&e+.

Mi++/e management ten iss*es te s%e&ifi& s&e+*/es an+ meas*ement!a+sti&#s to te o%eating management. Te /atte /eve/s ave te o4 of

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%o+*&ing te goo+s an+ sevi&es eB*ie+ to meet te even*e an+ %ofit goa/s

"i& in t*n "i// ena4/e te &om%an! to ea& its ovea// %/ans an+ o4e&tives.

Te intea&tion as 4een so"n in Fig. 1.'.

Fig. 1.' Intea&tion of te Tee Leve/s of Management

1.'.' Infomation

Infomation te se&on+ &om%onent in te tem Management Infomation

S!stem is &onsi+ee+ as a va/*a4/e eso*&e eB*ie+ 4! te management in

o+e to *n a 4*siness oganisation. Infomation is +ata tat is %o&esse+ an+ is

%esente+ in a fom "i& assists +e&isionma#es. It ma! &ontain an e/ement of

s*%ise e+*&e *n&etaint! o %ovo#e a manage to initiate an a&tion. ?eeas+ata ;te sing*/a 4eing +at*m< is a tem *se+ fo a" fig*es fa&ts s!m4o/s

et&. tat ae &*ent/! not 4eing *se+ in a +e&isionma#ing %o&ess. Data *s*a//!

ta#e te fom of istoi&a/ e&o+s. In &ontast to infomation a" +ata ma! not

4e a4/e to s*%ise *s ma! not 4e oganise+ an+ ma! not a++ an!ting to o*

#no"/e+ge.

Te e/ation of +ata to infomation is tat of a" mateia/ to finise+

%o+*&t as +e%i&te+ in te fo//o"ing +iagam.

Fig. 1.$ Re/ation of Data to infomation

o"eve te &on&e%t of +ata an+ infomation is a e/ative one. Te ana/og!

of a" mateia/ to finise+ %o+*&t i//*states f*te tat infomation fo one

%eson ma! 4e +ata fo anote *st as a finise+ %o+*&t fom one

man*fa&t*ing +ivision ma! 4e te a" mateia/ fo anote. Fo exam%/e te

"it+a"a/ s/i% ma! 4e infomation fo a &asie o te//e of a 4an# 4*t it is a"

+ata fo te 4an& manage. Simi/a/! te o/e ma! a/so &ange ove a %eio+ of

time. T*s someting ma! 4e infomation to+a! 4*t ma! not 4e infomation;ma! 4e +ata< afte a &etain %eio+ of time. 3e&a*se of tis e/ationsi% 4et"een

+ata an+ infomation te t"o tems ae often *se+ inte&angea4/!.

As +is&*sse+ ea/ien te tee /eve/s of management %efom +iffeent

f*n&tions in an oganisation. A&&o+ing/! te! "i// eB*ie +iffeent t!%es of

infomation. 7ante . ;1--6< as so"n te +iffeent nee+s of infomation 4!

tee /eve/s of management ove a &ontin**m "it to% management at one en+

an+ o%eating management at te ote ;Fig. 1.)<. Mi++/e management as

a/"a!s fa//s in 4et"een aving some e/ements of 4ot.

Te t!%e of infomation 4eing *ti/ise+ 4! ea& /eve/ of management ;as

so"n in Fig. 1.)< is in a&&o+an&e "it te nat*e of o4s %efome+ 4!

manages at tei es%e&tive /eve/s. Fo exam%/e

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Fig. 1.) infomation Nee+s of Diffeent Management Leve/s

to% /eve/ management is es%onsi4/e fo fom*/ating stategies %o/i&ies an+

o4e&tives fo te entie oganisation. Tis invo/ves %e+i&ting te f*t*e of te

oganisation an+ its envionment. Te infomation fo s*& +e&isions is ig/!

*nst*&t*e+ i.e. not "e//+efine+. It is 4e&a*se of its *nst*&t*e+ nat*e tat

s*& infomation 4e&omes +iffi&*/t to %o&ess. Fo exam%/e it is +iffi&*/t to

+etemine "it a&&*a&! te ma#et sae of a &om%an!=s %o+*&t o te extent

of its %enetation in a s%e&ifi& ma#et segment. On te ote an+ "e//+efine+

infomation "i& ma! 4e &a//e+ st*&t*e+ infomation &an 4e easi/!

%o&esse+ as in te &ase of o%eating management. Tis /eve/ of management is

given s%e&ifi& o4s to 4e %efome+ an+ t*s its infomation nee+s "i& ten+ to

4e o*tine an+ e%etitive ae "e//+efine+ an+ #no"n. Fo exam%/e a s*%evisoas te mont/! %o+*&tion s&e+*/e fo a %ati&*/a %o+*&t "i& in+i&ates

tat 1(0 *nits ae s&e+*/e+ to 4e %o+*&e+ fo ea& of te next five +a!s. e "i//

"ant to evie" te infomation tat in+i&ates te avai/a4i/it! of a" mateia/

/a4o* o ma&ines et&. on a +a!to+a! 4asis to see if te s&e+*/e is 4eing met

an+ if it is 4eing met effi&ient/!.

Infomation fo %/anning %*%oses %etains to te f*t*e an+ t*s is

a%%oximate "en &om%ae+ to infomation eB*ie+ at te o%eating /eve/. Fo

exam%/e a managing +ie&to of a &om%an! "o*/+ not eB*ie te exa&t sa/es

fig*es ;sa! Rs )6$)('0.,0< ate Rs ($ &oe "o*/+ s*ffi&e. o"eve fom

f*t*e infomation eB*iements one so*/+ not *n+estan+ tat te to%

management is not inteeste+ in %ast isto! an+ o%eating es*/ts. Past es*/ts

m*st 4e evie"e+ in /igt of extena/ &on+itions an+ te ma#et in "i& te

&om%an! &om%etes. Te fo&*s of to% management is on f*t*e %/ans an+ %o/i&ies.

Infomation at te o%eating /eve/ as to 4e exa&t e.g. te /engt of a %a%e %in

to 4e %o+*&e+ "o*/+ 4e 1,.' mm in /engt an+ 0.6( mm in +iamete an+ so on.

Simi/a/! to% management eB*ies main/! extena/ t!%e of infomation fo

+e&isionma#ing. Extena/ infomation is tat infomation "ose so*&e is

o*tsi+e te o%eations of te &om%an!. Fo exam%/e I %o%*/ation go"t in te

ma#et seve+ 4! a &om%an! o te &anges in te etni& ma#e *% of te ma#et

is extena/ infomation. ?eeas te o%eating management nee+s intena/infomation. Te intena/ infomation is a 4!%o+*&t of te noma/ o%eations

of a 4*siness. Fo exam%/e a e&o+ing of invento! *sage fo te %ast "ee# is

t!%i&a/ intena/ infomation. Intena/ infomation genea//! is istoi&a/ o stati&

in nat*eG it is a/so &a//e+ aftetefa&t +ata.

Fo te sa#e of sim%/i&it! "e ave +is&*sse+ Management an+ Infomation

&om%onents as t"o +iffeent an+ +istin&t tems. Te /atest tin#ing in te fie/+ of

MIS as 4een tat MIS is an a&on!m of t"o tems viH. Management

Infomation ;MI< an+ S!stem ;S<. T*s MIS m*st %ovi+e te Management

Infomation "i& is eB*ie+ 4! te manages in tei +e&isionma#ing.

Management

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Fig. 1.( Re/ation of Infomation an+ Management Infomation

Infomation in ote "o+s efes to te B*a/it! of infomation in tems of its

time/iness a&&*a&! &om%/eteness e/evan&e a+eB*a&! ex%/i&itness et&. Te

infomation "i& o4seves tese B*a/it! %aametes ma! 4e a %at of te entie

avai/a4/e infomation "i& is geneate+ in te oganisation. Te e/ationsi% of

infomation an+ Management Infomation ma! 4e +e%i&te+ as so"n in Fig. 1.(.

Te &aa&teisti&s of infomation "i& ma#e it Management Infomation

ae +is&*sse+ in Ca%te $.

1.'.$ S!stem

Te tem s!stem is te most /oose/! e/+ tem in management /iteat*e 4e&a*se

of its *se in +iffeent &ontexts. o"eve a s!stem ma! 4e +efine+ as a set of

e/ements "i& ae oine+ togete to a&ieve a &ommon o4e&tive. Te e/ements

ae intee/ate+ an+ inte+e%en+ent. F*te eve! s!stem is sai+ to e

&om%ose+ of s*4s!stems "i& in t*n ae ma+e *% of ote s*4s!stems. Tis

ma! e i//*state+ 4! ta#ing an exam%/e of a 4*siness oganisation tat ma! 4e

ega+e+ as a s!stem an+ te %ats of te oganisation ;+ivisions +e%atments

*nits et&.< ae te s*4s!stems ;Fo +etai/s efe to Ca%te $.< Te set of

e/ements fo a s!stem ma! e *n+estoo+ as In%*t Po&ess an+ O*t%*t. A s!stem

as one o m*/ti%/e in%*t;s<G tese in%*ts ae %o&esse+ to*g a

tansfomation %o&ess to &onvet tese in%*t;s< into o*t%*t;s<. Fo exam%/e in a

man*fa&t*ing oganisation a" mateia/ is in%*t to a s!stem "i& is

%o&esse+ 4! *sing vaio*s oganiHationa/ %o&essing fa&i/ities to &onvet it into

finise+ %o+*&ts ;o*t%*t<. Simi/a/! in an infomation s!stem +ata is in%*t

"i& is %o&esse+ to &onvet it into infomation. Te tee e/ements of a s!stem

ae %ota!e+ in Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6 E/ements of a S!stem

?en fee+4a&# an+ &onto/ e/ements ae atta&e+ to an! s!stem to ma#e it

se/feg*/ating an+ se/fmonitoing it is #no"n as a &!4eneti& s!stem ;see Fig.

1.2<. A manma+e exam%/e of 7no" as a &!4eneti& s!stem is tat of a

Temostat &onto//e+ eating s!stem "i& a*tomati&a//! monitos an+

eg*/ates itse/f to maintain a +esie+ tem%eat*e on te 4asis of fee+4a&# it gets

fom te envionment.

A*tomation is into+*&e+ in engineeing s!stems 4! invo/ving te %in&i%/es

of fee+4a&# an+ &onto/.

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Fig. 1.2 C!4eneti& S!stem

A s!stem &annot exist in va&**mG ate it exists an+ f*n&tions in anenvionment. o"eve it is se%aate+ fom its envionment 4! its 4o*n+a! as

so"n in Fig. 1.,.

Fig. 1., A S!stem "it 3o*n+a! an+ Envionment

Sevea/ s!stems ma! sae te same envionment. Some of tese s!stems ma!

4e &onne&te+ to one anote 4! means of a sae+ 4o*n+a! o Intefa&e. As!stem "i& intea&ts "it its envionment an+ ex&anges in%*ts an+ o*t%*ts is

#no"n as an o%en s!stem. A s!stem "i& +oes not intea&t o ex&ange an! of

its in%*ts o o*t%*ts "it its envionment is &a//e+ a &/ose+ s!stem. S!stem

&on&e%ts ave 4een ex%/aine+ in moe +etai/ in Ca%te $.

1.$ MIS: A DEFINITION

aving +is&*sse+ te &on&e%ts of te tee &om%onents of MIS viH.

Management Infomation an+ S!stem /et *s no" t! to *n+estan+ its

+efinition. ?i/e +is&*ssing vaio*s &om%onents it as 4een &/ea/! esta4/ise+

tat +e&isionma#ing is te essen&e of management an+ fo a#ing ationa/

+e&isionsG Infomation is an essentia/ an+ via/ in%*t.

F*te to o4tain infomation a /ogi&a/ an+ "e//+efine+ meto+ of

infomation "i& &an 4e im%/emente+ 4! oining &etain intee/ate+ e/ements

is essentia/. T*s if "e sim%/! &om4ine a// te a4ove fa&ts "e ma! +evise o*

+efinition of MIS as fo//o"s.

Management infomation s!stem is a s!stem &onsisting of %eo%/e ma&ines

%o&e+*es +ata4ases an+ +ata mo+e/s as its e/ements. Te s!stem gates +ata

fom te intena/ an+ extena/ so*&es of an oganisationG %o&esses it an+

s*%%/ies Infomation to assist manages in te %o&ess of +e&ision ma#ing. ee

te "o+ s!stem im%/ies tat MIS fo//o"s a s!stems a%%oa& "i& means ao/isti& a%%oa& an+ is 4ase+ on te &on&e%t of s!neg! "ee te o*t%*t is

geate tan te s*m of its %ats. T*s it &/ea/! in+i&ates tat MIS is not a

sing/e s!stem ate it is an integate+ s!stem "ee %ats ;s*4s!stems< fit into

an ovea// +esign.

A +iagammati& e%esentation of te &on&e%t of MIS as 4een so"n in Fig.

1.-. Te %*%ose of MIS as *n+estoo+ to+a! is to aise managing fom te /eve/

of %ie&emea/ stea+! infomation int*itive g*ess"o# an+ iso/ate+ %o4/em

so/ving to te /eve/ of s!stems insigt s!stem infomation so%isti&ate+ +ata

%o&essing an+ s!stems %o4/em so/ving.

1.$.1 Infomation Te&no/og! on+ Infomation S!stems A

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No"a+a!s Infomation Te&no/og! ;IT< is sometimes efee+ to te

te&no/ogi&a/ si+e of an infomation s!stem "i& is *n+estoo+ to in&/*+e

a+"ae soft"ae +ata4ases net"o#s an+ ote +evi&es. In ote "o+s IT

ma! 4e vie"e+ as s*4s!stems of an infomation s!stem. o"eve

Fig. 1.- Con&e%t of MIS

it is *st a nao" +efinition of infomation te&no/og!. Te tem IT is a/so 4eing

*se+ inte&angea4/! "it infomation s!stem. Tee is anote s&oo/ of

to*gt "i& a+vo&ates tat IT so*/+ 4e vie"e+ as a 4oa+e &on&e%t tat

+es&i4es a &om4ination of a// o man! of te infomation s!stems *ses an+

infomation management fo te entie oganisation. Fo te %*%ose of tis

4oo# te tem IT is *se+ in tis 4oa+e %es%e&tive.

1.) NATURE AND SCOPE OF MIS

Te &on&e%t of MIS is inte+is&i%/ina! in nat*e i.e. it as 4oo"e+ its

&on&e%ts fom a /age n*m4e of +is&i%/ines /i#e A&&o*nting Com%*tes

Oganisations Management O%eations Reseae an+ 3eavio*a/ S&ien&es

et&. ;see Fig. 1.10<.

3e&a*se of its inte+is&i%/ina! nat*e MIS is neite teme+ as a %*e

s&ien&e no an atG ate it is &onsi+ee+ as a &om4ination of 4ot. An

infomation s!stem is a /ogi&a/ s!stem "i& is

Fig. 1.10 Inte+is&i%/ina! Nat*e of NS

Con&ene+ "it o"= someting is 4eing a&&om%/ise+ an+ t*s ma! 4e

+iffeentiate+ fom a %!si&a/ s!stem "i& is te %o&ess itse/f an+ is &on&ene+

"it te &ontent o "at= is going on. MIS in fa&t en&om%asses 4ot %!si&a/

an+ infomation s!stems. Tee as 4een a /ot of +e4ate on te iss*e "eteMIS is moe managementoiente+ o &om%*teoiente+. To*g tee ae

a+vo&ates of 4ot te si+es MIS so*/+ 4e &onsi+ee+ moe of a Management

s*4e&t tan of &om%*tes 4e&a*se of sim%/e /ogi& tat &om%*tes ae *st a too/

in te an+s of manages. Com%*tes ae *se+ fo tei &aa&teisti&s /i#e

a&&*a&! s%ee+ an+ &a%a&it! to an+/e /age amo*nt of +ata. No"a+a!s MIS

fin+s a%%/i&ation in a// f*n&tiona/ aeas of eve! t!%e of 4*siness oganisations at

a// /eve/s ;see Ca%te '<. As as a/ea+! 4een +is&*sse+ MIS &ates to

infomation nee+s of manages in an oganisation t*s its s&o%e /ies in

st*&t*e+ as "e// as *nst*&t*e+ t!%e of infomation "i& &o*/+ 4e gatee+

fom intena/ as "e// as extena/ so*&es of te oganisation. F*te. ?it te

a+vent of &om%*tes an+ &omm*ni&ation te&no/og! te s&o%e of MIS asin&ease+ manifo/+. To*g !o* "i// sti// fin+ a vaiet! of infomation s!stems

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tat exist "i& ma! 4e man*a/ infomation s!stems "ee manages *se too/s

s*& as %en&i/s %a%e o &a/&*/atos to &onvet a" +ata into infomation.

o"eve 4e&a*se of ig %otentia/ of &om%*tes an+ &omm*ni&ations

te&no/og! ;CCT< oganisations in te f*t*e "o*/+ /i#e to ma#e *se of a+van&es

of CCT. To+a! MIS is not a stan+a/one &om%*te4ase+ infomation s!stemG

ate it is net"o#e+ "ee &om%*tes &an ex&ange infomation B*i&#/! at a+istan&e. Intenet as f*te evo/*tionise+ te 4*siness "o/+. In fa&t Intenet

as 4een te main +iving fo&e in %o%*/aising eComme&e in 1--- an+ te

s*++en ise of +ot&om &om%anies. Te fai/*e of +ot&om Com%anies in te mi+

'000 +oes not mean an en+ of eComme&e a%%/i&ationsG ate &om%anies ave

/eant a /ot in te %o&ess. No"a+a!s oganisations ae moving to"a+s +igita/

oganisations "ee a// 4*siness a&tivities ae %efome+ e/e&toni&a//! an+ a

m*& 4oa+e tem is 4eing *se+ "i& is #no"n as e3*siness.

Te tem eComme&e efes to te entie on/ine %o&ess of +eve/o%ing

ma#eting se//ing +e/iveing sevi&ing an+ %a!ing fo %o+*&ts on te IntenetG

te tem of e3*siness is a moe genea/ one an+ it efes to te st!/e of o%eatingan oganisation 4! ma#ing extensive *se of infomation te&no/og! "itin

&iti&a/ 4*siness %o&esses s*& as +esigning %o+*&ts o4taining s*%%/ies

man*fa&t*ing se//ing f*/fi//ing o+es an+ %ovi+ing sevi&es to*g te

extensive *se of &om%*te an+ &omm*ni&ation te&no/ogies an+ &om%*teise+

+ata. In ote "o+s e/e&toni& 4*siness &oves &*stomee/ationsi%

management ente%ise eso*&e %/anning an+ s*%%/! &ain management et&.

"i& a/so in&/*+es eComme&e. Te &on&e%ts of eComme&e an+ e3*siness

ave 4een +is&*sse+ in Ca%te ,.

1.).1 MIS Caa&teisti&s

A management infomation s!stem as te fo//o"ing &aa&teisti&s.

System A##roach

Te infomation s!stem fo//o"s a S!stems a%%oa&. Te s!stem=s a%%oa&

im%/ies a o/isti& a%%oa& to te st*+! of s!stem an+ its %efoman&e in te /igt

of te o4e&tive fo "i& it as 4een &onstit*te+. Tis a%%oa& is anti

%ie&emea/ in nat*e. In ote "o+s s!stem=s a%%oa& in te sense inten+e+

ee means ta#ing a &om%eensive vie" o a &om%/ete /oo# at te inte/o&#ing

s*4s!stems tat o%eate "itin an oganisation.

Management Oriented

Tis is an im%otant &aa&teisti& of MIS. Fo +esigning of MIS to%+o"n

a%%oa& so*/+ 4e fo//o"e+. To%+o"n a%%oa& s*ggests tat te s!stem

+eve/o%ment stats fom te +etemination of management nee+s an+ ovea//

4*siness o4e&tives. Te MIS +eve/o%ment %/an so*/+ 4e +eive+ fom te

ovea// 4*siness %/an. Managementoiente+ &aa&teisti& of MIS a/so im%/ies

tat te management a&tive/! +ie&ts te s!stem +eve/o%ment effots. In MIS

+eve/o%ment a manage so*/+ s%en+ a goo+ amo*nt of ise time in s!stem

+esign. To ens*e tat te im%/emente+ s!stem meets te s%e&ifi&ations of tes!stem &ontin*e+ evie" an+ %ati&i%ation of te manage is ne&essa!.

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$eed %ased

MIS +esign an+ +eve/o%ment so*/+ 4e as %e te infomation nee+s of

manages at +iffeent /eve/s viH. stategi& %/anning /eve/ management &onto/

/eve/ an+ o%eationa/ &onto/ /eve/. In ote "o+s MIS so*/+ &ate to tes%e&ifi& nee+s of manages in an oganisations ieae!.

E&ce#tion %ased

MIS so*/+ 4e +eve/o%e+ on te ex&e%tion4ase+ e%oting %in&i%/e "i&

means an a4noma/ sit*ation i.e. te maxim*m minim*m o ex%e&te+ va/*es

va! 4e!on+ to/ean&e /imits. In s*& sit*ations tee so*/+ 4e ex&e%tion

e%oting to te +e&isionma#e at te eB*ie+ /eve/.

Future Oriented

3esi+es ex&e%tion4ase+ e%oting MIS so*/+ a/so /oo# at te f*t*e. In ote

"o+s MIS so*/+ not mee/! %ovi+e %ast o istoi&a/. InfomationG ate it

so*/+ %ovi+e infomation on te 4asis of %oe&tions 4ase+ on "i& a&tions

ma! 4e initiate+.

'ntegrated

Integation is a ne&essa! &aa&teisti& of a management infomation s!stem.

Integation is signifi&ant 4e&a*se of its a4i/it! to %o+*&e moe meaningf*/

infomation. Fo exam%/e in o+e to +eve/o% an effe&tive %o+*&tion s&e+*/ing

s!stem it is ne&essa! to 4a/an&e s*& fa&tos as:

;I< set*% &osts

;II<"o#fo&e

;III< ovetime ates

;I8< %o+*&tion &a%a&it!

;8<invento! /eve/

;8I< &a%ita/ eB*iements

;8II< &*stome sevi&es et&.

A s!stem tat ignoes an! one of tese e/ements fo exam%/e invento!

/eve/s is not %ovi+ing te management "it an o%tima/ %i&t*e. Te &ost of &a!ing ex&ess invento! ma! moe tan offset te ote 4enefits of te s!stem.

Integation in te sense inten+e+ ee means ta#ing a &om%eensive vie" o

/oo#ing at te &om%/ete %i&t*e of te inte/o&#ing s*4s!stems tat o%eate

"itin te &om%an!. One &an stat +eve/o%ing an MIS 4! atta&#ing a s%e&ifi&

s*4s!stem 4*t *n/ess its %/a&e in te tota/ s!stem is ea/ise+ an+ %o%e/!

ef/e&te+ seio*s sot&omings ma! es*/t. T*s an integate+ s!stem tat

4/en+s infomation fom sevea/ o%eationa/ aeas is a ne&essa! &aa&teisti& of

an MIS.

Common Doro Flows

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3e&a*se of te integation &on&e%t of MIS tee is an o%%ot*nit! to avoi+

+*%/i&ation an+ e+*n+an&! in +ata gateing stoage an+ +issemination.

S!stem +esignes ae a"ae tat a fe" #e! so*&e +o&*ments a&&o*nt fo m*&

of te infomation f/o". Fo exam%/e &*stomes> o+es ae te 4asis fo 4i//ing

te &*stome fo te goo+s o+ee+ setting *% a&&o*nts e&eiva4/es initiating

%o+*&tion a&tivit! sa/es ana/!sis sa/es foe&asting et&. It is %*+ent to &a%t*ean+ *se tis +ata to*go*t te f*n&tiona/ aeas. Te &ommon +ata f/o"

&on&e%t s*%%ots sevea/ of te 4asi& tenets of s!stem ana/!sis. Tese in&/*+e

avoi+ing +*%/i&ation &om4ining simi/a f*n&tions an+ sim%/if!ing o%eations

"eeve %ossi4/e. Te +eve/o%ment of &ommon +ata f/o" is an e&onomi&a//!

so*n+ an+ /ogi&a/ &on&e%t 4*t it m*st 4e vie"e+ in a %a&ti&a/ /igt.

(ong)erm Planning

MIS is +eve/o%e+ ove e/ative/! /ong %eio+s S*& s!stems +o not +eve/o%

ovenigt. A eav! e/ement of %/anning is invo/ve+. Te MIS +esigne m*st ave

te f*t*e o4e&tives an+ nee+s of te &om%an! in min+. Te +esigne m*st avoi+te %ossi4i/it! of te s!stem going o4so/ete 4efoe its time.

Su*System Conce#t

Te %o&ess of MIS +eve/o%ment is B*ite &om%/ex an+ one is /i#e/! to /ose insigt

feB*ent/!. T*s te s!stem to*g vie"e+ as a sing/e entit! m*st 4e 4o#en

+o"n into +igesti4/e s*4s!stems "i& ae moe meaningf*/ at te %/anning

stage.

Central Data*ase

A &enta/ +ata4ase is te mota tat o/+ te f*n&tiona/ s!stems togete. Ea&

s!stem eB*ies a&&ess to te maste fi/e of +ata &oveing invento! %esonne/

ven+os &*stomes et&. If te +ata is stoe+ effi&ient/! an+ "it &ommon *sage

in min+ one maste fi/e &an %ovi+e te +ata nee+e+ 4! an! of te f*n&tiona/

s!stems. It seems /ogi&a/ to gate +ata on&e to %o%e/! va/i+ate it an+ to %/a&e

it on a &enta/ stoage me+i*m tat &an 4e a&&esse+ 4! an! ote s*4s!stem.

1.).' MIS F*n&tions

MIS is set *% 4! an oganisation "it te %ime o4e&tive to o4tain management

infomation to 4e *se+ 4! its manages in +e&isionma#ing. T*s MIS m*st%efom te fo//o"ing f*n&tions in o+e to meet its o4e&tives.

;I< Doo Ca%t*ing

MIS &a%t*es +ata fom vaio*s intena/ an+ extena/ so*&es of an oganisation.

Data &a%t*ing ma! 4e man*a/ o to*g &om%*te temina/s. En+ *ses

t!%i&a//! e&o+ +ata a4o*t tansa&tions on some %!si&a/ me+i*m s*& as a

%a%e fom o ente it +ie&t/! into a &om%*te s!stem.

;II<Po&essing of Data

Te &a%t*e+ +ata is %o&esse+ to &onvet it into te eB*ie+ management

infomation. Po&essing of +ata is +one 4! s*& a&tivities as &a/&*/ating

&om%aing soting &/assif!ing an+ s*miaising. Tese a&tivities oganise

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ana/!se an+ mani%*/ate +ata *sing vaio*s statisti&a/ matemati&a/ o%eations

eseae an+o ote 4*siness mo+e/s.

;III< Stoage of Infomation

MIS stoes %o&esse+ o *n%o&esse+ +ata fo f*t*e *se. If an! infomation

is not imme+iate/! eB*ie+ it is save+ as an oganisationa/ e&o+. In tisa&tivit! +ata an+ infomation ae etaine+ in an oganise+ manne fo /ate *se.

Stoe+ +ata is &ommon/! oganise+ into fie/+s e&o+s fi/es an+ +ata4ases a// of

"i& "i// 4e +is&*sse+ in +etai/ in /ate &a%tes.

;I8< Retieva/ of infomation

MIS etieves infomation fom its stoes as an+ "en eB*ie+ 4! vaio*s

*ses. As %e te eB*iements of management *ses te etieve+ infomation is

eite +isseminate+ as s*& o it is %o&esse+ again to meet te exa&t MI

+eman+s.

;8<Dissemination of infomation

Infomation "i& is a finise+ %o+*&t of MIS is +isseminate+ to te *sesin te oganisation. It &o*/+ 4e %eio+i& to*g e%ots o on/ine to*g

&om%*te temina/s. Fig*e 1.11 +e%i&ts vaio*s f*n&tions %efome+ 4! MIS.

Fig. 1.11 F*n&tions of MIS

SUMMAR

MIS is &onsi+ee+ of e&ent oigin in management 4*t it a+ a/"a!s 4een in

existen&e in %ast as "e//. Of &o*se it "as not in a efine+ fom ten. T*s "at

is ne" in MIS is on/! its nomen&/at*e an+ its &om%*teisation "i& %ea%s

as 4e&ome ne&essa! 4e&a*se of envionmenta/ %ess*es on mo+en 4*siness

oganisations. MIS is an a&on!m of tee /ettes i.e. M ;Management<G I

;Infomation<G an+ S ;S!stem<. Management is to %/an oganise staff +ie&t an+

&onto/ 4*siness eso*&es to a&ieve %e+etemine+ o4e&tivesG fo %efoming

a// tese f*n&tions a manage as to ta#e an aa! of +e&isions. Fo ta#ing

ationa/ +e&isions infomation is an essentia/ in%*t. Infomation "i& is

%o&esse+ +ata 4e&omes Infomation "en it is *se+ in +e&isionma#ing an+

fo//o"s &etain &aa&teisti&s viH. it is time/! e/evant a&&*ate &*enta+eB*ate "ito*t s*%ef/*o*s +ata &/ea in fom an+ none%etitive.

S!stem is a set of intee/ate+ e/ements oine+ togete to a&ieve a &ommon

o4e&tive an+ as in%*t %o&ess o*t%*t fee+4a&# an+ &onto/ e/ements. MIS is a

manma&ine s!stem &onsisting of %eo%/e ma&ines %o&e+*es +ata4ases an+

+ata mo+e/s as its e/ements. It gates +ata fom te intena/ an+ extena/

so*&es of an oganisation %o&esses it an+ s*%%/ies Management Infomation to

assist +e&isionma#ing 4! manages in an oganisation. Te &on&e%t of MIS is

inte+is&i%/ina! an+ invo/ves vaio*s +is&i%/ines of a&&o*nting management

&om%*tes o%eations eseae 4eavio*a/ s&ien&es et&. It is neite a %*e

s&ien&e no an atG ate a &om4ination of 4ot. MIS is a goo+ exam%/e of

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%!si&a/ as "e// as infomation s!stem "i& fin+s a%%/i&ation in +ivese fie/+s

of management.

MIS &a%t*es +ata fom vaio*s so*&esG %o&esses it to &onvet tis +ata into

Infomation an+ +isseminates it to te +e&isionma#es in an oganisation.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

1. Can=t "e +o "ito*t MIS in 4*siness oganisations@ o" +i+ 4*siness

oganisations manage to s*vive an+ go" "ito*t MIS in te %ast@

'. ?at is *n+estoo+ 4! te tem MIS@ Io" +o&s it assist manages in

tei +a!to&/a! f*n&tioning@

$. I/o" "o*/+ !o* +isting*is 4et"een +ata an+ infomation@ Can +ata

fo one %eson 4e infomation fo anote@ o"@

). Dis&*ss a C!4eneti& S!stem. Do !o* tin# MIS is an exam%/e of a

C!4eneti& S!stem@ I//*state.

(. Dis&*ss vaio*s a&tivities %efome+ ! MIS in an oganisation.

6. 3ief/! +is&*ss s!stems a%%oa& an+ MIS as a s!stem. A/so +is&*ss itsnat*e an+ s&o%e in 4*siness oganisations.

2. 9ive vaio*s &aa&teisti&s of MIS. S*%%ot !o* ans"e "it

s*ita4/e exam%/es.

,. 3ief/! +es&i4e te fo//o"ing tems:

P!si&a/ s!stem

Infomation s!stem

Intefa&e

3o*n+a! an+ envionment

C!4&neti& s!stem

Management &onto/ /eve/

S!neg!

De&ision s*%%ot

Centa/ +ata4ase

Inegate+ s!stem

Management oiente+

ASSI9NMENT

1. 8isit a nea4! 4*siness oganisation an+ st*+! its MIS.

'. C/assif! a// +ata items 4eing *se+ in Pesonne/ Infomation S!stem of

!o* Instit*tion.

$. St*+! a e%oting s!stem of an! 4*siness oganisation.). List ten infomation s!stems in a 4*siness oganisation.

REFERENCES

A+vani .C. Management Infomation S!stem= Management A&&o*ntant

10;(< Ma! 1-2( %%. $6-20.

Anton! R.N. P/anning an+ Conto/ S!stems: A Fame"o# fo Ana/!sis

Division of Reseae 9a+*ate S&oo/ of 3*siness A+ministation ava+

Univesit! Cam4i+ge MA 1-6(.

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3atnaga S.C. an+ 78 Ramani Com%*tes an+ Infomation Management

Penti&ea// of In+ia Pivate Lt+ Ne" De/i 1--1.

3atta&a!!a S.7. an+ 9a*tam Ca#avati Designing MIS fo To%

Management: Some O%eationa/ 9*i+e/ines= 8i#a/%a $;1< an*a! 1-2, %%.

'1$).

3*& on 9. an+ 9a! 9*+nits#i Infomation S!stems: Teo! an+

Pa&ti&e on ?i/e! Q Sons In&. Singa%oe 1-,6.

Catteee 3.7. Management Infomation S!stem: A Con&e%t*a/ Fame"o#=

Management A&&o*ntant -;S< A*g*st 1-2) %%. (,(,2.

Davis 9o+on 3. an+ Magete O/son Management Infomation S!stems

M&9a"i// 3oo# Com%an! Singa%oe 1-,(.

9o!a/ D.P. Management Infomation S!stems ;MISK Dee% S& Dee%P*4/i&ations Ne" De/i 1--).

9*i/4a*+ ?at is C!4eneti&s@ 9eave Pess In&. Ne" o# 1-(-.

ames. A. O=3ien Management Infomation S!stems Managing Infomation

Te&no/og! in te E3*siness Ente%ise fift e+ition Tata M&9a"i// Ne"

De/i 'OO'.

7ante eome Managing "it Infomation Penti&ea// of In+ia Pvt. Lt+.

Ne" De/i 1--6 % (.

7oontH ao/+ Te Management Teo! *ng/e= fo*na/ of A&a+em! of

Management De&em4e 1-61 %. 12).

7oontH O>Donne/ et a/. Management M&9a"i// Intenationa/ 3oo# Co.

Singa%oe 1-2'.

O=3ien ames A. Management Infomation S!stems 9a/gotia P*4/i&ations ;P<

Lt+. Ne" De/i 1--1.

O%tne Stanfo+ L. S!stems Ana/!sis fo 3*siness Management Penti&ea//

of In+ia Pvt. Lt+ Ne" De/i 1-,).

Post 9ea/+ 8. Management Infomation S!stems: So/ving 3*siness Po4/ems

"it Infomation Te&no/og! ti+ e+ition Tata M&9a"i// P*4/ising

Com%an! Limite+ Ne" De/i '00$.

Ra/% M. Stai et a/. Pin&i%/es of Infomation S!stem sixt e+ition Tomson

Asia Pte. Lt+ Singa%oe '00$.

S&ott 9eoge M. Pin&i%/es of Management Infomation S!stems M&9a"i//

3oo# Com%an! Singa%oe 1-,6.

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Steven A/te Infomation S!stems te Fo*n+ations of E3*siness fo*t

e+ition Peason e+*&ation ;Singa%oe< Pte. Lt+. '00).

CASE STUD /

ote/ Sta!&oo/

Te o%ening*% of te e&onom! an+ te ga+*a/ sift in te e&onom! fom

man*fa&t*ing to sevi&es as es*/te+ in an intense &om%etition fo s*viva/ inte os%ita/it! in+*st!.

ote/ Sta!&oo/ is a "e//#no"n ote/ sit*ate+ in te eat of te &it!. ?it 1(

f/oos an+ ',0 ooms %ovi+ing ex&e//ent 4oa+ing an+ /o+ging fa&i/ities it offes

+e/*xe s*ites s*%eio sing/e an+ +o*4/e ooms a/ong "it sevi&es /i#e &offee

so% esta*ants sa/oon ea/t &/*4 so%%ing aea+es an+ &onvention a//s. It

is one of te most so*gtafte ote/s in te &it! as ef/e&te+ 4! te fa&t tat

-0000 g*ests sta!e+ at te ote/ in te finan&ia/ !ea '00(06.

Te f*n&tiona/ es%onsi4i/ities of te ote/ ae +ivi+e+ into vaio*s +e%atments

"i& ae so"n in Fig. 1.

Te font offi&e of te ote/ o&&*%ies a ve! im%otant %osition in ens*ing a

/o!a/ &/iente/e fo te ote/. Te o4 of te font offi&e is to intea&t "it eve!

o*tsi+e "o ste%s in te ote/. Te font +es# ta#es &ae of a// te nee+s of te

g*ests. Te most im%otant o4 of te font offi&e in&/*+es ma#ing a//

esevations an+/ing &e&#ins an+ &e&#o*ts. In sot te font offi&e o te

font +es# is te intefa&e 4et"een te ote/ an+ te o*tsi+e "o/+. 3ein+ te

s&ene is a /age n*m4e of %eo%/e "o %efom a "i+e vaiet! of f*n&tion to

#ee% te font offi&e *nning smoot/!.

Fom te ve! moment a g*est 4egins is sta! in te ote/ te font offi&e &omesinto te %i&t*e an+ intea&ts "it te g*est on a +ai/! 4asis ti// e /eaves te

ote/. Te g*ests &an 4e in+ivi+*a/s o &o%oate g*ests. In &ase of &o%oate

g*est te 4i// is sent to te oganisation s%onsoing te sta!. Te font offi&e

&omes into &onta&t "it te tave/e in te fo//o"ing "a!s.

;i< ?i/e ans"eing B*eies a4o*t esevation&an&e//ations mo+ifi&ations

ega+ing te sta!.

;ii< ?i/e ma#ing esevation fo te tave//e. Te tave//e &an a/so 4oo#

te oom 4! %a!ing in a+van&e.

;iii< 3! e&eiving te tave//e on ise aiva/. Te g*est fi//s in te

+etai/e+ %esona/ infomation fom "i& in&/*+es is i+entit!estimate+ +*ation of sta! oom %efeen&es et&.

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;iv< ?i/e ma#ing oom a//otments. A&t*a/ oom as %e te g*est &oi&e is

a//otte+ %ovi+e+ it is notifie+ as ea+! 4! te o*se#ee%ing

+e%atment.

;v< ?i/e an+/ing g*est +eman+s of gievan&es +*ing te sta!.

;vi< ?i/e ma#ing aangements fo +e%at*e of te tave/e. Ret*n

ti&#ets taxi %a!ment &/eaan&e et& ae aange+ 4! te font offi&e.

At Sta!&oo/ te 4asi& o%eations of te font +es# ae %efome+ 4! a team of

tee Font Offi&e Assistants ;FOAs< to" &aies %e sift ;of , o*s< an+ a

ieae! tat goes *% to te FOM.

A%at fom %efoming te a4ovementione+ a&tivities te font offi&e a/so

intea&ts "it:

;i< A&&o*nt: Dai/!e%oting of tansa&tion +etai/s.

;ii< o*se#ee%ing: Infoming a4o*t te eB*iements of te oom e.g.

a++itiona/ 4e+s &/eaning et&.;iii< Management: Statisti&a/ +ata a4o*t te g*est e.g. so&ioe&onomi&

%ofi/e nationa/it! et&.

5UESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. I+entif! te +ata invo/ve+ in te oganisationa/ a&tivities mentione+ in te

&ase. ?at %ossi4/e infomation &an 4e geneate+ 4! tis set of +ata@

'. I+entif! te "a!s in "i& a&tivities ae go*%e+ in te oganiHation

st*&t*e an+ +is&*ss its im%a&t on te infomation eB*iements of te

oganisation.

$. I+entif! te infomation sae+ 4! vaio*s /eve/s of management in te

oganisation.

). Dis&*ss te %ossi4/e 4enefits tat te ote/ ma! a&&*e if it +e&i+es to

im%/ement a s*ita4/e ITIS@

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CASE STUD '

MIS an+ Conto/ S!stem at

S*+es an+ Com%an!

S*+es an+ Com%an! "it fo* %/ants sixteen assem4/! +e%atments

eigteen &/ot&*tting &entes an+ moe tan '00 ma&ine &entes as insta//e+

an integate+ infomation s!stem.

Te o%eations ae &aa&teise+ 4! a nation"i+e +isti4*tion net"o#. Te

%oe&t moves to*g $, 4an& offi&es an+ $1' a*toise+ +isti4*tos a// of

"i& maintain some invento!. A*toise+ +isti4*tos geneate $2 %e &ent of

te o+es 4*t a&&o*nt fo on/! ') %e &ent of te sa/es. Most of te 4*siness is

+one to*g te 4an& offi&es.

Te %o+*&t /ine is /age %o+*&ts ae &/assifie+ into 126 fami/! go*%s

e%esenting 1'000 finise+ goo+s. A%%oximate/! 1(00 ne" items ente te

%o+*&t /ine ann*a//! an+ a simi/a n*m4e ae +is&ontin*e+.

Te 1'000 finise+ goo+s eB*ie '(000 &om%onents of "i& 6600 ae

&aie+ in invento! an+ 1,)00 ae ma+e to o+e. Te integate+ s!stem as

a/ea+! %ai+ s*4stantia/ +ivi+en+s an+ efinements &ontin*e to in&ease te

4enefits. In te seventies S*+es an+ Co. "as a&ieving a 60 %e &ent &*stome

sevi&e /eve/ ;i.e. 60 %e &ent of te o+es "ee 4eing +e/ivee+ a&&o+ing to

oigina/ &*stome eB*est "it no +e/a!s o a+*sting of +ates.< tesa/esinvento! atio "as a es%e&ta4/e ).' %e &ent. o"eve te %o+*&tion &ost

vaian&e aveage+ 16.$ %e &ent. C/ei&a/ ex%enses an *% to $6 %e &ent of sa/es.

Tis "as not goo+ eno*g in a ig/! &om%etitive 4*siness. Sin&e te %ima!

asset a &om%an! as ;in a++ition to ig B*a/it! e/ia4/e %o+*&ts< is &*stome

sevi&e "as given to% %ioit!.

Tee aeas of &ost &onto/ "ee a/so given ig %ioit!. Te! "ee:

;i< Po+*&tion &osts es%e&ia//! tose asso&iate+ "it a nation"i+e

+is4*sement of invento! m*st 4e &onto//e+ "itin easona4/e

/imites e/ative to te nee+s of &*stome sevi&e.

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;ii< Disti4*tion &osts es%e&ia//! tose asso&iate+ "it a nation"i+e

+is4*sement of invento! m*st 4e &onto//e+ "itin easona4/e

/imtes e/ative to te nee+s of &*stome sevi&e.

;iii< C/ei&a/ &osts in a go"ing 4*siness m*st 4e &ontaine+ an+ if

%ossi4/e e+*&e+.

A &om%*teise+ integate+ management infomation an+ &onto/ s!stem "as

instit*te+. 3! te ea/! eigties %efoman&e in te fo//o"ing fo* aeas of ig

%ioit! geat/! im%ove+.

;i< C*stome Sevi&e: U% to 2' %e &ent of o+es "ee no" fi//e+ as

eB*este+ as against te ea/ie 60 %e &ent so"ing s*4stantia/

im%ovement.

;ii< Invento! T*nove: Te Sa/esinvento! atio "as 6.' a (0 %e &ent

in&ease ove te %evio*s %efoman&e. Moe im%ovement "as

ex%e&te+.

;iii< Po+*&tion Cost 8aian&e: Tis &atego! a+ a// 4*t +isa%%eae+4eing &onto//e+ "it a 1 %e &ent to/ean&e. Tis "as %ossi4/e 4e&a*se

time/! an+ a&&*ate infomation no" "as avai/a4/e "en nee+e+.

;iv<C/ei&a/ Ex%ense: Te atio of &/ei&a/ ex%enses a+ +o%%e+ to '., %e

&ent an *n*s*a/ a&ievement in a a%i+/! go"ing 4*siness tat a+ to

fa&e in&easing ates of &/ei&a/ /a4o*.

Of /ate te &om%an! ea/ise+ tat te! so*/+ ente into &*stom man*fa&t*ing

as its initia/ mass %o+*&tion te&niB*es a+ %*se+ it into stan+a+ise+

%o+*&ts /ong %o+*&t /ife &!&/es. Rigi+ man*fa&t*ing em%asiHe+ effi&ien&!

an+ /o" &ost 4*t not t*e &*stome satisfa&tion. C*stomes "ant B*a/it! va/*e

an+ %o+*&ts s%e&ia//! tai/oe+ to tei nee+s at te /o"est %ossi4/e %i&e.

C*stomman*fa&t*ing *ses stateofteat infomation te&no/og! to %o+*&e

an+ +e/ive %o+*&ts an+ sevi&es +esigne+ to fit te s%e&ifi&ation of in+ivi+*a/

&*stomes. Com%anies &an &*stomise %o+*&ts in B*antities as sma// as one "it

te same s%ee+ an+ /o" &ost as mass %o+*&tion meto+s. In &*stom

man*fa&t*ing soft"ae an+ &om%*te net"o#s ae *se+ to /in# te %/ant f/oo

tigt/! "it o+es +esign an+ %*&asing to fine/! &onto//e+ %o+*&tion

ma&ines. Te es*/t is a +!nami&a//! es%onsive envionment in "i& %o+*&ts

&an 4e t*ne+ o*t in geate vaiet! an+ easi/! &*stomise+ "it no a++e+ &ost fo

sma// %o+*&tion *ns. *ge C*stomman*fa&t*ing s!stems ta#e infomationfom te &*stome an+ a%%/! it 4ein+ te s&enes to &onto/ te f/o" of goo+s.


1. Ae !o* im%esse+ "it te im%ovement in &*stome sevi&e invento!

t*nove %o+*&tion &ost vaian&e an+ &/ei&a/ ex%enses@ *stif! !o*

ans"e.

'. o" &o*/+ &*stomman*fa&t*ing &ange te "a! te &om%an! +i+ its

4*siness@

$. ?i& a&tivit! aeas "ee te fo&*s of MIS o%eationa/ &onto/

management &onto/ o stategi& %/anning@ Do !o* agee "it teem%asis@

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'

St*&t*e an+ C/assifi&ation of MIS

Leaning O4e&tives

Afte st*+!ing tis &a%te !o* so*/+ 4e a4/e to:

1. &/ea/! *n+estan+ te &on&e%t of a st*&t*e of M/SG

'. +es&i4e te st*&t*e of MIS *sing m*/ti%/e a%%oa&esG

$. ex%/ain te &/assifi&ation of MIS an+ t& *n+estan+ te &on&e%ts of TPSMIS DSS ESS OAS an+ 3ESG

). *n+estan+ f*n&tiona/ infomation s!stems.

'.1 STRUCTURE OF MIS

St*&t*e of MIS is a +iffi&*/t &on&e%t to *n+estan+ 4e&a*se tee is no

stan+a+ o *nivesa//! a&&e%te+ fame"o# fo +es&i4ing management

infomation s!stem. T*s it is not sim%/e to ans"e a B*estion /i#e "at +oes a

management infomation s!stem /oo# /i#e@ o" &an one +es&i4e its &on&e%t*a/

o %!si&a/ st*&t*e@ St*&t*e no +o*4t +etemines te sa%e of an entit!.

Te B*estion as to "at +oes an entit! /oo# /i#e so*/+ i+ea//! s%ea#ing 4eans"ee+ 4! giving its o*t/ine o st*&t*a/ s%e&ifi&ations. o"eve some entities

ma! ave "e//+efine+ o*t/ines o ote st*&t*a/ s%e&ifi&ations "eeas some

ma! not. It is 4e&a*se of tis eason tat st*&t*e oi MIS is +iffi&*/t to +e/ineate.

Diffeent a%%oa&es ma! 4e *se+ "i/e +es&i4ing an entit!. Fo exam%/e a &a

ma! 4e %e&eive+ in a n*m4e of +iffeent "a!sG 4! +es&i4ing its %!si&a/

&aa&teisti&s i.e. its sa%e &o/o* seating &a%a&it! +oos et&. in tems of te

&om%onent s!stems s*& as &assis engine ignition s!stem et&. an+ in tems of

its mao *se s*& as %assenge &a s%ots &a et&. Ea& of tese a%%oa&es

"o*/+ %ovi+e an *n+estan+ing to te %eson a4o*t te &a. Simi/a/! a

+e%atment ma! 4e *n+estoo+ in tems of its f*n&tions /i#e sa/es a+vetising

an+ ma#et eseaeG o 4! +es&i4ing its oganisationa/ st*&t*e /i#e

ma#eting +e%atment as vi&e%esi+ent at its to% fo//o"e+ 4! ma#eting

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manage at te management &onto/ an+ sa/es offi&e at te o%eationa/ &onto/

/eve/ of te ieae!. T*s m*/ti%/e a%%oa&es e/% in +es&i4ing te st*&t*e

of an entit! in a 4ette "a!

MIS st*&t*e ma! 4e +es&i4e+ 4! fo//o"ing a vaiet! of +iffeent

a%%oa&es s*& as:

;i< P!si&a/ &om%onents;ii< Infomation s!stem %o&essing f*n&tions

;iii< De&ision s*%%ot

;iv<Leve/s of management a&tivities an+

;v< Oganisationa/ f*n&tions.

'.1.1 MIS St*&t*e 3*se+ on P!si&a/ Com%onents

St*&t*e of MIS ma! 4e *n+estoo+ 4! /oo#ing at te %!si&a/ &om%onents of

te infomation s!stem in an oganisation. Te %!si&a/ &om%onents of an

oganisationa/ infomation s!stem ma! 4e a+"ae soft"ae +ata4ase man*a/

%o&e+*es an+ o%eating %esons. A 4ief +es&i%tion of tese &om%onents as4een o*t/ine+ in te fo//o"ing %aaga%s:

"ardware

a+"ae efes to te %!si&a/ +ata %o&essing eB*i%ment an+ %ei%ea/

+evi&es. Fo exam%/e CPU monito #e!4oa+ %inte +ives ta%es

&omm*ni&ation +evi&es et&.

Software

Soft"ae is a 4oa+ tem given to te inst*&tions o %ogams tat +ie&t te

o%eation of te a+"ae. Soft"ae &o*/+ 4e of t"o t!%es i.e. s!stem soft"ae

an+ a%%/i&ation soft"ae.

Data*ase

Te +ata4ase &onsists of a// +ata *ti/ise+ 4! a%%/i&ation soft"ae. Data is stoe+

in fi/es.

Procedures

Foma/ o%eating %o&e+*es "i& ae eB*ie+ to o%eate a s!stem s*& as

man*a/s ae a/so ega+e+ as %!si&a/ e/ements.

O#erating Personnel

Pesonne/ /i#e Com%*te O%eatos Com%*te Pogammes S!stem Ana/!sts

S!stem Manages et&. ae te o%eating %eo%/e of te infomation s!stems.

'n#ut und Out#ut

8aio*s %!si&a/ in%*ts an+ o*t%*ts fom te infomation s!stem existing in tefoms /i#e %into*t e%ots et&.

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'.1.' Infomation S!stem Po&essing F*n&tions

Infomation s!stem st*&t*e &an a/so 4e *n+estoo+ in tems of its %o&essing

f*n&tions. Te f*n&tions of an MIS ex%/ain "at te s!stem +oes. Te main

%o&essing f*n&tions of infomation s!stems ae +es&i4e+ 4e/o".;i< To Po&ess Tansa&tions: Infomation s!stems %o&ess tansa&tions "ee

tansa&tion ma! 4e +efine+ as an a&tivit! ta#ing %/a&e in an oganisation.

Fo exam%/e ma#ing a %*&ase o a sa/e o man*fa&t*ing a %o+*&t. It

ma! 4e "itin te oganisation o ma! 4e extena/ in nat*e.

Fig. '.1 Infomation S!stem Po&essing F*n&tions

;ii< To Maintain Maste Fi/es: infomation s!stems &eate an+ maintain

maste fi/es in an oganisation. A maste fi/e stoes e/ative/! %emanent

o istoi&a/ +ata a4o*t oganiHationa/ entities. Fo exam%/e +ata

%o&essing to %e%ae an em%/0!ee=s sa/a! eB*ies +ata items fo te

em%/o!ee= s 4asi& %a! a//o"an&es +e+*&tions et&.

;iii< To Po+*&e Re%ots: Re%ots ae signifi&ant %o+*&ts of an

infomation s!stem. Man! e%ots ae %o+*&e+ on a eg*/a 4asis "i&

ae &a//e+ s&e+*/e+ e%ots. An infomation s!stem a/so %o+*&es e%ots

on a+ o& eB*ests. Tese ae #no"n as s%e&ia/ o a+ o& e%ots

;iv<To Po&ess EnB*iies: An infomation s!stem is *se+ to %o&ess enB*iies.

Fo %o&essing s*& B*eies te infomation s!stem *ses its +ata4ase.

Tese ma! 4e eg*/a enB*iies "it a %e+efine+ fomat o a+ o&

enB*iies.

;v< To Po&ess Intea&tive S*%%ot A%%/i&ations: Te infomation s!stem

&ontains a%%/i&ations +esigne+ to s*%%ot fo %/anning ana/!sis an+

+e&isionma#ing. 8aio*s t!%es of mo+e/s ae *se+ fo %o&essing s*&

a%%/i&ations. Te mo+e of o%eation as te name s*ggests is intea&tive

in "i& te *se es%on+s to B*estions an+ eB*ests fo +ata an+ e&eives

es*/ts so as to ma#e &anges in te in%*ts *nti/ an o%tim*m so/*tion isfo*n+. Tis a%%oa& as 4een +e%i&te+ in Fig. '.1.

'.1.$ De&ision S*%%ot

St*&t*e of MIS &an a/so 4e +es&i4e+ on te 4asis of its s*%%ot in +e&ision

ma#ing in an oganisation. De&isions va! "it es%e&t to te st*&t*e tat &an

4e %ovi+e+ fo ma#ing tem. A ig/! st*&t*e+ +e&ision &an 4e %e%/anne+

"eeas a ig/! *nst*&t*e+ +e&ision &annot. A st*&t*e+ +e&ision 4e&a*se of

its "e//+efine+ nat*e &an 4e sai+ to 4e %ogamma4/e. o"eve it so*/+ not

4e ta#en to ne&essai/! mean tat te +e&ision is a*tomate+ a/to*g man!

%ogamma4/e +e&isions ae a*tomate+. An *nst*&t*e+ +e&ision is sai+ to 4e

non%ogamma4/e. Te st*&t*e+ %ogamma4/e +e&ision ten+s to 4e o*tinean+ feB*ent/! e%eate+G te *nst*&t*e+ +e&ision ten+s to o&&* "it /ess

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feB*en&! an+ ten+s to 4e ieg*/a ;see Ca%te -<. Infomation s!stem s*%%ot

"i// fit easi/! into tis &/assifi&ation 4*t some +e&isions ae moe o /ess

st*&t*e+ an+ ave some e/ements tat ae %ogamma4/e an+ some tat ae

not. S*& +e&isions ae &a//e+ semist*&t*e+ +e&isions.

'.1.) Leve/s of Management A&tivities

Management infomation s!stems s*%%ot vaio*s management a&tivities in an

oganisation. Tis im%/ies tat te st*&t*e of an infomation s!stem &an 4e

&ategoise+ in tems of /eve/s of management a&tivities. Anton! on te 4asis of

a&tivities as &/assifie+ te management ieae! into tee /eve/s. Tese ae:

;i< Stategi& P/anning Leve/

;ii< Management Conto/ Leve/ an+

;iii< O%eationa/ Conto/ Leve/.

Stageti& %/anning +ea/s "it /ongange &onsi+eations. Te +e&isions in&/*+e

te &oi&e of 4*siness +ie&tions ma#et stateg! %o+*&t mix et&. Management&onto/ /eve/ in&/*+es a&B*isition an+ oganisation of eso*&es st*&t*ing of

"o# an+ a&B*isition an+ taining of %esonne/. O%eationa/ &onto/ is e/ate+ to

sottem +e&isions fo &*ent o%eations. Pi&ing %o+*&tion /eve/s invento!

/eve/s et&. ae a es*/t of o%eationa/ &onto/ a&tivities. Management a&tivities

an+ infomation %o&essing fo te tee /eve/s ae intee/ate+. Fo exam%/e

invento! &onto/ at te o%eationa/ /eve/ +e%en+s on a&&*ate %o&essing of

tansa&tions at te /eve/ of management &onto/. De&isions ma+e a4o*t safet!

sto&# an+ eo+e feB*en&! ae +e%en+ent on &oe&t s*mmaisation of es*/ts

of o%eations. At te stategi& /eve/ es*/ts in o%eations an+ management

&onto/ ae e/ate+ to stategi& o4e&tives &om%etito 4eavio* an+ so fot to

aive at invento! stateg!. T*s te infomation s!stems "o*/+ 4e +iffeent

fo te tee /eve/s of management ieae!.

'.1.( Oganisationa/ F*n&tions

Te st*&t*e of management infomation s!stem &an a/so 4e +es&i4e+ in tems

of te oganiHationa/ f*n&tions. To*g tee is no stan+a+ &/assifi&ation of

f*n&tions a t!%i&a/ set of f*n&tions in a

Fig.'.'. Oganisationa/ F*n&tions an+ Management A&tivities

man*fa&t*ing oganisation in&/*+es %o+*&tion sa/es an+ ma#eting finan&e

an+ a&&o*nting mateia/s %esonne/ an+ infomation s!stems. Ea& of tese

f*n&tions as a/ea+! +is&*sse+ as *niB*e infomation nee+s an+ ea& eB*ies

infomation s!stem s*%%ot +esigne+ s%e&ifi&a//! fo it. Moeove a management

infomation s!stem is essentia//! an integation of infomation s!stems tat ae

+esigne+ to s*%%ot te f*n&tiona/ s*4s!stems of te oganisation Ea& s*4s!stem eB*ies a%%/i&ations to %efom a// infomation %o&essing e/ate+ to te

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f*n&tion. ?itin ea& f*n&tiona/ s*4s!stem tee "i// 4e a%%/i&ations fo

tansa&tion %o&essing o%eationa/ &onto/ management &onto/ an+ stategi&

%/anning. Tis as 4een +e%i&te+ in Fig. '.'.

'.' MIS CLASSIFICATION

Te +is&i%/ine of MIS is in its evo/*tiona! stage. MIS is a &on&e%t "i& is a

matte of +egee ate tan an a4so/*te one. In management tee ae %ea%s

fe" ote aeas ote tan MIS "i& ave evo#e+ s*& a &ontoves!. Ove te

!eas it as evo/ve+ fom an e/ementa! &on&e%t to an a+van&e+ +is&i%/ine of

to+a!.

To*g it /a&#s &/ea /ines of +emaeation an+ is &/assifie+ in sevea/ +iffeent

"a!sG fo te sa#e of &/ait! "e ave &ategoise+ infomation s!stems on te

4asis of tei o/es in te o%eations an+ management of a 4*siness. A&&o+ing/!

infomation s!stems ave 4een %imai/! &ategoise+ as *n+e:

;i< O%eations S*%%ot S!stem

;ii< Management S*%%ot S!stemsLet *s *n+estan+ some of te exam%/es *n+e ea& infomation s!stem

&atego!.

'.'.1 O%eations S*%%ot S!stems

As an+ "en an! tansa&tion ta#es %/a&e in an oganisation +ata "i& is a

4!%o+*&t of a tansa&tion is geneate+. A/so 4*siness o%eations ae &aie+

o*t *sing +ata. In o+e to %o&ess s*& +ata infomation s!stems ae eB*ie+

"i& ae &a//e+ o%eations s*%%ot s!stems. Tese s!stems %o+*&e vaio*s

t!%es of infomation %o+*&ts fo intena/ an+ extena/ *se. o"eve s*&

s!stems +o not /a! em%asis on %o+*&ing te s%e&ifi& infomation %o+*&ts tat

&an 4e *se+ 4! te manages.

In o+e to ma#e *se of s*& %o+*&ts f*te %o&essing of te o*t%*t fom

s*& s!stems is eB*ie+. S*& a %o&essing is +one 4! management infomation

s!stems. Te o/e of o%eations s*%%ot s!stem is to effi&ient/! %o&ess 4*siness

tansa&tions &onto/ in+*stia/ %o&esses s*%%ot oganisationa/

&omm*ni&ations an+ *%+ate &om%an!=s +ata4ases. 9iven 4e/o" is a 4ief

+es&i%tion of vaio*s exam%/es of o%eations s*%%ot s!stems.

;i< Tansa&tion Po&essing S!stems: As te name in+i&ates tansa&tion%o&essing s!stem ;TPS< e&o+s an+ %o&esses +ata an+ %o+*&es

e%ots. It e%esents te a*tomation of te f*n+amenta/ o*tine

%o&essing *se+ to s*%%ot 4*siness o%eations. It +oes not %ovi+e an!

infomation to te *se fo ise +e&isionma#ing. Tese s!stems

%o&ess tansa&tions eite in 4at& %o&essing o in ea/time %o&essing.

Fo exam%/e %ointofsa/e ;POS< s!stems at man! etai/ stoes *se

e/e&toni& &as egiste temina/s to e/e&toni&a//! &a%t*e an+ tansmit

sa/es +ata ove te/e&omm*ni&ation /in#s to ea+ offi&e &om%*te &ente

fo imme+iate ;ea/time< o "ee#/! ;4at&< %o&essing. TPS *ses +ata an+

%o+*&es +ata as so"n in te

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Fig. '.$ Tansa&tion Po&essing S!stem

Pevio*s/! TPS "as #no"n as Management Infomation S!stem. Pio to

&om%*tes +ata %o&essing "as %efome+ man*a//! o "it sim%/e ma&ines.

o"eve no"a+a!s +ata %o&essing is main/! +one "it te e/% of &om%*tes.

In man! oganisations TPS is a/so #no"n as a Data Po&essing S!stem. Its

+omain is o4vio*s/! at te /o"est /eve/ of management ieae! of an

oganisation. Tansa&tions &o*/+ 4e extena//! geneate+ o events intena/ to an

oganisation. Extena//! geneate+ tansa&tions ae fom &*stomes s*%%/ies

an+ ote go*%s. An! intena/ event tat is e&o+e+ 4! te infomation s!stem

is &onsi+ee+ to 4e a tansa&tion. Fo exam%/e tansfeing "o# in %o&ess fom

one stage of %o+*&tion to te next e&o+ing +e%e&iation on eB*i%ment

ma#ing o*tine fi/e &anges s*& as a++ing o +e/eting e&o+s o &anging anem%/o!ee=s a++ess an+ &oe&ting eos in %evio*s in%*t +ata ae a// exam%/es

of intena/ tansa&tions. Te o*t%*t of a +ata %o&essing s!stem o TPS ma! 4e

in sevea/ foms. One t!%e of o*t%*t is evise+ +ata fi/es "i& ave 4een

&oe&te+ fo eos ave a+ e&o+s a++e+ o +e/ete+ o ave a+ e&o+

stat*s s*& as em%/o!ee name o a++ess a/tee+ in some fasion.

;ii< Po&ess Conto/ S!stems: Te s!stems "i& monito an+ &onto/ %!si&a/

%o&esses ae I #no"n as Po&ess Conto/ S!stems. Fo exam%/e

%ama&e*ti&a/ man*fa&t*ing &om%an! *ses e/e&toni& sensos /in#e+ to

&om%*tes to monito &emi&a/ %o&esses an+ ma#e te eB*ie+

a+*stments.

;iii< Offi&e A*tomation S!stems: Offi&e a*tomation efes to te

a%%/i&ation of &om%*te an+ &omm*ni&ation te&no/og! to offi&e

f*n&tions. Offi&e a*tomation s!stems ae meant to im%ove te

%o+*&tivit! of manages at vaio*s /eve/s of management 4! %ovi+ing

se&etaia/ assistan&e an+ 4ette &omm*ni&ation fa&i/ities. Offi&e

a*tomation s!stems ae te &om4ination of a+"ae soft"ae an+

%eo%/e in infomation s!stems tat %o&ess offi&es tansa&tions an+

s*%%ot offi&e a&tivities at a// /eve/s of te oganisation. Tese s!stems

in&/*+e a "i+e ange of s*%%ot fa&i/ities "i& in&/*+e "o+ %o&essing

e/e&toni& fi/ing e/e&toni& mai/ message s"it&ing +ata stoage +ata

an+ voi&e &omm*ni&ation et&.

Offi&e a&tivities ma! 4e go*%e+ *n+e t"o &/asses name/!:

;i< a&tivities %efome+ 4! &/ei&a/ %esonne/ ;&/e#s se&etaies t!%ists

et&.< an+

;ii< a&tivities %efome+ 4! te exe&*tives ;manages enginees o ote

%ofessiona/s /i#e e&onomists eseaees et&.<.

In te fist &atego! te fo//o"ing is a /ist of a&tivities.

;i< T!%ing

;ii< mai/ing

;iii< s&e+*/ing of meetings an+ &onfeen&es;iv<&a/en+a #ee%ing an+

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;v< etieving +o&*ments.

Te fo//o"ing is a /ist of a&tivities in te se&on+ &atego! ;manageia/

&atego!<.

;a< &onfeen&ing

;4< %o+*&tion of infomation ;messages memos e%ots et&.< an+;&< &onto//ing %efoman&e

As a/ea+! +is&*sse+ infomation te&no/og! fa&i/itates 4ot t!%es of a&tivities A

"i+e vaiet! of offi&e a*tomation +evi&es /i#e fax ma&ines &o%ies %ones et&.

ae *se+ in offi&es. o"eve no"a+a!s &om%*te4ase+ offi&e a*tomation

s!stems ae gaining %o%*/ait! among manages an+ offi&e staff 4e&a*se s*&

s!stems offe integate+ so/*tions tat &an 4e sae+ a*tomati&a//! Com%*te

4ase+ offi&e a*tomation s!stems not on/! &ate to te &omm*ni&ation nee+s of

te offi&e manages "itin te oganisation 4*t a/so e/% to &omm*ni&ate "it

extena/ entities s*& as ven+os investos &*stomes et&. Some of te

a%%/i&ations of offi&e a*tomation s!stems ae +is&*sse+ in 4ief.

+ord Processing

Tis efes to te &om%*tenassiste+ %e%aation of +o&*ments ;/i#e /ettes

e%ots memos et&.< fom text*a/ +ata. Text is entee+ via a #e!4oa+ "i& is

+is%/a!e+ on te s&een of a vis*a/ +is%/a! *nit. Data on&e entee+ &an 4e

mani%*/ate+ in vaio*s "a!s. It &an 4e e+ite+ stoe+ on magneti& me+ia an+

e%o+*&e+ to*g sim%/e &omman+s "i& e/iminate te nee+ fo e+afting

te entie +o&*ment. S%e//ings &an 4e &e&#e+ a*tomati&a//! an+ %e+efine+

/ettes &an 4e geneate+ a++esse+ to man! %esons 4! meging te /ette an+

a++ess to*g a mai/mege %ogam. No"a+a!s tese s!stems &an even 4e

taine+ to *n+estan+ te +i&tation of te manage an+ to &onvet it to text on

te "o+ %o&esso.

Electronic Filing

Tis fa&i/itates te fi/ing of in&oming an+ o*tgoing mai/+o&*ments on magneti&

me+ia. Infomation is &a%t*e+ fom te +o&*ments an+ is stoe+ fo f*t*e

efeen&e. Com%*te4ase+ fi/ing s!stems ave te a+vantage of s%a&e saving an+

%emitting easi/! mo+ifia4/e &ossefeen&e in+exes. Tese in+exes &ontain

%ointes to te /o&ation of te +o&*ment itse/f.

Electronic Mail

It invo/ves te tansfe of /ettes an+ ote +o&*ments to*g

te/e&omm*ni&ation /ines ate tan to*g %!si&a/ +e/ive!. An e/e&toni&

mai/ s!stem eB*ies a te/e&omm*ni&ation net"o# an+ soft"ae. It s%ee+s *%

mai/ +e/iveies an+ e+*&es te &ost an+ time ta#en 4! %a%emai/. Lo&a/ Aea

Net"o#s ;LANs< ave f*te fa&i/itate+ te saing of +ata fi/es an+ soft"ae

among man! +iffeent &om%*te temina/s. ?o#stationstemina/s &an a/so

tansfe +atamessages to ea& ote. 8oi&e mai/ "i& is anote fom of emai/

tansmits messages in +igitiHe+ voi&e. Te e&eive &an ea te s%o#en messagesin te voi&e of te sen+e 4! +ia/ing a voi&emai/ sevi&e. A+van&ements in

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m*/time+ia te&no/ogies ave a/so ma+e +es#to% te/e&onfeen&ing s!stems B*ite

%o%*/a.

,-,-, Munugement Su##ort Systems

Management S*%%ot S!stems ;MIS< ae te infomation s!stems= a%%/i&ationstat fo&*s on %ovi+ing infomation an+ +e&ision s*%%ot fo effe&tive +e&ision

ma#ing 4! manages. Tee ae vaio*s t!%es of infomation s!stems tat

s*%%ot a vaiet! of +e&isionma#ing %o&ess. Fo exam%/e management

infomation s!stems +e&ision s*%%ot s!stems an+ exe&*tive s*%%ot s!stems.

;i< Management infomation S!stems

Management Infomation S!stem ;MIS< is an infomation s!stem "i&

%o&esses +ata an+ &onvets it into infomation. Tis as 4een +e%i&te+

+iagammati&a//! in Fig. '.).

Fig. '.) Management Infomation S!stem

A management infomation s!stem *ses TPS fo its +ata in%*ts. Te infomation

geneate+ 4! te infomation s!stem ma! 4e *se+ fo &onto/ of o%eations

stategi& an+ /ongange %/anning sotange %/anning management &onto/

an+ ote manageia/ %o4/em so/ving. Ex&e%tion e%ots ae te fist t!%e of

infomation "i& ma! 4e 4ase+ +ie&t/! on tansa&tion fi/es. Te +omain of

MIS is main/! management &onto/ /eve/ of management ieae!. In &ontast

to TPS a management infomation s!stem is moe &om%eensiveG it

en&om%asses %o&essing in s*%%ot of a "i+e ange of oganisationa/ f*n&tions

an+ management %o&esses. Se&on+/! MIS is &a%a4/e of %ovi+ing ana/!sis

%/anning an+ +e&isionma#ing s*%%ot.

It is as as a/ea+! 4een +efine+ an. Integate+ s!stems. In 4*siness

oganisations infomation s!stems ae genea//! +eve/o%e+ to &ate to te

infomation nee+s of manages of ea& of te f*n&tiona/ aeas of te 4*siness.

Te f*n&tiona/ aeas of a 4*siness ma! 4e ma#eting %o+*&tion *man

eso*&e finan&e an+ a&&o*nting et& an+ &oes%on+ing/! te infomation

s!stems s*%%oting tese f*n&tions ae #no"n as ma#eting infomation s!stem%o+*&tionman*fa&t*ing infomation s!stem *man eso*&e infomation

s!stem an+ finan&ia/ an+ a&&o*nting infomation s!stems ;see f*n&tiona/

infomation s!stem<. A/tenative/! tee ma! 4e a &ommon st*&t*e *sef*/ to

ea& of te 4*siness f*n&tions. Integation of te infomation ma! 4e:

;i< ieaei&a/

;ii< oiHonta/ an+

;iii< &ossf*n&tiona/.

In ieaei&a/ entegation o%eationa/ &onto/ /eve/ s!stems fee+ +ata to a

ige /eve/ s!stem i.e. to te management &onto/ /eve/ ;mi++/e /eve/< an+ to te

stategi& %/anning /eve/ ;to% /eve/<.

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oiHonta/ integation efes to integation of infomation s!stems "itin a

f*n&tiona/ aea o a &ain of &omman+. Fo exam%/e a %o+*&t ma! %ass

to*g sevea/ %o+*&tion %o&esses in %o+*&tion +e%atment. Te

infomation s!stem of a// teses s*4s!stems ;%o+*&tion %o&esses< ae

integate+ in a +e%atmenta/ %o+*&tion infomation s!stem.

Cossf*n&tiona/ infomation s!stems as te name in+i&ate+ asso&iate "it+iffeent f*n&tiona/ aeas fo exam%/e a ma#eting infomation s!stem ma!

tansmit infomation ega+ing /oss of sa/es 4e&a*se of invento! sotage to te

invento! &onto/ infomation s!stem.

No"a+a!s "it te emegen&e of 3*siness Po&ess Reengineeing ;3PR< an+

a+van&ements in net"o# te&no/og! em%asis is 4eing given to 4*siness

%o&esses an+ tei integation. Te infomation s!stems tat fo&*s on te

4*siness %o&ess tat a %o+*&t %asses to*g integate a// tese %o&esses even

in +iffeent f*n&tiona/ aeas an+ t*s ma#e te +emaeation /ines of f*n&tiona/

aeas "ea#. S*& infomation s!stems ae moe %o%*/a in /age oganisations

aving "i+e geoga%i&a/ &oveage an+ +ivesifie+ %o+*&t ange 4e&a*se of te%o4/ems fa&e+ 4! tese oganisations main/! in intef*n&tiona/

&omm*ni&ations. Diffeent soft"ae ven+os ave teme+ s*& s!stems

+iffeent/! 4*t te most &ommon/! *se+ s!stems ae C*stome Re/ations

Management ;CRM<G S*%%/! Cain Management ;SCM<G an+ Ente%ise

Reso*&es P/anning ;ERP< s!stems. Tese s!stems ave 4een ex%/aine+ *n+e e

3*siness in Ca%te ,.

.ii/ Decision Su##ort System .DSS/

A +e&ision s*%%ot s!stem ;DSS< is an infomation s!stem a%%/i&ation tat assists

+e&isionma#ing. DSS ten+s to 4e *se+ in %/anning ana/!sing a/tenatives an+

tia/ an+ eo seae fo so/*tions. S*& s!stems ae genea//! o%eate+ to*g

temina/4ase+ intea&tive +ia/og*es "it *ses. Te! in&o%oate a vaiet! of

+e&isionmo+e/s an+ t*s ae &a%a4/e of %efoming ?atif= ana/!sis fo

manages. DSS +iffes fom most ta+itiona/ infomation s!stems in tat *s*a//!

ea& +e&ision s*%%ot s!stem is +istin&t fom te ote infomation s!stem an+ is

tai/oma+e fo eve! manage. De&ision S*%%ot S!stems a/to*g &eate+ an+

*se+ 4! manages ae nevete/ess a %at of te oganisations MIS. As +e&ision

s*%%ot s!stem is tai/oe+ to a s%e&ifi& manageia/ tas# o s%e&ia/ %o4/em its *se

is /imite+ to tat tas# o %o4/em. De&ision s*%%ot s!stems ten+ to 4e +esigne+.

Pimai/! to seve management &onto/ /eve/ an+ stategi& %/anning /eve/

manages. Te e/ements of i a +e&ision s*%%ot s!stem in&/*+e a +ata4ase mo+e/4ase an+ a soft"ae %ovi+ing intea&tive +ia/og*e fa&i/it! fo te manage. Te

+ata in te +ata4ase t!%i&a//! is a &om4ination of maste fi/es ;intena/ &o%oate

+ata< an+ +ata fom extena/ so*&es.

Te se&on+ &om%onent of te DSS is a /i4a! of mo+e/s to mani%*/ate an+

ana/!se te +ata in te +esie+ "a!s. Te mo+e/ 4ase migt in&/*+e e&onometi&

mo+e/s to foe&ast +eman+ 4! in+*st! an+ sim*/ation mo+e/s of te

&o%oation. A *se intefa&e is te ti+ &om%onent. To*g tis te *se &an

&omm*ni&ate "it te DSS. Te %!si&a/ intefa&e genea//! &onsists of a

temina/ oo#e+ *% to te mainfame &om%*te eite +ie&t/! o 4! te/e%one.

Mi&o&om%*tes "it mo+ems ae 4eing *se+ eve moe feB*ent/! fo tisintefa&e. Tese e/ements ae i//*state+ in Fig. '.(.

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Fig. '.( E/ements of DSS

DSS goes one ste% f*te to a management infomation s!stem as DSS s*%%ots

+e&isionma#ing. DSS *ses MIS +e%i&te+ in Fig. '.6.

Fig. '.6 De&ision S*%%ot S!stem

DSS &an 4e +iffeentiate+ fom MIS in tems of its %o&essing &a%a4i/ities.?eeas MIS %o&esses +ata to &onvet it into infomationG DSS %o&esses

infomation to s*%%ot te +e&isionma#ing %o&ess of a manage. Fo exam%/e

a sa/a! infomation s!stem %ovi+es infomation to eve! em%/o!ee ega+ing

is 4asi& sa/a! a//o"an&es an+ +e+*&tions if an! et&. o"eve if an em%/o!ee

"ants to ma#e +e%osits in some s&emes fo avai/ing in&ome tax e4ates. e &an

ma#e *se of DSS. De&ision s*%%ot s!stem e/%s te *se +e&i+e in "i& s&eme

an+ o" m*& e so*/+ invest in o+e to get maxim*m 4enefits. Se&on+/! DSS

%ovi+es an intea&tive +ia/og*e envionment to*g"i& te *se &an

intea&t "it te s!stem to a++a/te te +ata as %e is eB*iements. Te in a

a%%/i&ation aeas of DSS ae %o+*&tion finan&e an+ ma#eting. Fo exam%/e

DSS s*%%ots +e&ision ma#ing in %o&*ement ana/!sis %o+*&tion %/anning

an+ s&e+*/ing invento! %/anning an+ &onto/ finan&ia/ %/anning an+ ana/!sis

tax %/anning stategi& finan&ia/ %/anning finan&ia/ %otfoinan&t ana/!sis

ma#eting mix +e&isions et&. DSS &an no"a+a!s 4e &/&ve/o%e+ "it te e/% of

s%e&ia/ %*%ose soft"ae %a&#ages. Tese /ang*age %a&#ages *s*a//! in&/*+e

sevea/ %e"nen ana/!sis o*tines s*& as inteest &a/&*/ation fom*/ae

+is&o*nte+ &as f/o" &a/&*/ation o*tines intena/ ates of et*n an+ time

seies ana/!sis o*tines. Tese o*tines &an 4e easi/! integate+ into +e&ision

s*%%ot s!stem eB*iing tat %ati&*/a &a/&*/ating f*n&tion. Intea&tive

Finan&ia/ P/anning S!stems ;IFPSs< an+ Sim%/an ae t"o "e//#no"n +e&ision

s*%%ot s!stem soft"ae %a&#ages in *se. 8isi&ii/& S*%e&a/& Context M3A MSEx&e/ et& %ovi+e simi/a 4*t /ess extensive assistan&e in +eve/o%ing +e&ision

s*%%ot s!stems.

;iii< Exe&*tive S*%%ot S!stem

Exe&*tive S*%%ot S!stem ;ESS< is an extension of te management

infomation s!stem "i& in a s%e&ia/ #in+ of DSS an+ %ovi+es &iti&a/

infomation fom vaio*s inte an+ intaso*&es in eas! to *se +is%/a!s. An ESS

is s%e&ia//! tai/oe+ fo te *se of &ief exe&*tive of an oganisaton to s*%%ot is

+e&isionma#ing. T*s ESS is a &om%eensive infomation s!stem "i&

in&/*+es vaio*s t!%es of &/e&isions*%%ott s!stems 4*t it is moe s%e&ifi& an+

%esonoiente+. An ESS is +esigne+ to &ate to te infomation nee+s of a &ief

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exe&*tive #ee%ing in vie" not on/! is eB*iements 4*t a/so ta#ing into a&&o*nt

is %esona/it! an+ st!/e of f*n&tioning et&.

'.'.$ 9enea/ S*%%ot S!stems

Te a4ovementione+ &ategoies of infomation s!stems ave 4een +efine+ on te

4asis of tei o/e in o%eations an+ management of a 4*siness. o"eve tee

ae man! ote a%%/i&ations of infomation s!stems "i& fa// in 4ot te

&ategoies as te! %ovi+e s*%%ot in o%eations as "e// as managing of te

4*siness. S*& infomation s!stems ma! 4e &ategoise+ *n+e genea/ s*%%ot

s!stems. Fo exam%/e 4*siness ex%et s!stems f*n&tiona/ 4*siness s!stems an+

stategi& infomation s!stems.

;i< 3*siness Ex%et S!stems

3*siness ex%et s!stems "i& ae 4ase+ on atifi&ia/ inte//igen&e ;AI< ae

a+van&e+ infomation s!stems. Atifi&ia/ inte//igen&e ma! 4e efee+ to as te&a%a4i/it! tat ma#es &om%*tes +is%/a! inte//igent *man/i#e 4eavio*. Fo

exam%/e easoning +a"ing infeen&es /eaning an+ %o4/em so/ving ae s*&

a&ts of inte//igen&e.

A 3*siness Ex%et S!stem ;3ES< is a #no"/e+ge4ase+ infomation s!stem

tat *ses its #no"/e+ge a4o*t a s%e&ifi& &om%/ex a%%/i&ation aea to a&t as an

ex%et. T*s ex%et s!stems %ovi+e +e&ision s*%%ot to manages in te fom of

a+vi&e fom an ex%et in a s%e&ifi& %o4/em aea. Ex%et s!stems fin+ a%%/i&ation

in +ivese aeas anging fom me+i&a/ engineeing an+ 4*siness.

Te main a+vantages of *sing ex%et s!stems ma! 4e o*t/ine+ as fo//o"s.

;i< Te #no"/e+ge&a%a4i/ities of man! ex%ets &an 4e *se+ to 4*i/+ a

sing/e ex%et s!stem.

;ii< De&isionma#ing in &iti&a/ times &an 4e moe e/ia4/e as tese

s!stems ae not affe&te+ 4! emotiona/ fa&tos o fatig*e.

;iii< M*/ti%/e !%oteses &an 4e &onsi+ee+ sim*/taneo*s/!.

Te ex%et s!stem is intea&tive in nat*e "i& ena4/es it to as# B*estions of

te *se. On te 4asis of tese B*estions an ex%et s!stem seaees its #no"/e+ge

4ase fo fa&ts an+ */es ex%/ains its easoning %o&ess "en as#e+ an+ &omes o*t

"it ex%et a+vi&e to te en+ *se in te s*4e&t aea 4eing ex%/oe+.

Te main &om%onents of an ex%et s!stem ;see Fig. '.2< in&/*+e:

;i< 7no"/e+ge 4ase;ii< Infeen&e engine an+

;iii< Use intefa&e.

7no"/e+ge 4ase &ontains te fa&ts a4o*t te s%e&ifi& ex%et aea an+ e*isti&

;*/es of t*m4< tat +es&i4e te easoning %o&e+*es of an ex%et on te

s*4e&t.

Fig. '.2 Main Com%onents of an Ex%et S!stem

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Infeen&e engine &ontains te /ogi& of ea&ing an infeen&e fom te stoe+ +ata

an+ */es ;#no"/e+ge 4ase<.

Ex%et s!stems ma! 4e +eve/o%e+ 4! s*ing eite %ogamming /ang*ages

s*& as LISP PROLO9 o C 4! *sing ex%et s!stem %a&#ages ;ex%et s!stem

se//s<. Using te ex%et s!stem %a&#ages "i& ae /i#e a%%/i&ation geneatosone &an +esign an ex%et s!stem tat &om4ines te feat*es of a DSS an+ an

ex%et s!stem. Tis integation ma#es te a%%/i&ation +eve/o%ment %o&ess

easie an+ faste fo en+ *ses.

;ii< 7no"/e+ge Management S!stems

7no"/e+ge management s!stems ae infomation s!stems tat ae #no"/e+ge

4ase+ an+ t*s s*%%ot te &eation oganisation an+ +issemination of 4*siness

#no"/e+ge to manages an+ ote em%/o!ees of te oganisation. Fo exam%/e

Intanet a&&ess to te 4est %a&ti&es an+ so/*tions to vaio*s 4*siness %o4/ems.

No"a+a!s man! &om%anies ae 4*i/+ing #no"/e+ge management s!stems to

manage oganisationa/ /eaning an+ 4*siness #no"o". Te! ae +eve/o%e+ to%ovi+e B*i&# fee+4a&# to #no"/e+ge "o#es en&o*age 4eavio* &anges 4!

em%/o!ees an+ im%ove 4*siness %efoman&e. Fig*e '., %ota!s a genea/

st*&t*e of #no"/e+ge management s!stem.

;iii< Stategi& infomation S!stems

Stategi& Infomation S!stems a%%/! infomation te&no/og! to te %o+*&ts

sevi&es o 4*siness %o&esses of an oganisation to e/% te oganisation gain a

stategi& a+vantage ove its &om%etito.

Fig. '., 7no"/e+ge Management S!stem

T*s stategi& infomation s!stem &an 4e an! #in+ of infomation s!stem ;TPS

MIS DSS ESS et&< tat *ses IT to e/% an oganisation gain a &om%etitive

a+vantage e+*&e a &om%etitive +isa+vantage o meet ote stategi& ente%ise

o4e&tives ;3o"/es e! 1--2<.

;iv<F*n&tiona/ 3*siness S!stemsOne of te most "i+e/! *se+ 4asis fo oganising a&tivities in a/most eve!

oganisation is te 4*siness f*n&tion. 3*siness a&tivities ae go*%e+ ao*n+

f*n&tions s*& as %o+*&tion ma#eting finan&e an+ %esonne/ et&. es*/ting in

te es%e&tive +e%atment o an aea of te 4*siness oganisation. Tese

+e%atments o f*n&tiona/ aeas ae &ommon/! #no"n as te f*n&tiona/ aeas of

4*siness. Ea& of tese f*n&tiona/ aeas as a/ea+! +is&*sse+ in %evio*s &a%te

as *niB*e infomation nee+s an+ t*s eB*ies infomation s!stem s*%%ot

+esigne+ s%e&ifi&a//! fo it. Moeove a management infomation s!stem is

essentia//! an integation of infomation s!stems tat ae +esigne+ to s*%%ot te

f*n&tiona/ s*4s!stems of te 4*siness. Ea& s*4s!stem eB*ies a%%/i&ations to

%efom a// infomation %o&essing e/ate+ to te f*n&tion. It ma! 4e note+ tat"itin ea& f*n&tions s*4s!stem tee "i// 4e a%%/i&ations fo tansa&tion

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%o&essing o%eationa/ &onto/ management &onto/ an+ stategi& %/anning.

Se&on+/! +iffeent f*n&tiona/ s!stems so*/+ not in an! "a! 4e mis*n+estoo+

as 4eing in+e%en+ent se%aate o +istin&t s!stemsG ate te! a// ae te %ats

of te oganisationa/ s!stem an+ intea&t "it ote s*4s!stems to*g te

me+i*m of infomation. F*te tee is no stan+a+ &/assifi&ation of s*& s*4

s!stems in an oganisation 4*t t!%i&a/ set of f*n&tions in a man*fa&t*ingoganisation in&/*+es:

;i< %o+*&tion

;ii< ma#eting

;iii< finan&e an+ a&&o*nting

;iv<mateia/s an+

;v< %esonne/ s!stems.

Some of te main a&tivities fo ea& f*n&tiona/ s!stem ave 4een i//*state+ in

Fig. '.-. Infomation s!stems ae genea//! +eve/o%e+ ao*n+ te f*n&tiona/

aeas of a 4*siness oganisation %o%*/a/! #no"n as f*n&tiona/ infomation

s!stems. Fo exam%/e Finan&ia/ Infomation S!stem Pesonne/ InfomationS!stem Ma#eting Infomation S!stem Po+*&tion Infomation S!stem an+ so

on. A 4ief +es&i%tion of tese f*n&tiona/ infomation s!stems is given 4e/o".

a< Finan&ia/ Infomation S!stem

Finan&ia/ infomation s!stem is a s*4s!stem of oganisationa/ management

infomation s!stem. Tis s*4s!stem s*%%ots te +e&isionma#ing %o&ess

of finan&ia/ f*n&tions at te /eve/ of an oganisation. Te 4asi& finan&ia/

+e&isions "i& an oganisation *s*a//! ta#es ma! in&/*+e te fo//o"ing.

;i< ?ee to invest f*n+s an+ to "at extent@

;ii< ?ee to aise f*n+s an+ "at amo*nt@

;iii< o" m*& to %a! in +ivi+en+s ;in &ase it is a %*4/i& &om%an!<@

A 4ief +es&i%tion of ea& of te finan&ia/ +e&isions tat a finan&ia/ manage

as to ta#e is given 4e/o".

Fig. '.- Main A&tivities of 8aio*s F*n&tiona/ S!stems

Ca#ital %udgeting Decision

In tis +e&ision f*n+s ae a//o&ate+ to /ongtem assets "i& "o*/+ !ie/+

4enefitset*ns in te f*t*e. Fo exam%/e f*n+s a//o&ate+ fo /an+ 4*i/+ing

ma&ine! et&. 3efoe &ommitting f*n+s it is ve! im%otant fo te finan&ia/

manage to eva/*ate te %os%e&tive %ofita4i/it! of te ne" investment.

Financing Decision

It e/ates to "en "ee an+ o" to a&B*ie f*n+s to meet te investment nee+s

ofte oganisation. Te finan&ia/ manage as to +e&i+e a4o*t te %o%otion of eB*it! &a%ita/ an+ +e4t &a%ita/. e as to +etemine aeas "ee te *se of +e4t

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&a%ita/ affe&ts te et*n an+ %oses a is# to saeo/+es. Te et*n on eB*it!

ma! in&ease 4*t so "i// te is#. T*s a %o%e 4a/an&e "i// ave to sti#e

4et"een et*n an+ is#.

Dividend Decision

Tis +e&ision e/ates to te +ivi+en+ %o/i&! of te oganisation. A +e&ision

"ete te oganisation so*/+ +isti4*te a// %ofits o etain tem o +isti4*te

a %otion an+ etain te 4a/an&e as to 4e ta#en 4! te finan&ia/ manages.

Current Asset Management

In o+e to safeg*a+ te oganisation against i//iB*i+it! o inso/ven&! &*ent

assets of te oganisation ae a/so eB*ie+ to 4e effi&ient/! manage+. Investment

in &*ent assets affe&ts te oganisations %ofita4i/it! /iB*i+it! an+ is#. If

s*ffi&ient f*n+s ae not investe+ in &*ent assets te oganisation ma! 4e&ome

i//iB*i+. 3*t it "o*/+ /ose %ofita4i/it! as i+/e &*ent assets "o*/+ not ean an!%ofits. T*s a s*ita4/e ta+e off is nee+e+ to 4e a&ieve+ 4et"een %ofita4i/it!

an+ /iB*i+it!.

3esi+es te a4ovementione+ manageia/ f*n&tions te ote f*n&tions of

finan&ia/ s!stems ma! 4e s*mmaise+ as 4e/o".

;i< Conto//ing te e&ei%t an+ %a!ments

;ii< Maintaining stat*to! e&o+s an+

;iii< Pe%aation of %eio+i& e%ots fo statisti&s %efoman&e an+

es*/ts fo intena/ &onto/ an+ a*+it.

Finan&ia/ s!stems a/so in&/*+e a&&o*nting s!stems as tese s!stems ae &on&ene+

"it e&o+ing te tansa&tions of te 4*siness. S*& tansa&tions ma! in&/*+e

"ages an+ sa/aies %*&ases sa/es an+ a// ote t!%es of in&ome an+

ex%en+it*e. O4vio*s/! e&o+s of tese tansa&tions 4e&ome te 4asis fo te

%e%aation of %eio+i& o ann*a/ %ofit an+ /oss a&&o*nts 4a/an&e seets et&.

In o+e to %efom te a4ove a&tivities an+ f*n&tions finan&ia/ infomation

"i& is a&&*ate %e&ise an+ time/! as to 4e s*%%/ie+ to te finan&ia/ manage.

Tese s!stems invo/ve /age amo*nts of +ata &on&ene+ %imai/! "it istoi&a/

an+ intena/ infomation. o"eve in some aeas of finan&ia/ %/anning it is

f*t*eoiente+ a/so. Fo exam%/e te exe&ise of 4*+geting is "o//! f*t*isti&

in nat*e.

Finan&ia/ infomation s!stems ae &om%*teise+:

;i< to im%ove te s%ee+ an+ a&&*a&! of e%oting an+

;ii< to %ovi+e infomation an+ ana/!ti&a/ s*%%ot to finan&ia/ manages to

ai+ tem in tei +e&isionma#ing. Fig*e '.10 i//*states a finan&ia/

infomation s!stem.

Tansa&tiona/ +ata is te 4asis of an! t!%e of ana/!sis. Tis +ata ma! in&/*+e

&e+it a%%/i&ations 4i//ing %a!ment vo*&es sto&# tansfes &eB*es o*na/

an+ /e+ge enties et&.

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Finan&ia/ inte//igen&e +ata is &o//e&te+ fom 4an#s govenment sto&# ma#ets

et&. "i& is %o&esse+ to +etemine its im%a&t on te oganisationa/ e&onom!.

Oganisationa/ %/an is anote im%otant in%*t in te finan&ia/ infomation

s!stem as it %ota!s te o4e&tives of te oganisation. Tis nee+s to 4e

ef/e&te+ in te o*t%*t of te finan&ia/ infomation s!stem "i& ma! 4e in tefom of finan&ia/ %/ans.

Man! soft"ae %a&#ages on finan&ia/ a&&o*nting ae avai/a4/e in te ma#et

"i& %ovi+e &om%/ete finan&ia/ a&&o*nting. Ta//! 3MS et&. ae te moe

&ommon %a&#ages. Finan&ia/ %/anning soft"ae ;e.g. IFPS et&.< %a&#ages ae

*se+ fo manageia/ +e&isionma#ing at ige /eve/s.

;4< Ma#eting Infomation S!stem

Tis s*4s!stem of management infomation s!stem %ovi+es infomation a4o*t

vaio*s f*n&tions of te ma#eting s!stem of an oganisation. Ma#eting isanote f*n&tiona/ aea of te 4*siness oganisation "i& is engage+ in

ma#eting ;se//ing< of its %o+*&ts to its &*stomes.

Fig. '.10 Finan&ia/ Infomation S!stem

Pi/i% 7ot/e as +efine+ ma#eting as a so&ia/ an+ manageia/ %o&ess 4! "i&

in+ivi+*a/s an+ go*%s o4tain "at te! nee+ an+ "ant to*g &eating

offeing an+ ex&anging %o+*&ts of va/*e "it otes.

T*s ma#eting is a &om%eensive tem an+ in&/*+es man! f*n&tions. A//

a&tivities ne&essa! to +ie&t an+ fa&i/itate te %o+*&tion an+ *sage of goo+s an+

sevi&es fo a so&iet! ae in&/*+e+ in ma#eting. No"a+a!s ma#eting as

ass*me+ a geat signifi&an&e in a// so&ieties ies%e&tive of te +egee of

in+*stia/isation. Te &on&e%t of ma#eting as a/so *n+egone a sea &ange an+

t*s te ta+itiona/ &on&e%t of ma#eting +oes not o/+ t*e to+a!. ?eeas

ta+itiona/ %a&ti&es of ma#eting stat "it %o+*&tion an+ &onsi+e ma#eting

to 4e of *se in se//ing an+ %omotion to attain sa/es at a %ofit mo+em ma#etingfo&*ses its attention on 4*!es&*stomes. It gets %ofits to*g te &eation of

te 4*!es= satisfa&tion an+ f*te see#s to a&ieve it to*g an integate+

&o%oate"i+e set of ma#eting a&tivities. Tese t"o vie"s ae ex%esse+ in Fig.

'.11.

Mo+en ma#eting +oes not sim%/! in&/*+e a&tivities /i#e se//ing a+vetising o

+isti4*tion. It invo/ves te intea&tion of sevea/ 4*siness a&tivities "ose

o4e&tive is te satisfa&tion of te &*stomes= nee+s an+ +esies. T*s in tis

a%%oa& even 4efoe te %o+*&t is %o+*&e+ ma#eting &omes into o%eation

i.e. te nee+s+esies of its %otentia/ &*stomes ae *n+estoo+ an+ te %o+*&t is

+esigne+ as %e te %efeen&es of its &*stomes "eeas in te &ase of

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ta+itiona/ %a&ti&e te existing %o+*&ts ae so*gt to 4e im%ose+ on te

ma#et to*g aggessive se//ing an+ %omotiona/ %ess*es.

Fig.'.11 T"o 8ie"s of Ma#eting

Some of te im%otant f*n&tions of te ma#eting %o&ess in&/*+e te fo//o"ing.

;i< Te ma#eting i+entifi&ation f*n&tion: Te +etemination of %otentia/

4*!es an+ tei &aa&teisti& is vita/ in o+e to satisf! tei nee+s an+

+esies. Tis ena4/es te ma#etee to #no"

a< "ee te 4*!es ae /o&ate+

4< "en +o te! 4*!

&< o" feB*ent/! +o te! 4*! an++< in "at B*antit! +o te! 4*!.

;ii< Te %*&ase motivation f*n&tion: In tis f*n&tion an assessment of

vaio*s so&ia/ e&onomi& an+ %s!&o/ogi&a/ fo&es "i& inf/*en&e te

%*&ase 4eavio* of te ma#et is ma+e.

;iii< Te %o+*&t a+*stment f*n&tion: Tis f*n&tion in&/*+es a// s*&

a&tivities "i& ae ne&essa! to mat& te %o+*&tsevi&es offeings "it

te ma#et. As te nee+s+esies of &*stomes #ee% &anging a

&oes%on+ing a+*stment is eB*ie+ in tems of %o+*&t %/anning.

;iv<Te %!si&a/ +isti4*tion f*n&tion: Te a&t*a/ movement of goo+s fom

%oints of %o+*&tion to %oints of &ons*m%tion is &onsi+ee+ in tis

f*n&tion. It invo/ves +e&isions ega+ing o%tim*m integation of

tans%oatation "aeo*sing an+ me&an+ising e&onomi&s.

;v< Te &omm*ni&ation f*n&tion: Te infomation an+ messages 4et"een

4*!es an+ se//es ae eB*ie+ to 4e &omm*ni&ate+. Tis f*n&tion

in&/*+es +e&isions on a+vetising %esona/ se//ing sa/es %omotion

%*4/i&it! %a&#aging et&.

;vi<Te tansa&tion f*n&tion: It in&/*+es a// s*& a&tivities "i& ae nee+e+

to fa&i/itate te tansfe of tit/e of o"nesi% of goo+ssevi&es 4et"een te

%aties in a tansa&tion. Fo exam%/e o+e an+/ing invoi&ing 4i//ing

&e+it aangement ins*an&e %o/i&! g*aantee et&.

;vii< Te %osttansa&tion f*n&tion: In tis f*n&tion fee+4a&# a4o*t te%efoman&e of te %o+*&tsevi&e is o4taine+ fom te &*stome so tat

B*a/it! %o+*&tsevi&e ma! 4e ass*e fo te satisfa&tion of te &*stome.

In o+e to &a! o*t te a4ovementione+ f*n&tions a ma#eting manage

as to ta#e an aa! of +e&isions fo "i& time/! a&&*ate an+ e/evant

infomation is a m*st. T*s eve! oganisation as to oganise te f/o" of

ma#eting infomation to its ma#eting manages. Te nee+e+ infomation is

+eve/o%e+ to*g intena/ &om%an! e&o+s ma#eting inte//igen&e a&tivities

ma#eting eseae an+ ma#eting +e&ision s*%%ot ana/!sis. Te &on&e%t of

ma#eting infomation s!stem is i//*state+ in Fig. '.1'.

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Fig. '.1' Management Infomation S!stem

Tansa&tion +ata "i& in&/*+es e%ots on o+es sa/es %i&es invento!/eve/s e&eiva4/es et& is o4taine+ fom te intena/ e&o+s of te oganisation.

3! ana/!sing tis infomation ma#eting manages &an i+entif! im%otant

o%%ot*nities an+ %o4/ems. Sometimes ma#eting manages nee+ fo&*se+

st*+ies of s%e&ifi& %o4/ems an+ o%%ot*nities fo "i& te! &o//e&t ma#eting

eseae +ata. S*& +ata ma! 4e gatee+ to*g ma#eting s*ve! a %o+*&t

%efeen&e test a sa/es foe&ast 4! egion o an a+vetisingeffe&tiveness st*+!.

Ma#eting inte//igen&e +ata %etains to %etinent +eve/o%ments in te

ma#eting envionment.

Tis t!%e of +ata ma! 4e &o//e&te+ 4! ea+ing 4oo#s ne"s%a%es an+ ta+e%*4/i&ations ta/#ing to &*stomes s*%%/ies +isti4*tos an+ ote o*tsi+es

/4 aive at ma#eting +e&isions a ma#eting manage nee+s infomation on

+iffeent as%e&ts of ma#eting. Ma#eting infomation s!stem afte &o//e&ting

vaio*s t!%es of +ata %o&esses it an+ +isseminates %o&esse+ +ata ;infomation<

to ma#eting manages. Ma#eting manages at ige /eve/s ae a/so 4eing

assiste+ in tei +e&isionma#ing 4! ma#eting +e&ision s*%%ot s!stems. Tese

s!stems &onsist of statisti&a/ te&niB*es an+ +e&ision mo+e/s to assist in ma#ing

4ette ana/!ses an+ +e&isions.

;&< Po+*&tionMan*fa&t*ing infomation S!stem

Man*fa&t*ing o %o+*&tion infomation s!stem %ovi+es infomation on

%o+*&tiono%eation a&tivities of an oganisation an+ t*s fa&i/itates te

+e&isionma#ing %o&ess of %o+*&tion manages of an oganisation.

Man*fa&t*ing is anote im%otant f*n&tiona/ aea of an oganisation tat is

engage+ in %o+*&ing goo+s fom a" mateia/s. It is &/ea tat man*fa&t*ing is

not an a&tivit! fo eve! oganisation se//ing goo+s. Some of tese oganisations

ma! on/! 4e in te 4*siness of ta+ing i.e. 4*!ing goo+s fom one oganisation

an+ se//ing it to &*stomesG t*s %efoming te f*n&tion of eite a etai/e o a

"o/esa/e. S*& oganisations ae a/so &a//e+ me&an+ising oganisations.

Te &on&e%t of %o+*&tion &an a/so 4e exten+e+ to te sevi&e oganisations

"ee %o+*&tion is *n+estoo+ as a +is&age of some f*n&tion "i& as some

*ti/it! e.g. e%ai of an a*tomo4i/e /ega/ a+vi&e to a &/ient et&. 3oa+/! "e ma!

+efine %o+*&tion as some a&t of tansfomation i.e. an aea tat +ea/s "it

+e&1s1onma#1ng e/ate+ to te %o+*&tion %o&ess so tat te es*/ting goo+s

an+ sevi&es ae %o+*&e+ in a&&o+an&e "it te B*antitative s%e&ifi&ations an+

+eman+ s&e+*/e "it minim*m &ost. Te main +e&isions to 4e ta#en in te

man*fa&t*ing s!stem ae given 4e/o".

;i< Po+*&t Design

;ii< P/ant Lo&ation an+ La!o*t

;iii< Po+*&tion P/anning an+ Conto/ an+;iv<5*a/it! Conto/.

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Let *s 4ief/! +is&*ss tese f*n&tions.

Product Design

Po+*&t +esign "i& is a/so #no"n as Po+*&t Engineeing in&/*+es te entie+eve/o%ment of te %o+*&t to*g a// initia/ stages *nti/ a&t*a/ man*fa&t*ing

stats. Pe%aation of +a"ings s%e&ifi&ations ex%eimenta/ an+ +eve/o%menta/

effots ae te a&tivities invo/ve+ in te %o+*&t +esign. No"a+a!s Com%*te

Ai+e+ Design ;CAD< an+ Com%*te Ai+e+ Engineeing ;CAE< a%%oa&es ae

*se+ in %o+*&t +esign.

Plant (ocation und (ayout

Pant /o&ation +etemines te esta4/isment of an oganisation at a %ati&*/a

%/a&e. Is is an im%otant +e&ision 4e&a*se.

;i< /o&ation of %/ant %atia//! +etemines o%eating an+ &a%ita/ &osts

;ii< ea& %os%e&tive /o&ation im%/ies a ne" a//o&ation of &a%a&it! to

es%e&tive ma#et aea.

o"eve it m*st 4e 4one in min+ tat te +e&ision of %/ant /o&ation is +!nami&

in nat*e an+ t*s /o&ation st*+! nee+s &ontin*o*s monitoing.

P/ant /a!o*t is te meto+ of aanging ma&ines eB*i%ment an+ ote sevi&es

"itin a %e+esigne+ 4*i/+ing ens*ing stea+! smoot an+ e&onomi&a/ f/o" of

mateia/. *st /i#e %/ant /o&ation %/ant /a!o*t is a/so a &ontin*o*s %o&ess as

tee is a/"a!s s&o%e fo ma#ing im%ovements ove te existing +esign.

P/ant /a!o*t +esigns &an 4e %e%ae+ 4! *sing matemati&a/ an+ sim*/ation

mo+e/s fo "i& &om%*tes %/a! an im%otant o/e. Te /a!o*t soft"ae ma! 4e

*se+ to %e%ae a/togete a ne" %/ant o to im%ove *%on a s%e&ifie+ one.

Production Planning and Control

Tis f*n&tion is es%onsi4/e fo %/anning +ie&ting an+ &onto//ing of te

mateia/ s*%%/! an+ ote %o+*&tion %o&essing a&tivities. Po+*&tion %/anning:

;i< %e%aes %o&*ement %/ans fo mateia/s an+ %esonne/;ii< esta4/ises invento! &onto/ %o&e+*es an+

;iii< %e%aes "o# a*toisation.

Te tas# of %o+*&tion %/anning is a&&om%/ise+ to*g:

;i< Ro*ting: Tis is te +etemination of %at o o*te ove "i& ea& %ie&e

is to tave/ in te %o&ess of tansfomation of a" mateia/s into te

finise+ %o+*&t.

;ii< S&e+*/ing: It is a4o*t +e&i+ing "en= ea& o%eation in a %o+*&tion

%o&ess is to 4e &aie+ o*t.

;iii< Loa+ing: It is to #no" "en a %ati&*/a eB*i%mentma&ine "i//4e avai/a4/e fo "o# on ea& o+e o item. Loa+ing %ovi+es

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infomation a4o*t "ete te "o# /oa+ is geate o /ess tan te

&a%a&it! of te eB*i%ment.

Po+*&tion &onto/ is a %o&e+*e to eg*/ate an o+e/! f/o" of mateia/ an+

&oo+inate vaio*s %o+*&tion o%eations so as to ens*e tat te +esie+ items

ae %o+*&e+ in te igt B*antit! of te +esie+ B*a/it! at te eB*ie+ time atte o%tim*m &ost.

Quality Control

It e/ates to a&tivities tat ens*e tat te finise+ %o+*&t &onfoms to te

stan+a+ ;%eset< s%e&ifi&ations /ai+ +o"n eite 4! te man*fa&t*e o te

&*stome. 8aio*s te&niB*es "i& ae *se+ in &onto//ing te B*a/it! of a

%o+*&t in&/*+e ins%e&tion statisti&a/ B*a/it! &onto/ an+ &onto/ &ats et&.

Man*fa&t*ing infomation s!stem is so"n in Fig. '.1$.

Infomation nee+e+ fo man*fa&t*ing +e&isions is %o&esse+ fom +ata tat is

gatee+ fom a "i+e vaiet! of so*&es as +is&*sse+ 4e/o".

Po+*&tion Data in&/*+es %o+*&tion o+es assem4/! o+es finise+ items

s&a% et&.

Fig. '.1$ Man*fa&t*ing Infomation S!stem

Invento! Data in&/*+es +ata on inventoies of a" mateia/s goo+s in %o&ess

an+ finise+ goo+s.

S*%%/ie Data %ovi+es infomation a4o*t te so*&es of a" mateia/s.

No"a+a!s maintaining tis t!%e of +ata is te es%onsi4i/it! of mateia/s

manage.

?o#fo&e Data in&/*+es +ata a4o*t te /a4o* ma#et %efoman&e of

"o#es et&. Tis t!%e of +ata is essentia/ fo %o+*&tion s&e+*/ing an+ %/ant

*ti/isation.

Envionment Data in&/*+es +ata on te&no/og! ten+s a" mateia/ %i&es

/a4o* fo&e e&onomi&s an+ +!nami&s. Tis e/%s te %o+*&tion manage in4ette %/anning an+ &onto/ of a&tivities of %o+*&tion %o&esses.

Man*fa&t*ing infomation s!stem gates +iffeent t!%es of +ata fom

vaio*s so*&es %o&esses te +ata to tansfom it into meaningf*/ infomation

"i& is %ovi+e+ to te %o+*&tion manages to fa&i/itate +e&isionma#ing at

vaio*s /eve/s of management.

;+< *man Reso*&e infomation S!stem

Tis f*n&tiona/ infomation s!stem s*%%ots te f*n&tions of *man eso*&e

management of an oganisation. Te *man eso*&e management f*n&tion in

its nao" sense is a/so #no"n as %esonne/ management. Te f*n&tion invo/ves:

;i< man%o"e %/anning

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;ii< staffing

;iii< taining an+ +eve/o%ment

;iv<%efoman&e eva/*ation an+

;v< se%aation a&tivities.

It is a/so &on&ene+ "it em%/o!ee &om%ensation "ages an+ sa/a!

a+ministation em%/o!ee sevi&es an+ 4enefits an+ /a4o* e/ations et&.

To 4ette *n+estan+ *man eso*&e infomation s!stem /et *s 4ief/! evie"

te im%otant f*n&tions of te *man eso*&e management.

Man#ower Planning

It is a4o*t +e&i+ing te %esent an+ f*t*e nee+s of man%o"e in te

oganisation.

Staffing

Tis f*n&tion in&/*+es e&*itment se/e&tion an+ %/a&ement of em%/o!ees.

Re&*itment efes to atta&ting B*a/ifie+ an+ &om%etent %eo%/e fo +iffeent

o4s. It in&/*+es te i+entifi&ation of existing so*&es of te /a4o* te

+eve/o%ment of ne" so*&es an+ te nee+ fo atta&ting a /age n*m4e of

%otentia/ a%%/i&ants. Re&*itment is fo//o"e+ 4! se/e&tion tat &on&ens se/e&ting

te igt %esons o*t of a /age n*m4e of %otentia/ &an+i+ates. Se/e&tion %o&ess

invo/ves te +eve/o%ment of a%%/i&ation 4/an#s va/i+ an+ e/ia4/e tests

intevie" te&niB*es em%/o!ee efea/ s!stems eva/*ation an+ se/e&tion of

%esonne/ in tems of o4 s%e&ifi&ations. P*tting te igt %eson at te igt o4

is te es%onsi4i/it! of %/a&ement f*n&tion "i& stesses *%on te mat&ing of

o4 eB*iements "it te B*a/ifi&ation an+ %esona/it! taits of an em%/o!ee.

)raining and Develo#ment

Te nee+ to tain an+ +eve/o% te em%/o!ees is fe/t +*e toG

a/ a ga% 4et"een te o4 eB*iements an+ &om%eten&ea4i/it! of te

em%/o!ee.

*/ te nee+ to +eve/o% /o"e /eve/ manages to ass*me ige /eve/

es%onsi4i/ities "en eB*ie+.

As te oganisation exists in a +!nami& envionment an+ te oganisationa/ o4s#ee% &anging taining an+ +eve/o%ment of em%/o!ees is a &ontin*o*s a&tivit! it

in&/*+es:

a< te i+entifi&ation of taining an+ +eve/o%ment nee+s of %esonne/ at a//

/eve/s.

4< +eve/o%ment of s*ita4/e taining %ogammes an+ em%/o!ee +eve/o%ment

%ogammes.

Performance Evaluation

Tis tas# is &on&ene+ "it eva/*ating em%/o!ee %efoman&e at "o# in tems

of %e+etemine+ stan+a+snoms. Eva/*ation o %efoman&e a%%aisa/

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in&/*+es te fom*/ation of %efoman&e a%%aisa/ %/ans +eve/o%ment of

a%%aisa/ te&niB*es an+ %ogammes et&.

Se#aration Activities

Te em%/o!eeem%/o!e e/ations ma! &ome to an en+ +*e to te esignation of an em%/o!ee /a! off +eat o etiement. Ca*ses of an in&ease+ /a4o*

t*nove ae a/so ana/!se+ in tis f*n&tion of *man eso*&e management.

*man eso*&e management 4esi+es te a4ovementione+ f*n&tions is a/so

es%onsi4/e fo te "ages an+ sa/a! a+ministation s*staining an+

maintaining te "o#fo&e in an oganisation an+ maintenan&e of ea/t! an+

%ea&ef*/ /a4o*management e/ations. Te infomation f/o" of *man eso*&e

infomation s!stem is so"n in Fig '.1).

Fig. '.1) *man Reso*&e Infomation S!stem

Tansa&tion Data is a 4asis fo vaio*s t!%es of o*t%*t infomation o ana/!sis.

Tis +ata in&/*+es em%/o!ee n*m4e name B*a/ifi&ation ex%eien&e oining

+ate et&. &ategoies an+ ga+es of %osting an+ +ai/! %efoman&e et&.

Envionmenta/ Data in&/*+es +ata a4o*t te avai/a4i/it! of %esonne/ ten+s in

te /a4o* fo&e &om%etition ma#et offeings to te em%/o!ees govenment

an+ /a4o* /a"s et&. *man eso*&e infomation s!stem t*s gates s*& +ata

fom o*na/s ne"s items eseae st*+ies seminas infoma/ ta/#s of

manages et&.

Oganisationa/ P/ans a/so %ovi+e an im%otant in%*t in *man eso*&e

infomation s!stem on te 4asis of "i& f*t*e %/anning fo e&*itment o4

assignment et&. is ma+e. *man eso*&e infomation s!stem %o&esses a// tese

t!%es of +ata to &onvet it into infomation "i& s*%%ots +e&isionma#ing of

*man eso*&e manages. Fig*e '.1( i//*states *man Reso*&e Infomation

S!stem s*%%ot fo *man eso*&es f*n&tions at te tee +iffeent /eve/s of

management ieae!.

Fig. '.1( *man Reso*&e Infomation S!stem S*%%ot

It is "ot e%eating tat a// te f*n&tiona/ infomation s!stems +is&*sse+ in tis

se&tion so*/+ not e *n+estoo+ as iso/ate+ s!stems. In fa&t tese s!stems

&annot f*n&tion in iso/ation. Te! ae &/ose/! asso&iate+ "it ea& ote an+

intea&t "it te ote s*4s!stems in te oganisation 4! "a! of infomation.

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T*s fom te oganisationa/ %oint of vie" integation of a// tese s!stems is a

mao aea of t*st.

S0MMAR1

If one is inteeste+ in #no"ing as to o" an entit! /oo#s /i#e one &an estimate it

4! +es&i4ing its %!si&a/ 4o*n+a! o ote st*&t*a/ s%e&ifi&ations. 5*iteoften one &an ex%/ain te st*&t*e of an o4e&t %eson o a &on&e%t 4! "a! of

a+o%ting m*/ti%/e a%%oa&es. M*/ti%/e a%%oa&es fo ex%/aining o +es&i4ing

an entit! e/% ex%/ain te st*&t*e of even tose entities "i& ote"ise ae

+iffi&*/t to ex%/ain ;es%e&ia//! a4sta&t entities<.

St*&t*e of management infomation s!stem is +iffi&*/t to +es&i4e 4! fo//o"ing

one a%%oa&.

It is 4e&a*se of te *nst*&t*e+ nat*e of MIS. Teefoe m*/ti%/e stategies

ae fo//o"e+ in ex%/aining te st*&t*e of MIS "i& ma! 4e %!si&a/

&om%onents infomation s!stem %o&essing f*n&tions +e&ision s*%%ot

management a&tivities an+ oganisationa/ f*n&tions. St*&t*e of MIS &an 4e*n+estoo+ 4! /oo#ing at te %!si&a/ &om%onents of an infomation s!stem. Te

%!si&a/ &om%onents of an MIS ma! 4e a+"ae soft"ae +ata4ase %o&e+*e

man*a/s an+ o%eating %esonne/. Po&essing f*n&tion ma! 4e anote a%%oa&

to ex%/ain te st*&t*e of MIS. Te f*n&tions of an MIS ex%/ain "at= te

s!stem +oes. Te main %o&essing f*n&tions in&/*+e tansa&tion %o&essing

e%ot geneation enB*i! %o&essing an+ %ovi+ing intea&tive s*%%ot

a%%/i&ations. De&ision s*%%ot &an a/so 4e ta#en as a 4asis to ex%/ain te MIS

st*&t*e. As "e #no" +e&isions va! "it es%e&t to te st*&t*e tat &an 4e

%ovi+e+ fo ma#ing tem. A ig/! st*&t*e+ +e&ision &an 4e %e%/anne+

"eeas a ig/! *nst*&t*e+ +e&ision &annot. Infomation s!stem s*%%ot "i//

easi/! fit into tis &/assifi&ation. Simi/a/! management a&tivities a%%oa& is a/so

*se+ to +es&i4e te MIS st*&t*e "i& means tat te st*&t*e of an

infomation s!stem ma! 4e +es&i4e+ in tems of a ieae! of management

a&tivities. Stategi& %/anning /eve/ management &onto/ /eve/ an+ o%eationa/

&onto/ /eve/ ae te tee /eve/s "i& ave 4een &/assifie+ on te 4asis of

a&tivities. Te management a&tivities an+ infomation %o&essing fo te tee

/eve/s ae intee/ate+ "i& im%/ies tat MIS "o*/+ 4e +iffeent fo te tee

/eve/s of management ieae!.

Oganisationa/ f*n&tions /i#e finan&e ma#eting %o+*&tion %esonne/

MIS et&. &an a/so ex%/ain te st*&t*e of MIS in an oganisation. As ea& of tese f*n&tions as *niB*e infomation nee+s t*s ea& eB*ies infomation

s!stem s*%%ot +esigne+ s%e&ifi&a//! fo it. MIS is in an evo/*tiona! stage. Ove

te !eas it as evo/ve+ fom an e/ementa! &on&e%t to a I m*& a+van&e+

+is&i%/ine of to+a!. It is &/assifie+ in six &/asses name/! tansa&tion %o&essing

s!stem management infomation s!stem +e&ision s*%%ot s!stem exe&*tive

s*%%ot s!stem offi&e a*tomation s!stems an+ 4*siness ex%et s!stems. As te

name in+i&ates tansa&tion %o&essing s!stem %o&esses tansa&tions an+

%o+*&es e%ots "eeas MIS %o&esses +ata an+ &onvets it into infomation.

De&ision s*%%ot s!stem is an extension of MIS "i& ten+s to 4e *se+ in

%/anning ana/!sing a/tenatives an+ seaees fo so/*tions 4! tia/ an+ eo.

S*& a s!stem is intea&tive in nat*e an+ in&o%oates a vaiet! of +e&isionmo+e/s. Exe&*tive s*%%ot s!stem is a s%e&ia/ #in+ of +e&ision s*%%ot s!stem

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"i& is s%e&ia//! +esigne+ an+ +eve/o%e+ fo te &ief exe&*tive. In tis s!stem

te 4eavio*a/ as%e&ts of te in+ivi+*a/ ;&ief exe&*tive< ae a/so &onsi+ee+ fo

+esigning te s!stem. Offi&e a*tomation s!stems in&/*+e a "i+e ange of s*%%ot

fa&i/ities "i& in&/*+e "o+ %o&essing e/e&toni& fi/ing e/e&toni& mai/ +ata

stoage et&. 3*siness ex%et s!stems ae #no"/e+ge4ase+ infomation s!stems.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

1. o" &an te st*&t*e of MIS 4e *n+estoo+@ Dis&*ss vaio*s a%%oa&es

to *n+estan+ its st*&t*e

'. I//*state +iffeent &ategoies of MIS. ?i& is te most a+van&e+

&atego!@ Dis&*ss.

$. Diffeentiate 4et"een TPS an+ MIS. ?it te e/% of a s*ita4/e exam%/e

ex%/ain te &on&e%t of DSS.

). 3ief/! +es&i4e te fo//o"ing:

M*/ti%/e a%%oa&

Data4aseExe&*tive s*%%ot s!stem

De&ision s*%%ot s!stem.

(. Offi&e a*tomation s!stems ;OAS< ave gaine+ geate im%otan&e in

e&ent !eas.= *stif! te statement an+ i+entif! +iffeent t!%es of OAS.

6. 3ief/! +is&*ss 3*siness Ex%et S!stems. o" ae te! +iffeent fom

De&ision S*%%ot S!stems@ 9ive 4*siness a%%/i&ations of ex%et s!stems.

ASSI9NMENTS

1. Ass*me an o/+ man visits !o* oganisation an+ as#s !o* to so" im te

MIS of !o* oganisation. o" "o*/+ !o* ma#e im *n+estan+ te

st*&t*e of MIS@

'. S*%%ose !o* ave im%/emente+ a ne"/!+eve/o%e+ sa/a! infomation

s!stem in !o* oganisation. I+entif! its a&tivities an+ &ategoise it in te

s*ita4/e &atego! of MIS.

REFERENCES

Anton! R.N. P/anning an+ Conto/ S!stemsG A Fame"o# fo Ana/!sis


Univesit! Cam4i+ge MA 1-6(.

3attaga S.C. an+ 78 Ramani Com%*tes an+ Infonation Management

Penti&ea// of In+ia Pivate I.t+ Ne" De/i 1--1.3o"/es e! 3est Pa&ti&es fo 9/o4a/ Com%etitiveness/ S%e&ia/ a+vetising

Se&tion Fot*ne Novem4e ') 1--2.

Davis 9o+on 3. an+ Magete . O/son Management Infomation

S!stems M&9a"i// 3oo# Com%an! Singa%oe 1-,(.

Naasiman R. 7no"/e+ge Po&essing an+ Common Sense 7no"/e+ge

4ase+ Com%*te S!stems Reseae an+ A%%/i&ations ;Aniane!a/* 7.S.R. et a/.<

;e+.< Naosa P*4/i&ations Ne" De/i 1-22.

S&ott 9eoge M. Pin&i%/es of Management Infomation S!stems M&9a"

i// 3oo# Com%an! Singa%oe 1-,6.

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CASE STUD I

MIS F*i/*e of A3C L*4s Limite+

A3C La4oatoies Limite+ "as in&o%oate+ *n+e te Com%an!=s A&t in

1-6(. It is one of te /agest %ivate se&to +*g an+ %ama&e*ti&a/ ente%ises

in In+ia "it a %ai+ *% &a%ita/ of a%%oximate/! Rs 1(0 mi//ion. Te t*nove of

te &om%an! in '00( "a Rs -,(0 mi//ion. Te 3oa+ of Die&to of te &om%an!insists of te Caiman an+ managing +ie&to fo* exe&*tive +ie&to an+ t"o

nonexe&*tive +ie&tos. Te &om%an!= ea+ offi&e is sit*ate+ at Ne" De/i. Te

main 4*siness of te &om%an! is to man*fa&t*e +*gs me+i&ines &osmeti&s an+

&emi&a/ %o+*&ts. Te &om%an! em%/o!s nea/! (00 manages an+ as a

"o#fo&e of a%%oximate/! ((00. Com%ensation %a&#ages of te em%/o!ees ae

&om%aa4/e to tose of simi/a &om%anies of e%*te in te &o*nt!. Te &om%an!

ma#ets its %o+*&ts *n+e its o"n ta+e names an+ as eane+ a e%*tation of

ma#et /ea+e in some of its %o+*&ts.

In o+e to ta% te 4ig os%ita/ an+ n*sing ome ma#et in In+ia te

&om%an! state+ a ne" +ivision #no"n as 9enei&s an+ os%ita/ Po+*&tsDivision ;9PD< in 1--1.

9ENERICS AND OSPITAL PRODUCTS DI8ISION ;9PD<

9enei&s an+ os%ita/ %o+*&ts +ivision "as &eate+ main/! to &ate to te

nee+s of 4ig os%ita/s an+ n*sing omes in In+ia "i& eB*ie me+i&ines in

4*/# B*antities an+ %efe me+i&ines in te genei& names instea+ of ta+e

names. Te +ivision Ma#ets a4o*t (( +iffeent %o+*&ts of eigt +iffeent

&ategoies /i#e ta4/ets &a%s*/es /iB*i+s +o%s s!*%s+! %o"+e am%o*/es

via/s an+ ointments. Tese %o+*&ts ae +isti4*te+ fom te ea+ offi&e of te&om%an! to*g its +isti4*tion net"o# of '(0 +isti4*tos to*go*t te

&o*nt!.

OPERATIONAL ACTI8ITIES OF 9PD

Afte e&eiving an o+e fom te +isti4*to te +ivision %o&esses it an+

%e%aes invoi&es to 4e sent a/ong "it te s*%%/!. Te +isti4*tos ae a//o"e+

onemont &e+it %eio+ fom te +ate of s*%%/!. Maxim*m /imits of &e+it fo

+iffeent +isti4*tos ave 4een %es&i4e+ 4! te +ivision.

In a++ition to o+e %o&essing an+ +is%at&ing of s*%%/! te +ivision is a/so%efoming te fo//o"ing f*n&tions.

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i. Foe&asting of sa/es

ii. Me&an+ising %/anning

iii. Pi&ing of %o+*&ts

iv. Effe&tive %!si&a/ +isti4*tion %/anning

v. Costeffe&tive tave/ o*te %/anning fo sa/es fo&e

vi. Pomotiona/ &am%aignsvii. Ana/!sing vaio*s 4*siness as%e&ts o%%ot*nities.

MANA9EMENT INFORMATION REPORT ;MIR<

9IIPD %e%aes a B*ate/! e%ot #no"n as Management Infomation

Re%ot ;MIR< to 4e +is&*sse+ in a B*ate/! meeting of a// te aea manages of

te +ivision. Tis e%ot in&/*+es te fo//o"ing infomation.

i. Re%ot on tota/ sa/es fo te B*ate

ii. Re%ot on estimate+ sa/es fo te B*ate

iii. Re%ot on &a//s ma+e 4! te sa/es fo&e fo te B*ate

iv. Re%ot on &a//s to 4e ma+e 4! sa/es fo&e fo te B*atev. Re%ot on o*tstan+ing amo*nt +*ing te B*ate

vi. Re%ot on tota/ o*tstan+ing amo*nt fo te B*ate

vii. Re%ot on %otentia/ aeas

viii. Re%ot on &om%/aints e&eive+ fom +isti4*tos an+ te n*m4e of

&om%/aints atten+e+ to +*ing te B*ate.

ix. Te fomats fo e%ots ae given in Exi4it

9PDS PERFORMANCE IN TE RECENT PAST

Te %efoman&e of te +ivision fo tee !eas as 4een so"n in Exi4it '. Te

effe&t of te ioit! given 4! te govenment os%ita/s to %o&*e s*%%/ies fom

te %*4/i& se&to as &ontin*e+ to a+vese/! affe&t te %efoman&e of te

+ivision. Ove te !eas &om%etition as a/so 4e&ome stiffe as man! sma//s&a/e

&om%anies ave a/so entee+ te ma#et of genei& %o+*&ts.

Ta4/e

Ta4/e

COMPUTERISATION AT 9PD

To in&ease te effe&tiveness of management infomation s!stems at 9PD te

+ivision a&B*ie+ five %esona/ &om%*tes "i& "ee net"o#e+ "it te

egiona/ offi&es. Te sevi&es of a &om%*te %ofessiona/ "ee ie+ to +eve/o%

te a%%/i&ations fo te +ivision. Te +ivision "as ove4*+ene&/ "it te "o#

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of %o&essing of s*%%/! o+es an+ it too# a4o*t (2 +a!s to +es%at& a s*%%/!

afte te e&ei%t of an o+e.

o"eve sometimes te +es%at& of s*%%/! too# moe time as te +ivision fo*n+

tat te mateia/ &o*/+ not 4e +es%at&e+ to te +isti4*to 4e&a*se of an

o*tstan+ing amo*nt 4e!on+ is %es&i4e+ /imits.

Te ne"/!+eve/o%e+ &om%*teise+ MIS "as im%/emente+ in an*a! '00) an+ it

state+ s*%%/!ing vaio*s e%ots teeafte o"eve "itin a %eio+ of six

monts te 8i&e Pesi+ent

;9PD< got f*state+ "it te s!stem an+ */timate/! +is&a+e+ it. ?en e

&o*/+n=t get an! e/% fom is +eve/o%es e +e&i+e+ to invite a &ons*/tant fom

a /ea+ing management instit*tion in In+ia.

Te &ons*/tant st*+ie+ te existing management infomation s!stem at te

+ivision an+ ana/!se+ te %o4/em. e +es&i4e+ te %o4/em as fo//o"s:

9PD is *sing an ineffe&tive MISG ate it is e/!ing on Tansa&tion Po&essingS!stem "i& +oes not %ovi+e an! meaningf*/ infomation to te management

fo its +e&isionma#ing. Tee foe 9PD nee+s MIS "i& &o*/+ %ovi+e te

eB*ie+ infomation at te igt time to ai+ management +e&isionma#ing. Te

vi&e %esi+ent

a/so nee+s a s*%%ot in is *nst*&t*e+semi st*&t*e+ +e&isions. T*s an

a%%/i&ation of MIS "i& &an s*%%ot *nst*&t*e+ +e&isions aving a +ata4ase

a mo+e/4ase an+ *se intea&tion #no"n as DSS is &a//e+ fo.

5UESTION FOR DISCUSSION

1. ?! +i+ te 8i&e Pesi+ent ;9IIPD< get f*state+ "it te ne"/!

+eve/o%e+ infomation s!stem@ Dis&*ss %ossi4/e easons an+ s*ggest

a%%o%iate meas*es.

'. Do !o* tin# te &ons*/tant as igt/! +es&i4e+ te %o4/em@ *stif!.

ASSI9NMENTS

1. Ass*me !o* ae te &ons*/tant invite+ ! A3C La4s Lt+. o" +iffeent/!

!o* "o*/+ ave ta&#/e+ te %o4/em@

'. Dis&*ss te in%*ts o*t%*ts an+ %o&esses of 9PD of A3C La4s Lt+.

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CASE STUD '

Si4a Intenationa/ F*n&tiona/

Infomation S!stems

Si4a Intenationa/ is a me+i*msiHe+ &om%an! in In+ia "it a4o*t 1(00

em%/o!ees. Te &om%an! man*fa&t*es s%e&ia/ ma&ines fo te ago4ase+

in+*st! 4ot fo fams an+ foo+ %o&essing %/ants. Te &om%an! 4*!s mateia/

an+ &om%onents fom a4o*t '00 ven+os /o&ate+ in In+ia a%an an+ 9eman!.

Po+*&ts ae so/+ eite to "o/esa/es o +ie&t/! to &/ients ;fom a mai/ing /ist

of a4o*t 1(00 &*stomes<. Te 4*siness is B*ite &om%etitive.

Te &om%an! as te fo//o"ing infomation s!stems in %/a&e: ma#eting

finan&ia/ a&&o*nting engineeing eseae an+ +eve/o%ment an+ man*fa&t*ing

;CAM< Tese s!stems ae in+e%en+ent of ea& ote an+ on/! te finan&ia/

a&&o*nting s!stems is on a LAN.

Te &om%an! is aving %ofita4i/it! %o4/ems. Cas is in ig +eman+ an+ sot

s*%%/!. It is %o%ose+ tat te &om%an! ex%/oes te %ossi4i/it! of *sing

infomation te&no/og! to im%ove te sit*ation. o"eve vi&e%esi+ent of

finan&e o4e&ts to te i+ea &/aiming tat most te tangi4/e 4enefits of

infomation te&no/og! ae a/ea+! 4eing ea/ise+.


Ass*me !o* ae ie+ as a &ons*/tant to te %esi+ent of Si4a Intenationa/.

1. Pe%ae a /ist of %otentia/ a%%/i&ations of infomation te&no/ogies tat

!o* tin# &o*/+ e/% te &om%an!.

'. S*ggest a s*ita4/e +esign of infomation s!stems. ?o*/+ !o* e&ommen+

an! te/e&omm*ni&ation aangements@ *stif! s*& +esign.

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$

Infomation an+ S!stem Con&e%ts

Leaning O4e&tives

Afte st*+!ing tis &a%te !o* "i// 4e a4/e to:

• *n+estan+ te &on&e%t an+ t!%es of infomationG

• +is&*ss &on&e%ts /i#e B*a/it! an+ +imensions of infomationG

• *n+estan+ te meaning +efinition an+ e/ements of a s!stem.

• +es&i4e +iffeent #in+s of s!stemsG

• #no" s!steme/ate+ &on&e%ts /i#e 4o*n+a! intefa&e 4/a&# 4ox s!stem

+e&om%osition an+ integation of s*4s!stems et&.G

• *n+estan+ *man infomation %o&essing s!stem an+ im%/i&ations fo

infomation s!stem +esign.

$.1 INFORMATION: A DEFINITION

Infomation is a ne&essa! an+ vita/ in%*t in an! +e&isionma#ing %o&ess in an

oganisation. o"eve it is not avai/a4/e in ea+! fomG ate it as to 4e

geneate+ fom +ata "i& a&ts as a a" mateia/ tat nee+s some %o&essing.

Fig*e $.1 +e%i&ts te geneation of infomation.

Fig. $.1 Infomation 9eneation

T*s infomation in its *n%o&esse+ fom is &a//e+ +ata "i& is geneate+ as a

4! %o+*&t of tansa&tions ta#ing %/a&e in te oganisation. Infomation on te

ote an+ is %o&esse+ +ata an+ as an e/ement of s*%ise. Infomation

e+*&es *n&etaint! an+ tigges a&tion. Davis an+ O/son ave +efine+

infomation as +ata tat as 4een %o&esse+ into a fom tat is meaningf*/ to te

e&i%ient an+ is of ea/ o %e&eive+ va/*e in &*ent o %os%e&tive a&tions o

+e&isions.

$.' TPES OF INFORMATION

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3oa+/! s%ea#ing infomation &o*/+ 4e &/assifie+ on te 4asis of te %*%ose fo

"i& it is *ti/ise+ into tee main &ategoiesG name/!:

i. Stategi& infomation

ii. Ta&ti&a/ infomation an+

iii. O%eationa/ infomation.

$.'.1 Stategi& Infomation

Stategi& infomation is eB*ie+ 4! te manages at te stategi& /eve/ of

management fo te fom*/ation of oganisationa/ stategies. Tis e/ates to

/ongtem %/anning %o/i&ies of te oganiHation as a "o/e. Fo exam%/e

infomation %etaining to ne" te&no/ogies ne" %o+*&ts &om%etitos et&

$.'.' Ta&ti&a/ Infomation

Infomation in tis &atego! is *se+ in sottem %/anning an+ is of *se at

management &onto/ /eve/. Fo exam%/e fo sa/es ana/!ses an+ foe&asts

%o+*&tion eso*&e eB*iements ann*a/ finan&ia/ statements et&. Tis t!%e of

infomation is genea//! 4ase+ on +ata aising fom &*ent a&tivities of teoganisation. o"eve some of te ta&ti&a/ infomation s*& as &om%etito

infomation ma! aise fom so*&es extena/ to te oganisation.

$.'.$ O%eationa/ Infomation

O%eationa/ infomation a%%/ies to sot %eio+s "i& ma! va! fom an o*

to a fe" +a!s. It is genea//! *se+ 4! +e&isionma#es at te o%eationa/ /eve/. It

is often eB*ie+ fo ta#ing imme+iate a&tion. Exam%/es of o%eationa/

infomation ma! in&/*+e &*ent sto&#sinan+ "o#in %ogess /eve/s

o*tstan+ing o+es fom &*stomes et&. Te so*&e of s*& infomation is

*s*a//! &*ent a&tivit! +ata.

$.$ INFORMATION 5UALIT

5*a/it! of infomation efes to its fitness fo *se o its e/ia4i/it!. Some of te

atti4*tes of infomation "i& inf/*en&e te B*a/it! of infomation ae

+is&*sse+ as fo//o"s. Time/iness

Time/iness means tat infomation m*st ea& te e&i%ients "itin te

%es&i4e+ timefame Fo effe&tive +e&isionma#ing infomation m*st ea& te

+e&isionma#e at te igt time i.e. e&i%ients m*st get infomation "en te!

nee+ it. De/a!s of "ateve nat*e +esto! te va/*e of infomation. Time/!

infomation &an ens*e &oe&t exe&*tive a&tion at an ea/! stage. Te ex%e&te+/osses &o*/+ 4e e/iminate+minimise+ an+ gains maximise+ 4! %o%e

management of o%eations. Te e%ot "i& is eB*ie+ 4! an exe&*tive on te

sixt of eve! mont if %esente+ /ate is &onsi+ee+ of +o*4tf*/ va/*e an+

+e&isions ta#en on its 4asis "o*/+ not 4e as effe&tive as migt ave 4een

ote"ise. 3.7. Catteee ;1-2)< as gone one ste% f*te an+ sai+ tat

infomation +e/a!e+ is infomation +enie+. Simi/a/! man! sottem 4*siness

o%%ot*nities ma! 4e /ost. Fo exam%/e a +is&o*nt on 4*/# %*&ases offee+ 4!

a s*%%/ie ma! 4e /ost 4e&a*se of /ate e%ots. Te &aa&teisti& of time/iness to

4e effe&tive so*/+ a/so in&/*+e *%to+ate i.e. &*ent infomation.

In ote "o+s time/! infomation +oes not mean in time infomation on/!

ate it means time/! as "e// as *%to+ate infomation.

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A&&*a&!

A&&*a&! is anote #e!atti4*te of management infomation. As %e on 9.

3*& an+ 9a! 9*+nits#i ;1-,6< a&&*a&! means moe tan *st one %/*s one

eB*a/s t"o. It means tat infomation is fee fom mista#es an+ eos is &/ea

an+ a&&*ate/! ef/e&ts te meaning of +ata on "i& it is 4ase+. It &onve!s ana&&*ate %i&t*e to te e&i%ient "o ma! eB*ie a %esentation in ga%i&a/

ate tan ta4*/a fom. A&&*a&! a/so means tat te infomation is fee fom

4ias. .C. A+vani ;1-2(< as a+vo&ate+ te im%otan&e of a&&*a&! 4! stating

tat "ong infomation given to management "o*/+ es*/t in "ong

+e&isions. o"eve at te same time e as &a*tione+ tat a&&*a&! so*/+ 4e

"itin /imits o as +esie+ an+ so*/+ not 4e a&ieve+ 4! sa&ifi&ing

%om%tit*+e.

As manages= +e&isions ae 4ase+ on te infomation s*%%/ie+ in MIS

e%ots a// manages nee+ a&&*ate infomation. If MIS s*%%/ies a&&*ate

infomation te &onfi+en&e of te manages "i// 4e stengtene+ an+ as a es*/t

s!stem im%/ementation "i// 4e a s*&&ess.

Re/evan&e

Re/evan&e is !et anote #e!atti4*te of management infomation: Infomation

is sai+ to 4e e/evant if it ans"es s%e&ifi&a//! fo te e&i%ient "at "! "ee

"en "o an+ "!@ In ote "o+s te MIS so*/+ seve e%ots to manages

"i& ae *sef*/ an+ te infomation e/%s tem ma#e+e&isions.

o"eve "at is e/evant infomation fo one e&i%ient is not ne&essai/!

e/evant fo anote.

Te e/evan&e of infomation fom a s%e&ifi& &*stome o+e fo exam%/e

"i// va! among te em%/o!ees of te &om%an!. Te in+ivi+*a/s most +ie&t/!

es%onsi4/e fo %o&essing &*stome o+es. ?i// ega+ te +etai/e+ &ontents of a

s%e&ifi& o+e as ne&essa! infomation to %efom tei es%e&tive o4s.

In+ivi+*a/ sa/es %esons "i// most /i#e/! 4e inteeste+ on/! in o+es %etaining to

tei &*stomes an+ %ea%s in te aggegate of a// te o+es e&eive+ in a

given &ommission %eio+. Te sa/es manage ma! 4e inteeste+ in a// &*stome

o+es 4*t fin+s te +ata e/evant on/! "en it is e%ote+ o %esente+ in

efeen&e to B*otas foe&asts o 4*+gets. A&&o*ntants vie" &*stome o+es as

+ata *nti/ s*& time as te! e%esent o ae %o&esse+ into 4i//a4/e si%ments

a&&o*nts e&eiva4/es mont/! even*es an+ so fot. Pesonne/ in em%/o!ee

e/ations eseae an+ engineeing o*tine/! +o not ega+ &*stome o+es as

e/evant to %efoming tei o4s.

A+eB*a&!

A+eB*a&! means infomation m*st 4e s*ffi&ient in B*antit! i.e. MIS m*st

%ovi+e e%ots &ontaining infomation "i& is eB*ie+ in te +e&i+ing

%o&esses of +e&isionma#ing. Te e%ot so*/+ not give ina+eB*ate o fo tat

matte moe tan a+eB*ate infomation "i& ma! &eate a +iffi&*/t sit*ation

fo te +e&isionma#e. ?eeas ina+eB*a&! of infomation /ea+s to a &isis

infomation ove/oa+ es*/ts in &aos. Teefoe a+eB*a&! is a vita/ atti4*te of

infomation "i& *n+es&oes tat a e%ot so*/+ &ove a// e/ate+ as%e&ts

a4o*t a %ati&*/a event o sit*ation "i& te e%ot is e%oting.

Com%/eteness

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Te infomation "i& is %ovi+e+ to a manage m*st 4e &om%/ete an+ so*/+

meet a// is nee+s. In&om%/ete infomation ma! es*/t in "ong +e&isions an+

t*s ma! %ove &ost/! to te oganisation.

In extao+ina! sit*ations "ee %ovi+ing &om%/ete infomation is not feasi4/e

fo one eason o te ote te manage m*st 4e infome+ of tis fa&t. so tat+*e &ae in tis ega+ ma! 4e ta#en.

Ex%/i&itness

A e%ot is sai+ to 4e of goo+ B*a/it! if it +oes not eB*ie f*te ana/!sis 4! te

e&i%ient fo +e&isionma#ing. On te ote an+ a %oo B*a/it! e%ot eB*ies

f*te ana/!sis o %o&essing of its &ontents. Teefoe ex%/i&itness is a

%ominent atti4*te of management infomation %o&*e+ to*g te MIS of

an oganisationG T*s te e%ots so*/+ 4e s*& tat a manage +oes not "aste

an! time on te %o&essing of te e%ot ate e so*/+ 4e a4/e to exta&t te

eB*ie+ infomation +ie&t/!.

Ex%e&tation 3ase+To+a! moe an+ moe oganisations ae 4eing *n on te %in&i%/e of

management 4! ex&e%tion. To% manages nee+ on/! ex&e%tion e%ots ega+ing

te %efoman&e of te oanisation. Ex&e%tion e%oting %in&i%/e states tat

on/! tose items of infomation "i& "i// 4e of %ati&*/a inteest to a manage

ae e%ote+. Us*a//! tese items in+i&ate tat noma/ o%eations ave gone

a"!.

Tis a%%oa& es*/ts in saving %e&io*s time of te to% management an+

ena4/es te manages to +evote moe time in %*s*it of a/tenatives fo te

go"t of te oganisation. If e%ots +o not fo//o" te ex&e%tion e%oting

%in&i%/e tese "i// %ovi+e even tose +etai/s "i& ae not eB*ie+ 4!

manages an+ t*s a /ot of tei time "o*/+ 4e "aste+ in sifting *sef*/

infomation an+ as a es*/t te! "i// not 4e a4/e to s%en+ m*& time on ote

im%otant a&tivities of te oganisation.

5*a/it! o"eve is not an a4so/*te &on&e%tG ate it is +efine+ "itin a

&ontext. Roman R. An+*s as s*ggeste+ a *ti/it! a%%oa& to +etemine te

B*a/it! of infomation. In tis ega+ e +is&*sses fo* t!%es of *ti/ities of

infomation "i& ma! fa&i/itate o eta+ its *se.

i. Fom *ti/it!: In o+e to 4e of geate va/*e te fom of infomation

so*/+ &/ose/! mat& te eB*iements of te *se.

ii. Time *ti/it!: Infomation if avai/a4/e "en nee+e+ as a geate

va/*e.iii. P/a&e *ti/it!: Te va/*e of infomation "i// 4e moe if it &an 4e

a&&esse+ o +e/ivee+ easi/!

iv. Possession *ti/it!: Te %eson "o a+ te infomation inf/*en&es its

va/*e 4! &onto//ing its +issemination to otes in te oganisation.

$.) DIMENSIONS OF INFORMATION

Infomation ma! 4e *n+estoo+ to ave vaio*s +imensions. o"eve fo o*

%*%ose te fo//o"ing tee +imensions of infomation "i// 4e of inteest.

i. E&onomi& +imension

ii. 3*siness +imension an+iii. Te&ni&a/ +imension.

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Tis +imension of infomation efes to te &ost of infomation an+ its 4enefits.

9eneation of infomation &osts mone!. To +e&i+e a4o*t te mone! to 4e s%ent

on infomation geneation in an oganisation a &ost4enefit ana/!sis so*/+ 4e

*n+eta#en. Meas*ing &osts an+ 4enefits of infomation is +iffi&*/t 4e&a*se of

intangi4/e &aa&teisti&s of infomation. o"eve te fo//o"ing as%e&ts of infomation ma! 4e *sef*/.

Cost of Infomation

It ma! in&/*+e

a. &ost of a&B*iing +ata

4. &ost of maintaining +ata

&. &ost of geneating infomation an+

+. &ost of &omm*ni&ating infomation.

Te &ost is e/ate+ to te es%onse time eB*ie+ to geneate infomation an+

&omm*ni&ate it. T*s fo s!stems "it /o" es%onse time te &ost is ig.Simi/a/! &ost a/so +e%en+s on te eB*ie+ a&&*a&! s%ee+ of geneation et&.

Fo moe e/ia4/e an+ a&&*ate s!stems &osts ae ige as &om%ae+ to te

s!stems "it e/ative/! /o" a&&*a&!.

8a/*e of Infomation

As mentione+ ea/ie infomation as a &ost fo its a&B*isition an+ maintenan&e.

T*s 4efoe a %ati&*/a %ie&e of infomation is a&B*ie+ +e&isionma#es

m*st #no" its va/*e. In +e&ision teo! te va/*e of infomation is te va/*e of

te &ange in +e&ision 4eavio* 4e&a*se of te infomation.

Te &ange in te 4eavio* +*e to ne" infomation is meas*e+ to +etemine

te 4enefits fom its *se. To aive at te va/*e of ne" infomation te &ost

in&*e+ to get tis infomation is +e+*&te+ fom te 4enefits.

Fo exam%/e if tee ae t"o %o+*&ts A an+ 3 to 4e +eve/o%e+ "it #no"n

%a!offs as so"n in Fig. $.'. Te +e&isionma#e "i// se/e&t te %o+*&t "i&

as got te maxim*m %a!off i.e. %o+*&t 3.

Fig. $.' Pa!off Matix

o"eve if some a++itiona/ infomation is ma+e avai/a4/e to te +e&isionma#e

a&&o+ing to "i& te %a!off +isti4*tion &anges as given in matix ;4< te

+e&isionma#e "i// o%t fo %o+*&t A. Te a++itiona/ o ne" infomation &a*ses

te +e&isionma#e to &oose %o+*&t A tee4! in&easing is gain fom $0 to

)0.

T*s te va/*e of a++itiona/ infomation is ;)0 $0< V 10 *nits. o"eve if

te ne" infomation as some &ost te net va/*e gaine+ "o*/+ 4e 10 *nits min*s

te &ost of getting tis ne" infomation.

$.).' 3*siness Dimension

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Infomation &an a/so 4e *n+estoo+ fom its 4*siness +imension. Diffeent t!%es

of infomation ae eB*ie+ 4! manages at +iffeent /eve/s of te management

ieae!. Te infomation nee+s of manages at stategi& %/anning /eve/ ae

a/togete +iffeent tan tose of o%eationa/ &onto/ manages. It is 4e&a*se of

te fa&t tat manages at +iffeent /eve/s ae eB*ie+ to %efom +iffeentf*n&tions in an oganisation Tis as 4een +is&*sse+ in Ca%te 1.

$.).$ Te&ni&a/ Dimension

Tis +imension of infomation efes to te te&ni&a/ as%e&ts of te +ata4ase.

8aio*s as%e&ts of te +ata4ase "i& ae &onsi+ee+ *n+e tis +imension

in&/*+e te &a%a&it! of +ata4ase es%onse time se&*it! va/i+it! +ata

intee/ationsi% et&. Te&ni&a/ +imension is &ovee+ *n+e +esign of

infomation s!stems an+ *n+e te to%i& of +ata4ase management s!stem.

$.( SSTEM: A DEFINITIONTe "o+ S!stem= is *se+ B*ite often in o* eve!+a! /ife. ?e ta/# a4o*t an

e+*&ationa/ s!stem %o/iti&a/ s!stem e&onomi& s!stem &i&*/ato! s!stem so/a

s!stem &om%*te s!stem an+ so on.

Te &ommon feat*e "i& a// tese s!stems sae is tat te! ae a &o//e&tion

of e/ements integate+ to a&ieve te eB*ie+ goa/s. To 4e moe s%e&ifi& an+

%e&ise a s!stem ma! 4e +efine+ as a set of e/ements oine+ togete to a&ieve a

&ommon o4e&tive. Fo exam%/e a 4*siness oganisation &an 4e &onsi+ee+ as a

s!stem in "i& te %ats ;+ivisions +e%atments se&tions *nits et&.< ae oine+

togete fo a &ommon goa/. In s*& an oganisation it is &/ea tat a s!stem is

not a an+om/! assem4/e+ set of e/ementsG ate it &onsists of e/ements "i&

&an 4e i+entifie+ as e/ate+ to ea& ote 4e&a*se of a &ommon %*%ose o a goa/

$.(.1 M*/ti%/e Meaning of te ?o+ S!stem=

Te a4ove +efinition of a s!stem is in genea/ise+ tems. In a&t*a/ %a&ti&e tis

tem fin+s its *sage an+ meaning in man! +ivese "a!s. Te "o+ s!stem=

means +iffeent tings to +iffeent %eo%/e in +iffeent sit*ations. If an offi&e

s*%eviso in a &aiman=s offi&e is as#e+ "at is !o* s!stem it *st means I

Io" +o !o* #ee% !o* fi/es in s*& a "a! as to ta#e one "en "ante+ 4! !o*

4oss@

is e%/! "o*/+ 4e: I #ee% te fi/es !ea"ise an+ ten a&tivit!"ise in

a/%a4eti&a/ o+eK If a simi/a B*estion is %ose+ to a %o+*&tion manage in an

oganisation te e%/! "o*/+ 4e in a +iffeent &ontext %etaining to is s!stem.

Simi/a/! "en as#e+ a4o*t a &om%*te s!stem a s!stems ana/!st in a &om%*te

&ente "o*/+ e%/! in tems of te name of te &om%*te a+"ae

man*fa&t*e an+ a mo+e/ n*m4e /i#e I3M $60 S*%emi&o$' o Penti*m I

II III I8 et&.

In te +is&i%/ine of s!stems ana/!sis an+ +esign te tem s!stem= stan+s fo te

#in+ of a s!stem "e +ea/ "it.

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In management infomation s!stem "e ae *s*a//! &on&ene+ "it manma+e

s!stems invo/ving in%*t %o&esses an+ o*t%*t as e%esente+ in Fig. $.$.

Fig. $.$ A Mo+e/ of a S!stem

T*s a s!stem ma! 4e ega+e+ as a set of entities o e/ements intea&ting

among temse/ves in a &etain manne to %o&ess &etain in%*ts to %o+*&e

&etain o*t%*ts ;o4e&tives< in a +efinite time %eio+. Te &on&e%t of m*/ti%/e

in%*ts an+ o*t%*ts ma! 4e e%esente+ as so"n in Fig. $.).

Fig. $.) S!stem "it M*/ti%/e In%*ts an+ O*t%*ts

$.6 7INDS OF SSTEMS

Diffeent #in+s of s!stems ma! 4e *n+estoo+ as:

i. a4sta&t an+ %!si&a/ s!stems

ii. +eteministi& an+ %o4a4i/isti& s!stems

iii. o%en an+ &/ose+ s!stems an+

iv. *sema&ine s!stems.

$.6.1 A4sta&t an+ P!si&a/ S!stems

S!stems &an 4e &ategoise+ as a4sta&t s!stems an+ %!si&a/ s!stems. Tee &an

4e mis*n+estan+ings if one %eson ta/#s a4o*t an infomation s!stem as a set of

&on&e%ts i+eas o &aa&teisti&s ;a4sta&t< an+ is /istene %e&eives it as an

o%eationa/ s!stem of %eo%/e eB*i%ment an+ e%ots ;%!si&a/<. An a4sta&t o

&on&e%t*a/ s!stem is an o+e/! aangement of inte+e%en+ent i+eas o

&onst*&ts "i& ma! o ma! not ave an! &o*nte%at in te ea/ "o/+. Fo

exam%/e a s!stem of teo/og! is an exam%/e of a4sta&t s!stem "i& is an

o+e/! aangement of i+eas a4o*t 9o+ an+ te e/ationsi% of *mans to 9o+.

On te ote an+ %!si&a/ s!stems ae genea//! &on&ete o%eationa/

s!stems ma+e *% of %eo%/e mateia/s ma&ines eneg! an+ ote %!si&a/

tings. P!si&a/ s!stems ae moe tan &on&e%t*a/ &onst*&tsG te! +is%/a! some

a&tivit! o 4eavio*. Te e/ements in s*& a s!stem intea&t to a&ieve a

&ommon o4e&tive. Fo exam%/e te &i&*/ato! s!stem tans%otation s!stem

&om%*te s!stem an+ otes.

$.6.' Deteministi& an+ Po4a4i/isti& S!stems

A +eteministi& s!stem is one in "i& te o&&*en&e of a// events is #no"n

"it &etaint!. In s*& a s!stem given a +es&i%tion of te s!stem state at a

%ati&*/a %oint of time of its o%eation te next state &an 4e %efe&t/! %e+i&te+

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An exam%/e of s*& a s!stem is a &oe&t &om%*te %ogam "i& %efoms

exa&t/! a&&o+ing to a set of inst*&tions.

A %o4a4i/isti& s!stem is one in "i& te o&&*en&e of events &annot 4e

%efe&t/! %e+i&te+. To*g te 4eavio* of s*& a s!stem &an 4e +es&i4e+ in

tems of %o4a4i/it! a &etain +egee of eo is a/"a!s atta&e+ to te

%e+i&tion of te 4eavio* of te s!stem. An exam%/e of s*& a s!stem is a set of inst*&tions given to a %eson "o ma! not fo//o" te inst*&tions exa&t/! as

given. Anote exam%/e is a "aeo*se an+ its &ontents. 9iven a +es&i%tion of

te &ontents at a given %oint of time te aveage +eman+ te /engt of time

ta#en to %o&ess o+es et&. te &ontents at te next %oint in time &o*/+ not 4e

%efe&t/! %e+i&te+. In o* +ai/! /ife "e *s*a//! ave to +ea/ "it s*&

%o4a4i/isti& s!stems.

$.6.$ O%en an+ C/ose+ S!stems

An o%en s!stem is one tat intea&ts "it its envionment an+ t*s ex&anges

infomation mateia/ o eneg! "it te envionment in&/*+ing an+om an+

*n+efine+ in%*ts. O%en s!stems ae a+a%tive in nat*e as te! ten+ to ea&t "itte envionment in s*& a "a! so as to favo* tei &ontin*e+ existen&e. S*&

s!stems ae >se/foganising= in te sense tat te! &ange tei oganisation in

es%onse to &anging &on+itions. A// /iving s!stems ;e.g. *mans %/ants &e//s

et&.< ae o%en s!stems.

Te! attem%t to maintain eB*i/i4i*m 4! omeostasis te %o&ess of

a+*sting to #ee% te s!stem o%eating "itin %es&i4e+ /imits. An oganisation

"i& is sensitive to &anges in &*stome tastes %efeen&es /i#ings +is/i#ing

+eman+s et&. an+ in &onseB*en&e a+*sts its %i&es &anges its %o+*&t mix o

/oo#s fo ne" ma#ets is an o%en oganisation. A// oganisations essentia//! ae

o%en s!stems as te! &annot "o# in iso/ation. T*s te s!stems ana/!st *s*a//!

+ea/s "it a+a%tive o%en s!stems.

A &/ose+ s!stem is one "i& +oes not intea&t "it its envionment. S*&

s!stems in 4*siness "o/+ ae ae 4*t e/ative/! &/ose+ s!stems ae &ommon.

T*s te s!stems tat ae e/ative/! iso/ate+ fom te envionment 4*t not

&om%/ete/! &/ose+ ae teme+ &/ose+ s!stems ;"i& a&t*a//! means a e/ative/!

&/ose+ s!stem<. Fo exam%/e a &om%*te %ogam is a e/ative/! &/ose+ s!stem

4e&a*se it a&&e%ts an+ %o&esses %evio*s/! +efine+ in%*ts an+ %ovi+es o*t%*ts

too in a %evio*s/! +efine+ "a!. In ote "o+s "e ma! sa! tat a e/ative/!

&/ose+ s!stem is one "i& &onto/s its in%*ts an+ o*t%*ts an+ is %ote&te+ fom

te envionmenta/ +ist*4an&es.

$.6.) UseMa&ine S!stems

Most of te %!si&a/ s!stems ae *sema&ine ;o *manma&ine< s!stems.

It is +iffi&*/t to tin# of a s!stem &om%ose+ on/! of %eo%/e "o +o not *ti/ise

eB*i%ment of some #in+ to a&ieve tei goa/s. In *sema&ine s!stems 4ot i.e.

*man as "e// as ma&ine %efom some a&tivities in te a&&om%/isment of a

goa/ ;e.g. +e&isionma#ing<. Te ma&ine e/ements ;ma! 4e &om%*te a+"ae

an+ soft"ae< ae e/ative/! &/ose+ an+ +eteministi& "eeas te *man

e/ements of te s!stem ae o%en an+ %o4a4i/isti&. No +o*4t some sma// s!stems

tat ae %*e/! me&ani&a/ +o exist 4*t te! ae *s*a//! a %at of a /ages!stem invo/ving %eo%/e. 8aio*s &om4inations of *man an+ ma&ine ae

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%ossi4/e. Fo instan&e in a s!stem te &om%*te %/a!s a mao o/e an+ *man

sim%/! monitos te ma&ine o%eation. At te ote exteme te ma&ine

%efoms a s*%%oting o/e "i/e te *man %efoms te signifi&ant "o#. Te

+ivision 4et"een *man an+ ma&ine "i// t*s va! fom s!stem to s!stem.

$.2 SSTEM RELATED CONCEPTS

$.2.1 3o*n+a! Intefa&e an+ 3/a&# 3ox

3o*n+a!

In o+e to fo&*s on a %ati&*/a s!stem *ses nee+ to +efine o +es&i4e te

s!stem *n+e st*+!.

Tis is +one "it te e/% of a 4o*n+a!. Te 4o*n+a! of a s!stem ma! exist

eite %!si&a//! o &on&e%t*a//!. In ote "o+s te 4o*n+a! is a feat*e of te

s!stem "i& +efines an+ +e/ineates it. Te s!stem is insi+e te 4o*n+a! "i/e

its envionment is o*tsi+e te 4o*n+a!. It is often +iffi&*/t to s%e&if! in +etai/

te 4o*n+aies of a s!stem. In tat &ase a %eson "o st*+ies a s!stema4itai/! +efines te 4o*n+aies fo te s!stem. Fo exam%/e "i/e st*+!ing

te %o+*&tion s!stem one ma! in&/*+e a" mateia/s an+ finise+ goo+s as

"itin te 4o*n+aiesG "eeas anote simi/a st*+! ma! ex&/*+e eite a"

mateia/s o finise+ goo+sG o 4ot fom s*& a st*+! of te %o+*&tion s!stem.

Te *se of a 4o*n+a! &on&e%t ena4/es a s!stems ana/!st to +efine an! ongoing

%o&ess as a s!stem. It f*te ena4/es im to /oo# at te %o4/em as a "o/e an+

to set *% te fame"o# to /oo# at its vaio*s s*4s!stems. Te 4o*n+a! &on&e%t

as 4een +e%i&te+ in Fig. $.(.

Fig. $.( 3o*n+aies

Intefa&e

Ea& s!stem &an ave s*4s!stems "i& in t*n ae ma+e *% of *nits. Te

inte&onne&tions an+ intea&tions among te s*4s!stems ae &a//e+ intefa&es.

Tis is so"n in Fig.$.6.

Fig. $.6 Intefa&e

3/a&# 3ox

Te tansfomation %o&ess in &etain s*4s!stems es%e&ia//! at te /o"est /eve/

ma! not 4e +efine+. o"eve te in%*ts an+ o*t%*ts ae #no"n. S*& a s*4

s!stem "ose %o&esses ae not +efine+ is &a//e+ a 4/a&# 4ox s!stem. Te

&on&e%ts of 4/a&# 4ox as 4een i//*state+ in Fig. $.2.

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Fig. $.2 3/a&# 3ox

$.2.' S!stem De&om%osition

An! s!stem &an 4e +ivi+e+ into sma//e s!stems #no"n as s*4s!stems an+ a s*4

s!stem &an f*te 4e +ivi+e+ into sti// sma//e s!stems &a//e+ s*4s*4s!stems

"i& in t*n &an 4e +ivi+e+ into sti// sma//e s!stems. Tis %o&ess &ontin*es

*nti/ te sma//est s*4s!stems ae of managea4/e siHe. Te &on&e%t of s*4

s!stems is an im%otant as%e&t an+ is 4asi& to te ana/!sis an+ +esign of

infomation s!stems 4e&a*se it is +iffi&*/t to &om%een+ a &om%/ex s!stem

"en &onsi+ee+ as a "o/e.

Teefoe fo te sa#e of &onvenien&e an+ &/ait! a s!stem is +ivi+e+ into

sma//e s!stems. Te %o&ess of +ivi+ing o fa&toing a s!stem into sma//es!stems is #no"n as +e&om%osition. Te s*4s!stems es*/ting fom tis %o&ess

*s*a//! fom ieaei&a/ st*&t*es. In te ieae! a s*4s!stem is one

e/ement of s*%as!stem ;te s!stem a4ove it<. Tis is so"n in Fig. $.,. A t!%i&a/

exam%/e of a s!stem +e&om%osition is +e%i&te+ in Fig. $.-.

Fig. $., ieaei&a/ Re/ations of S*4s!stems

Fig. $.- S!stem De&om%osition

Te %o&ess of +e&om%osition into sma//e s!stems is *se+ 4ot to ana/!se an

existing s!stem an+ to +esign an+ im%/ement a ne" s!stem. On te 4asis of an

o4e&tive te s!stem ana/!st as to +a" te 4o*n+aies an+ +efine te

intefa&es so tat te s*m of te s*4s!stems &onstit*tes te entie s!stem.

$.2.$ Integation of S*4S!stems

A s!stem is +ivi+e+ into sma//e s!stems on/! fo te sa#e of &/ait!. o"eve it

is te "o/e "i& +i&tates te o/e of te s*4s!stem.

Fig. $.10 S!stem as a ?o/e ;Integation of S*4s!stems<

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Te &on&e%t of integation +a"s attention to te %ima! im%otan&e of te

"o/e s!stem. Te "o/e s!stem is a s!stem "i& 4eaves as if it is a sing/e

entit!. T*s one so*/+ not get /ost amongst te sma//e s!stems. Rate te

s*4s!stems an+ tei e/ationsi%s among ea& ote so*/+ evo/ve fom te

&on&e%t of te "o/e s!stem. In ote "o+s te "o/e so*/+ not 4e ove/oo#e+

"i/e t!ing to *n+estan+ it to*g its %ats. Te integation of te s*4s!stems as 4een %ota!e+ in Fig. $.10.

$., ELEMENTS OF A SSTEM

To *n+estan+ a genea/ s!stem /et *s ta#e an exam%/e of a s!stem in "i&

&etain +ata is %o&esse+ "it te o4e&tive to &onvet it into infomation fo

+e&isionma#ing. Its e/ements &an 4e so"n as 4e/o":

Fig. $.11 Data Convesion A S!stem

Fig*e $.11 i//*states a t!%i&a/ s!stem aving in%*t %o&esso an+ o*t%*t as its

e/ements. In%*t ma! 4e +efine+ as te stat*% &om%onent on "i& te s!stem

o%eates. In%*t as s%e&ifie+ in te a4ove s!stem is &etain +ata a4o*t someting

;ma! 4e &*stomes sa/es invento! et&.<.

Data is +efine+ as s!m4o/s fa&ts fig*es o e/ationsi%s to 4e into+*&e+ into

o to 4e te es*/t of a s!stem=s o%eation. O*t%*t is +efine+ as te es*/t of an

o%eation. O*t%*t is te en+ es*/t of a s!stem an+ t*s it e%esents te

%*%ose o o4e&tive of a s!stem. Infomation= is te o*t%*t in te given

exam%/e.

Te %*%ose o o4e&tive of te s!stem ;i.e. &/assif!ing soting s*mmaising

an+ &a/&*/ating +ata< is to o4tain infomation ;a4o*t te n*m4e of &*stomes

tota/ sa/es invento! stat*s< so as to ai+ +e&isionma#ing.

Te %o&ess is te tansfomation a&tivit! tat &onvets in%*t into o*t%*t.

Te a&t*a/ &/assifi&ation of te +ata its soting s*mmaising an+ &a/&*/ating 4!

%eo%/e 4! temse/ves o to*g some ote means ;e.g. to*g &om%*tes<e%esents %o&essing of te +ata. Peo%/e ma&ines f*n&tions o%eations

oganisations an+ &om4inations of tese a&t as %o&essos.

Tese e/ements i.e. in%*t %o&esso an+ o*t%*t ae &ommon to a// s!stems

an+ ae te tems 4! "i& a// s!stems ae +es&i4e+. ?e ma! +efine an! s!stem

in tems of tese e/ements an+ tei %o%eties. ?i/e +es&i4ing te e/ements of

a s!stem an attem%t as 4een ma+e to ex%/ain te %o&esso in a sim%/e an+ in a

genea/ "a!. o"eve it so*/+ not 4e &on&/*+e+ fom tis +es&i%tion tat

o%eations "itin te %o&esso ae as sim%/e as +e%i&te+. In fa&t it is 4e&a*se of

te &om%/exit! of te %o&esso tat it is a/so #no"n as a 4/o&# 4ox. Tis

&om%/exit! &an 4e i//*state+ in a sim%/e "a! 4! &onsi+eing o* ea/ie exam%/e

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of a +ata %o&essing s!stem. Te 4/a&# 4ox o %o&esso of tis s!stem +es&i4es

te fo//o"ing o%eations.

i. C/assifi&ation

ii. Soting

iii. S*mmaising an+

iv. Ca/&*/ation.

Te %o&ess as 4een so"n in Fig. $.11.

In sim%/e tems te same s!stem ma! 4e *n+estoo+ as aving fo* s*4s!stems

;Fig. $.1'<.

Fig. $.1' Data Po&essing an+ S*4S!stems

T*s most of te s!stem %o&essos "i& at fist g/an&e a%%ea to 4e sim%/e

4e&ome exteme/! &om%/ex "en te! ae st*+ie+ in +etai/.

Ina4i/it! to +efine te &onstaints o 4o*n+aies a&&*ate/! an+ %e&ise/! a/so

/ea+s to &om%/exit! in te %o&esso. Fo exam%/e it is +iffi&*/t to +e&i+e te

4o*n+aies fo a %esonne/ infomation s!stem. One ma! fin+ it +iffi&*/t to

ans"e B*estions on "ete it so*/+ in&/*+e te s*4s!stems of taining

e&*iting %/a&ement safet! +is&i%/ine %a!o// /a4o* e/ations an+ s&e+*/ing.

No +o*4t to% management= s vie" of te s!stem +iffes fom tat of a %esonne/

offi&e "ose &on&e%t of te s!stem ma! in&/*+e on/! %esonne/ e&o+s

e&*itment an+ se/e&tion. Neite of tese vie"s is in&oe&tG te! on/! in+i&ate

te a/tenative "a!s of +efining te %o&esso. Tis &om%/exit! of te %o&esso

&an 4e ove&ome if a s!stem ana/!st o +esigne +efines te 4o*n+aies of te

s!stem as s%e&ifi&a//! as %ossi4/e so tat /imits ma! 4e %/a&e+ on te s*4s!stems

to 4e st*+ie+.

Te e/ationsi% of in%*t %o&ess an+ o*t%*t ave 4een so"n in Fig. $.1'.

In%*t %o&ess an+ o*t%*t ae a/so &a//e+ s!stem %aametes. A %aamete is

+efine+ as a &onstant to "i& %o%eties an+ va/*es ae as&i4e+.

To*g in%*t %o&esso an+ o*t%*t ae +efine+ as s!stem %aametes

s!stems ae not stati&.Te! ae ate +!nami& an+ &anges o&&* inevita4/!. It 4e&omes a// te

moe im%otant in a +!nami& s!stem to evie" on a &ontin*o*s 4asis te state of

te o*t%*t to ma#e ne&essa! &anges.

In a 4*siness oganisation "e nee+ to #no" "ete te %o+*&t o*t%*t is

%ofita4/e an+ a&&e%ta4/e to te &*stome ote"ise te 4*siness oganisation

"o*/+ */timate/! fai/ to s*vive. Te s!stem e/ements tat %emit te s!stem to

emain in eB*i/i4i*m o in a 4a/an&e+ state ae fee+4a&# an+ &onto/.

Tese t"o s!stem %aametes i.e. fee+4a&# an+ &onto/ o&&* togete an+

ae +is&*sse+ as one 4e&a*se of tei ve! +efinition "i& states tat te

%*%ose of fee+4a&# is &onto/. Fee+4a&# &onto/ is +efine+ as te s!stemf*n&tion tat &om%aes o*t%*t "it a mo+e/ o stan+a+. Moe s%e&ifi&a//!

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fee+4a&# is te f*n&tion tat %ovi+es infomation on te +eviation 4et"een

o*t%*t an+ te %es&i4e+ stan+a+s ;fo &onto/ %*%oses< an+ +e/ives tis

infomation as in%*t into te %o&ess fom "i& te o*t%*t "as o4taine+.

?ee &onto/ is +efine+ as te s!stem f*n&tion tat &om%aes o*t%*t to a %e

+etemine+ stan+a+. Conto/ is a&ieve+ 4! &oe&ting te +eviation 4et"een

o*t%*t an+ stan+a+. Te fee+4a&# an+ &onto/ e/ement i//*state+ in Fig. $.1$.

Fig. $.1$ A Com%/ete S!stem

$.- UMAN AS AN INFORMATION PROCESSIN9 SSTEM

*man as an infomation %o&essing s!stem &an 4e *n+estoo+ "it te e/% of

a sim%/e mo+e/ "i& &onsists of te fo//o"ing &om%onents:i. Senso! e&e%tos ;in%*ts<

ii. Po&essing *nit an+

iii. Res%onse o*t%*t.

Senso! e&e%tos in&/*+e e!es eas s#in et&. Tese e&e%to &a%t*e stim*/i

"i& ma! 4e vis*a/ a*+ito! ta&ti/e an+ otes fom te envionment an+

tansmit tem to te %o&essing *nit i.e. te 4ain. Te %o&essing *nit ;te

4ain< *ses a vaiet! of s%e&ia/ise+ %o&essing &entes an+ memo! *nits to

an+/e +iffeent t!%es of %o&essing an+ memo! f*n&tions. Te es*/ts of te

%o&essing of stim*/i 4! 4ain ae es%onse o*t%*ts s*& as +e&isions ta#en an+

tas#s %efome+.

Tese es*/ts ma! a/so 4e in te fom of %!si&a/ movements s%ee& an+

ote es%onses. Te 8 mo+e/ is +e%i&te+ in Fig. $.1).

Fig. $.1) Mo+e/ of a *man as Infomation Po&esso

Te mo+e/ "i& as 4een +is&*sse+ in te a4ove %aaga% is a sim%/ifie+

vesion of te Ne"e//Simon mo+e/ of *man infomation %o&essing s!stem.

A//en Ne"e// an+ e4et A. Simon ;1-2'< %o%ose+ a mo+e/ ;see Fig. $.1(< of te

*man infomation %o&essing s!stem "i& &onsists of a %o&esso senso!

in%*t moto o*t%*t an+ tee +iffeent memoies: /ongtem memo! ;LTM<

sottem memo! ;STM< an+ extena/ memo! ;EM<. STM is a %at of te

%o&esso an+ is ve! sma//. It &an stoe on/! a fe" ;five to seven< *nits o &*n#s

of infomation. A &*n# is a *nit of stoe+ infomation "i& &an 4e a +igit a

"o+ o an image. Te /ongtem memo! is 4e/ieve+ to ave an *n/imite+

&a%a&it! to stoe infomation. Stoage is in &om%esse+ fom an+ eB*ies on/! a

fa&tion of a se&on+ to e&a// fom /ongtem memo! 4*t te "ite time ;tomemoise< is /onge ;sa! ( # to 10 # se&on+s fo # s!m4o/s<. Tis means /0ng

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tem memo! "i// ta#e an aveage of (0100 se&on+s to memoise a 10+igit

mem4e. o"eve afte its stoage one &an e&a// it in a fe" *n+e+

mi//ise&on+s. Te extena/ memo! in te *man %o&essing s!stem ma! 4e

e%esente+ 4! an extena/ me+ia s*& as a note4oo# &a/#4oa+ et&.

$.-.1 Infomation Fi/teing

*mans ave a /imite+ &a%a&it! to a&&e%t in%*t fo %o+*&ing meaningf*/

o*t%*t. o"even te envionment %ovi+es moe in%*t tan a *man is a4/e to

a&&e%t. T*s in o+e to avoi+ infomation ove/oa+ te *man infomation

%o&essing s!stem fi/tes o*t te in%*ts to a managea4/e B*antit! ;see Fig. $.16<.

Fig. $.16 Fi/teing of Infomation

Tis infomation fi/teing ma! 4e 4ase+ on a n*m4e of fa&tos "i& ma! 4e

in4on o ave 4een a&B*ie+ fom %ast ex%eien&e #no"/e+ge an+ &*/t*a/

4a&#go*n+.

Se/e&tive Fame"o#s

To se/e&tive/! %o&ess infomation a /age vaiet! of &on&e%t*a/ fame"o#s ae

*se+ 4! *mans. Tee ave 4een em%ii&a/ evi+en&es "i& so" tat *mans

+eve/o% fames of efeen&e o int*itive %attens of infomation &a%t*e an+

%o&essing "en &onfonte+ "it a tas#. Tis %o4/em s%a&e &on&e%t*a//! a

"o#s%a&e= is *se+ to st*&t*e an+ /imit in%*t an+ e&a// of infomation an+

%o&essing meto+s. Tis ma! /ea+ to *se a n*m4e of int*itive */es o

e*isti&s to e/% an in+ivi+*a/ e+*&e te n*m4e of a/tenatives to 4e

&onsi+ee+. *mans ma! a/so exi4it a tait of 4o*n+e+ ationa/it! to /imit te

a/tenatives an in+ivi+*a/ as to &onsi+e. De&ision */es a/so e/% %ovi+ing

fi/tes to s&een fa&tos "i& ae *nne&essa! to te +e&ision. Simi/a/! "en a

+e&ision is to 4e ma+e *n+e stess fi/teing is in&ease+ to &on&entate on/! onte most im%otant %o4/em.

Cognitive 3iases an+ Limitations

3ias o /imitations in *man=s &ognitive %o&ess is anote so*&e of infomation

fi/teing. Fo exam%/e Mi//e ;1-(6< as s*ggeste+ tat sottem memo! in

*mans &annot effe&tive/! %o&ess moe tan nine *nits of infomation ;seven

%/*s o min*s t"o 2 e '<. Tee is a ten+en&! in *mans to ove/oo# sma//

&anges in a va/*e even to*g te! ma! 4e statisti&a//! signifi&ant.

*mans a/so ten+ to 4e 4iase+ 4e&a*se of man! 4iasing fa&tos fo exam%/e*mans ten+ to give ige "eigt age o %o4a4i/ities to o*t&omes "i& te!

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/i#e o %efe. Simi/a/! easi/! emem4ee+ o imagine+ events ma! 4e assigne+

a ige %o4a4i/it!.

$.-.' *man Diffeen&es in Infomation Po&essing

*mans +iffe in an+/ing te same infomation an+ so/ving te same %o4/ems.

It ma! 4e atti4*te+ to tei +iffeent &ognitive st!/es. A &ognitive st!/e ma! 4e

efee+ to te %o&ess to*g "i& *mans oganise an+ &ange infomation

+*ing te +e&isionma#ing %o&ess. M&7enne! an+ 7een ;1-2)< ave s*ggeste+

a mo+e/ of &ognitive st!/e "i& &ategoises *man st!/es a/ong t"o &ontin**m

as in+i&ate+ in Fig. $.12.

In tis fig*e te oiHonta/ +imension infomation eva/*ation e/ates too" a *man eva/*ates infomation. At one exteme s!stemati& *mans ae

in&/ine+ to +ea/ "it a %o4/em 4! st*&t*ing it in tems of a +efinite an+

s!stemati& so/*tion a%%oa& "i& if fo//o"e+ to*g /ea+s to an

Fig. $.12 A Mo+e/ of Cognitive St!/es

a&&e%ta4/e so/*tion. Int*itive ;o e*isti&< *mans ae /i#e/! to *se tia/ an+

eo to test vaio*s I so/*tions. Te! ae a4/e to a%%oa& i//st*&t*e+

%o4/ems a&t s%ontaneo*s/! on te 4asis of ne" I infomation an+ fin+

easona4/e so/*tions on te 4asis of *+gment +eve/o%e+ to*g %ast ex%eien&e.

Te veti&a/ +imension infomation gateing in Fig. $.12 e/ates to te

%e&e%t*a/ %o&esses 4! "i& te %o&esso oganises ve4a/ an+ vis*a/ stim*/i.

Some *mans 4e&ome +ee%/! immese+ in te +etai/s of +ata +*ing an ana/!sis

an+ ea& a so/*tion 4ase+ on extensive *se of +etai/e+ infomation. S*&

*mans ae %esons "it e&e%tive 4ain. Te! ae often &iti&ise+ 4e&a*se te!&annot see te foest fo te tees=. At te ote exteme of tis +imension ae

te *mans "it %e&e%tive min+s "o fo&*s on e/ationsi%s among +ata items

as te! gate an+ %o&ess infomation. Te! ae /i#e/! to B*i&#/! examine an!

+etai/ &a%t*e+ to fin+ te most e/evant "a! I to esta4/is e/ationsi%s among

+ata items. *mans "it %e&e%tive 4ains +o not #no" "at I #in+ of tees

tee ae in te foest.

I "at +etemines a *man=s &ognitive st!/e is not "e//*n+estoo+. ?at is

&/ea is tat it +iffes &onsi+ea4/! 4et"een +iffeent *mans. Ea& *man

e&eiving a %ie&e of infomation "i// %e&eive te &ontent of te message to*g

a &ognitive fi/te "i& ma! se/e&t am%/if! ee&t o +istot %otions of te

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infomation. As a es*/t even B*ite sim%/e messages o infomation ma! 4e

inte%ete+ +iffeent/! 4! +iffeent *mans.

Anote ex%/anation of *man +iffeen&es in &ognitive st!/e is 4io/ogi&a/

;1-,'<. Tis ex%/anation I as fo&*se+ on te s%e&ia/isation of te vaio*s %ats of

te *man 4ain ;see Fig. $.1,<. Reseae I evea/s tat te /eft si+e of te 4ainfavo*s ationa/ st!/e of infomation %o&essing. Te igt si+e I of te 4ain

o"eve *ses int*itive %o&essing. Man! fa&tos /i#e geneti&s e+*&ation

ex%eien&e I an+ &*/t*a/ 4a&#go*n+ /ea+ to favo* moe of one t!%e of

%o&essing tan te ote "en a I *man gates an+ eva/*ates infomation.

Tis mo+e/ ex%/ains tat *mans "it an int*itive st!/e ten+ to ta#e +e&isions

on a *n&= "ito*t aving to #no" a// of te fa&ts "eeas te *mans "it a

ationa/ st!/e evie" te fa&ts a4o*t a sit*ation an+ ma#e a +e&ision on te 4asis

of a too*g ana/!sis.

$.-.$ Im%/i&ations fo Infom*tion S!stems

*man infomation %o&essing s!stem is B*ite *sef*/ in %ovi+ing insigts fo

te +esignes of infomation s!stems. Te &on&e%t of infomation fi/teing

4e&a*se of se/e&tive fame"o#s an+ &ognitive /imitations an+ ote 4iases in

*mans ae eB*ie+ to 4e +ie&t/! a++esse+ in s!stems

Fig. $.1, emis%ei& S%e&ia/isation of te 3ain

+esign. A 4ief +es&i%tion of tese &on&e%ts an+ tei es%e&tive im%/i&ations fo

infomation s!stem +esign fo//o"s.

Infomation Fi/teing

S!stems so*/+ 4e so +esigne+ tat te! so*/+ attem%t to ovei+e *n+esia4/e

fames of efeen&e fi/tes 4! einfo&e+ +is%/a! of most e/evant +ata. o"eve

infomation s!stems so*/+ 4e a4/e to fi/te o*t a// ie/evant +ata.

Ne"e// Simon mo+e/ s*ggests tat te infomation fomat so*/+ a&t in

in&easing te /imits of 4o*n+e+ ationa/it!.

Te im%/i&ations of Magi&a/ N*m4e Seven %/*s o min*s t"o fo

infomation s!stem +esign ae tat &o+es fo feB*ent *man *se so*/+ not

ex&ee+ five to seven s!m4o/s o 4e +ivi+e+ into segments of five o /ess.

Infomation s!stem so*/+ %ominent/! ig/igt te +iffeen&es in te

va/*es es%e&ia//! "en te +iffeen&es ae sma// 4*t signifi&ant.

*man Diffeen&es in Infomation Po&essing

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Fo a *man "it a s!stemati& min+ te infomation s!stem so*/+

anti&i%ate te so/*tion meto+ tat "i// 4e *se+ an+ so*/+ %ovi+e te

infomation in te eB*ie+ fom fo tat meto+. ?i/e *mans "it int*itive

min+s "i// ave /ess nee+ fo s%e&ifi& +e&ision mo+e/s an+ t*s te infomation

s!stems ma! not ave s%e&ifi& so/*tion a/goitms fo s*& *mans. Simi/a/!

te +iffeent a%%oa&es a+o%te+ 4! %e&e%tive an+ e&e%tive *mans so*/+ 4eef/e&te+ in te infomation s!stems +esigne+ fo tem.

Te &on&e%t of emis%ei& s%e&ifi&ation of te 4ain s*ggests tat

infomation s!stems so*/+ 4e +esigne+ to ta#e a+vantage of te moe int*itive

igt4ain f*n&tions.

SUMMAR

Infomation is a ne&essa! an+ vita/ in%*t in an! +e&isionma#ing 4! manages

in an oganisation. Infomation in its *n%o&esse+ fom is &a//e+ +ata "i& is

geneate+ as a 4!%o+*&t of tansa&tions ta#ing %/a&e in te oganisation.

Infomation on te ote an+ is %o&esse+ +ata an+ as an e/ement of s*%ise.

Infomation e+*&es *n&etaint! an+ tigges off a&tion.Infomation &o*/+ 4e &/assifie+ on te 4asis of te %*%ose fo "i& it is

*ti/ise+ into tee main &ategoies name/!:

i. Stategi& infomation

ii. Ta&ti&a/ infomation an+

iii. O%eationa/ infomation.

5*a/it! of infomation efes to its fitness fo *se o its e/ia4i/it!. Some of te

atti4*tes of infomation "i& inf/*en&e te B*a/it! of infomation ma! 4e:

Time/iness

A&&*a&!

Re/evan&e

A+eB*a&!

Com%/eteness

Ex%/i&itness an+

Ex&e%tion4ase+.

5*a/it! o"eve is not an a4so/*te &on&e%t. Rate it is +efine+ "itin a

&ontext. A s!stem as B*a/it! e/ative to its %ima! *ses.

Infomation ma! 4e *n+estoo+ as aving vaio*s +imensions o"eve fo

o* %*%ose te fo//o"ing tee +imensions of infomation "i// 4e of inteest.i. E&onomi& +imension

ii. 3*siness +imension an+

iii. Te&ni&a/ +imension.

In o* +ai/! /ife te "o+ s!stem= is *se+ B*ite often 4*t it is te most

mis*n+estoo+ "o+ 4e&a*se it &onve!s a +iffeent meaning to +iffeent %eo%/e.

In genea/ a s!stem is a set of e/ements "i& ae oine+ togete to a&ieve a

%e+etemine+ o4e&tive. o"eve tese e/ements so*/+ 4e inte+e%en+ent an+

intee/ate+. A s!stem &o*/+ 4e teme+ as an a4sta&t o a %!si&a/ s!stem.

An a4sta&t s!stem ma! 4e a /ogi&a/ s!stem i.e. an o+e/! aangement of inte+e%en+ent i+eas o &onst*&ts "i& ma! o ma! not ave an! &o*nte%at

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in te ea/ "o/+. ?eeas a %!si&a/ s!stem is a &on&ete o%eationa/ s!stem

ma+e *% of %eo%/e mateia/s ma&ines eneg! an+ ote %!si&a/ tings. A

s!stem ma! 4e &a//e+ a +eteministi& s!stem if te o&&*en&e of a// events is

#no"n "it &etaint! in &ontast to a %o4a4i/isti& s!stem in "i& te

o&&*en&e of te events &annot 4e %efe&t/! %e+i&te+. A s!stem ma! a/so 4e

&ategoise+ as o%en an+ &/ose+ s!stem. An o%en s!stem is one tat intea&ts "itits envionment "eeas a &/ose+ s!stem +oes not intea&t "it its envionment

an+ t*s +oes not ex&ange infomation eneg! o an! mateia/ "it te

envionment. Infomation s!stems ma! 4e &/assifie+ as *sema&ine s!stem

4e&a*se in a *se ma&ine s!stem 4ot i.e. *man as "e// as ma&ine %efom

some a&tivities in te a&&om%/isment of a &ommon goa/.

In o+e to +efine an aea fo te %*%ose of o* st*+! a "a// ao*n+ tat

aea nee+s to 4e &onst*&te+ ;not ne&essai/! %!si&a//! it ma! 4e &on&e%t*a/ o

/ogi&a/ one< "i& is teme+ as te 4o*n+a! of te s!stem. In te 4o*n+a!

&etain s!stem &onstaints ae i+entifie+ an+ t*s te aea of st*+! is +e/ineate+.

Te intea&tion among s*4s!stems is &a//e+ s!stem intefa&e. A 4/a&# 4ox is a&on&e%t *se+ fo tose s*4s!stems "ose %o&esses ae not +efine+. In o+e to

%o%e/! *n+estan+ an+ +esign a s!stem it is +ivi+e+ into s*4s!stems an+ tis

%o&ess &o*/+ 4e %efome+ ti// one fee/s te s*4s!stem is of managea4/e siHe.

Te e%eate+ %o&ess of +ivi+ing s!stems into s*4 s!stems is #no"n as s!stem

+e&om%osition Te evese of s!stem +e&om%osition is &a//e+ s!stem integation

in "i& s*4s!stems ae oine+ to ave a "o/e s!stem.

A genea/ mo+e/ of a s!stem &an 4e *n+estoo+ in tems of its vaio*s %ats

name/! In%*t O*t%*t Po&esso an+ Fee+4a&#.

Te +!nami&s of a *man as an infomation %o&essing s!stem &an 4e

*n+estoo+ "it te e/% of a sim%/e mo+e/ &onsisting of senso! e&e%tos

%o&essing *nit an+ es%onse o*t%*t. *man 4ain esots to infomation

fi/teing 4e&a*se of /imite+ &a%a&it! to a&&e%t in%*t fo %o&essing.

Tis infomation fi/teing ma! 4e 4ase+ on a n*m4e of fa&tos "i& ma! 4e

in4on o a&B*ie+ fom %ast ex%eien&e #no"/e+ge an+ &*/t*a/ 4a&#go*n+.

Tee a/so exist *man +iffeen&es in infomation %o&essing "i& ma! 4e

atti4*te+ to te +iffeent &ognitive st!/es of *mans. A// tese &on&e%ts %ovi+e

a *sef*/ insigt to te *ses an+ +esignes of infomation s!stems.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

1. Dis&*ss vaio*s t!%es of infomation. E/a4oate on tei *ses.'. Comment on te B*a/it! of infomation. Dis&*ss vaio*s &aa&teisti&s of

infomation.

$. E/a4oate on vaio*s +imensions of infomation.

). ?at is meant 4! te "o+ s!stem>@ Dis&*ss +iffeent #in+s of s!stems.

(. ?at ae te &ommon e/ements of an! s!stem@

6. 3ief/! +is&*ss te &on&e%t of 3o*n+a! Intefa&e an+ 3/a&# 3ox.

2. o" "o*/+ !o* +isting*is 4et"een +e&om%osition of a s!stem an+

integation of s*4s!stems@ Dis&*ss.

,. E/a4oate on te *man infomation %o&essing s!stem. Dis&*ss its

im%/i&ations fo IS +esign.

ASSI9NMENT

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1. Ass*me !o* ae "o#ing on te +eve/o%ment of a &om%*te4ase+

infomation s!stem. ?at im%otan&e +o te fo//o"ing genea/ s!stem

&on&e%ts ave fo !o*@ 9ive exam%/es of ea& as te! a%%/! to

infomation s!stems:

a< S!stem 4o*n+a!

4< Fee+4a&# &< S!stem envionment

+< O%en s!stem

e< S*4s!stem

f< Intefa&e.

REFERENCES

An+*s Roman R. A%%oa&es to Infomation Eva/*ation MSU 3*siness

To%i&s S*mme 1-21 %%. )0)6.


S!stems: Con&e%t*a/ Fo*n+ations

St*&t*e an+ Deve/o%ment M&9a"i// 3oo# Co. Ne" De/i 1-,).M&7enne! ames an+ Pete 7een o" Manages= Min+s ?o#= ava+

3*siness Revie" Ma!*ne 1-2).

Mi//e 9eoge A. I>e Magi&a/ N*m4e Seven P/*s o Min*s T"o: Some

Limits on o* Ca%a&it! fo Po&essing Infomation= Te Ps!&o/ogi&a/ Revie"

6$: ' Mae 1-(6 %%. ,1-2.

Ne"e// A//en an+ e4et A. Simon *man Po4/em So/ving Penti&ea//

Eng/e"oo+ C/iffs NW 1-2'.

Ro4e! D. an+ ?. Taggat Infomation Po&essing in Infomation an+

De&ision S*%%ot S!stems= MIS 5*ate/! 6: ' *ne 1-,' %%. 612$.

S&nn ames A. Ana/!sis an+ Design of Infomation S!stems M&9a"i//

P*4/ising C&. Singa%oe 1-,-.

Taggat ?i//iam A *man Infomation Po&essing Mo+e/ ofte Manageia/

Min+: Some MIS Im%/i&ations

In *man Fa&tos in Management Infomation S!stems ane Cae! an+

No"oo+ N ;e+s.< A3LE P*4/ising Co%. 1-,,.

)Infomation S!stem as an Ena4/e

Leaning O4e&tives


• &/ea/! *n+estan+ te &anging &on&e%ts at ISG

• i+entif! an+ +es&i4e te ena4/ement o/e of IS in &om%etitive a+vantage

oganisationa/ &ange an+ oganisationa/ /eaning.

). INTRODUCTION

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Tee is no +en!ing te fa&t tat infomation s!stems &onti4*te to

oganisationa/ effi&ien&! an+ effe&tiveness. o"eve *nti/ e&ent/! infomation

s!stems %/a!e+ a e/ative/! mino o/e in te %o+*&tion ma#eting an+ sevi&es.

It is in te /ast fe" +e&a+es tat tee as 4een a evo/*tiona! &ange in te *se

of infomation an+ infomation s!stems in oganisations. To+a! man! 4ig

oganisations ae *sing infomation an+ infomation s!stems as too/s fo gaining&om%etitive a+vantage. IT as a/so %/a!e+ its o/e in oganisationa/ &ange an+

oganisationa/ /eaning. Te /atest a+van&ements in infomation s!stems in&/*+e

te stategi& infomation s!stem g/o4a/ infomation s!stem et&.

Te go"ing *ses of infomation s!stems ma! /age/! 4e atti4*te+ to te

&anging &on&e%t of te o/es of infomation in te oganisations. Infomation is

ega+e+ as a eso*&e *st /i#e ote ta+itiona/ fo* Ms= men mone!

mateia/s an+ ma&ines of an oganisation.

).' CAN9IN9 CONCEPTS OF IS

Fo//o"ing is a 4ief note on te &anging &on&e%ts of infomation an+infomation s!stems.

).'.1 Infomation as a Ne&essa! Evi/

Infomation "as ega+e+ as a ne&essa! evi/ asso&iate+ "it te +eve/o%ment

%o+*&tion an+ ma#eting of %o+*&ts o sevi&es. Infomation "as t*s mee/!

&onsi+ee+ as a 4!%o+*&t of tansa&tions in te oganisations. As a es*/t

infomation s!stems of 1-(0s "ee %imai/! +esigne+ "it te aim to e+*&e te

&ost of o*tine %a%e %o&essing in a&&o*nting aeas. Te tem E/e&toni& Data

Po&essing ;EDP< "as &oine+ in tis %eio+.

).'.' Infomation fo 9enea/ Management S*%%ot

3! mi+sixties oganisations 4egan e&ognising infomation as an im%otant too/

"i& &o*/+ s*%%ot genea/ management tas#s. Te infomation s!stems

&oes%on+ing to tis %eio+ "ee #no"n as management infomation s!stems

;MIS< an+ "ee to*gt of as s!stems %o&essing +ata into infomation.

).'.$ Infomation fo De&isionMa#ing

In te ea/!eigties infomation "as ega+e+ as %ovi+ing s%e&ia/%*%ose

tai/oma+e management &onto/s ove te oganisation. De&ision S*%%ot

S!stems an+ Exe&*tive S*%%ot S!stems "ee im%otant a+van&ements "i&

too# %/a&e +*ing tis %eio+. Te %*%ose of s*& infomations!stems "as to im%ove an+ s%ee+*% te +e&isionma#ing %o&ess of to%/eve/

manages.

).'.) Infomation as a Stategi& Reso*&e

In te evo/*tiona! &ange %atten te &on&e%t of infomation &ange+ again

4! te mi+eigties an+ infomation as sin&e ten 4een &onsi+ee+ as a stategi&

eso*&e &a%a4/e of %ovi+ing &om%etitive a+vantage o a stategi& "ea%on to

figt te &om%etition. Latest infomation s!stems "i& ae #no"n as stategi&

s!stems s*%%ot tis &on&e%t of infomation. Ta4/e ).1 %ota!s te &anging

&on&e%ts of infomation an+ infomation s!stems in oganisations.

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Ta4/e ).1

).$ IS AS AN ENA3LER As a/ea+! as 4een sai+ infomation an+ infomation s!stems no"a+a!s ae

*se+ to gain &om%etitive a+vantage in oganisationa/ &ange an+ in

oganisationa/ /eaning. Let *s 4ief/! +is&*ss te o/e of infomation s!stems in

ea& of tese aeas.

).$.1 Com%etitive A+vantage

An infomation s!stem "i& is *se+ to get an e+ge ove te &om%etitos of te

oganisation is #no"n as Stategi& Infomation S!stem. Let *s ave a 4ief /oo#

at te &on&e%t of stategi& infomation s!stems.

Stategi& Infomation S!stems ;SIS<Stategi& Infomation S!stems ;SIS< ae a s%e&ia/ise+ t!%e of infomation

s!stems. Tese s!stems &ange te goa/s o%eations %o+*&ts sevi&es o

envionmenta/ e/ations of an oganisation to e/% it gain an e+ge ove te

&om%etitos. Stategi& infomation s!stems ma! even &ange te 4*siness of an

oganisation. Tese &anges in te 4*siness fo&e oganisations to a+o%t ne"

4eavio* %attens. As a es*/t oganisations ma! often nee+ to &ange tei

intena/ o%eations eB*ie ne" manages a ne" "o#fo&e an+ a m*& &/ose

e/ationsi% "it &*stomes an+ s*%%/ies.

Stategi& infomation s!stems so*/+ not 4e &onf*se+ "it stategi& /eve/

s!stems. ?ee stategi& /eve/ s!stems ae meant fo to%/eve/ manages tat

fo&*s on +e&isions e/ating to stateg! fom*/ation te stategi& infomation

s!stems &an 4e *se+ at a// /eve/s of te oganisation an+ ae moe faea&ing

an+ +ee%oote+ tan te ote t!%es of infomation s!stems. Stategi&

infomation s!stems f*n+amenta//! &ange te "a! an oganisation *ns its

4*siness. Stategi& infomation S!stems fo Com%etitive A+vantage

To+a! oganisations *se tei stategi& infomation s!stems fo gaining

&om%etitive a+vantage. An SIS &an offe &om%etitive a+vantage to an

oganisation in te fo//o"ing "a!s.

;i.< &eating 4aies to &on%etitos= ent! into te ma#et

;ii.< geneating +ata4ases to im%ove ma#eting te&niB*es;iii.< /o&#ing in= &*stomes an+ s*%%/ies

;iv.< /o"eing te &osts of te %o+*&ts an+

;v.< /eveaging te&no/og! in te va/*e &ain.

A 4ief +is&*ssion of tese stategies is given in te fo//o"ing text.

;i.< Ceating 4aies to &om%etito@ Ent!: In tis stateg! an

oganisation *ses infomation s!stems to %ovi+e %o+*&ts o sevi&es

tat ae +iffi&*/t to +*%/i&ate o tat ae *se+ to seve ig/!

s%e&ia/ise+ ma#ets. Tis %events te ent! of &om%etitos as te!

fin+ te &ost fo a+o%ting a simi/a stateg! ve! ig. Te

oganisation gets a &om%etitive a+vantage as "it +iffeentiate+%o+*&ts an+ sevi&es te! no /onge ave to &om%ete on te 4asis of

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&ost. Fo exam%/e 4an#s ae ta#ing a /ea+ in +eve/o%ing s%e&ia/ise+

infomation s!stems. Citi4an# +eve/o%e+ a*tomati& te//e ma&ines

;ATM< to fa&i/itate +e%osits o mone! "it+a"a/s 4! te &*stome

"i& e/%e+ te 4an# in 4e&oming at one %oint of time te /agest

4an# in te Unite+ States. Simi/a/! some 4an#s +eve/o% ne" #in+s of

4an#ing sevi&es *sing infomation te&no/og!.;ii.< 9eneating +ata4ases to im%ove ma#eting: An infomation s!stem

a/so %ovi+es &om%anies an e+ge ove tei &om%etition 4! geneating

+ata4ases to im%ove tei sa/es an+ ma#eting stategies. S*&

s!stems teat existing infomation as a eso*&e. Fo exam%/e an

oganiHation ma! *se its +ata4ases to monito te %*&ases ma+e 4!

its &*stomes to i+entif! +iffeent segments of te ma#et et&. Tis

e/%s faming te ma#eting stategies to seve te &*stomes 4ette

an+ t*s e/%s etaining te existing &*stomes. Te &ost of etaining

an existing &*stome as 4een estimate+ as one fift tat of a&B*iing

a ne" one.

;iii.< Lo&#ing in= &*stomes an+ s*%%/ies: Anote "a! of gaining&om%etitive a+vantage 4! *sing stategi& infomation s!stems is 4!

/o&#ig in= &*stomes an+ s*%%/ies. In tis &on&e%t infomation

s!stems ae *se+ to %ovi+e s*& a+vantages to a &*stome o a

s*%%/ie tat it 4e&omes ve! +iffi&*/t fo tem to s"it&ove to a

&om%etito. Fo exam%/e an oganiHation ma! +eve/o% its infomation

s!stem an+ give man! 4enefits to its &*stomes /i#e e/ia4/e o+e

fi//ing e+*&e+ tansa&tion &osts in&ease+ management s*%%ot an+

faste +e/ive! sevi&e. S*& infomation s!stems a/so %ovi+e 4enefits

to s*%%/ies "o &an monito %o+*&t eB*iements fa&to!

s&e+*/ing an+ &ommitments of tei &*stomes against tei o"n

s&e+*/e to ens*e tat te eB*ie+ invento! "i// 4e avai/a4/e. Te

effi&ien&! an+ &onvenien&e "i// e/% +is&o*age te &*stomes an+

s*%%/ies fom s"it&ing to &om%etitos.

;iv.< Lo"eing te &osts ofte %o+*&ts: Stategi& infomation s!stems ma!

a/so e/% oganiHations /o"e tei intena/ &osts a//o"ing tem to

+e/ive %o+*&ts an+ sevi&es at a /o"e %i&e tan tei &om%etitos

&an %ovi+e. T*s s*& infomation s!stems &an &onti4*te to te

s*viva/ an+ go"t of te oganisation. Fo exam%/e ai/ines *se

infomation s!stems stategi&a//! to /o"e &osts so tat te! ma!

&o*nte &om%etit0s= +is&o*nt faes.

;v.< Leveaging te&no/og! in te va/*e &ain: Tis a%%oa& %o%*/a/!#no"n as Potes va/*e &ain mo+e/ %in%oints s%e&ifi& a&tivities in te

4*siness "ee &om%etitive stategies &an 4e 4est a%%/ie+ an+ "ee

infomation s!stems ae /i#e/! to ave a geate stategi& im%a&t. Tis

mo+e/ a+vo&ates tat infomation te&no/og! &an 4est 4e *se+ to gain

&om%etitive a+vantage 4! i+entif!ing s%e&ifi& &iti&a/ /eveage %oints.

Tis mo+e/ ega+s te oganiHation as a seies o Cain= of 4asi&

a&tivities an+ ea& a&tivit! a++s va/*e to te %o+*&t o sevi&e. Tese

a&tivities ae &/assifie+ into t"o &ategoies name/! %ima! a&tivities

an+ s*%%ot a&tivities.

Pima! a&tivities as te name s*ggests ae e/ate+ to te %o+*&tion an++isti4*tion of te oganisation=s %o+*&ts an+ sevi&es tat &eate va/*e fo te

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&*stome. Tese a&tivities in&/*+e in4o*n+ /ogisti&s ;e&eiving an+ stoing

mateia/s< o%eations o*t4o*n+ /ogisti&s ;stoing an+ +isti4*ting %o+*&ts<

sa/es an+ ma#eting an+ sevi&e ;maintenan&e an+ e%ai of fim=s goo+s an+

sevi&es<. S*%%ot a&tivities ae meant to %ovi+e s*%%ot to te %ima!

a&tivities of te oganisation "i& &onsists of oganisationa/ infast*&t*e

;a+ministation an+ management< *man eso*&es te&no/og! ;im%oving%o+*&ts an+ te %o+*&tion %o&ess< an+ %o&*ement ;%*&asing in%*t<.

An infomation s!stem "i// ave a stategi& im%a&t if it ena4/es te oganisation

in %ovi+ing %o+*&ts o sevi&es at a /o"e &ost o "it a geate va/*e tan tat

of te %o+*&t o sevi&e offee+ 4! te &om%etitos. Fig*e ).1 i//*states te

a&tivities of te va/*e &ain an+ e%esentative te&no/ogies "it stategi&

infomation s!stems.

Fig. ).1 A&tivities of te va/*e Cain an+ Re%esentative Te&no/ogies

Fo exam%/e an oganisation &an save mone! in te in4o*n+ /ogisti&s a&tivit! 4!

e&eiving mateia/s on +ai/! 4asis fom te s*%%/ies an+ t*s /o"eing te &osts

of "aeo*sing an+ invento!. Fo tis stategi& infomation /in#s ave to 4e

esta4/ise+ 4et"een te oganisation an+ te s*%%/ie. Simi/a/! &om%*te

&onto//e+ ma&ining s!stems "o*/+ s*%%ot te o%eations a&tivit! e+*&ing

&osts an+ enan&ing B*a/it!. Tese s!stems ena4/e a man*fa&t*ing oganisation

to ave a &om%etitive a+vantage. S!stems /i#e e/e&toni& s&e+*/ing an+

&omm*ni&ation s!stems "i// ave stategi& im%a&t on a &ons*/tan&! fim.

).$.' Oganisationa/ Cange

Te *se of infomation s!stems ma! es*/t in man! &anges in te oganisations.

It ma! affe&t te oganisationa/ st*&t*e goa/s "o#+esign va/*es

&om%etition 4et"een inteest go*%s +e&isionma#ing an+ +a!to+a! 4eavio*.

Some of te mao %otentia/ aeas of im%a&t ae +is&*sse+ in te fo//o"ing

%aaga%s.

Oganisationa/ St*&t*eAs an infomation s!stem ena4/es a manage to in&ease is o e s%an of

&onto/ it "i// /ea+ to fe"e manageia/ /eve/s in te oganisation es*/ting in a

sin#ing siHe of te mi++/e management=. P/atte oganisationa/ ieaeies

ma! a/so es*/t fom e+*&tion in te tota/ n*m4e of em%/o!ees as a es*/t of

in&ease+ %o+*&tivit!. 3ein+ te +o"nsiHing of man! oganisations is te

in&ease+ *se of &om%*te4ase+ infomation s!stems. Anote &ange is te

&eation of IS +e%atment in te oganisation "i& &an /ea+ to a &ange in te

ovea// oganisationa/ st*&t*e.

Centralisation of Authority

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Te infomation s!stems affe&t te +egee of &enta/isation of a*toit! in te

oganisation.

o4 Content

Man! &anges in o4 &ontent ta#e %/a&e "en "o# is e+esigne+ es%e&ia//! in4*siness %o&ess eengineeing ;3PR<. o4 &ontent is ve! im%otant not on/!

4e&a*se it is e/ate+ to oganiHationa/ st*&t*e 4*t a/so 4e&a*se it is intee/ate+

"it em%/o!ee satisfa&tion stat*s %o+*&tivit! et&.

Tese &anges sometimes &eate %o4/ems of o/e &onf/i&t an+ o/e am4ig*it!.

A/so tee ma! 4e esistan&e to &ange fom te em%/o!ees of an oganisation.

Re/ationsi%s

3e&a*se of infomation s!stems e/ationsi%s among em%/o!ees a/so *n+ego a

&ange. Fo exam%/e "it te into+*&tion of &om%*te4ase+ infomations!stems fa&e to fa&e intea&tion 4et"een te s*%eviso an+ s*4o+inate "i// 4e

e+*&e+. Simi/a/! infomation s!stems a/so &ange te e/ationsi% %attens

among %ees. ?it ne" infomation s!stems some %eo%/e in te oganiHation

ma! stat s*ffeing a /oss of i+entit! an+ stat fee/ing /i#e *st anote n*m4e=

4e&a*se tese s!stems +e*manise an+ +e%esona/ise a&tivities. Fome infoma/

"o# go*%s an+ "o#ing e/ationsi%s ma! 4ea#*%. No +o*4t an infomation

s!stem affe&ts te oganisationa/ st*&t*e goa/s "o# +esign va/*es

&om%etition +e&isionma#ing an+ +a!to+a! 4eavio* !et it m*st 4e

*n+estoo+ 4! te oganisations tat infomation te&no/og! exists fo te sa#e

of %eo%/e an+ not vi&e vesa. Moeove infomation te&no/og! is *st an

oganisationa/ f*n&tion an+ not te ote "a! o*n+ Teefoe e/ationsi%s

among %eo%/e o tei 4eavio*a/ as%e&ts m*st 4e &onsi+ee+ "i/e +esigning

infomation s!stems in te oganisation. 3asi& %emise of s!stem +eve/o%ment

so*/+ 4e te e&ognition tat a// "o# %o&esses 4e +esigne+ 4e&a*se of %eo%/e

an+ fo %eo%/e. It is a/so a%%aent tat oganisationa/ &ange ta#es %/a&e 4e&a*se

of te infomation s!stem im%/ementation.

Resistan&e to Cange

Tee ma! 4e esistan&e to &ange 4e&a*se of ne" infomation s!stems in te

oganisation. Oganisations t*s m*st %e%ae temse/ves to manage tisesistan&e to &ange fo te s*&&essf*/ im%/ementation of infomation s!stems. It

is sai+ tat %eo%/e +o not esist te&no/ogi&a/ &ange of a ne" infomation

s!stem 4*t te! esist te so&ia/ &ange. Tis eB*ies tat oganisations so*/+

avoi+ esistan&e to te ne" infomation s!stem ate tan +efeating te

esistan&e 4! sea %o"e.

Te fo//o"ing tee ste%s ma! 4e *sef*/.

;i.< Ceate a &/imate fo &ange

;ii.< Deve/o% effe&tive agents of &ange

;iii.< Mo+if! te eB*ie+= oganisationa/ s!stem.

Ceate a &/imate fo &ange

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Fist of a// oganisations so*/+ &eate a s*ita4/e &/imate fo &ange. S*& a

&*/t*e ma! 4e &eate+ 4! getting te em%/o!ees to fee/ +issatisfie+ "it te

%esent s!stem. Em%/o!ees ma! 4e ex%ose+ to seies of seminas an+ &onfeen&es

"it te main fo&*s on te sot&omings of te %esent s!stems n+ "a!s to

ove&ome tose sot&omings. In tis %o&ess a tin#ing "o*/+ 4e +eve/o%e+

tat ome &ange is eB*ie+ in tei oganisation.

Deve/o% effe&tive agents of &ange

To "in te s*%%ot of te em%/o!ees oganisations so*/+ i+entif! tei infoma/

/ea+es an+ te! o*/+ 4e sent to "o#so%s o seminas. Tis "i// stim*/ate ne"

i+eas in te min+s of te /ea+es. is in t*n "i// e/% gain te s*%%ot of ote

em%/o!ees.

Mo+if! te =eB*ie+= oganisation

A te&ni&a//! i+ea/ oganisation is teme+ as te eB*ie+= oganisation.

o"eve fo a&ieving ette "o#ing e/ationsi%s of te *ses eaangements

of te oganisation so*/+ 4e ma+e to fit e anti&i%ate+ emegent oganisation4eavio*.

).$.$ Oganisationa/ Leaning

Oganisationa/ /eaning "i& exi4its a+a%tive 4eavio* is te %o&ess 4!

"i& an oganiHation +entifies a&tiono*t&ome e/ationsi%s i+entifies an+

&oe&ts eos stoes te ex%eien&e in ganisationa/ %esonne/ "o tea& te

ote em%/o!ees of te oganisation an+ stoes te ex%eien&e n %o&e+*es

s!stems */es &om%*te %ogams an+ ote foms fo tansfeing ex%eien&e.

Fo xam%/e a *se of an infomation s!stem is im%ate+ taining on o" to *se

te ne" s!stem 4! nfomation s!stem s%e&ia/ists. Existing /iteat*e man*a/s

et& to*g %evio*s oganiHationa/ x%eien&e &an e+*&ate *ses on o" to *se

te s!stem. Te /eaning of te *ses is f*te enan&e+ en te! infoma//!

ex&ange e/ate+ stoies on te s!stem Tese e/ate+ stoies ma! &onsist of

*n"itten */es ti%s an+ g*i+e/ines o /eaning ex%eien&es of ote em%/o!ees

in te oganisation.

Stim*/*sRes%onse Teo! of Leaning

Infomation an+ infomation s!stems &an ai+ oganisationa/ /eaning. A&&o+ing

to stim*/*ses%onse eo! te /eaning %o&ess &onsists of fo* main e/ements.

;i.< Dive

;ii.< C*e;iii.< Res%onse an+

;iv.< Reinfo&ement.

;i.< Dive is +efine+ as an! stong stim*/*s tat im%e/s a&tion. It ao*ses

an in+ivi+*a/ an+ #ee%s im %e%ae+ to es%on+. Te +ive to /ean

4e!on+ innate &*iosit! is a&B*ie+.

;ii.< C*e o stim*/*s ma! 4e +efine+ as an! o4e&t in te envionment

%e&eive+ 4! te in+ivi+*a/ i& g*i+es an+ +etemines es%onse.

;iii.< Reinfo&ement o e"a+ means e+*&tion in +ive an+ stim*/*s tat

fo//o"s a es%onse.

Te einfo&ement &a*ses es%onses to 4e /eane+=. Tese e/ements of te/eaning %o&ess ae exi4ite+ in Fig. ).'.

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Fig. ).' Leaming Po&ess

Some es%onses at a ige /eve/ of menta/ %o&esses ae a&tionsG otes %o+*&e

&*es. Infomation s stems ai+ in te /eanin o&ess 4 ovi+in &*es an+ es onses in

te fo//o"ing "a!s.

Intea&tion "it Ote Uses

Infomation s!stems ena4/e a *se to intea&t "it a "i+e vaiet! of

inteoganisationa/ an+ intaoganisationa/ *ses an+ t*s a *se ma! sae is

o e ex%eien&es "it otes an+ vi&e vesa.Tis saing of ex%eien&e

%omotes e+*&ation of te oganisationa/ em%/o!ees.

Intea&tive S!stems an+ Data4ases

No"a+a!s *sefien+/! intea&tive infomation s!stems a/so ena4/e a *se to

/ean a4o*t ne" %o+*&ts a+van&ements et&. 4! %ovi+ing a fee a&&ess to te

exa*stive +ata4ases.

0#gradaticn of S!ills

As te ne" infomation s!stems ae im%/emente+ in an oganisation te

em%/o!ees ae taine+ in *sing tem "i& /ea+s to te *%ga+ation of tei

s#i//s. Tis *%ga+ation of em%/o!ees= s#i//s is a es*/t of te /eaning a&tivit!.

SUMMAR

Unti/ e&ent/! infomation "as &onsi+ee+ as a 4!%o+*&t of tansa&tions in te

oganisations an+ t*s "as ega+e+ as a ne&essa! evi/. To+a! &on&e%t an+

tin#ing a4o*t infomation ave *n+egone a temen+o*s &ange an+ no"

oganisations vie" infomation as a "ea%on against &om%etition an+ a stategi&

eso*&e. Stategi& infomation s!stems &ange goa/s o%eations %o+*&ts

sevi&es an+ envionmenta/ e/ationsi%s of oganisations to e/% tem gain an

e+ge ove tei &om%etitos.

8a/*e &ain mo+e/ &an e/% i+entif! aeas of a 4*siness oganisation "ee IS&an get a stategi& a+vantage. Te va/*e &ain mo+e/ vie"s te oganisation as a

seies o &ain= of 4asi& a&tivities an+ a++ a magin of va/*e to an oganisation=s

%o+*&ts o sevi&es. Infomation s!stems &an ave stategi& im%a&t on a&tivities

tat a++ te maxim*m va/*e to te oganisation. To gain &om%etitive

a+vantages oganisations *se stategi& infomation s!stems in te fo//o"ing

"a!s.

;i.< Ceating 4aies to &om%etitos= ent!

;ii.< 9eneating +ata4ases

;iii.< Lo&#ing in= &*stomes

;iv.< Lo"eing te %o+*&+sevi&e &ost an+

;v.< Leveaging te&no/og! in te va/*e &ain.

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Infomation s!stems a/so ena4/e an oganisation to &ange. Te oganisationa/

&anges ma! 4e in te fom of ne" oganisation st*&t*e ne" a*toit!

es%onsi4i/it! %attens &ange+ o4 &ontents an+ ne" e/ationsi%s among

em%/o!ees. 3e&a*se of IS im%/ementation tee ma! 4e esistan&e to &ange

"i& so*/+ 4e manage+ s#i/f*//!. Infomation s!stems a/so ena4/e an

oganisation to /ean ne" te&no/og! an+ its im%a&ts. Infomation s!stems ai+ inte oganisationa/ /eaning 4! %ovi+ing &*es an+ es%onses.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

1. 9ive fo* +iffeent &on&e%ts of te o/e of infomation s!stems in

oganisations. Do !o* tin# infomation s!stems ave &ange+ to mat&

tese +iffeing vie"s of infomation@

'. Dis&*ss te &on&e%t of stategi& infomation s!stems. Diffeentiate

stategi& infomation s!stem an+ a stategi&/eve/ s!stem.

$. Dis&*ss te fo* 4asi& &om%etitive stategies. o" &an SIS e/%

oganisations %*s*e ea& of tese stategies@

). Do !o* tin# IS ena4/es oganisations to &ange@ o"@ Dis&*ss teoganisationa/ &anges 4e&a*se of IS im%/ementation.

(. o" "o*/+ !o* manage esistan&e to &ange@ In !o* o%inion is

esistan&e a/"a!s negative@ Dis&*ss.

6. Define oganisationa/ /eaning. o" +oes an infomation s!stem ai+ in

oganisationa/ /eaning@

ASSI9NMENTS

1. 8isit a nea4! oganisation. St*+! its 4*siness. 3ase+ on te st*+!

s*ggest an a%%o%iate stategi& infomation s!stem fo te oganisation.

'. St*+! an! oganisation in "i& infomation s!stems ave e&ent/! 4een

im%/emente+. Fin+ o*t if tee "as an! esistan&e to &ange. If !es st*+!

o" te oganisation manage+ tat &ange. I+entif! te &anges 4e&a*se

of ne" infomation s!stems in te oganisation.

REFERENCES

Ag!is Cis Oganisation Leaning an+ Management Infomation

S!stems= Data4ase 1$: '$ ?inteS%ing 1-,'.

3/a#e Ivas an+ 9ea/+ R Leamont Te Infomation S!stem as a

Com%etitive ?ea%on=Comm*ni&ations of te ACM De&em4e 1-,).

Pote Mi&ae/ o" Infomation Can e/% o* Com%ete= ava+

3*siness Revie" A*g*stSe%tem4e 1-,(.8i&to an*/aitis M. 9aining Com%etitive A+vantage= Infos!stems O&to4e

1-,).

?is/e T.I.. Te Im%a&t of Com%*tes on Oganisations Paege Ne"

o# 1-20.

?iseman Ca/es Stategi& Infomation S!stem ome"oo+ IL: Ri&a+

D. I"in 1-,,.

annis 3a#os an+ Mi&ae/ E. Tea&! infomation Te&no/og! an+ Co%oate

Stateg!: A Reseae Pes%e&tive= MIS 5*ate/! *ne 1-,6.

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;i.< Monitoing of vei&/es engage+

;ii.< 3oo#ing of vei&/es fo ti%s

;iii.< De&i+ing te o*te of vei&/es

;iv.< Reim4*sement to +ives

;v.< Testing an+ maintenan&e of vei&/es 4efoe ea& ti%

;vi.< 3i//ing of &/ients;vii.< Ana/!sis of +amages &a*se+ an+

;viii.< Ana/!sis of +ive=s %efoman&e to*g tis is te main neg/e&te+

tas#.

Te o"ne of te &om%an! as e&ent/! tie+ *% "it a man*fa&t*ing &om%an!

to %ovi+e t*&#s fo +es%at& of goo+s. Te &/ient &om%an! as a ve! sti&t

monitoing s!stem of +es%at&. An! +e/a! in ea&ing te +estination "i// im%/!

a %ena/t! at te ate of Rs $00 %e +a!. A/so te tans%ote &an eno! an a"a+

of Rs $00 if its t*&# ea&es 4efoe time. A /ist of a// %ossi4/e +estinations of te

&/ient%o+*&t as 4een given to te tans%ote "i& ef/e&ts te nom +a!s to

ea& te /o&ation. No" te o"ne as to &aef*//! %/an o*t is infomations!stem. e as eno*g mone! to s%en+ on MIS ana/!sis an+ im%/ementation of

te %o%ose+ so/*tion 4*t +oes not #no" o" to manage is time fo ma#ing

ne" stategies.


1. ?at #in+ of stategi& infomation s!stem !o* "o*/+ %o%ose fo s*& a

&om%an!@

'. o" &an !o* e/% im in managing is time fo ma#ing ne" stategies@

CASE STUD '

Po+*&tion Des%at& Management

Infomation S!stem

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INTRODUCTION

Q Co. is engage+ in te 4*siness of a*tomo4i/e man*fa&t*ing. It

man*fa&t*es a "i+e ange of t"o"ee/es &ateing to vaio*s segments of te

ma#et. It as a %/ant "it a &a%a&it! of (00 vei&/es +ai/!. Tese vei&/es afte

%o+*&tion an+ B*a/it! testing ae sent to te "aeo*se fo sto&# maintenan&e.Te &om%an! e&o+e+ te ann*a/ t*nove of Rs 600 &oe in te !ea 1--2-,.

It as f*te %/ans to go" 4! a++ing anote %/ant "it simi/a &a%a&it!.

SALES AND DISTRI3UTION

Te ma#eting +e%atment of te &om%an! o%eates fom te ea+ offi&e "i&

is 100 #m a"a! fom te %/ant. Tis +e%atment as +eve/o%e+ a net"o# of 120

+ea/es a// ove te&o*nt! an+ in te neig4o*ing &o*nties. A// sa/es of

vei&/es ae +one on/! to*g te +ea/es. Te &om%an! assigns ann*a/ sa/es

tagets to a// +ea/es afte &ons*/tation "it te &on&ene+ +ea/e. Tese tagets

genea//! va! fom egion to egion +e%en+ing on te +eman+ of te %o+*&t in

te state o te &it!. Te ann*a/ taget is ten +isti4*te+ ove te !ea to +eivete mont/! sa/es tagets. Te +ea/es %/a&e tei o+es "it te ma#eting

+e%atment. No sa/es ae ma+e "ito*t a &oes%on+ing +eman+ 4! te +ea/e. A

&onto/ is #e%t on te sa/e "it es%e&t to te mont/!ann*a/ sa/es tagets

a&ieve+emaining. Te ma#eting +e%atment #ee%s one &o%! of a// o+es

"it it an+ sen+sanote to te +es%at& +e%atment. Te ma#eting manage

ties *% "it te +es%at& in&age to a//o&ate %ioities to te o+es fo

+es%at&.

DESPATC PLAN

Te +es%at& +e%atment /o&ate+ in te fa&to! %emises gets te o+e +etai/s

fom te ma#eting +e%atment. Te %eson in&age of +es%at& &ons*/ts te

ma#eting manage to i+entif! #e! o+es in o+e to assign tem a ig %ioit!

fo +es%at&. It ten aanges te eB*ie+ +es%at&es a&&o+ing to te

geoga%i&a/ /o&ations. T*s a// o+es %etaining to one &it! o &ities on te

same o*te ae se/e&te+ fo /oa+ing on one t*&# Te %/an a/so &onsi+es te

vei&/e n*m4e of te t*&# "i& "i// 4e o*te+ fo a +es%at&. Te +es%at&

%/an afte fina/isation is sent to te ma#eting +e%atment fo infomation an+

ne&essa! tie*%s "it te +ea/es.

TE MODE OF DESPATC

Te &om%an! as eno//e+ t*&#s fo a// +es%at&es. Fo tis it as entee+ intoann*a/ &onta&ts "it vaio*s tans%otes. Te tans%otes egiste tei

t*&#s "it te &om%an! fo te %eio+ of te &onta&t. Te! ave to s%e&if! te

t*&# n*m4e %emit +etai/s an+ +etai/s of te +ive. Eve! t*&# m*st ave a

va/i+ %emit n*m4e "i& signifies te govenment %emission given to te

t*&# to %/! on te o*tes s%e&ifie+ in te %emit. Te +es%at& +e%atment as

to #ee% an e!e on te t*&#s "ose %emit va/i+it! is a4o*t to ex%ie. A// t*&#s

ave s%e&ia/ fittings as %e te &om%an! s%e&ifi&ation to s*it te tans%otation of

te vei&/es to 4e +es%at&e+. As soon as te t*&# &omes 4a&# fom te to* it

e%ots 4a&# to te es%at& se&tion. Tese t*&#s ae /oa+e+ on a fist&ome

fistseve+ 4asis.

PROCESS OF DELI8ER AND AC7NO?LED9EMENT

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As te +es%at& +e%atment %/ans te +es%at& te +etai/s ae sent to te EDP

+e%atment "i& geneates five &o%ies of invoi&e fo eve! o+e. Te invoi&e

&ontains te a&t*a/ n*m4e of items +e/ivee+ an+ te tota/ amo*nt in *%ees in

a++ition to te &*stome i+entit! +etai/s. Te t*&# +etai/s ae entee+ as te

mateia/ gets /oa+e+ %!si&a//! at te gate. One &o%! ea& goes to te "aeo*se

a&&o*nts ma#eting t*&# +ive an+ te &on&ene+ +ea/e. Te &o%ies of tea&&o*nts an+ ma#eting +e%atment ae sent via eg*/a &om%an! vans "i&

%/! 4et"een te fa&to! an+ O t"i&e eve! +a!. Te t*&# +ive ta#es is an+

te +ea/e=s &o%! a/ong "it te mateia/ to 4e +e/ivee+. On et*n te +ive

gets te +ea/e=s a#no"/e+gement on is o"n &o%! an+ s*4mits tis 4a&# to te

+es%at& se&tion. Te +es%at& +e%atment /ate sen+s tis 4a&# to te

ma#eting.

PROCESS OF PAMENTS

Te +ea/es ave a s%e&ia/ s!stem of %a!ments. Most of te +ea/es sen+ a /ette

of &e+it ;LC< to te &om%an! given 4! its 4an#es fo a s%e&ifi& time %eio+ an+

amo*nt. Te time is enea//! one !ea. Te &om%an! intea&ts "it a 4an& of te +ea/e=s 4an#e in to"n. As soon as te +es%at& is ma+e to te +ea/e te

a&&o*nts %eson goes to te 4an# so"s te invoi&e to te 4an# so tat te 4an#

ea/ises te LC an+ te %a!ment is given to te &om%an! in a +a!. Next it is te

tas# ofte 4an# to fo//o"*% "it its +ea/e fo a&t*a/ ea/isation of mone!. In

some &ases te +ea/e +ie&t/! sen+s in a +eman+ +aft fo te %a!ment. Te

+afts &an 4e sent in a+van&e a/so. It is %ossi4/e to get a %a!ment %at/! 4! LC

an+ %at/! 4! +aft.

Ma#eting an+ finan&e +e%atments maintain se%aate +etai/s fo te

o*tstan+ings on tei es%e&tive %esona/ &om%*tes.

INFORMATION FLO?

Te EDP at fa&to! %o&esses te invoi&es on a mini&om%*te tat *ns a

%o%ieta! /ang*age. To*g a ne" RISCX4ase+ ma&ine as 4een insta//e+

"it UNI S8R).0 an+ S!4ase s!stem 10 it "i// ta#e at /east t"o !eas to

&onvet tis s!stem to ne" fomats as %e te %ioities of te &om%an!.

Te ma#eting +e%atment gets a &o%! of te invoi&e te same +a! "en te

%o+*&t is to 4e +es%at&e+. Tis +ata is entee+ on a /o&a/ %esona/ &om%*te

*nning on ?in+o"s an+ Fox%o. Eve! moning 4efoe 10.00 A.M. a e%ot

goes to te +ie&to ofte &om%an! giving te +es%at& stat*s of te %evio*s +a!

fo a// te +ea/es "it tei tagets a&ieve+ an+ emaining. Te +es%at&es aein+i&ate+ se%aate/! fo ea& mo+e/. Te e%ot a/so in+i&ates te +ea/es=

o*tstan+ings. Te management is some"at igi+ a4o*t te /engt of te e%ot

not ex&ee+ing t"o %ages. Te ma#eting +e%atment #ee%s ta&# of te %a!ments

+*e on %at of te +ea/es. Dea/es a/so #ee% inging *% te ma#eting

+e%atment to #no" a4o*t te stat*s of tei o+es an+ %a!ments. Pa&ti&a//!

one %eson is meant ex&/*sive/! fo atten+ing to %one &a//s.

PRO3LEMS IN TE EISTIN9 INFORMATION FLO?

Tee is genea//! a /ong "aiting /ist of t*&#s stan+ing i+/e in "ait fo /oa+ing.

Tis is genea//! so 4e&a*se te +es%at& se&tion +oes not #no" exa&t/! o"

man! t*&#s "o*/+ 4e avai/a4/e on a given +a!. Te ea/ %o4/em aises "en te+es%at& se&tion %/ans a +es%at& fo a +ea/e "ose LC va/i+it! %eio+ as

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ex%ie+ i.e. te mateia/ is sent to a +ea/e "ose %a!ment stat*s is not &/ea. At

times te +ata maintaine+ 4! ma#eting an+ finan&e +e%atments +oes not

e&on&i/e t*s a++ing to am4ig*ities. Te finan&e +e%atment noma//! /ags

4ein+ as te %a!ment +etai/s fist &ome to te ma#eting +e%atment.

FUTURE PLANSTe ma#eting manage "ants to in&ease te e/ia4i/it! of +es%at&. Fo tis e

as %o%ose+ to in&/*+e te +ea/e=s +etai/e+ fee+4a&# on +e/ive! of goo+s

in&/*+ing te +e%at*e +etai/s an+ +ate an+ time of aiva/ of te t*&# at te

+ea/e=s %emises. Te n*m4e of t*&#s tat "i// 4e avai/a4/e +*ing te

fo//o"ing "ee#+a!s is eB*ie+ to 4e #no"n in a+van&e. Te t*&# %efoman&e

&an a/so 4e monitoe+ on te 4asis of its time +e/a!s an+ te +ea/e=s fee+4a&# on

+e/ive!. S%e&ia/ s&emes ae 4eing "o#e+ o*t to motivate%ena/ise te

tans%otes fo tei %efoman&e. A %o/i&! +e&ision is a/so eB*ie+ to 4e ta#en

ega+ing +es%at&ing mateia/ "ose %a!ment stat*s is not &/ea.

FUTURE PLANS: INFORMATION TECNOLO9Te management is fast ea/ising te nee+ to move to"a+s a*tomation fo

4ette &onto/ ove its +es%at& s!stem. Te in o*se soft"ae +eve/o%ment team

as a/ea+! ma+e one a%%/i&ation to monito te %a!ment stat*s of +ea/es 4*t

tis as not 4een im%/emente+ as te o%eationa/ staff is not "i//ing to a++ to its

/oa+. It seems te management +oes not "ant to em%/o! moe man%o"e fo tis

"o# 4*t te existing staff fee/s tat tis ne" tas# "o*/+ a++ to te "o#/oa+

ma#ing it 4e!on+ tei &a%a&it!. Te ma#eting manage as seen man! of its

&om%eting oganisations &anging tei "a!s to tiein "it &*stomes an+

s*%%/ies "it te e/% of IT. o"eve te i+eas ae not ve! mat*e in is min+.

e "ants a so/*tion tat in&eases te 4*siness as "e// as +ea/e satisfa&tion 4*t

at te same time te &ost of "i& &an 4e *stifie+ to te to% management.


1. I+entif! te intefa&es of te +es%at& +e%atment "it tes.

'. I+entif! te %o4/ems an+ ITIS so/*tions.

$. St*+! feasi4i/it! of te s!stem.

). I+entif! te stategi& a&tions tat so*/+ e ta#en to mitigate te is#s in

im%/ementing ne" te&no/og!.

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(

3asis of Com%*te S!stem

Leaning O4e&tives

Afte st*+!ing tis &a%te !o* "i// 4e a4/e to:

• +es&i4e vaio*s &om%onents of a &om%*te s!stem an+ ex%/ain tei

o/esG

• +is&*ss vaio*s in%*t an+ o*t%*t +evi&esG

• *n+estan+ +&it* &a%t*e meto+sG

• i+entif! on+ +isting*is among te +iffeent t!%es of &om%*tesG

• *n+estan+ te +eve/o%ments in &om%*te soft"ae te&no/og!.

It as a/ea+! 4een +is&*sse+ tat to+a! te tem MIS as 4e&ome s!non!mo*s"it &om%*te4ase+ management infomation s!stems ;C3MISs<. Teefoe

eve! manage in an! oganisationas to 4e &om%*te /iteate an+ te 4est

a%%oa& fo /eaning a4o*t &om%*tes is fist to 4e a"ae of te 4asi&s of a

&om%*te s!stem.

(.1 A COMPUTER SSTEM

A &om%*te in a sim%/e /ang*age ma! 4e *n+estoo+ as a fast &a/&*/ating

e/e&toni& ma&ine tat &an %efom aitmeti& o%eations. o"eve a &om%*te

is not on/! a &a/&*/ating ma&ine. To+a! it &an %efom a vaiet! of a&tivities

invo/ving aitmeti& an+ /ogi&a/ o%eations on +ata. It a&&e%ts te +ata to*g

an in%*t +evi&e %o&esses it as %e te inst*&tions given an+ %o+*&es teinfomation as o*t%*t T*s a &om%*te ma! 4e +efine+ as a fast e/e&toni&

+evi&e tat %o&esses te in%*t +ata as %e te given inst*&tions an+ %o+*&es

te infomation as o*t%*t. A +etai/e+ +es&i%tion of a &om%*te s!stem is given in

te fo//o"ing text. A &om%*te s!stem ma! 4e vis*a/ise+ as a set of intee/ate+

e/ements tat %efom te 4asi& s!stem f*n&tions of in%*t %o&essing o*t%*t

stoage an+ &onto/. Fig*e (.1 i//*states te 4asi& a+"ae *nits of a &om%*te

s!stem "i& ae oganise+ a&&o+ing to te fo//o"ing s!stem f*n&tions

In%*t

Te in%*t +evi&es of a &om%*te s!stem in&/*+e #e!4oa+ e/e&toni& mo*se

to*& s&eens an+ o%ti&a/ s&annes. Te! &onvet +ata into e/e&toni& ma&ineea+a4/e fom ena4/ing +ata ent! into a &om%*te s!stem.

Fig. (.1 Com%onents of a Com%*te a+"ae S!stem

Po&essing

Te main %o&essing &om%onent of a &om%*te s!stem is te Centa/ Po&essing

Unit ;CPU<. Te aitmeti& an+ /ogi& f*n&tions in %o&essing ae &aie+ ove 4!

one of its mao &om%onents #no"n as Aitmeti& an+ Logi& Unit ;ALU<.

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O*t%*t

Te o*t%*t +evi&es of a &om%*te s!stem in&/*+e 8is*a/ Dis%/a! Unit ;8DU<

%intes an+ s%ea#es fo a*+io. To*g tese +evi&es infomation is %esente+

in te *n+estan+a4/e /ang*age to te en+ *ses.

Stoage

Tis f*n&tion is %efome+ 4! te %ima! an+ se&on+a! stoage *nits

;memo!< of a &om%*te s!stem. Tese *nits stoe +ata an+ %ogams eB*ie+

fo +ata %o&essing.

Conto/

Te &onto/ *nit of te CPU inte%ets vaio*s &om%*te %ogams an+ sen+s

+ie&tions to te ote &om%onents of te &om%*te s!stem fo te eB*ie+

o%eations to 4e %efome+. Fom te a4ove it &an 4e *n+estoo+ tat a

&om%*te e&eives +ata %o&esses it stoes it an+ +is%/a!s es*/ts. As mentione+

a4ove a &om%*te &a%t*es +ata fom in%*t +evi&es %o&esses tis +ata in teCenta/ Po&essing Unit stoes it in memo! an+ +is%/a!s es*/ts to*g o*t%*t

+evi&es. Li#e te *man min+ a &om%*te=s memo! is a/so /imite+. Fo tis

eason &om%*te stoes most &iti&a/ +ata an+ inst*&tions in its main memo!

"eeas /ess &iti&a/ an+ /ess feB*ent/! *se+ +ata in its se&on+a! memo!. A

4ief +es&i%tion of a+"ae &om%onents a/ong "it a fe" im%otant

&aa&teisti&s of ea& a+"ae is given in te fo//o"ing %aaga%s.

(.1.1 Centa/ Po&essing Unit

Te Centa/ Po&essing Unit ;CPU< is te &om%*te= of a &om%*te s!stem. It is

te &ente of a// %o&essing a&tivities. It is in te CPU tat a// %o&essing is

&onto//e+ a// +ata is mani%*/ate+ aitmeti& &om%*tations ae %efome+ an+

/ogi&a/ &om%aisons ae ma+e. It as an aitmeti& /ogi& *nit ;ALU< an+ a

&onto/ *nit.

Aitmeti& /ogi& *nit as te name s*ggests %efoms te aitmeti&a/ ;/i#e

a++ition s*4ta&tion m*/ti%/i&ation +ivision et&.< an+ /ogi&a/ o%eations e.g. Is

M V N "ee M an+ N ae 4ot n*m4es Is te Unit Pi&e eB*a/ to Tota/

CostI'@ A// s*& aitmeti&a/ an+ /ogi&a/ f*n&tions ae &aie+ o*t in s%e&ia/

stoage aeas in te CPU &a//e+ egistes "i& ae vita/ to te f*n&tioning of a

&om%*te. Te siHe an+ n*m4e of egistes vaies fom &om%*te to &om%*te

sin&e te egiste siHe efes to te amo*nt of infomation tat &an 4e e/+ in aegiste at a time. Te %o&essing s%ee+ "i// 4e faste fo te /age egiste. Te

%o&essing %o"e of a CPU is meas*e+ in mi//ion inst*&tions %e se&on+

;MIPS<. Te s%ee+ of a CPU is *s*a//! meas*e+ in &!&/e time i.e. te time

eB*ie+ to exe&*te one 4asi& inst*&tion.

?i/e on fist geneation &om%*tes te CPU s%ee+ "as meas*e+ in

mi//ise&on+s ;11000 of a se&on+< it "as in mi&ose&on+s ;110one ni//iont of a

se&on+< on se&on+ geneation &om%*tes in nanose&on+s ;1/Oone 4i//iont of a

se&on+< on ti+ an+ fo*t geneation &om%*tes. In I te f*t*e fift

geneation &om%*tes te CPU s%ee+ is ex%e&te+ to 4e in te ange of

%i&ose&on+s ;110Y1 of a se&on+<.

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Fig. (.' Centa/ Po&essing Unit

Te &onto/ *nit eg*/ates a// te o%eations of a CPU. It is te &onto/ *nit"i& ens*es te tansfe of te eB*ie+ +ata 4et"een te CPU an+ te in%*t

o*t%*t +evi&es in te eB*ie+ an+ +esie+ seB*en&e. It &ontains a// /ogi& &i&*its

an+ stoage s%a&e nee+e+ fo te &onto/ of in%*to*t%*t +evi&es.

(.1.' Main Memo!

Main memo! o %ima! stoage stoes +ata an+ %ogam statements fo te

CPU. Te s%e&ifi& f*n&tions of te main memo! ae to:

;i.< stoe a// +ata to 4e %o&esse+

;ii.< stoe +ata an+ es*/ts +*ing inteme+iate stages of %o&essing

;iii.< o/+ +ata afte %o&essing *nti/ it is tansfee+ to an o*t%*t +evi&e

an+;iv.< o/+ inst*&tions eB*ie+ fo ongoing %o&essing.

It "o*/+ 4e inteesting to #no" te "a! a &om%*te stoes +ata %ogams et&.

intena//!. It is genea//! sai+ tat "ateve a &om%*te +oes it +oes to*g Os

an+ 1s o a &om%*te &annot *n+estan+ an!ting 4e!on+ 0s an+ 1s. Is it a fa&t@

Te ans"e is !es as "e #no" tat a &om%*te "o#s "it e/e&ti&it! an+ to

ma#e it moe e/ia4/e an+ effe&tive a &om%*te is +esigne+ *sing on/! t"o

signa/s i.e. te %esen&e ;1< an+ a4sen&e ;0< of an e/e&ti&a/ %*/se "i& is eite

te on= o te off> state of e/e&ti&a/ signa/. Tese t"o +igits i.e. 0 an+ 1 ae

#no"n as 4ina! +igits ;4its<. In o+e to e%esent infomation in a &om%*te

"e *se a /age n*m4e of s!m4o/s o &aa&tes name/! n*m4es in te +e&ima/

s!stem 0 to - a/%a4ets A to ;&a%ita/ as "e// as /o"e &ase< aitmeti&a/ an+

e/ationa/ o%eatos /i#e Z V [ \ et&. an+ s%e&ia/ &aa&tes /i#e :@ et&.

Fo e%esenting tese s!m4o/s an+ &aa&tes in a &om%*te a *niB*e

e%esentation fo ea& s!m4o/ an+ &aa&te is eB*ie+. ?it t"o 4its fo*

+iffeent &aa&tess!m4o/s name/! 00 01 10 an+ 11 &an 4e e%esente+. ?it

$ 4its eigt ;'=< +iffeent &aa&tess!m4o/s name/! 000 010 011 001 100 101

110 an+ 111 &an 4e e%esente+. Simi/a/! "e &an e%esent 6) +iffeent

&aa&tes "it 6 +igits. Sin&e tee ae moe tan ,0 &aa&tes to 4e

e%esente+ an+ tee ma! aise a nee+ to in&/*+e moe &aa&tes in f*t*e&om%*tes t!%i&a//! *se eigt 4its to e%esent infomation intena//!. ?it ,

4its *% to '(6 ;',< +iffeent &aa&tes &an 4e e%esente+ *niB*e/!.

A &o//e&tion of , 4its is #no"n as a 4!te. One 4!te is *se+ to e%esent one

&aa&te of +ata 4! most &om%*te &o+ing s&emes.

T"o "i+e/! *se+ ,4it &o+ing s&emes ae E3CDIC ;Exten+e+ 3ina! Co+e+

De&ima/ Inte&ange Co+e< %ono*n&e+ e4sa+i&#= an+ ASCII ;Amei&an

Stan+a+ Co+e fo infomation Inte&ange< %ono*n&e+ as#ee. Te! *se

vaio*s aangements of 4its to fom 4!tes tat e%esent te &aa&tes of te

a/%a4et n*m4es 0 to - an+ man! ote s%e&ia/ s!m4o/s.

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E3CDIC "as +eve/o%e+ 4! I3M an+ is *se+ %imai/! on /age mainfame

&om%*tes. ASCII as emege+ as te stan+a+ &o+ing s&eme fo

mi&o&om%*tes. Tese &o+ing s&emes ae so"n in Fig (.$.

To e%esent n*m4es intena//! most &om%*tes *se t"o 4!tes o fo* 4!tes

en&e te *sage of te tem 164it o $'4it &om%*tes. Te memo! is ma+e *%of a n*m4e of &e//s o memo! /o&ations. Te &e//s ae oganise+ to > o/+

infomation of a fixe+ siHe "i& ma! 4e , 4its of infomation 16 4its $' 4its

6) 4its an+ so on. Tis is #no"n as te "o+ /engt o "o+ siHe of te memo!.

Ea& &e// is seB*entia//! n*m4ee+ to give a *niB*e a++ess #no"n as /o&ation

a++ess. Te &ontents of te memo! /o&ations ae a&&esse+ 4! efeing to its

/o&ation a++ess. Te n*m4e of 4its *se+ to a++ess a memo! /o&ation

+etemines te n*m4e of a++essa4/e memo! /o&ations. Fo exam%/e "it 10

4its 10') ;'10< /o&ations &an 4e a++esse+. Te amo*nt of infomation tat &an

4e stoe+ in te main memo! is efee+ to as te memo! &a%a&it! of te

&om%*te an+ is meas*e+ in #i/o4!tes ;#3< o mega4!tes ;M3<. A/to*g #i/o=

means one to*san+= in te meti& s!stem te &om%*te in+*st! *ses # toe%esent 10') o ;'10< %ositions. o"eve s*& +iffeen&es ae ignoe+ fo te

sa#e of &onvenien&e. T*s a mega4!te ;' '0< is a%%oximate/! one mi//ion ;10-<

4!tes "i/e a giga4!te is o*g/! one 4i//ion ;10-< 4!tes.

To ma#e te main memo! of a &om%*te t"o +iffeent te&no/ogies name/!

magneti& &oe te&no/og! an+ semi&on+*&to ;&i%< te&no/og! ave 4een *se+.

o"eve fo vaio*s a+vantages of semi&on+*&to memo! ove magneti& &oe

memo! a// mo+en &om%*tes *se semi&on+*&to memo!. Semi&on+*&to

memo! is &ea%e faste an+ is avai/a4/e on miniat*ise+ &i%s. Te on/!

+isa+vantage of semi&on+*&to memo! is its vo/ati/e nat*e tat is it /oses its

&ontents in te event of e/e&ti& s*%%/! fai/*e. o"eve tis +a"4a&# &an 4e

easi/! ove&ome 4! #ee%ing/ 4a&#*% %o"e *nits ;Uninte*%te+ Po"e S*%%/!

eB*i%ment #no"n as UPS<. Te main memo! of a &om%*te aving

semi&on+*&to memo! &an 4e of te fo//o"ing t"o t!%es.

Fig. (.$ Co+ing Stan+a+s

Ran+om A&&ess Memo! ;RAM<

Te memo! is #no"n as RAM if an! %at of it &an 4e a&&esse+ an+om/!

;+ie&t/!< fo ea+ing an+ "iting. RAM is vo/ati/e an+ is ease+ "en &om%*te

is s"it&e+ off. Tis is te %/a&e in "i& te CPU stoes te +ata an+ %ogams

Te /age te memo! aea te /age te %ogams tat &an 4e stoe+ an+

exe&*te+. No"a+a!s a t!%i&a/ m*/time+ia %esona/ &om%*te eB*ies a

minim*m of 1', M3 to '.(6 M3 of RAM. T"o t!%es of RAM i.e. DRAM

;D!nami& RAM< an+ SRAM ;Stati&RAM< ae &ommon/! *se+ in PCs. In DRAM

te stoe+ infomation as to 4e efese+ afte eve! fe" mi//ise&on+s ote"ise

it is ease+G "eeas in SRAM te stoe+ infomation nee+ not 4e ;efese+G

ate it emains in te memo! *nti/ te &om%*te is s"it&e+ off.

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Rea+ On/! Memo! ;ROM<

Rea+ on/! memo! is anote %at of te main memo! "i& a//o"s its &ontents

to 4e ea+ 4*t +oes not %emit an! "iting o a/teations to 4e ma+e 4! its *ses.

Te %ogams ae &ontin*a//! etaine+ "itin te ROM. Tis t!%e of memo! is

nonvoIati/e ;tat is it +oes not /ose its &ontents "it te %o"e fai/*e as te

%ogams ae %emanent/! "itten to it<. Us*a//! ROM is s*%%/ie+ 4! teman*fa&t*e "it a// te feB*ent/! *se+ o*tines fo exam%/e %ogam

nee+e+ to stat ;4oot< a &om%*te &a/&*/ating sB*ae oot o ote *ti/it!

%ogammes. ROM vaies fom 6) #3 to 1 M3 +e%en+ing on te t!%e of

&om%*te.

o"eve sometimes it 4e&omes ne&essa! to ma#e &anges in ROM fo a

%ati&*/a &/ient. In tat &ase a Pogamma4/e ROM ;PROM< memo! &an 4e

*se+. A PROM &an 4e %ogamme+ on&e 4! a %ogamme. On&e %ogamme+

PROM 4e&omes ROM. Anote &atego! of ROM is a/so avai/a4/e "i& is

#no"n as Easa4/e PROM ;EPROM< "i& &annot on/! 4e %ogamme+ 4! te

%ogamme 4*t a/so 4e ease+ 4! */tavio/et /igt fo e%ogamming.

Simi/a/! ote t!%es of ROM avai/a4/e fo mi&o&om%*tes ae EEPROM;E/e&ti&a//! EPROM< EAPROM ;E/e&ti&a//! A/tea4/e PROM< et&.

(.1.$ Se&on+a! Memo!

As te main memo! of a &om%*te is /imite+ vo/ati/e an+ ex%ensive se&on+a!

memo! 4e&omes essentia/ to an! &om%*te to %ovi+e 4a&#*% stoage an+ t*s

it s*%%/ements te main memo!. ?i/e te main memo! is &ontaine+ in

memo! &i%s se&on+a! stoage &an 4e on man! +iffeent t!%es of me+ia.

o"eve as &om%ae+ to main memo! te se&on+a! stoage to*g non

vo/ati/e is e/ative/! s/o"e in stoing an+ etieving +ata. No"a+a!s se&on+a!

stoage me+ia &an 4e &/assifie+ *n+e tee t!%es name/!: magneti& o%ti&a/

an+ magnetoo%ti&a/ stoage +evi&es.

Magneti& Stoage Devi&es

In tis me+ia +ata is stoe+ on a magneti& me+i*m 4! %o/aising te me+i*m=s

magneti& +omains in eite te not o te so*t +ie&tion "i& e%esent te

4ina! states 0 o 1. Tese &o+es ae inte%ete+ 4! an in+*&tive ea+"ite ea+.

Te most &ommon magneti& stoage +evi&es in&/*+e magneti& +is# an+ magneti&

+is#ette.

Magneti& Ta%e

Magneti& ta%e is a &om%a&t me+i*m fo stoing /age amo*nts of infomationan+ is 4ests*ite+ fo a%%/i&ations tat eB*ie a /age amo*nt of infomation to

4e 4a&#e+*% o tans%ote+. Ta%es ae ve! &ea% an+ offe one of te /o"est

&ost %e mega4!te of stoage. Magneti& ta%e is #e%t on a /age ee/ o in a sma//

&ati+ge o &assette. Te stan+a+ ta%e ee/ is a/fanin& "i+e an+ ')00 feet

/ong an+ &an stoe *% to $)0 M3 to $( 93 +e%en+ing *%on its %emitte+

e&o+ing +ensit!. Magneti& ta%e is a %/asti& i44on &oate+ on one si+e "it an

ion oxi+e mateia/ tat &an 4e magnetise+ 4! e/e&tomagneti& %*/ses. Tin! aeas

on te &oating ae teate+ as sma// magnets "ose %o/ait! is set in one of te t"o

+ie&tions in o+e to stoe one of te t"o 4ina! va/*es Data &an 4e ea+

"ito*t a/teing te %o/ait!. To ea+ o "ite on Se&on+a! stoage te

magneti& me+ia is %asse+ *n+e a ea+"ite ea+. Te 4its ae aange+ in&anne/s ;ta&#s< a&oss te "i+t of te ta%e. Te magneti& ta%es "i& ae

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no"a+a!s in *se ae nine &anne/ ta%es. Te fist eigt &anne/s ae *se+ to stoe

te stan+a+ ,4it &o+e ;E3CDIC o ASCII< of te &aa&te an+ te nint

&anne/ stoe+ a %ait! 4it> ;to &e&# te va/i+it! of te &aa&te< "i& is

assigne+ 4! te s!stem a*tomati&a//!. Fig*e (.) +e%i&ts +ata e&o+e+ on a ta%e.

Magneti& ta%e is mo*nte+ on a ta%e +ive "i& as a ea+"ite ea+ an+

en&/ose+ in a ta%e +ive *nit ;see Fig. (.(<. Tee ae no %!si&a/ a++esses on amagneti& ta%e to i+entif! te /o&ation of stoe+ +ata. Te e&o+s ae stoe+ in

4/o&#s on te ta%e an+ ea& 4/o&# is se%aate+ fom te next 4! an inte4/o&#

ga% ;see Fig. (.6< "i& is ne&essa! to a&&e/eate te ta%e t0 ea+"ite s%ee+

an+ 4ing it to est at te en+ of a ea+"ite o%eation.

Fig. (.( Magneti& Ta%e Dive Unit

T"o &aa&teisti&s name/! +ensit! an+ tansfe ate ae im%otant to*n+estan+. Te +ensit! of a magneti& ta%e efes to te n*m4e of 4its %e in&

;4%i< fom a sing/e ta&# ;a/ong its /engt<. Magneti& ta%es ae avai/a4/e "it

,00 1600 $'00 o 6'(0 4%i. It is *n+estoo+ tat 4%i &an 4e ega+e+ as 4!tes

%e in& 4e&a*se of stoing ,4its in %aa//e/ a&oss te "i+t of a magneti& ta%e.

In ote "o+s on one in& of a -ta&# ta%e fo a ,00 4%i e&o+ing te tota/

n*m4e of

Fig. (.6 Magneti& Ta%e

4its stoe+ "i// 4e ,00Y- : 2'00 4its. It so"s tat magneti& ta%e is a ve!

&om%a&t stoage me+ia. A 4oo# of (00 %ages "it )0 /ines %e %age an+ $0$(

&aa&tes %e /ine &an 4e stoe+ in /ess tan '0 feet of ta%e of +ensit! 6'(0 4%i

an+ t*s "e &an estimate te amo*nt of +ata tat &an 4e stoe+ on a ')00feet

magneti& ta%e.

Te se&on+ &aa&teisti& i.e. te tansfe ate of a ta%e +ive efes to te s%ee+

at "i& +ata &an 4e tansfee+ fom te ta%e to te CPU o vi&e vesa. It

%imai/! +e%en+s *%on te ta%e +ensit! an+ te s%ee+ at "i& te ta%e moves;"i& is of te o+e of 100 in&es %e se&on+< ;see Ta4/e (.1<. Te ate of

tansfe of +ata 4et"een te magneti& ta%e an+ te CPU is someting /i#e 10 #3

to 1 M3 %e se&on+. ?it te minim*m tansfe ate i.e. of 10000 &aa&tes

an aveagesiHe+ 4oo# of $00 %ages &an 4e ea+ o "itten in /ess tan a min*te.

T*s 4esi+es 4eing ] a &om%a&t stoage me+i*m magneti& ta%e %ovi+es ve!

a%i+ tansfe of +ata o"eve te main +isa+vantages of magneti& ta%e ae

tat it stoes +ata seB*entia//! an+ is e/ative/! s/o" as&om%ae+ to te s%ee+ of

ote se&on+a! stoage me+ia To etieve +ata "i& is stoe+ some"ee in

te mi++/e of te ta%e te +ive as to stat fom te en+. Afte te +ata as

4een "itten on a ta%e a++itions &an 4e %/a&e+ on/! at te en+ of te %evio*s

+ata. A fi/e tat /ies in te mi++/e &annot 4e +e/ete+ not &an te em%t! s%a&e 4e

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*se+. Sin&e mo+en infomation s!stems nee+ imme+iate a&&ess to +ata ta%e is

no /onge a %o%*/a me+i*m fo s*& infomation s!stems

Ta4/e (.1

Magneti& Dis#

Te mao +isa+vantage of seB*entia/ %o&essing of magneti& ta%e "as

ove&ome "it te invention of magneti& +is# no" &ommon/! #no"n as a+

+is#. A magneti& +is# %ovi+es an+om a&&ess memo!. A magneti& +is# is

some"at /i#e a %onoga% e&o+ 4*t is ma+e *% of Si/i&a %/ates "it

magnetisa4/e gooves on ea& si+e of te %/ate ;+is#<. Ea& s*fa&e is +ivi+e+ into&on&enti& gooves &a//e+ ta&#s. Ea& ta&# is f*te +ivi+e+ into se&tos. Six

o moe %/ates ae fixe+ to a s%in+/e one ato% te ote to ma#e *% a +is# %a&#

;Fig (.2< "i& is mo*nte+ on a +is# +ive. Te +is# +ive &onsists of a moto to

otate te +is# %a&# a4o*t its axis at a ig an+ &onstant s%ee+ ;$600 evo/*tions

%e min*te<. Te to%most s*fa&e an+ te 4ottommost s*fa&e of te +is# ae

not *se+ fo stoage. T*s a +is# %a&# "it 6 %/ates as IO stoage s*fa&es an+

ea& s*fa&e as a ea+"ite ea+. S*& a +is# %a&# a/so as ( a&&ess ams.

Ea& a&&ess am as t"o ea+"ite ea+s one to a&&ess te /o"e s*fa&e of te

to% +is# an+ teote to a&&ess te *%%e s*fa&e of te 4ottom +is# ;see Fig (.2<.

Data is a&&esse+ as te magnetiHe+ aeas %ass *n+e ea+"ite ea+s.

Fig. (.2 A Dis# Pa&#

A&&ess time of a +is# +ive "i& efes to te time eB*ie+ to a&&ess te

+esie+ e&o+ fom a +is# +e%en+s *%on its see# time an+ otationa/ +e/a!.

?eeas see# time efes to te time nee+e+ to see# te +esie+ ta&# on te

+esie+ s*fa&e ;4! moving te a&&ess am< otationa/ +e/a! efes to te timenee+e+ fo te otating +is# to %osition te +esie+ +ata *n+e te ea+"ite

ea+.

A&&ess time is meas*e+ in mi//ise&on+s. An aveage see# time of '0$(

mi//ise&on+s an+ an aveage otation +e/a! of 101( mi//ise&on+s es*/ting in an

aveage a&&ess time of $0)0 mi//ise&on+s ae &ommon. No"a+a!s +is#s "it

a&&ess s%ee+ of 1.(10 mi//ise&on+s an+ &a%a&ities of )00 giga4!tes %e *nit ae

a/so avai/a4/e. Dis# %a&#s &an 4e &/assifie+ into t"o t!%es.

;i.< Remova4/e +is#s an+

;ii.< Fixe+ +is#s.

Remova4/e +is# %a&# as te name s*ggests &an 4e e%/a&e+ an+ tans%ote+"eeas a fixe+ +is# +ive is fixe+ %emanent/! an+ &annot 4e emove+ o

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tans%ote+. A emova4/e +is# +ive *s*a//! as on/! one ea+"ite ea+ %e

s*fa&e. A fixe+ +is# %a&# on te ote an+ as m*/ti%/e ea+"ite ea+s %e

+is# s*fa&e ena4/ing it to %ovi+e a faste a&&ess time ;e+*&e+ see# time<.

Fixe+ +is& +ive is a/so #no"n as ?in&este +is#s 4e&a*se te +ive "as fist

ma+e 4! I3M at *s/e! La4oato! nea ?in&este in U7.

Dis#ette ;F/o%%! Dis#<

F/o%%! +is# as te name in+i&ates is not a+ o stiff /i#e te +is# %a&# an+ is

avai/a4/e in $.( siHe. It is a sma// an+om a&&ess +is# "i+e/! *se+ on

"o#stations an+ %esona/ &om%*tes. Te f/o%%! +is# is emova4/e f/exi4/e

%/asti& +is# &oate+ "it magneti& mateia/ an+ /oo#s /i#e a %onoga% e&o+

en&ase+ in a&#et. Simi/a to te a+ +is# te f/o%%! +is# is a/so +ivi+e+ into

&on&enti& ta&#s ea& of "i& is s*4+ivi+e+ int se&tos. o"eve *n/i#e te

a+ +is# *nit te ea+"ite ea+ of te f/o%%! +is# +ive a&t*a//! to*&es te

s*fa&e of te +is# "i& ma#es te s%ee+ of te f/o%%! +ive m*& s/o"e. Te

f/o%%! +is# is %emanent/! en&/ose+ in stiff %a%e a&#ets fo %ote&tion an+ eas!

an+/ing "it a /ong s/it fo ea+"ite ea+ a&&ess a o/e in te &ente fomo*nting te +is# +ive *4 an+ a o/e fo in+ex ma# sensing ;Fig (.,<.

Fig. (., F/o%%! Dis# ;(.'(<

Te inne si+e of te enve/o%e is smoot an+ a//o"s fee otation of te &i&*/a

magneti& me+i*m. A /o" +ensit! f/o%%! +is# as )0 ta&#s - se&tos %e ta&#

(1' 4!tes %e se&to an+ +ensit! of )000 4%i fo a tota/ &a%a&it! of 1,0 #3 on

one si+e of te +is#. No"a+a!s f/o%%ies ae avai/a4/e "i& %emit e&o+ing on

4ot si+es an+ "it ig +ensit! ;*% to 1)000 4%i a/ong ea& ta&#< t*s aving

a &a%a&it! of *% to 1.)) M3.

Pen Dive

Pen Dive is an extena/ stoage +is# "i& is in so/i+state ;no moving %ats<

an+ is st*+ie an+ moe esi/ient as &om%ae+ to a+ +is#s. Te Pen Dive is a

US3 FLAS MEMOR DRI8E an+ &an s*%%ot *% to ,93 +is# s%a&e "i& is

(600 times moe tan a 1.))M3 f/o%%! +is#. A Pen Dive US3 f/as +is# "i&

is *st 1., in&es of siHe is a %/*g an+ %/a! +evi&e. It &an 4e %/*gge+ into an! US3

%ot an+ te &om%*te a*tomati&a//! +ete&ts it. One &an ea+ "ite &o%! +e/ete

an+ move +ata fom te a+ +is# +ive to te Pen Dive o fom te Pen Dive

to te a+ +is# +ive. One &an even %/a! MP$ fi/es *n a%%/i&ations vie"

vi+eos o even ta#e ig B*a/it! +igita/ %otos +ie&t/! fom te Pen Dive. Pen

Dives s*%%ot f/as ROM ;EEPROM< fo ISP ;InS!stem Pogamming<. One&an &ange*%+ate te Pen Dive US3 f/as +ive fim"ae an!time an+

an!"ee to*g a US3 %ot. Fo se&*it! +eman+ one &an *se te Pen Dive

as #e! to va/*a4/e infomation on one=s a+ +is# +ive as te %en +ives offe

soft"ae tat fa&i/itates eas! +ata 4a&#*% a/ong "it onte f/! en&!%tion fo

a++e+ se&*it!. ?ito*t te #e! ;"i& is te Pen Dive< te +ata is not

a&&essi4/e. Te Pen Dive is so &om%a&t tat !o* &an &a! "it !o* an!"ee

an+ !o* a+/! noti&e its existen&e. It a/so &omes in vaio*s stoage &a%a&ities of

16M3 $'M3 6)M3 1',M3 '(6M3 (1'M3 193 '93 )93 an+ S93 so no"

!o* +on=t ave to &a! a /a%to% &om%*te "it !o* to "o#. A Pen Dive +oes

not eB*ie an! 4atte! ;fo US3 %ot< it +oes not nee+ an! soft"ae o &a4/es

an+ it is &om%ati4/e "it I3M PC&om%ati4/e +es#to% an+ /a%to% &om%*tes"it US3 o US3 '.0 %ot. 9iven 4e/o" ae a fe" exam%/es of Pen Dive fami/!.

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Pen Dive Mini Pen Dive Mi&o Pen Dive US3'.0 S/ee# &om%a&t f/as stoage

+evi&e Sma// +*a4/e so/i+state stoage FastUS3'.0 +ata tansfe ate +evi&e

Rea+ an+ "ite at '0M%s One +a"4a&# of tis magneti& stoage te&no/og! is

tat te! ae s*s&e%ti&a/ to stong magneti& fie/+s. Stoe+ ove a /ong %eio+ of

time te! event*a//! /ose tei +ata integit! *n+e te inf/*en&e of te &at=smagneti& fie/+.

O%ti&a/ Stoage Devi&es

Tese stoage +evi&es "o# on a %in&i%/e simi/a to magneti& stoage me+ia

o"eve te! *se /igt ;/ase< as te me+i*m to e%esent 4ina! infomation.

Te &ommon/! *se+ o%ti&a/ stoage me+ia in&/*+es Com%a&t Dis# ;CD< an+

Digita/ 8esati/e Dis# ;D8D<.

Com%a&t Dis#

Com%a&t +is#s %o%*/a/! &a//e+ CDs stoe +ata at +ensities man! times geate

tan tose of magneti& +is#s Tese +is#s ae avai/a4/e fo 4ot mi&o&om%*tesan+ /age &om%*tes. To e&o+ +ata on tis me+i*m a /ase +evi&e is *se+ to

4*n mi&os&o%i& %its in te ef/e&tive /a!e of a s%ia/ ta&#. 3ina! infomation

is e%esente+ 4! te /engt of tese %its an+ te s%a&e 4et"een tem. A &om%a&t

+is# &an stoe a /age amo*nt of +ata in&/*+ing not on/! text 4*t a/so %i&t*es

so*n+ an+ f*// motion vi+eo. Te most %o%*/a among a// o%ti&a/ stoage +evi&es

is te Com%a&t Dis#Rea+ On/! Memo! ;CDROM< "i& is no" avai/a4/e on

a/most a// &om%*tes. A ).(in& CD &an stoe moe tan 6(0 mega4!tes of +ata.

No"a+a!s te "itea4/e vesion of te CDROM ;te CDRe&o+a4/e o CDR<

is a %o%*/a aeiva/ stoage o%tion "i& a//o"s te *se to &eate tei o"n

CDs. A CDR +ive &an "ite +ata to an+ ea+ +ata fom a &om%a&t +is#. CDR

+is& &an 4e "itten on/! on&e "eeas tee is anote t!%e of CD #no"n as CD

Re"itea4/e ;CDR?< "i& &an 4e "itten to m*/ti%/e times /i#e a f/o%%!

+is#. Com%ae+ "it ta%e +ives CDs ae faste easie to an+/e an+ +on>t *n

te is# of 4eing +esto!e+ 4! stong magneti& fie/+s. o"eve CDs ae

v*Inea4/e to %!si&a/ +amages s*& as +ee% s&at&es ;es%e&ia//! on te +ata

s*fa&e< ig tem%eat*es an+ stong /igt so*&es.

Digita/ 8esati/e Dis#

Digita/ 8esati/e Dis# ;D8D< is te next geneation of o%ti&a/ stoage me+ia.

D8Ds ae te siHe of o+a!=s CD !et o/+ *%to 12 93 of +ata '6 times te +ata

on a CD. A +igita/ vesati/e +is# a/so oo#s /i#e CD. It is si/ve! %/atte ).2( in&esin +iamete "it a o/e in te &ente. Li#e a CD +ata is e&o+e+ on te +is# in a

s%ia/ tai/ of tin! %its an+ te +is#s ae ea+ *sing a /ase 4eam.Te /age

&a%a&it! of a D8D is a&ieve+ 4! ma#ing te %its sma//e an+ te s%ia/ tigte

an+ 4! e&o+ing te +ata in as man! as fo* /a!es t"o on ea& si+e of te +is#.

To*g an! #in+ of igita/ +ata &an 4e stoe+ on a D8D te fist a%%/i&ation of

tis ne" me+ia is movie +isti4*tion.

D8D te&no/og! &an 4e &/assifie+ *n+e five &ategoies.

;i.< D8D8i+eo: Rea+on/! stoage inten+e+ fo %/a!4a&# of vi+eo

&ontent s*& as movies &ons*me D8D %/a!es o on D8D +ives in a

PC.

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;ii.< D8DROM: Rea+on/! stoage inten+e+ fo PCs i+ea//! s*ite+ fo PC

a%%/i&ations s*& s games efeen&e mateia/s an+ ote +ata

intensive a%%/i&ations.

;iii.< D8DR ;Re&o+a4/e<: A D8D fomat "i& s*%%ots "ite on&e ea+

man! times stoage.Te taget *sage mo+e/ in&/*+es aeiving

soft"ae +eve/o%ment an+ /o" vo/*me +ata +isti4*tion.;iv.< D8DRAM: A D8D fomat "i& s*%%ots "ite man! ea+ man!

stoage. Te a%%/i&ations in&/*+e sottem aeiving soft"ae

+eve/o%ment an+ me+ia e&o+ing.

;v.< D8DA*+io: Tis fomat fo&*sses on m*si& an+ ote foms of

a*+ioon1! &ontent.

MagnetoO%ti&a/ Stoage Devi&es

Tese +evi&es ae !4i+ +evi&es tat em%/o! 4ot magneti& an+ o%ti&a/

te&no/ogies to stoe /age amo*nts of infomation on +is#s "i& ae noma//!

of te siHe of f/o%%! +is#s i.e. $.( in&

Tis me+i*m is ma+e *% of a igi+ +is# &ovee+ 4! a s%e&ia/ a//o! tat as te%o%et! of ef/e&ting /ase /igt at a s/igt/! +iffeent ang/e +e%en+ing *%on its

magneti& state. Te magnetoo%ti&a/ +is# an exam%/e of magnetoo%ti&a/ stoage

+evi&e is easa4/e an+ &an 4e "itten on nea/! a mi//ion times. Te +is# s*fa&e

is &oate+ "it a magneti& mateia/ tat &an &ange magneti& %o/ait! on/! "en

eate+. To e&o+ +ata a ig%o"ee+ /ase 4eam eats tin! s%ots in te

magneti& me+i*m tat a//o"s it to a&&e%t magneti& %attens. Rea+ing te +ata

eB*ies a m*& "ea#e /ase 4eam. ?en &om%ae+ to magneti& stoage

magnetoo%ti&a/ te&no/og! offes ige +ata stoage a/ong "it te a4i/it! to

an+om/! a&&ess stoe+ +ata.

(.1.) In%*t an+ O*t%*t Devi&es

Te in%*t an+ o*t%*t ;IO< +evi&es ae &anne/s fo &omm*ni&ation 4et"een te

*se an+ te CPU. Data an+ %ogams ae entee+ into te CPU to*g in%*t

+evi&es "eeas o*t%*t +evi&es %ovi+e te %o&esse+ es*/ts. Most &ommon/!

*se+ UO +evi&es ae vis*a/ +is%/a! *nit ;8DU< %inte #e!4oa+ mo*se

se&on+a! stoage +evi&es ;/i#e magneti& ta%e magneti& +is# magneti& +is#ette

&om%a&t +is& et&. an+ images&anning +evi&es. IO +evi&es ae a/so #no"n as

%ei%ea/ +evi&es. Let *s +is&*ss IO +evi&es *n+e t"o &ategoies.

In%*t Devi&es

In o+e to ave sim%/e fast an+ eofee &omm*ni&ation "it &om%*tes*ses ma#e *se of +iffeent in%*t +evi&es ;see Ta4/e (.'<. Some of tese ae

+is&*sse+ 4e/o".

Ta4/e (.'

7e!ing Devi&es

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As given in te ta4/e te main #e!ing +evi&es ae %*n&e+ &a+ ea+es

#e!4oa+s an+ POS Temina/s ;%oint of sa/e temina/s<. In s*& +evi&es te

infomation is #e!e+in 4! te *ses.

P*n&e+ Ca+ Rea+es

Te an&ient in%*t me+i*m ;"i& is not *se+ no"a+a!s< "as an ,0&o/*mn &a+in "i& o/es "ee %*n&e+ as a 1'4it &o+e ;te &a+ a+ 1' oiHonta/ o"s<

to e%esent +ata an+ %ogams. Te &a+s "ee %*n&e+ to*g a #e! %*n&

ma&ine an+ ten fe+ to a &a+ ea+e "i& o%ti&a//! sense+ a o/e

e%esenting 1= an+ te a4sen&e of a %*n&e+ o/e as O= an+ t*s tans/ate+ te

infomation to te oigina/ &aa&te to 4e tansmitte+ into te CPU. No"a+a!s

4e&a*se of te s/o"ness 4*/#iness &ost ig eo ate an+ avai/a4i/it! of

temina/s "i& %ovi+e +ie&t +ata ent! %*n&e+ &a+ as 4e&ome o4so/ete.

On/! a ve! fe" oganisations *se %*n&e+ &a+s to+a!. An exam%/e of te ,0

&o/*mn &a+ is so"n in Fig. (.-.

7e!4oa+sTe most &ommon in%*t +evi&e is te #e!4oa+. Te #e!4oa+ is +esigne+ /i#e a

stan+a+ t!%e"ite #e!4oa+ "it a fe" a++itiona/ #e!s. Te 4asi& 5?ERT

/a!o*t of &aa&tes as 4een etaine+ to e/% taine+ t!%ists to *se te s!stem.

Temina/s

As +is&*sse+ ea/ie a #e!4oa+ is te most &ommon/! *se+ meto+ fo +ata

ent!. Simi/a/! vi+eo +is%/a! *nits ;+is&*sse+ /ate< ae %o%*/a/! *se+ fo

o*t%*t to *ses. Com%*te temina/s ae te most "i+e/! *se+ meto+s of s*&

in%*t an+ o*t%*t. A temina/ is an! IO +evi&e &onne&te+ 4! te/e&omm*ni&ations

/in#s to a &om%*te. In fa&t temina/s ave ma+e on/ine %o&essing %ossi4/e.

Un/i#e te %*n&e+ &a+ in%*t "i& eB*ie+ a &a+ ea+e to tansmit +ata

into te CPU a temina/ "en atta&e+ to a CPU sen+s +ata entee+ fom te

#e!4oa+ +ie&t/! into te CPU. Temina/s ae of t"o t!%es name/! a+ &o%!

temina/s ;tat %ovi+e a %into*t on %a%e< an+ soft &o%! temina/s o CRT

;Cato+e Ra! T*4e< temina/s ;tat %ovi+e on/! a vis*a/ +is%/a! on te s&een<.

Inte//igent temina/s ave tei o"n mi&o%o&esso an+ memo! &i&*its.

No"a+a!s tansa&tion temina/s o %ointofsa/e temina/s ae a/so "i+e/! *se+

in 4an#s etai/ stoes an+ fa&toies. Tese temina/s *se a vaiet! of IO meto+s

to &a%t*e tansa&tion +ata at its oigin %oint an+ tansmit it ove

te/e&omm*ni&ations net"o#s to a &om%*te s!stem fo %o&essing.

Pointing Devi&es

Pointing +evi&es /i#e mo*se to*& s&een /igt %en o!sti&# et&. ae *se+ fo

%ointing to o4e&ts on te &om%*te s&een. Te! im%ove s%ee+ an+ ease of *se

as &om%ae+ to #e!ing +evi&es.

Mo*se

Te e/e&toni& mo*se is a an+e/+ +evi&e *se+ to move te &*so on te s&een

as "e// as to iss*e &omman+s an+ ma#e i&on an+ men* se/e&tions. Te e/e&toni&

mo*se "i& as a o//e 4a// "en atta&e+ to te &om%*te a//o"s te *se to

move te &*so in te +ie&tion te 4a// is o//e+. Te mo*se is move+ on te

+es# to% to %oint a &*so at a +esie+ %/a&e on te s&een. On&e te o4e&t is

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ea&e+ te *se &/i&#s a 4*tton on te mo*se inst*&ting te &om%*te to ta#e

some a&tion.

Da"ing

To*& S&eens

Tese ae te +evi&es tat a//o" a *se to a&tivate an o4e&t on te s*fa&e of its

vi+eo +is%/a! s&een 4! to*&ing it "it is finge. To*& s&een emits a 4eam of

infae+ a!s so*n+ "aves o s/igt e/e&ti& &*ent "i& is 4o#en "en te

s&een is to*&e+. Te &om%*te senses te %oint of 4ea# an+ es%on+s "it an

a&tion. Fo exam%/e an item in te men* &an 4e se/e&te+ *st 4! to*&ing te

s&een next to te +esie+ men* item.

Ligt Pens

Instea+ of *sing a finge a *se &an *se a %ensa%e+ +evi&e "it a /igtsensing

me&anism to o*& te s&een. It is &onne&te+ to te &om%*te to*g a &a4/e

an+ is &onsi+ee+ moe a&&*ate e&a*se *ses &an %oint at ve! sma// o4e&ts.

o!sti&#s

A o!sti&# is *se+ to move te &*so on te +is%/a! s&een. It is /i#e a sma// gea

sift /eve set in 4ox. o!sti&#s ae "i+e/! *se+ at "o#stations fo &om%*te

assiste+ +esign an+ to %/a! vi+eo games.

No"a+a!s it is %efee+ to a*tomate +ata in%*t 4! &a%t*ing +ata as a

4!%o+*&t of a 4*siness a&tivit! ate tan aving it in%*t man*a//!. As

a*tomation &om%/ete/! e/iminates man*a/ in%*t of +ata tee is no nee+ fo its

e+iting. Exam%/es of s*& +ie&t +ata &a%t*e 4! &om%*tes ae o%ti&a/ &aa&te

e&ognition ;OCR< o%ti&a/ ma# e&ognition ;OMR< magneti& in# &aa&teg

e&ognition ;MICR< voi&e e&ognition s!stems et&.

O%ti&a/ Caa&te Re&ognition ;OCR<

8aio*s t!%es of OCR +evi&es ae avai/a4/e to s&an +ata o ga%s so tat tee is

no nee+ to t!%e tem man*a//!. A// tese +evi&es o%ti&a//! s&an +o&*ments an+

&onvet tem to &om%*te ea+a4/e fom. Te s&anne+ +ataga%s ae stoe+ as

a 4itma% e%esentation in memo! an+ s%e&ia/ OCR soft"ae &onvets text intoeg*/a e+ita4/e text. Tis te&niB*e is "i+e/! *se+ in n n*m4e of a%%/i&ations.

Te main OCR +evi&es ae 3a Co+e S&anne O%ti&a/ Ma# Rea+e an+ O%ti&a/

Caa&te Rea+e.

3a Co+e S&annes

3a &o+e s&annes s&an te 4/a&# an+ "ite 4as "itten in a &o+e &a//e+ te

Univesa/ Po+*&t Co+e ;UPC<. Te &o+e s%e&ifies vaio*s t!%es of infomation

/i#e te name of te %o+*&t an+ its man*fa&t*e %i&e !ea of man*fa&t*e

et&. 3a &o+e s&annes ae most "i+e/! *se+ in s*%e ma#ets /i4aies ai/ines

et&. ?an+ Re++e is a s%e&ia/ t!%e of an+e/+ 4a &o+e ea+e. O%ti&a/ Ma#

Rea+e

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O%ti&a/ ma# ea+e is a t!%e of s&anne fo +ete&ting te %esen&e of ma#s

on a s%e&ia//! +esigne+ seet of %a%e ;s*& as m*/ti%/e &oi&e ans"e seets<.

Te ma#s ae ea+ +ie&t/! fom te seets an+ +ata is tansmitte+ into a

&om%*te fo %o&essing. O%ti&a/ ma# ea+es ae "i+e/! *se+ man! a&a+emi&

taining an+ eseae instit*tions.

O%ti&a/ Caa&te Rea+e

Li#e o%ti&a/ ma# ea+e o%ti&a/ &aa&te ea+e ;o%ti&a/ s&anne< a/so

%ovi+es a meto+ of +ie&t in%*t of +ata fom so*&e +o&*ments. o"eve "it

an o%ti&a/ &aa&te ea+e so*&e +o&*ments s*& as e%ots t!%e+

man*s&i%ts o even 4oo#s &an 4e entee+ +ie&t/! into a &om%*te "ito*t te

nee+ fo #e!ing man*a//!. O%ti&a/ s&annes ae "i+e/! *se+ 4! te %*4/ising

in+*st! to s&an %inte+ +o&*ments an+ &onveting tem to e/e&toni& +ata4ases.

S*& &onvete+ +ata4ases &an 4e efeen&e+ as eB*ie+. *st /i#e o%ti&a/

&aa&te e&ognition an+"iting e&ognition te&no/og! is a/so avai/a4/e fo

/imite+ a%%/i&ations. an+"iting e&ognition te&no/og! is s*%%ote+ 4! ex%et

s!stems an+ ne*a/ &om%*ting.

8oi&e Re&ognition S!stems

8oi&e ;nat*a/ /ang*age< is te most nat*a/ "a! to &omm*ni&ate "it

&om%*tes. To e&ogniHe voi&e %attens a mi&o%one is *se+. Te mi&o%one

&onvets s%ee& into ana/og e/e&ti&a/ %*/ses "i& ae ten tansmitte+ to a

&om%*te fo %o&essing. 8oi&e e&ognition +evi&es ae so*gt afte 4! a /age

n*m4e of *ses as te! ae fast an+ fee te *se=s an+s. A manage &an

+ie&t/! in%*t /ettes an+ ote notes to a "o+ %o&esso to*g a voi&e

e&ognition s!stem. o"eve /imite+ vo&a4*/a! an+ non&onsisten&! ae mao

/imitations of tis te&no/og!.

Magneti& In# Caa&te Re&ognition ;MICR<

Tis te&niB*e is "i+e/! *se+ 4! te 4an#ing in+*st!. Magneti& in# &aa&te

ea+e ea+s te +ata as %e te sa%e of ea& &aa&te. Fig*e (.10 so"s a

sam%/e MICR &o+e. MICR &o+es ae tansmitte+ to an on/ine &om%*te an+ ae

*se+ to sot ta4*/ate an+ %ost &eB*es to te %o%e a&&o*nts. MICR &o+es &an

4e eite %e%inte+ on +o&*ments o en&o+e+ on +o&*ments *sing a #e!4oa+

o%eate+ ma&ine &a//e+ ins&i4e.

Fig. (.10 A Sam%/e of an MICR Co+e

Digitises

Digitises ae +evi&es tat &onvet %enma+e ga%s on a sensitise+ s*fa&e to

&om%*teea+a4/e in%*t. As ga%s+a"ings ae ma+e images ae tansfee+

to te &om%*te. Te te&no/og! is 4ase+ on &anges in e/e&ti&a/ &ages tat

&oes%on+ to te +a"ings. Digitises ae ma+e *se of 4! enginees atists an+

+esignes.

8i+eo &ameas &an 4e *se+ to &a%t*e %i&t*es "i& ae +igitise+ an+ stoe+ in

&om%*tes. ?i/e a +igita/ &amea &an ta#e %otos an+ /oa+ tem +ie&t/! fom

te &amea +igita//! to a main o se&on+a! stoage +evi&e.

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A smat &a+ &ontains a 4*i/tin mi&o%o&esso an+ stoage on a memo!

&i%. Te &a+ is 4eing *se+ fo sevea/ a%%/i&ations /i#e 4an#ing /i4aies

me+i&a/ fie/+ et&.

O*t%*t Devi&es

A *se &an get &om%*te geneate+ o*t%*t to*g sevea/ o*t%*t +evi&es an+me+ia "i+e/! *se+ o*t%*t +evi&es ae monito %inte voi&e o*t%*t +evi&es.

Monitos

Com%*te monito is essentia//! a vi+eo s&een tat +is%/a!s 4ot in%*t an+

o*t%*t. 8i+eo s&eens a/so #no"n as &ato+e a! t*4es ;CRT<W *se a %i&t*e t*4e

simi/a to T8 sets. Te &/ait! of te +is%/a! an+ te s*%%ot of mono&ome o

&o/o* +is%/a!s +e%en+ on te t!%e of vi+eo monito *se+ an+ te ga%i&s &i&*it

4oa+ o vi+eo a+a%te insta//e+ in te &om%*te. Te intea&tive nat*e of

monito %ovi+es a mao 4enefit. Pota4/e &om%*tes *se a f/at s&een &onsisting

of a /iB*i+ &!sta/ +is%/a! ;LCD<.

Pintes

Pinte+ o*t%*t is anote &ommon fom of vis*a/ o*t%*t fo te *se intefa&e.

Pintes ae *se+ to %o+*&e %emanent ;a+ &o%!< o*t%*t in *man ea+a4/e

fom. P/ottes ae *se+ fo +a"ing ga%s an+ +esigns on %a%e t*s te! a/so

%o+*&e %inte+ o*t%*t. Fig*e (.11 i//*states t"o t!%es of &om%*te %intes.

Com%*te %intes ae &ategoise+ into t"o main &ategoies name/! /ine

%intes an+ +ot matix ;&aa&te< %intes. A /ine %inte %ints one &om%/ete

/ine of +ata at a time "i/e a &/ot matix %inte %ints one &aa&te at a time.

Man! +ot matix %intes *se a %int ea+ &onsisting of a -Y2 aa! of %ins an+

ae 4i+ie&tiona/. A t!%i&a/ /ine %inte as a s%ee+ 4et"een 1(0 /ines to '(00

/ines %e min*te "i/e a +ot matix %inte as a s%ee+ of a4o*t '00 &aa&tes

%et se&on+. A +ot matix %inte %o+*&es a &aa&te "i& is ma+e *% of a

finite n*m4e of +ots es*/ting in a /o"e B*a/it! o*t%*t. Fo 4ette o*t%*t

/ette B*a/it! %intes ae avai/a4/e. Dais! "ee/ %intes give ex&e//ent %inting

B*a/it!. Anote a+vantage is te inte&angea4i/it! of +ais! "ee/s. A +ais!

"ee/ *ses a %/asti& o meta/ "ee/ "it &aa&tes mo*/+e+ on te en+s of its

s%o#es. Te "ee/ otates ve! fast 4inging te +esie+ &aa&te to te

%inting /o&ation an+ %ints it on %a%e.

On te 4asis of %inting te&no/og! "e &an &/assif! %intes into t"o moe

&/asses name/! im%a&t %intes an+ none im%at %intes. Pintes /i#e /ine%intes +ot matix %intes +ais! "ee/ %intes an+ /ette B*a/it! %intes ae

im%a&t %intes. Tese fom &aa&tes on %a%e to*g te im%a&t of a

%inting me&anism tat ma#es %!si&a/ &onta&t "it %a%e. M*/ti%/e &o%ies &an

e %o+*&e+ "it im%a&t %intes. Nonim%a&t %intes tansfe +ata to %a%e

"ito*t %!si&a/ &onta&t an+ ae B*iete tan im%a&t %intes. o"eve m*/ti%/e

&o%ies &annot 4e %o+*&e+ "it nonim%a&t %intes. Lase %intes In#et

%intes eoga%i& %intes et&. ae exam%/es of nonim%a&t %intes. Lase

%intes ae ig s%ee+ ig B*a/it! %intes tat *se /ase 4eams to tansmit

+ata *%on %otosensitive +*ms a "o/e %age at a time. Te image is ten

%i&#e+ *% "it te tone 4! te %a%e "i& is %asse+ ove te +*m. Lase

%intes 4e&a*se of tei %int= B*a/it! ae *se+ in +es#to% %*4/ising an+ ine%o+*&tion of at "o#. In#et %intes a/so &a//e+ 4*44/e et %intes soot

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sma// +ots of in# onto %a%e. Te! ae e/ative/! inex%ensive an+ ae moe s*ite+

fo m*/ti&o/o ga%i&s. E/e&tostati& %intes an+ e/e&to tema/ %intes ae

a/so a t!%e of nonim%a&t %intes. Te! &eate &aa&tes on s%e&ia//! teate+

%a%e tat es%on+s to eat %attens %o+*&e+ 4! a tema/ me&anism. Te

o*t%*t of tese %intes is of e/ative/! a /o"e B*a/it!.

8oi&e O*t%*t

In voi&e o*t%*t te&no/og! te so*n+s tat ma#e *% "o+s an+ %ases ae

&onst*&te+ e/e&toni&a//! fom 4asi& so*n+ &om%onents an+ &an 4e ma+e to

fom an! +esie+ voi&e %atten. Ta/#ing= &i%s ae no"a+a!s *se+ to %ovi+e

s!nteti& s%ee& fo to!s games geeting &a+s &ons*me a%%/i&ations

a*tomo4i/es an+ man! ote &omme&ia/ an+ in+*stia/ *ses. S*& s%ee&

s!ntesiHing mi&o%o&essos ae a/so 4eing *se+ in e/e&toni& &a/&*/atos an+ in

+igita/ "at&es. 8oi&e o*t%*t +evi&es a//o" &om%*tes to es%on+ to B*eies.

(.' COMPUTER ARD?ARE CLASSIFICATION

Com%*te a+"ae &an 4e &/assifie+ 4! fo//o"ing +iffeent a%%oa&es. One

ma! *n+estan+ &om%*tes on te 4asis of o%eating %in&i%/es siHe &om%*te

%o"e an+ even &om%*te evo/*tion. Let *s examine tese meto+s of /oo#ing at

&om%*tes.

(.'.1 O%eating Pin&i%/es 3asis

3ase+ on te o%eating %in&i%/es &om%*tes &an 4e &/assifie+ into one of te

fo//o"ing t!%es.

;i.< Digita/ &om%*tes

;ii.< Ana/og &om%*tes an+

;iii.< !4i+ &om%*tes.

Digita/ &om%*tes o%eate essentia//! 4! &o*nting= in "i& a// B*antities ae

ex%esse+ as +is&ete +igits o n*m4es ;Heoes an+ ones<. Digita/ &om%*tes ae

extensive/! *se+ in 4*siness an+ omes. Te! ae faste moe a&&*ate an+

easie to %ogam tan ana/og &om%*tes an+ ae an intega/ %at of a//

&om%*te4ase+ infomation s!stems.

Ana/og &om%*tes on te ote an+ o%eate 4! meas*ing= some %!si&a/

%o%et! s*& as vo/tage /eve/ tem%eat*e o %ess*e ate tan 4!

&o*nting=. Ana/og &om%*tes ae *se+ a/most ex&/*sive/! in %o&ess &onto/ an+s&ientifi& a%%/i&ations. Fo exam%/e te! ae *se+ in !+oe/e&ti& %o"e

stations to monito te f/o" of "ate to te t*4ines tat %o+*&e e/e&ti&it!.

Ana/og &om%*tes ae a/so *se+ to so/ve +iffeentia/ eB*ations.

!4i+ Com%*tes &om4ine feat*es of 4ot ana/og an+ +igita/ &om%*tes.

Tese *s*a//! fin+ a%%/i&ation in ai&aft sim*/ation "o#.

(.'.' SiHe an+ Com%*ting Po"e 3asis

Com%*te s!stems ae avai/a4/e in +iffeent siHes an+ "it +iffeent &om%*ting

%o"es. T!%i&a//! &om%*te s!stems ae &/assifie+ as mi&o&om%*tes

mini&om%*tes an+ mainfame &om%*tes.

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o"eve tese ae not %e&ise &/assifi&ations as man! vaiations of tese

&ategoies exist in &om%*te in+*st! "i& in&/*+e s*%emi&o &om%*tes

s*%emini &om%*tes sma// me+i*m an+ /age mainfame &om%*tes

minis*%e &om%*tes an+ s*%e&om%*tes. Tese &ategoies ae 4ase+ on te

e/ative &om%*ting %o"e %ovi+e+ 4! &om%*tes. Com%*tes ma! a/so +iffe in

tei %o&essing s%ee+ an+ memo! &a%a&it! as "e// as in te n*m4e an+&a%a4i/ities of %ei%ea/ +evi&es te! &an s*%%ot. A+van&ement in &om%*te

te&no/og! as ma+e tis &/assifi&ation ate inexa&t. To+a!=s s*%e mi&o

&om%*te %ovi+es a/most te same &om%*ting %o"e "i& "as %ovi+e+ 4!

!este+a!=s mini&om%*tes. Simi/a/! to+a! "e fin+ some mini&oin%*tes tat

ae moe %o"ef*/ tan some of te o/+e mainfame &om%*tes. T*s tis

&/assifi&ation of &om%*tes ove/a%s ea& ote.

Mi&o&om%*tes

Mi&o&om%*tes ae te sma//est 4*t most im%otant &atego! of genea/

%*%ose &om%*tes fo en+ *ses. Te! ae a/so &a//e+ mi&os o %esona/

&om%*tes ;PC<. A mi&o&om%*te &ontains its entie CPU on a mainmi&o%o&esso &i% ;integate+ &i&*it< an+ is a se/f&ontaine+ *nit. It &an 4e

*se+ 4ot as a stan+a/one &om%*te an+ a temina/ in a m*/ti*se

envionment. Sin&e mi&o&om%*tes &an e easi/! /in#e+ to /age &om%*tes te!

fom an im%otant segment of te integate+ infomation s!stems.

A t!%i&a/ %esona/ &om%*te %ovi+es *% to (1' M3 of main memo! a

%o&essing %o"e of ( MIPS ;mi//ion inst*&tions %e se&on+< s*%%ots one o

t"o +is#ette +ives fo an+om a&&ess se&on+a! memo! an+ a &om%a&t +is#

+ive. It s*%%ots a #e!4oa+ a vis*a/ +is%/a! *nit a m*/time+ia #it an+ a

%inte. A %esona/ &om%*te &omes "it va!ing %o&essing %o"es main

memo! &a%a&it! an+ a+ +is# s%a&e. 3e&a*se of a+van&ements in &om%*ting

te&no/og! to+a! a %o"ef*/ mi&o&om%*te ma! 4e *se+ as a s*4stit*te fo te

o/+e mini o mainfame &om%*tes.

Tese &om%*tes ae &ommon/! #no"n as Pesona/ Com%*tes. I3M PC is a

t!%i&a/ exam%/e of s*& a mi&o&om%*te. Tis &/ass of &om%*tes is f*te

&ategoise+ 4! siHe. Tis ma! in&/*+e +es#to%s %ota4/es /a%to%s an+ %a/mto%s.

Some of te avai/a4/e CPU mo+e/s of mi&o&om%*tes a/ong"it ote feat*es

ae /iste+ in Ta4/e (.$.

Mini&om%*ies

A mini&om%*te is a me+i*msiHe+ &om%*te tat is moe &ost/! %o"ef*/ an+

/age tan a mi&o&om%*te. o"eve as mentione+ ea/ie tis is not a %e&ise+istin&tion 4e&a*se man! mi&o&om%*te s!stems ae moe %o"ef*/ tan some

mini&om%*tes. Mini&om%*tes ae *s*a//! +esigne+ to a&&om%/is s%e&ifi& tas#s

s*& as %o&ess &onto/ s&ientifi& eseae o engineeing a%%/i&ations 4*t tese

&om%*tes a/so fin+ a%%/i&ations in 4*siness "o/+. Te! a/so seve as

Ta4/e (.$

%o"ef*/ engineeing "o#stations fo &om%*te ai+e+ +esign ;CAD<

a%%/i&ations. Digita/ 8A is a t!%i&a/ ma&ine *n+e te mini&om%*te &atego!.

Mainfame Com%*tes

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Com%*tes "it /age stoage &a%a&ities ;sevea/ *n+e+ mega4!tes< ve! ig

s%ee+ of %o&essing ;(0 P/*s MIPS< an+ "it a /age se&on+a! memo! s*%%ot

ae #no"n as mainfame &om%*tes ;o /age &om%*tes<. Mainfames &an

%o&ess *n+e+s of +iffeent %ogams an+ an+/e *n+e+s of +iffeent

%ei%ea/ +evi&es ;temina/s +is# an+ ta%e +ives %intes et&.< fo %ovi+ing

sim*/taneo*s a&&ess to *n+e+s of +iffeent *ses. Mainfame &om%*tes ae*se+ 4! mao oganisations "i& eB*ie *ge an+ &om%/ex +ata %o&essing.

Fo exam%/e ai/"a!s an+ ai/ine esevations 4an#ing a%%/i&ations

&omme&ia/ a%%/i&ations of /age oganisations et&. ae some of its %otentia/

a%%/i&ations. Some of te t!%i&a/ exam%/es of mainfame ma&ines ae I3M

$0-0 I3M )$,1 I3M )$00 an+ I3M ES-000 et&.

S*%e&om%*tes

Tese &om%*tes ae a s%e&ia/ #in+ of exteme/! %o"ef*/ mainfames +esigne+

fo igs%ee+ n*mei& &om%*tation. Fo exam%/e CRA mo+e/s of

s*%e&om%*tes %o+*&e+ 4! Ca! eseae &an %o&ess fom 100 to -00 MIPS.

S*%e&om%*tes %ovi+e a main memo! &a%a&it! of (00 M3.Te! fin+ a%%/i&ation in s&ientifi& mi/ita! an+ eseae %ogammes "i&

in&/*+e a%%/i&ations in e/e&toni& +esign %eto/e*m ex%/oation eneg!

management +efen&e n*&/ea eneg! eseae "eate foe&asting an+

me+i&ine et&. A s*%e&om%*te a/so a//o"s m*/ti%/e *ses to intea&t "it te

CPU sim*/taneo*s/! to*g m*/ti%/e in%*to*t%*t +evi&es. Exam%/es of

S*%e&om%*te in&/*+e CRA $ CRAMP1) NEC(00 PARAM -000 an+

PARAM 10000. Te /ast t"o ave 4een +eve/o%e+ in In+ia 4! in+igeno*s effots.

Tis &/assifi&ation of mi&o mini mainfame an+ s*%e&om%*tes as

mentione+ ea/ie is fast /osing its meaning. In tems of %efoman&e

!este+a!=s mainfame as 4e&ome to+a!=s mi&o. At %esent tis ta+itiona/

&/assifi&ation of &om%*tes is 4eing e%/a&e+ "it &/ientseve ma&ines.

Te seves %ovi+e so%isti&ate+ f*n&tions to a /age n*m4e of *ses o

&/ient a+"ae tat e%esent no+es o temina/s to*g "i& *ses intea&t

"it tese seves.

(.'.$ Com%*te Evo/*tion

Te&no/ogi&a/ a+van&ements in te fie/+ of e/e&toni&s ave 4o*gt a evo/*tion

in te aea of &om%*ting. It "as te A4a&*s te fist man*a/ &a/&*/ating +evi&e

"i& "as invente+ in Asia man! &ent*ies ago. Te invention of a me&ani&a/

&a/&*/ato 4! on Na%ie a S&ottis matemati&ian in te !ea 1612 "asanote mi/estone in &om%*te evo/*tion. Teeafte man! #in+s of &om%*tes

ave 4een +eve/o%e+. Tis evo/*tion of &om%*tes is %o%*/a/! &ategoise+ in

tems of geneations.

eot 9eneation Com%*tes

3/aise Pas&a/ a Fen& matemati&ian in 16)' invente+ te fist me&ani&a/

+evi&e #no"n as Pas&a/=s A++ing Ma&ine "i& "o#e+ "it geas an+ "as

&a%a4/e of a++ing an+ s*4ta&ting n*m4es. Te fist signifi&ant &ange "as

seen in te !ea 1,0) "en ose% Maie a&B*a+ invente+ a %*n& &a+

s!stem fo &onto//ing te tea+s on is "eaving /ooms. o"eve it "as on/! inte !ea 1,$$ tat Ca/es 3a44age +esigne+ te fist &om%*te &a%a4/e of

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%efoming 4asi& aitmeti&a/ f*n&tions "i& e &a//e+ te ana/!ti&a/ engine.

Ca/es 3a44age +esigne+ is ana/!ti&a/ engine ao*n+ five &om%onents viH. a

Stoe to o/+ n*m4es an Aitmeti& Unit ;Mi//< to %efom aitmeti&

o%eations a Conto/ *nit to &onto/ an+ &oo+inate vaio*s a&tivities in f te

igt seB*en&e an In%*t +evi&e to tansfe 4ot n*m4es an+ inst*&tions into

te &om%*te an+ an O*t%*t +evi&e to +is%/a! te es*/ts of &om%*tations.It "as te vision of Ca/es 3a44age "o &o*/+ &on&eive te i+ea of a

so%isti&ate+ &om%*ting +evi&e "i& in&o%oate+ te 4asi& &on&e%ts of a

mo+en &om%*te. 3a44age=s +evi&e in&o%oate+ te &on&e%ts of in%*t +evi&es

o*t%*t +evi&es an+ a Centa/ Po&essing Unit &onsisting of memo! ;stoe< an

aitmeti& /ogi& *nit an+ a &onto/ *nit. o"eve mo+en e/e&toni& &om%*tes

ave tee im%otant &aa&teisti&s i.e. of s%ee+ a&&*a&! an+ a4i/it! to an+/e

a /age amo*nt of +ata.

Te invention of te fist e/e&tomagneti& &a/&*/ato invente+ 4! D o//eit

in 1,,- "as !et anote mi/estone in te isto! of &om%*tes. Do&to o//eit

in&o%oate+ te i+ea of *sing &a+s a/ong "it te e/e&ti&a/ sensing of &a+s.

Te Heot geneation of &om%*tes en+e+ in 1-)6 "en va&**m t*4es "eeinvente+.

Fist 9eneation Com%*tes

Te fist geneation &om%*tes "i& "itnesse+ an ea 4et"een 1-)-^(( *se+

va&**m t*4es. Tese &om%*tes "ee ve! s/o" ;te ENIAC too# a4o*t '00

mi&ose&on+s to a++ t"o +igits an+ a4o*t $000 mi&ose&on+s to m*/ti%/!<G "ee

of ve! /age siHeG &ons*me+ a /ot of %o"eG +issi%ate+ a temen+o*s amo*nt of

eatG "ee of %oo e/ia4i/it! +*e to te fa&t tat te Mean Time 3et"een Fai/*e

;MT3F< of va&**m t*4es "as of te o+e of an o*G an+ *se+ on/! ma&ine

an+ assem4/! /ang*age. It "as in te !ea 1-)6 tat on Ma*&/! an+ .P.

E&#et at te Mooe S&oo/ of E/e&ti&a/ Engineeing at te Univesit! of

Penns!/vania in USA +eve/o%e+ te fist e/e&toni& &om%*te #no"n as ENIAC

;E/e&toni& N*mei&a/ Integato An+ Ca/&*/ato<. Tis &om%*te *se+ va&**m

t*4es as its 4asi& e/e&toni& &om%onent an+ &ons*me+ nea/! '00 #? of %o"e. It

a+ a ve! sma// memo! an+ "as %imai/! +esigne+ to &a/&*/ate te

tae&toies of missi/es. Ao*n+ te same time Pofesso on 8on Ne*mann

into+*&e+ te &on&e%t of a Stoe+ Pogam an+ te fist e/e&toni& +igita/

&om%*te *sing stoe+ %ogam EDSAC ;E/e&toni& De/a! Stoage A*tomati&

Ca/&*/ato< "as &om%/ete+ in 1-)- at Cam4i+ge Univesit! U7 *n+e te

/ea+esi% of Pofesso Ma*i&e ?i/#es. S*4seB*ent/! Univa& +ivision of

Remington Ran+ at USA +eve/o%e+ te fist &omme&ia/ &om%*te UNI8AC;Univesa/ A*tomati& Com%*te< *sing stoe+ %ogam te&no/og! in 1-(1. Te

US Cens*s 3*ea* of USA "as te fist &om%*te *se "i& a&B*ie+ UNI8AC

I in te same !ea an+ te 9enea/ E/e&ti& "as te fist 4*siness fim to a&B*ie

tis &om%*te ;UNI8ACI< in 1-(). A// tese &om%*tes *se+ va&**m t*4e

&i&*it! In In+ia tese t!%e of &om%*tes "ee fist *se+ at te In+ian

Statisti&a/ Instit*te in Ca/&*tta an+ at te Tata Instit*te of F*n+amenta/

Reseae in M*m4ai.

Se&on+ 9eneation Com%*tes

Te invention of te semi&on+*&to tansisto 4! 3e// /a4oatoies in 1-)-

*see+ te ea of so/i+ state te&no/og!. Com%*tes "i& *se+ tansistosinstea+ of va&**m t*4es an+ 4e&ame avai/a4/e in /age B*antities in 1-(- ae

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&/assifie+ as Se&on+ 9eneation Com%*tes. Te &om%*tes of tis geneation

*se+ tansistos "ee faste moe e/ia4/e e/ative/! sma//e &ons*me+

&onsi+ea4/! /ess %o"e an+ geneate+ m*& /ess eat tan te fist geneation

&om%*tes. Mean time 4et"een fai/*e a/so in&ease+ "it te e%/a&ement of

va&**m t*4es "it tansistos. Anote mao invention +*ing tis time "as te

magneti& +is# "i& a//o"e+ faste an+ an+om a&&ess of +ata. I3M 200 1)01ATLAS an+ ICL1-02 ae a fe" exam%/es of se&on+ geneation &om%*tes. Tis

geneation I /aste+ ti// 1-6(. Deve/o%ment of ig /eve/ /ang*ages s*& as

Fotan Co4o/ A/go/ et&. too# %/a&e +*ing tis geneation an+ as a es*/t

moe tan ,0 %e &ent of insta//e+ &om%*tes "ee *se+ in 4*siness an+ in+*st!

fo &omme&ia/ a%%/i&ations.

Ti+ 9eneation Com%*tes

Te ti+ geneation &om%*tes "ee into+*&e+ in 1-6( "it gemani*m

tansistos 4eing e%/a&e+ 4! si/i&on tansistos. Integate+ &i&*its ;ICs<

&onsisting of tansistos esistos an+ &a%a&itos ma+e on a sing/e si/i&on &i%

"ee invente+. Tese &i&*its %ovi+e+ vast intena/ stoage. a+ s%ee+ innanose&on+s geneate+ /esse eat "ee ig/! e/ia4/e an+ of e+*&e+ siHe

"i& in t*n es*/te+ in te emegen&e of an exteme/! %o"ef*/ CPU.

A+van&ements in &om%*te memo! CPU an+ /age +is# memoies /e+ to te

+eve/o%ment of timesae+ o%eating s!stems. D*ing tis geneation ig /eve/

/ang*ages /i#e Fotan an+ Co4o/ a/so im%ove+. Exam%/es of &om%*tes of tis

geneation in&/*+e I3M $60$20 NCR $-( 3*o*gs 3 6(00 an+ CRA1. Te

ti+ geneation en+e+ 4! 1-2( ao*n+ "i& time &om%*tes entee+ te

fo*t geneation.

Fo*t 9eneation Com%*tes

F*te miniat*isation of Integate+ Ci&*its es*/te+ te avai/a4i/it! of /age

s&a/e integate+ &i%s in 1-2(. Com%*tes "i& *se+ /age s&a/e integate+

&i%s an+ ve! /age s&a/e integate+ &i%s ;8LSI< &an 4e &a//e+ fo*t

geneation &om%*tes. A mao 4ea#to*g in &om%*ting te&no/og! "as

a&ieve+ +*ing tis geneation i.e. "it te invention of te mi&o%o&esso in

1-2'. It /e+ to te emegen&e of te %o"ef*/ mi&o&om%*te "i& "as ve!

sma// in siHe an+ %ovi+e+ a *sefien+/! envionment. Te fo*t geneation

"i& state+ ao*n+ mi+1-20s as a/so "itnesse+ a signifi&ant +eve/o%ment of

&on&*ent %ogamming /ang*ages ;) 9LS< "i& ave ma+e &om%*tes a//

%eva+ing. Exam%/es of te fo*t geneation &om%*tes in&/*+e I3M PC I3M

PCAT ',6 $,6 CRA' ),6 PENTIUM I PENTIUM II an+ PENTIUM IIIet&.

Fift 9eneation Com%*tes

Effots ae on to *se e&ent a+van&es in atifi&ia/ inte//igen&e fo +esigning a

#no"/e+ge4ase &om%*tes "i& "o*/+ 4e teme+ as te fift geneation

&om%*tes. Tese &om%*tes of tomoo" "i// *se ULSI ;U/ta Lage S&a/e

Integation< &i%s an+ "o*/+ 4e a4/e to tin# an+ +e&i+e. A/so te fift

geneation &om%*tes "i// ave *se intefa&e in fom of s%ee& in nat*a/

/ang*ages. To*g fift geneation &om%*tes ae !et to 4e +eve/o%e+ Ro4oti&s

as a fe" feat*es of &om%*tes of tis geneation. Tese tin#ing &om%*tesW

on "i& Amei&ans an+ a%anese &om%*te %o+*&es ae &om%eting "it ea&ote ae ex%e&te+ to e in te ma#et in te fist +e&a+e of te '1st &ent*!.

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Ta4/e (.) s*mmaises an+ &om%aes te vaio*s &om%*te geneations.

Ta4/e (.)

(.$ COMPUTER SOFT?ARE

A &om%*te s!stem &onsists of t"o s*4s!stems name/! &om%*te a+"ae an+

&om%*te soft"ae. ?eeas &om%*te a+"ae in&/*+es %!si&a/ *nits of a

&om%*te s!stem sets of %ogamme+ inst*&tions ;%ogams< ae #no"n as&om%*te soft"ae. It is te &om%*te soft"ae "i& ena4/es te &om%*te

a+"ae to %efom vaio*s a&tivities an+ ma#es it a vesati/e ma&ine.

Com%*te soft"ae &an 4e &/assifie+ into t"o &ategoies.

;i.< S!stem soft"ae an+

;ii.< A%%/i&ation soft"ae.

S!stem soft"ae &onsists of sets of %ogams to s*%%ot te effi&ient *se of

a+"ae eso*&es tat in&/*+e %ima! an+ se&on+a! memo! +is%/a!

+evi&es %intes &omm*ni&ation /in#s an+ ote %ei%ea/s. It a/so inte%ets

an+ exe&*tes a%%/i&ation soft"ae. Exam%/es of s!stem soft"ae "o*/+ in&/*+e

o%eating s!stems /ang*age tans/atos ;&om%i/es an+ inte%etes< an+ *ti/it!

%ogams.

A%%/i&ation soft"ae efes to %ogams o sets of %ogams tat a&t*a//!

%o&ess +ata to geneate infomation *n+e vaio*s a%%/i&ations. Exam%/es ae

%a!o// %o&essing s!stem invento! &onto/ infomation s!stem et&.

S!stems soft"ae an+ a%%/i&ation soft"ae ae intee/ate+ an+ intea&t

&/ose/! "it ea& ote.

S!stems soft"ae seves as an inteme+ia! 4et"een a+"ae an+

a%%/i&ation soft"ae. Fig*e (.1' i//*states tis e/ationsi%.

Fig. (.1' Re/ationsi% of Soft"ae an+ a+"ae

9iven 4e/o" is a 4ief ovevie" of s!stem soft"ae an+ a%%/i&ation soft"ae.

(.$.1 S!stem Soft"ae

O#erating Systems

Te most im%otant s!stem soft"ae fo an! &om%*te is its o%eating s!stem.Te o%eating s!stem manages an+ &onto/s te a&tivities of te &om%*te tat

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in&/*+e &onto/ of in%*to*t%*t +evi&es s&e+*/ing of o%eations an+ monitoing

te a&tivities of te &om%*te Tee ae a vaiet! of o%eating s!stems in *se

to+a!. Ea& as its o"n meits an+ +emeits. Te most %o%*/a o%eating

s!stems *se+ on mi&o&om%*tes ae MSDOS Unix ?in+o"s Nove// et&.

CPM ;&onto/ %ogam fo mi&o&om%*tes< "as +eve/o%e+ fo APPLEII

No +o*4t APPLEII "as initia//! an ,4it mi&o&om%*te 4*t even afte it "as*%ga+e+ to 164it CPM &ontin*es to s*%%ot a /age n*m4e of 4*siness

a%%/i&ation %ogams. CPM as goo+ fi/e an+/ing an+ %o"ef*/ memo!

management fa&i/ities. Its /ate vesions ave 4een *%ga+e+ an+ no" %ovi+e

even moe fa&i/ities.

MSDOS ;mi&osoft+is# o%eating s!stem< "as +eve/o%e+ 4! Mi&osoft fo

te I3MPC an+ ote simi/a 164it mi&o&om%*tes. It is sti// "i+e/! *se+

to+a! "it moe %o"ef*/ mi&o&om%*tes. MSDOS %ovi+es man! &a%a4i/ities

tat in&/*+e effi&ient *se of +is# s%a&e eas! e&ove! fa&i/ities ig s%ee+ +is#

in%*to*t%*t o%eations an+ *sefien+/! &omman+ /ang*age.

o"eve it +oes not s*%%ot in*/titas/\ing ;one %eson *nning t"o o moe%ogams &on&*ent/! on a sing/e &om%*te< an+ /imits te siHe of a %ogam in

memo! to 6)0 #3. Unix o%eating s!stem "as +eve/o%e+ 4! ATQT 3e// La4s

main/! fo s*%emini an+ s*%emi&o &om%*tes. Unix is a %o"ef*/ o%eating

s!stem "i& is to+a! avai/a4/e on %esona/ &om%*tes.

It a//o"s man! *ses to *se te s!stem sim*/taneo*s/! an+ a//o"s effi&ient

saing of te %o&essing %o"e. It a/so a//o"s te *ses to %efom man! tas#s

sim*/taneo*s/!. Ote feat*es of *nix in&/*+e its %o"ef*/ &omm*ni&ation

&a%a4i/ities ga%i&a/ &a%a4i/ities an+ a ange of too/s an+ 8 *ti/ities.

?in+o"s +eve/o%e+ 4! Mi&osoft Co%oation esem4/es an o%eating

s!stem "i& is an integate+ %a&#age an+ a DOS extension. ?in+o"s is an

o%eating envionment tat %e+efines te *ti/ities tat a// a%%/i&ations sae. It

&an 4e &a//e+ te font en+= to DOS as it a&&e%ts in%*ts fom te *se 4! means

of a mo*se o #e!4oa+ to 4e %asse+ on to DOS fo exe&*tion. o"eve "it te

+eve/o%ment of "i'H+o"sNT an+ "in+o"s-( DOS is no /onge ne&essa! an+

t*s tese vesions ma! 4e teme+ as t*e o%eating s!stems not mee/! font

en+s to DOS. In ote "o+s ?in+o"s-( is a $'4it o%eating s!stem aving a

ga%i&a/ *se intefa&e ;9UI< tat &an s*%%ot soft"ae "itten fo DOS an+

"in+o"s 4*t &an a/so *n %ogams tat ta#e *% moe tan 6)0 #3 of memo!.

It is m*/titas#ing an+ as %o"ef*/ net"o#ing &a%a4i/ities. ?in+o"s-(

eB*ies ),6 mi&o&om%*te ,mega4!tes of RAM an+ ' 93 of a+ +is# stoage. _in+o"s-, ?in+o"s'000 ;MeMi//enni*m E+ition an+ ?in+o"s'000

Pofessiona/ ae te ote vesions of "in+o"s fami/!.

?in+o"sP is te /atest in te ?in+o"s s*ite.

_in+o"sNT a/so +eve/o%e+ 4! Mi&osoft is anote o%eating s!stem fo *se

"it $'4it mi&o&om%*tes an+ "o#stations 4ase+ on Inte/ an+ ote

mi&o%o&essos. It *ses te same ga%i&a/ *se intefa&e as "in+o"s 4*t

%ovi+es %o"ef*/ m*/titas#ing an+ memo! management feat*es. It a/so

s*%%ots m*/titas#ing m*/ti%o&essing ;/in#s togete t"o o moe CPUs to

"o# in %aa//e/ in a sing/e &om%*te s!stem< an+ net"o#ing.

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?in+o"sP e/ease+ in '001 is te /atest in te "in+o"s fami/! of PC o%eating

s!stem. Te +es#to% as a tee+imensiona/ /oo# "it o*n+e+ &ones an+

moe sa+ing. Mi&osoft a/so &eate+ 6)it in+o"sP. Fo a t!%i&a/ ome

*se ?in+o"sP %ovi+es a++e+ se&*it! an+ an o%eating s!stem tat is fa

/ess /i#e/! to &as tan ?in+o"s-( ?in+o"s-, ?in+o"s'000 ;Me

Mi//enni*m e+ition< an+ _in&/o"s'0;<0 Pofessiona/.

Mainfames %imai/! *se 8MS ;vit*a/ memo! s!stem< o M8S ;m*/ti%/e

vit*a/ s!stem< o%eating s!stems.

Lang*age Tans/atos

Com%*tes &an *n+estan+ %ogams "itten on/! in 4ina! ones an+ Heoes

#no"n as ma&ine /ang*age. o"eve ove a %eio+ of time &om%*te

%ogamming /ang*ages ave evo/ve+ an+ to+a! tese ave 4e&ome fift

geneation /ang*ages. Com%*te %ogams tat ae "itten in an! of te %o%*/a

&om%*te /ang*ages /i#e CO3OL FORTRAN o C m*st 4e &onvete+ into a

fom tat a &om%*te &an *n+estan+ i.e. ma&ine /ang*age. Tis tas# of &onvesion is %efome+ 4! a s!stem soft"ae #no"n as te /ang*age tans/ato.

Lang*age tans/atos ae of t"o t!%es name/! &om%i/e an+ inte%ete. Te

%ogam in te ig /eve/ /ang*age is &a//e+ so*&e &o+e an+ "en it is &onvete+

into ma&ine &o+e it is #no"n as o4e&t &o+e. Fo +iffeen&es 4et"een a &om%i/e

an+ an inte%ete efe to te se&tion of ig /eve/ /ang*ages +is&*sse+

e/se"ee in tis &a%te.

Uti/it! Pogams

S!stem soft"ae a/so in&/*+es *ti/it! %ogams fo o*tine e%etitive tas#s /i#e

soting e&o+s &o%!ing fi/es an+ &/eaing %ima! stoage et&. Tese *ti/it!

%ogams ae %e"itten %ogams tat ae stoe+ to 4e sae+ 4! vaio*s *ses

of a &om%*te s!stem.

(.$.' A%%/i&ation Soft"ae

A%%/i&ation soft"ae efes to %ogams o sets of %ogams tat a&t*a/ %o&ess

+ata o text to geneate infomation *n+e vaio*s a%%/i&ations. Te 4asi&

%*%ose of a%%/i&ation soft"ae is to %ovi+e f*n&tiona/it! fo *ses. Tat

f*n&tiona/it! ma! 4e /imite+ to a%%/i&ations%e&ifi& %ogams o ma! 4e ve!

4oa+ to in&/*+e genea/%*%ose %ogams. A%%/i&ations%e&ifi& soft"ae

s*%%ots s%e&ifi& a%%/i&ations of en+*ses. Exam%/es of a%%/i&ations%e&ifi&

%ogams ma! in&/*+e 4*siness a%%/i&ation %ogams ;e.g. invento! &onto/em%/o!ee 4enefit ana/!sis mateia/ eB*iement %/anning sa/es ana/!sis et&.<G

s&ientifi& a%%/i&ation %ogams ;e.g. s&ientifi& ana/!sis engineeing +esign

monitoing of. ex%eiments et&.<G an+ ote &om%*te a%%/i&ation %ogams to

s*%%ota%%/i&ations in e+*&ation entetainment m*si& at me+i&ine et&.

9enea/ %*%ose %ogams ae not /in#e+ to an! s%e&ifi& 4*siness f*n&tion 4*t

s*%%ot genea/ t!%es of %o&essing. Exam%/es of genea/ %*%ose a%%/i&ation

soft"ae in&/*+e %a&#ages of s%ea+seet +ata management "o+ %o&essing

+es#to% %*4/ising ga%i&s m*/time+ia an+ &omm*ni&ation. Te tem

%a&#age= is *se+ fo a &om%*te %ogam ;o a set of %ogams< tat as 4een

+eve/o%e+ 4! a ven+o an+ is avai/a4/e fo %*&ase in a %e%a&#age+ fom.

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(.) PRO9RAMMIN9 LAN9UA9ES

Com%*te soft"ae "i& is a set of inst*&tions o %ogams is "itten 4!

fo//o"ing some %ogamming /ang*age. It is t*s te %ogamming /ang*ages

tat a//o" *ses to te// ;inst*&to %ogam< &om%*tes "at to +o. In ote

"o+s %ogamming /ang*ages ae te 4asi& 4*i/+ing 4/o&#s fo a// t!%es of

soft"ae. Sometimes genea/ %*%ose soft"ae s*& as +ata4ase managements!stem is a/so ega+e+ as +eve/o%ment soft"ae. Tis is so 4e&a*se a%%/i&ations

ae "itten *sing a %ogamming /ang*age tat is an intega/ %at of te

+ata4ase management s!stem. Ove te %ast sevea/ +e&a+es vaio*s t!%es of

/ang*ages ave 4een +eve/o%e+. Detai/s of tese %ogamming /ang*ages ae

&om%/ex an+ s%e&ifi& an+ ae 4e!on+ te s&o%e of tis 4oo#. 9iven 4e/o" is a

4ief +is&*ssion of tese /ang*ages.

(.).1 M*&ine L*ng**ge

Te intena/ e%esentation of inst*&tions an+ +ata in +igita/ &om%*tes is in te

fom of 4ina! n*m4es i.e. Heoes o ones an+ is #no"n as ma&ine /ang*age.

An! %ogam *sing tis /o"est /eve/ of &o+ing is &a//e+ a ma&ine /ang*age%ogam. Ma&ine /ang*ages ae te most 4asi& /eve/ of %ogamming /ang*ages

"i& ae a/so #no"n as Fist 9eneation Lang*ages. In te ea/! stages of

&om%*te +eve/o%ment %ogams a+ to 4e "itten in ma&ine /ang*age. S*&

%ogams "ee ma&ine+e%en+ent as tese "ee &om%*tes%e&ifi&. Ma&ine

/ang*age %ogamming 4esi+es "iting inst*&tions in te fom of stings of

4ina! +igits o ote n*m4e s!stem eB*ies +etai/e+ inst*&tions even fo

sim%/e %o&essing tas#s. Tis ma#es ma&ine /ang*age a te+io*s time&ons*ming

an+ +iffi&*/t /ang*age. Moeove 4eing 4ina! in nat*e te /ang*age is eo

%one as tee ae ig &an&es of tans%osition eos eite in &o+ing o in

+ata ent!.

(.).' Assem4/! Lang*age

To ove&ome te %o4/ems of "iting ma&ine &o+e in te ea/! 1-(0s assem4/!

/ang*age "as +eve/o%e+. In tis /ang*age instea+ of "iting te 4ina! +igit fo

ea& inst*&tion +ie&t/! /ang*age/i#e a&on!ms an+ sot "o+s o

a44eviations s*& as ADD SU3 ;S*4ta&t< o MO8E et& &o*/+ 4e *se+.

Assem4/! /ang*age is a/so &a//e+ te Se&on+ 9eneation of Com%*te Lang*ages.

?i/e "iting %ogams in assem4/! /ang*age te "o+s e%esenting te

inst*&tions "ee se/e&te+ to 4e moe easi/! emem4ee+ tan 4ina! va/*es an+

so te! &ame to 4e #no"n as mnemoni&s.

At fist te tans/ation fom assem4/! &o+e to ma&ine &o+e "as +oneman*a//! 4*t /ate to a&&om%/is tis tas# a s!stem soft"ae %ogam &a//e+

assem4/e "as +eve/o%e+. An assem4/e is "itten in ma&ine /ang*age *se+ to

tans/ate assem4/! /ang*age inst*&tions ;te so*&e %ogam< into ma&ine

/ang*age inst*&tions ;te o4e&t %ogam<. Tis is +one on an inst*&tion fo

inst*&tion 4asis.

Tee ae t"o o4vio*s a+vantages of assem4/! &o+e ove ma&ine &o+e.

i. It is easie to /ean an+ *se a mnemoni&.

ii. It is easie to /o&ate &oe&t an+ mo+if! inst*&tions "itten "it

mnemoni&s.

o"eve /i#e te ma&ine /ang*age assem4/! /ang*age is a/so oiente+ to"a+ste intena/ st*&t*e of te ma&ine "i& ma#es te /ang*age *st as ma&ine

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+e%en+ent. 3e&a*se of 4eing ma&ine +e%en+ent te %ogams ae not %ota4/e

a&oss ma&ines. Des%ite its +isa+vantage some %ogamming is sti// +one in

assem4/! &o+e 4e&a*se it offes +ie&t a&&ess to a// te fa&i/ities of te &om%*te.

Caef*//! "itten assem4/! &o+e is fast an+ effi&ient.

(.).$ igLeve/ Lang*agesIn te mi+ 1-(0s te fo&*s sifte+ fom ma&ineoiente+ /ang*age to *se

oiente+ /ang*age tat /e+ to te +eve/o%ment of ig/eve/ /ang*ages. Tese

/ang*ages ae &/ose to nat*a/ /ang*ages /i#e Eng/is an+ t*s ae easie to

ea+ "ite an+ mo+if!. In a ig/eve/ /ang*age ea& statement geneates a

n*m4e of statements at te ma&ine /ang*age /eve/. As ig/eve/ /ang*ages ae

&/ose to nat*a/ /ang*ages te! ae &ommon "o+s ate tan mnemoni&s. In

a++ition te %ogamme is not eB*ie+ to "ite a %ogam "it %ati&*/a

ma&ine eB*iements in min+.

Te most &ommon/! *se+ ig/eve/ /ang*ages in&/*+e FORTRAN CO3OL

3ASIC CZZ an+ PASCAL. Tese /ang*ages ae a/so &a//e+ %o&e+*a//ang*ages %o4/emoiente+ /ang*ages 4e&a*se te! eB*ie te %ogamme

to +es&i4e te ste%4!ste% %o&e+*e fo so/ving a %ati&*/a %o4/em at an+.

Tis geneation of ig/eve/ /ang*age is teme+ as te Ti+ 9eneation of

Com%*te Lang*ages. As &om%*tes &an *n+estan+ on/! ma&ine /ang*age a//

%ogams "itten in a ig/eve/ /ang*age ave to 4e tans/ate+ into ma&ine

/ang*age. Te tans/ation of ig/eve/ /ang*age %ogams to ma&ine /ang*age

is a&&om%/ise+ 4! a /ang*age tans/ato. Tee ae t"o t!%es of &ommon/! *se+

tans/atos name/! &om%i/es an+ inte%etes.

A &om%i/e tans/ates te entie text of a ig/eve/ %ogam in one &ontin*o*s

%o&ess &eating a &om%/ete ma&ine&o+e %ogam. Te &om%i/e+ ;ma&ine

&o+e< %ogam &an ten 4e exe&*te+ in+e%en+ent/! "eeas an inte%ete

exe&*tes a %ogam one statement at a time tansfoming ea& ig/eve/

&onst*&t into ma&ine inst*&tions. T*s an inte%ete tans/ates an+ exe&*tes

te fist inst*&tion 4efoe it goes to te se&on+ "i/e a &om%i/e tans/ates te

"o/e %ogam 4efoe exe&*tion.

Te +iffeen&e 4et"een a &om%i/e an+ an inte%ete is ana/ogo*s to te

+iffeen&e 4et"een a tans/ato of /itea! "o# an+ a &onvesationa/ inte%ete.

A /itea! tans/ato "o#s on a &om%/ete man*s&i%t to &onvet it into anote

/ang*age "eeas te &onvesationa/ inte%ete gives tans/ate+ vesion of ea&%ase o senten&e as it is s%o#en. Lang*ages /i#e FORTRAN CO3OL an+

PASCAI. ae genea//! &om%/ie+G LO9O FORT an+ APL ae inte%ete+

"i/e 3ASIC an+ LISP ae "i+e/! avai/a4/e in 4ot foms.

It ma! 4e note+ tat a ig`/eve/ /ang*age is /ess effi&ient tan te ma&ine

o assem4/! /ang*age as it eB*ies a geate amo*nt of &om%*te time fo

tans/ation into ma&ine inst*&tions !et it %ovi+es man! a+vantages ove a

/o"/eve/ /ang*age. Tese a+vantages of a ig/eve/ /ang*age ae +is&*sse+

4e/o".

i. It is eas! to /ean an+ *n+estan+.

ii. ig/eve/ /ang*age is ma&ine in+e%en+ent an+ te %ogams "itten

in tis /ang*age ae %ota4/e a&oss ma&ines.iii. It is /ess eo%one.

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into ma&ine /ang*age is ve! &om%/ex an+ eB*ies a /age amo*nt of &om%*te

eso*&es.

(.).( O4e&tOiente+ L*ng**ges

Te &on&e%t of o4e&toiente+ %ogamming ;OOP< /ang*ages "as into+*&e+ in

ea/! 1-20 "en A//an 7a! of eox +eve/o%e+ te /ang*age Sma//ta/#. o"eveit is in te e&ent !eas tat 5o4e&t oiente+ %ogamming as 4e&ome a mao

&onsi+eation in soft"ae +eve/o%ment. OOP /ang*ages ae +isting*ise+ fom

ote /ang*ages as te! &om4ine +ata an+ %o&e+*es into o4e&ts "eeas te

ote %ogamming /ang*ages se%aate +ata fom te %o&e+*es o a&tions tat

ae to 4e %efome+ on tem. In ote "o+s an o4e&t in OOP /ang*age

&onsists of +ata an+ te a&tions tat &an 4e %efome+ on te +ata. Fo exam%/e

an o4e&t &o*/+ 4e +ata a4o*t a st*+ent an+ a// te o%eations ;s*& as ma#s

atten+an&e &a/&*/ations et&.< tat ma! 4e %efome+ *%on te +ata.

O4e&voiente+ %ogamming as f*te go"n into a ne" %ogamming

te&no/og! #no"n as vis*a/ %ogamming in "i& te *se +oes not eB*ie o

"ite an! &o+e fo +eve/o%ing a soft"aeG ate te! se/e&t o4e&ts fom a/i4a! an+ &o%! it into a s%e&ifi& /o&ation in te %ogam.

SUMMAR

A &om%*te "i& ma! 4e +efine+ as an e/e&toni& +evi&e &a%a4/e of stoing an+

mani%*/ating +ata an+ inst*&tions &onsists of a &enta/ %o&essing *nitG main

memo! an+ se&on+a! memo!G in%*t an+ o*t%*t +evi&es. Data &an 4e &a%t*e+

to*g #e!ing +evi&es /i#e a %*n&e+ &a+ ea+e an+ #e!4oa+ 4*t no"a+a!s

effots ae 4eing ma+e to &a%t*e te +ata at its so*&e i.e. e/iminating te nee+

fo #e!ing an+ its e+iting. Exam%/es of s*& +ie&t +ata &a%t*e 4! &om%*tes

ae o%ti&a/ &aa&te e&ognition ;OCR< o%ti&a/ ma# e&ognition ;OMR<

magneti& in# &aa&te e&ognition ;MICR< an+ voi&e e&ognition s!stems et&.

Com%*tes ma! 4e &/assifie+ on te 4asis of o%eating %in&i%/es siHe an+

&om%*te %o"e. 3ase+ on te o%eating %in&i%/es &om%*tes &an 4e &/assifie+

into +igita/ ana/og an+ !4i+ &om%*tes. ?i/e &om%*tes ma! 4e &ategoise+

as mi&o&om%*tes mini&om%*tes mainfame &om%*tes an+ s*%e&om%*tes

anote 4asis to &/assif! &om%*tes ma! 4e &om%*te evo/*tion "i& &/assifies

te &om%*tes in tems of &om%*te geneations. Te Heot geneation of

&om%*tes state+ "it te fist effots to invent &om%*tes as ea/! as in te

!ea 16)' "en 3/aise Pas&a/ "as s*&&essf*/ in inventing te fist me&ani&a/

&a/&*/ato #no"n as Pas&a/>s A++ing Ma&ine. o"eve it "as on/! in te !ea

1,$$ tat Ca/es 3a44age +esigne+ te fist &om%*te &a%a4/e of %efoming4asi& aitmeti&a/ f*n&tions #no"n as te ana/!ti&a/ engine. Te invention of te

fist e/e&tomagneti& &a/&*/ato 4! D o//eit in 1,,- "as anote mi/estone in

te isto! of &om%*tes. Te ea of &om%*tes entee+ te fist geneation

&om%*tes J"en te fist t*/! e/e&toni& &om%*te &a//e+ ENIAC ;E/e&toni&

N*mei&a/ Integato an+ Ca/&*/ato< "as +eve/o%e+ in 1-)6 4! on Ma*&/!

an+.P. E&#et at te Mooe S&oo/ of E/e&ti&a/ Engineeing at te Univesit! of

Penns!/vania in USA. Te fist &omme&ia/ *se of an e/e&toni& &om%*te "as

ma+e 4! 9enea/ E/e&ti& in 1-().

Te &om%*tes of tis geneation *se+ va&**m t*4es an+ "itnesse+ an ea

4et"een1-)-((. Te! "ee ve! s/o" an+ "ee of a ve! /age siHe. Te

&om%*tes "i& *se+ tansistos 4e&ame avai/a4/e in /age n*m4es in 1-(-

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an+ ae &/assifie+ as se&on+ geneation &om%*tes. Tese &om%*tes "ee faste

an+ sma//e in siHe. Ti+ geneation &om%*tes *se+ si/i&on &i%s ;ICs<.

Te! "ee ig/! e/ia4/e a+ s%ee+ in nanose&on+s an+ "ee sti// sma//e in

siHe. Te! "itnesse+ an ea 4et"een1-6(2(. Com%*tes state+ *sing ve! /age

s&a/e integate+ &i%s in 1-20s an+ "ee &a//e+ fo*t geneation &om%*tes.

Effots ae on to *se e&ent a+van&es in atifi&ia/ inte//igen&e fo +esigning#no"/e+ge 4ase &om%*tes "i& &o*/+ 4e teme+ as fift geneation &om%*tes.

Te &om%*te %ogamme+ inst*&tions tat ena4/e te &om%*te a+"ae

*nits to %efom ae &a//e+ soft"ae. Com%*te soft"ae &an 4e &/assifie+ into

t"o &ategoies name/! s!stem soft"ae an+ a%%/i&ation soft"ae. S!stem

soft"ae &onsists of a set of %ogams to s*%%ot te effi&ient *se of a+"ae

eso*&es tat in&/*+e %ima! an+ se&on+a! memo! +is%/a! +evi&es %intes

&omm*ni&ation /in#s an+ ote %ei%ea/s. It a/so inte%ets an+ exe&*tes

a%%/i&ation soft"ae. S!stem soft"ae "o*/+ in&/*+e o%eating s!stems /ang*age

tans/atos ;&om%i/es an+ inte%etes< an+ *ti/it! %ogams.

A%%/i&ation soft"ae efes to %ogams o sets of %ogams tat a&t*a//!%o&ess +ata to geneate infomation *n+e vaio*s a%%/i&ations. Exam%/es ae

%a!o// %o&essing s!stem invento! &onto/ infomation s!stem et&.

Pogamming /ang*ages a//o" *ses to te// ;inst*&t %ogam< &om%*tes

"at to +o. In ote "o+s %ogamming /ang*ages ae te 4asi& 4*i/+ing

4/o&#s fo a// t!%es of soft"ae.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

1. Des&i4e vaio*s &om%onents of a &om%*te s!stem. Dis&*ss in +etai/ te

&om%onents of te &enta/ %o&essing *nit an+ give te f*n&tions

%efome+ 4! ea&.

'. Diffeentiate 4et"een RAM an+ ROM. ?! +o &om%*tes ave 4ot.

A/so +is&*ss te +iffeen&es 4et"een %ima! an+ se&on+a! stoage.

$. 9ive e/ative a+vantages an+ +isa+vantages of magneti& ta%es an+ +is#s.

). o" "o*/+ !o* &/assif! &om%*tes@ Dis&*ss ea& &/ass in +etai/.

(. Dis&*ss te evo/*tion of a &om%*te s!stem. Ex%/ain te +iffeentiating

fa&tos among te geneations of &om%*tes.

6. ?ite sot notes on:

;a< O%ti&a/ stoage +evi&es

;4< Magnetoo%ti&a/ stoage +evi&es.

2. ?ite a +etai/e+ note on Com%*te Soft"ae. Dis&*ss a// tea+van&ements in soft"ae te&no/og!.

ASSI9NMENTS

1. Ass*me !o* ae to e&ommen+ a &om%*te s!stem fo

;i.< a +o&to

;ii.< a /a"!e

;iii.< an e+*&ationa/ instit*tion

;iv.< a sma// 4*sinessman

Pe%ae a e%ot s%e&if!ing te s!stem e&ommen+e+ te a%%oximate &osts an+

te ationa/e fo te &oi&e fo ea& of te &*stome.

'. Ass*me !o* ae to ente +ata foma. %inte+ B*estionnaies

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4. te/e%one s*ve!s

&. 4an# &eB*es

+. 4oo#s.

?i& meto+ of in%*t "o*/+ !o* *se fo tese a&tivities@ Ex%/ain !o* &oi&es.

REFERENCESCi% Ma! '006.

Ex%ess &om%*teIT vision */! 1--, A*g*st 1--,.

O= 3ien ames A. Infomation S!stems in 3*siness Management: "it

Soft"ae an+ 3ASIC T*toia/s Ste+ition ome"oo+ III Ri&a+ D. I"in

1-,,.

Pete Noton Into+*&tion to Com%*tes Tata M&ga"IIi// P*4/ising

Com%an! Limite+ Ne" De/i '00( .

Raaaman 8 F*n+amenta/s of Com%*tes Peiti&e of In+ia Pvt. Lt+. Ne"

De/i 1-,,.

Taggat ?i//iam M. Infomation S!stems: An Into+*&tion to Com%*tes in

Oganisations A//!n an+ 3a&on In&. Massa&*ssets 1-,0.

Data4ase Management

Leaning O4e&tives

A/te st*+!ing tis &a%te !o* so*/+ 4e a4/e to:

• *n+estan+ te &on&e%t of +ata4ase ieae!G

• a%%e&iate te /imitations of te ta+itiona/ a%%oa& to +ata

oganisationG

• i+entif! te o4e&tives an+ a+vantages of +ata4ase a%%oa&G

• ex%/ain te t!%es of +ata st*&t*es.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Data is a vita/ oganisationa/ eso*&e "i& is an im%otant in%*t in an

infomation s!stem. Tis= +ata eso*&e is ta+itiona//! &a//e+ te +ata4ase. It is

fom tis +ata4ase tat +ata is %o&esse+ an+ &onvete+ into infomation to

satisf! infomation nee+s of te oganisation. No"a+a!s "e fin+ tat te intena/

an+ extena/ infomation eso*&es avai/a4/e to oganisations ae in&easing at a

a%i+ ate +*e to "i& +ata4ases ae 4e&oming /age an+ /age in siHe. At te

same time 4*siness envionment as fo&e+ te 4*sinesses to ta#e B*i&# an+

igt +e&isions fo "i& +ata4ases ae eB*ie+ to 4e B*eie+ feB*ent/!.5*eies ma! 4e vaie+ e.g. one manage ma! 4e inteeste+ to #no" te names of

a// tose %o+*&ts fo "i& sa/es in te &*ent !ea ex&ee+ tat of te %evio*s

!ea one ma! eB*ie infomation on te tota/ amo*nt o*tstan+ing o one ma!

eB*ie te /ist of %o+*&ts aving a ma#et sae geate tan $0 %e &ent an+

so on. To &oe&t/! %o&ess vaie+ t!%es of B*eies an+ to ens*e a fast es%onse

time te *se of &om%*te4ase+ infomation s!stems ave 4e&ome a ne&essit! of

an! 4*siness.

To meet te o4e&tive of fast etieva/ of +ata &om%*te4ase+ infomation

s!stem so*/+ 4e a4/e to oganise stoe an+ manage +ata effe&tive/! an+

effi&ient/!. Tee ae t"o main meto+s to oganise +ata on &om%*te me+ia

"i& ae #no"n as fi/es an+ +ata4ases. 3efoe "e +is&*ss te t"o a%%oa&es

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/et *s /oo# at te &on&e%t of a fi/e an+ a +ata4ase %o%*/a/! #no"n as +ata4ase

ieae!.

6.' DATA3ASE IERARE

An!ting of inteest to te *se a4o*t "i& +ata is to 4e &o//e&te+ o stoe+ is

&a//e+ an entit!. An entit! ma! 4e a tangi4/e o4e&t s*& as an em%/o!ee a %ato a %/a&e. It ma! a/so 4e nontangi4/e s*& as an event a o4 tit/e a &*stome

a&&o*nt a %ofit &ente o an a4sta&t &on&e%t. An entit! as a n*m4e of

atti4*tes "i& one ma! 4e inteeste+ to e&o+ s*& as name age

+esignation et&.

In o+e to #no" te entit! a *se as to &o//e&t +ata a4o*t its &aa&teisti&s o

atti4*tes. 9enea//! in +ata %o&essing one is inteeste+ in &o//e&ting simi/a

entities s*& as em%/o!ees an+ "o*/+ 4e inteeste+ in e&o+ing infomation

a4o*t te same atti4*tes of ea& of tem. Ea& atti4*te is teme+ as +ata item=

o +ata e/ement=. Data item te sma//est *nit in te +ata4ase is a &om4ination

of one o moe 4!tes. Sometimes +ata item is a/so &a//e+ a fie/+=.

A&t*a//! a fie/+ is a %!si&a/ s%a&e on te stoage +evi&e "eeas a +ata item is

te +ata stoe+ ;va/*e< in te fie/+. Fo exam%/e an em%/o!ee of te oganisation

ma! 4e ega+e+ as an entit! of inteest. Te vaio*s atti4*tes of tis entit! ma!

4e em%/o!ee name age sex a++ess et&. T*s em%/o!ee name is one of te +ata

fie/+s age is te se&on+ +ata fie/+ an+ so on. Te va/*es of tese fie/+s sa!

San+ee% '6 !eas es%e&tive/! ae +ata items of te entit! em%/o!ee. A// te +ata

items e/ate+ to an o4e&t ae &om4ine+ in a e&o+. T*s M San+ee% "it a//

its +ata items is efee+ to as one e&o+. Simi/a/! tee ma! 4e man!

em%/o!ees in an oganisation an+ a// "o*/+ ave in+ivi+*a/ e&o+s e%esenting

tat em%/o!ee. A &o//e&tion of e/ate+ e&o+s is #no"n as a fi/e.

Te em%/o!ee fi/e ma! &ontain one o moe tan one e&o+s. Simi/a/! in an

a%%/i&ation tee ma! 4e sevea/ e/ate+ fi/es. Fo exam%/e in a sa/a!

%o&essing s!stem te fi/es ma! 4e em%/o!ee fi/e %ovi+ent f*n+ fi/e in&ome tax

fi/e et&. A// tese fi/es ae &om4ine+ in a +ata4ase. T*s +ata4ase is a set of

intee/ate+ fi/es "i& &an 4e *se+ 4! sevea/ *ses a&&essing +ata &on&*ent/!.

Te +ata ieae! a/ong "it anote exam%/e as 4een so"n in Fig. 6.1.

Fig. 6.1 Te Data ieae!

6.$ FILES TE TRADITIONAL APPROAC

Ta+itiona//! +ata fi/es "ee +eve/o%e+ an+ maintaine+ se%aate/! fo in+ivi+*a/

a%%/i&ations. T*s te fi/e %o&essing s!stem e/ie+ on te %ie&emea/ a%%oa& of

+ata a&oss te oganisation "ee eve! f*n&tiona/ *nit /i#e ma#eting finan&e

%o+*&tion et&. *se+ to maintain tei o"n set of a%%/i&ation %ogams an+ +atafi/es.

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It is 4e&a*se of tese +a"4a&#s in te ta+itiona/ fi/es a%%oa& of

oganising +ata tat /e+ to te +eve/o%ment of +ata4ases.

6.) DATA3ASES TE MODERN APPROAC

An a/tenative a%%oa& to te fi/e %o&essing s!stem is te mo+en a%%oa&

#no"n as te +ata4ase a%%oa&. A +ata4ase is an oganise+ &o//e&tion of e&o+san+ fi/es "i& ae e/ate+ to ea& ote. In a +ata4ase s!stem a &ommon %oo/ of

+ata &an 4e sae+ 4! a n*m4e of a%%/i&ations as it is +ata an+ %ogam

in+e%en+ent. T*s *n/i#e a fi/e %o&essing s!stem +ata e+*n+an&! an+ +ata

in&onsisten&! in te +ata4ase s!stem a%%oa& ae minimise+. Te *se is fee

fom te +etai/e+ an+ &om%/i&ate+ tas# of #ee%ing *% "it te %!si&a/ st*&t*e

of te +ata. Fig*e 6.' %esents a sim%/ifie+ vie" of a +ata4ase s!stem. A+ o&

B*eies fom te *se ae a&&e%te+ an+ stan+a+ o*t%*ts ;e%ots< ma! 4e

&ange+ o efomatte+ as %e te infomation nee+s of te *ses.

Fig. 6.' Sim%/ifie+ 8ie" of a Data4ase S!stem

Te soft"ae ;set of %ogams< tat %ovi+es a&&ess to a +ata4ase is #no"n as a

+ata4ase management s!stem ;D3MS<. A &/ea&*t +istin&tion 4et"een

ta+itiona/ fi/e s!stem an+ +ata4ase s!stem is i//*state+ in Fig. 6.$.

6.).1 O4e&tive of a Data4ase

3oa+/! te o4e&tives of te +ata4ase a%%oa& ae to ma#e infomation a&&ess

eas! fast e/ative/! inex%ensive an+ f/exi4/e fo te *se. Te s%e&ifi& o4e&tives

ma! 4e /iste+ as fo//o"s.

;i.< Conto//e+ +ata e+*n+an&!

;ii.< Enan&e+ +ata &onsisten&!

;iii.< Data in+e%en+en&e

;iv.< A%%/i&ation in+e%en+en&e

;v.< Ease of *se

;vi.< E&onomi&a/ an+

;vii.< Re&ove! fom fai/*e.

6.).' A+vantages of Data4ase S!stemsData4ase a%%oa& %ovi+es te fo//o"ing 4enefits ove te fi/e management

s!stems.

Redundancy Control

In a fi/e management s!stem ea& a%%/i&ation as its o"n +ata "i& &a*ses

+*%/i&ation of &ommon +ata items in moe tan one fi/e. Tis +ata +*%/i&ation

nee+s moe stoage s%a&e as "e// as m*/ti%/e *%+ations fo a sing/e tansa&tion.

Tis %o4/em is ove&ome in +ata4ase a%%oa& "ee +ata is stoe+ on/! on&e.

Data Consistency

Te %o4/em of *%+ating m*/ti%/e fi/es in fi/e management s!stem /ea+s toina&&*ate +ata as +iffeent fi/es ma! &ontain +iffeent infomation of te same

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+ata item at a given %oint of time. In +ata4ase a%%oa& tis %o4/em of

in&onsistent +ata is a*tomati&a//! so/ve+ "it te &onto/ of e+*n+an&!.

T*s in a +ata4ase +ata a&&*a&! o integit! an+ a&&essi4i/it! of +ata is

enan&e+ to a geat extent.

Management QueriesTe +ata4ase a%%oa& in most of te infomation s!stems %oo/s te

oganisation"i+e fi/es at f one %/a&e #no"n as &enta/ +ata4ase an+ t*s is

&a%a4/e of ans"eing B*eies of te management e/ating to moe tan one

f*n&tiona/ aea. A/so as te e/ate+ +ata is &enta/ise+ an+ te e/ationsi%

st*&t*e among entities is +esigne+ into te +ata4ase it is a &onvenient

a%%oa& to an+/e even *nst*&t*e+ B*eies.

Data 'nde#endence

Most of te fi/e management s!stems ae +ata +e%en+ent "i& im%/ies tat

+ata oganisation an+ a&&ess stategies ae +i&tate+ 4! te nee+s of te s%e&ifi&

a%%/i&ation an+ te a%%/i&ation %ogams ae +eve/o%e+ a&&o+ing/!. o"evete +ata4ase a%%oa& %ovi+es an in +e%en+en&e 4et"een te fi/e st*&t*e an+

%ogam st*&t*e. Tis gives f/exi4i/it! to te a%%/i&ation %ogams in Data4ase

Management S!stem ;D3MS< envionment. S*& a s!stem %ovi+es an intefa&e

4et"een te %ogams an+ te +ata4ase an+ ta#es &ae of te stoage etieva/

an+ *%+ation of +ata in te +ata4ase. It a//o"s a%%/i&ations to 4e "itten as

genea/ %ogams to o%eate on fi/es "ose st*&t*es &an 4e ma+e avai/a4/e to

te %ogam. In sim%/e "o+s D3MS ma! 4e &a//e+ a genea/ise+ fi/e %o&essing

s!stem.

Enforcement of Standards

In te +ata4ase a%%oa& +ata 4eing stoe+ at one &enta/ %/a&e stan+a+s &an

easi/! 4e enfo&e+. Tis ens*es stan+a+ise+ +ata fomats to fa&i/itate +ata

tansfes 4et"een s!stems.

6.).$ Disa+vantages of Data4ase

In &ontast to te man! a+vantages of te +ata4ase a%%oa& tee ae a fe"

+isa+vantages as "e//. Te +isa+vantages of a +ata4ase a%%oa& ae given

4e/o".

Centralised Data*aseTe +ata st*&t*e ma! 4e&ome B*ite &om%/ex 4e&a*se of te &enta/ise+

+ata4ase s*%%oting man! a%%/i&ations in an oganisation. Tis ma! /ea+ to

+iffi&*/ties in its management an+ ma! eB*ie a %ofessiona/an ex%eien&e+

+ata4ase +esigne an+ sometimes extensive taining fo *ses.

More Dis! S#ace

Data4ase a%%oa& genea//! eB*ies moe %o&essing tan fi/e management

s!stem an+ t*s nee+s moe +is# s%a&e fo %ogam stoage.

O#erationaiity of the System

Sin&e te +ata4ase is *se+ 4! man! *ses in te oganisation an! fai/*e in it"ete +*e to a s!stem fa*/t +ata4ase &o*%tion et& "i// affe&t te

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o%eationa/it! of te s!stem as it "o*/+ en+e a// *ses *na4/e to a&&ess te

+ata4ase.

Security Ris!

3eing a &enta/ise+ +ata4ase it is moe %one to se&*it! +isastes. 3esi+es te

a4ovementione+ +isa+vantages sometimes te +ata4ase a%%oa& ma! not 4e&osteffe&tive fo sma//e oganisations. Tis is 4e&a*se of te eason tat as "it

ote &om%/ex soft"ae s!stems te &ost in tems of soft"ae a+"ae an+

o%eatinga+ministative %esonne/ a/so in&eases.

6.( DATA3ASE STRUCTURE

Data is st*&t*e+ on te 4asis of one of te sevea/ +ata mo+e/s. A +ata mo+e/

efes to te /ogi&a/ st*&t*es of +ata an+ te e/ationsi%s among tem. In

+ata4ase a%%oa& e/ationsi%s 4et"een entities ma! a/so 4e +efine+ an+

stoe+. Fo exam%/e a *se ma! stoe a tea&e e&o+ a s*4e&t e&o+ an+ a

ti+ e&o+ "i& +efines te e/ationsi% 4et"een te t"o i.e. te tea&e an+

te s*4e&t. Tee ma! 4e tee t!%es of e/ationsi%s "i& exist among entitiesname/! onetooneG onetoman!G an+ man!toman!.

A onetoone ;1:1< e/ationsi% is an asso&iation 4et"een t"o entities. Fo

exam%/e a e/ationsi% 4et"een *s4an+ an+ "ife "ee te *s4an+ is a//o"e+

one "ife at a time an+ vi&e vesa ;see Fig. 6.)<.

A onetoman! ;1 : M< e/ationsi% e%esents an entit! tat ma! ave t"o o

moe entities asso&iate+ "it it. Fo exam%/e fate ma! ave man! &i/+en

an+ a state ma! ave man! +isti&ts 4*t ea& &i/+ as on/! fate an+ ea&

+isti&t as on/! one state ;see Fig. 6.(<.

A man!toman! ;M : M< e/ationsi% +es&i4es entities "i& ma! ave

man! e/ationsi%s 4ot "a!s. Fo exam%/e tea&es an+ st*+ents "ee a

tea&e tea&es man! st*+ents an+ a st*+ent atten+s te &/asses of man! tea&es

;see Fig. 6.6<.

*s4an+ Fate Tea&es

8tte Ci/+en St*+ents

Fig 6.) 1 : / Re/ationsi% Fig. 6.( 1 : M Re/ationsi% Fig. 6.6 M : M Re/ationsi%

Te +ata4ase &on&e%t &/ea/! +isting*ises 4et"een /ogi&a/ an+ %!si&a/ vie"s of

+ata. Te /ogi&a/ vie" is te e%esentation of +ata as it "o*/+ a%%ea to an

a%%/i&ation %ogamme o en+ *se "eeas te %!si&a/ vie" so"s o" +ata

is a&t*a//! oganise+ an+ st*&t*e+ on te %!si&a/ stoage me+ia. To i//*state

tis Fig. 6.2 +e%i&ts a %ogamme "o eB*ies a fivee&o+ fi/e in a %ati&*/ao+e ;A D C 3 S<. Te %ogamme in tis +ata4ase a%%oa& +oes not #no"

a4o*t te %!si&a/ ina%= on te stoage me+ia. Te st*&t*e of te +ata4ase

+efining te e&o+s of entities an+ te e/ationsi%s among entities in te

+ata4ase is &a//e+ s&ema=. Uses of te +ata4ase ma! vie" on/! a %otion of te

+ata4ase #no"n as s*4s&ema. It is not ne&essa! fo te *se to #no" te

&om%/ete st*&t*e of te +ata4ase. T*s vaio*s s*4s&emas ma! e%esent te

extena/ vie" ;see Fig. 6.,<.

6.6 DATA3ASE MANA9EMENT SSTEM

Data4ase Management S!stem is a soft"ae tat fa&i/itates f/exi4/e management

of +ata. It is 8 genea//! &om%ose+ of tee s*4s!stems "i& ae +es&i4e+ asfo//o"s.

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Data*ase Definition

In tis s*4s!stem te &om%/ete +ata4ase ;s&ema< is +es&i4e+ "it te e/% of

a s%e&ia/ /ang*age #no"n as te +ata +es&i%tion /ang*age ;DDL<. IIo"eveiG in

te &ase of +ata4ase in +iffeent fi/es one fi/e at a time ma! 4e +efine+ as tat

"o*/+ give maxim*m f/exi4i/it! Data4ase Mani%*/ation Afte te +ata4ase is+efine+ e/ements of +ata &an 4e stoe+. Te stoe+ +ata ma! eite 4e etieve+

an+ *%+ate+ /ate to*g +ata mani%*/ation /ang*age ;DML<. Te

mani%*/ation s*4s!stem &an etieve te eB*ie+ e/ements of +ata ;te

s*4s&ema< in a vaiet! of seB*en&es.

Data*ase Su##ort

Tis s*4s!stem %efoms +ata4ase *ti/it! o sevi&e f*n&tions tat in&/*+e

f*n&tions /i#e /ist fi/es &ange i/e %ass"o+s &ange fi/e &a%a&ities %int fi/e

statisti&s *n/o&# fi/es et&. A +ataa4ase management s!stem %efoms a "i+e

vaiet! of f*n&tions "i& ae +is&*sse+ as fo//o"G

Data Organisation

D3MS oganises +ata items as %e te s%e&ifi&ations of te +ata +efinition

/ang*age. Data4ase a+ministato +e&i+es a4o*t te +ata s%e&ifi&ations tat ae

mosts*ite+ to ea& a%%/i&ation.

Da"ing

Fig. 6., Tee Leve/s ;8ie"s< of D3MS

P!si&a/Logi&a/ Leve/ Se%aation

D3MS se%aates te /ogi&a/ +es&i%tion an+ e/ationsi%s of +ata fom te "a! in

"i& te +ata is %!si&a//! stoe+. It a/so se%aates o*t a%%/i&ation %ogamsan+ tei asso&iate+ +ata. Tis a++s t +ata se&*it! in vie" of te +ata a&&ess 4!

+iffeent %ogams tat +es&i4e +ata in +iffeent "a!s.

Data Control

D3MS e&eives eB*ests fo stoing +ata fom +iffeent %ogams. It &onto/s

o" an+ "ee +ata is %!si&a//! stoe+. Simi/a/! it /o&ates an+ et*ns

eB*este+ +ata to te %ogam.

Data Protection

Data %ote&tion an+ se&*it! is one of te mao &on&ens in a +ata4ase. D3MS

%ote&ts te +ata against a&&ess 4! *na*toise+ *ses %!si&a/ +amageo%eating s!stem fai/*e sim*/taneo*s *%+ation et&. It a/so %ot &ts an+ se&*es

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te &ontent of a +ata4ase as "e// as te e/ationsi%s of +ata e/ements. D3MS is

eB*i%%e+ "it a fa&i/it! to 4a&#*% +ata an+ estoe it a*tomati&a//! in te &ase of

an! s!stem fai/*e. Con&*ent a&&ess &onto/ is ens*e+ 4! te %ovision of

/o&#s=. Ote se&*it! feat*es im%/emente+ in te s!stem in&/*+e %ass"o+

%ote&tion an+ so%isti&ate+ en&!%tion s&emes.

6.2 TPES OF DATA3ASE STRUCTURES OR DATA MODELS

9enea//! +ata4ase s!stems ae &/assifie+ on te 4asis of one of te tee +ata

mo+e/s te! *se in 4*i/+ing te &on&e%t*a/ st*&t*e o s&ema of te +ata4ase.

Te tee mo+e/s ae:

;i.< ieaei&a/ mo+e/

;ii.< Net"o# mo+e/ an+

;iii.< Re/ationa/ mo+e/.

Let *s 4ief/! +is&*ss tese +ata4ase st*&t*es.

Fig. 6.- ieaei&a/ Data Mo+e/

6.2.1 ieaei&a/ Mo+e/

In te ieaei&a/ st*&t*e te e/ationsi%s 4et"een e&o+s ae stoe+ in te

fom of a ieae! o a tee "i& as a oot. In tis mo+e/ a// e&o+s ae

+e%en+ent an+ aange+ in a m*/ti/eve/ st*&t*e t*s te oot ma! ave a

n*m4e of 4an&es an+ ea& 4an& ma! ave a n*m4e of s*44an&es an+

so on. Te /o"emost e&o+ is #no"n as te &i/+ of te next ige /eve/

e&o+ "eeas te ige /eve/ e&o+ is &a//e+ te %aent= of its &i/+ e&o+s.

T*s in tis a%%oa& a// te e/ationsi%s among e&o+s ae onetoman!

Fig*e 6.- +e%i&ts a ieaei&a/ +ata st*&t*e. A ieaei&a/ a%%oa& is

sim%/e to *n+estan+ an+ +esign 4*t &annot e%esent +ata items tat ma!

sim*/taneo*s/! a%%ea at t"o +iffeent /eve/s of ieae! e.g. a %eson ma! 4e a

4oss an+ a s*4o+inate at te same time fo +iffeent %esons of &o*se. A/so tis

a%%oa& &eates a %o4/em "en ea/ "o/+ +ata +oes not fo//o" a sti&t

ieae!. Fo exam%/e in a matix oganisation an em%/o!ee ma! e%ot to

moe tan one manage.

6.2.' Net"o# Mo+e/

Te net"o# mo+e/ a//o"s moe &om%/ex 1: M o M: M /ogi&a/ e/ationsi%s

among entities. Te e/ationsi%s ae stoe+ in te fom of /in#e+ /ist st*&t*e in

"i& s*4o+inate e&o+s &a//e+ mem4es &an 4e /in#e+ to moe tan one

o"ne ;%aent<. An exam%/e of a net"o# mo+e/ is so"n in Fig. 6.10. Tis

a%%oa& +oes not %/a&e an! esti&tions on te n*m4e of e/ationsi%s.

o"eve to +esign an+ im%/ement te net"o# mo+e/ is te most &om%/i&ate+

one.

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Fig. 6.10 Net"o# Mo+e/

6.2.$ Re/ationa/ Data Mo+e/

In a e/ationa/ st*&t*e +ata is oganise+ in t"o+imensiona/ ta4/es &a//e+

e/ations ea& of "i& is im%/emente+ as a fi/e ;see Fig 6.11<. Re/ationa/ mo+e/tat "as %o%ose+ 4! D E.F. Co++ in 1-20 is 4ase+ on te matemati&a/ teo!

of sets an+ e/ations. In tis mo+e/ ea& o" of te ta4/e is efee+ to as a

t*%*/e= an+ ea& &o/*mn in te o" as atti4*te=. A t*%*/e efes to a set of +ata

item va/*es e/ating to one entit!. A t*%*/e of t"o va/*es is &a//e+ a %ai an+ if it

&ontains N va/*es it is #no"n as Nt*%*/e. Fig*e 6.11 e%esents 6t*%*/e. A

&o/*mn &onsisting of a set of va/*es of one +ata item is efee+ to as a +omain=.

A e/ation &onsisting of t"o +omains ;' +ata item t!%es< is &a//e+ a e/ation of

+egee ' ;4ina!<. Simi/a/! +egee $ is &a//e+ tena! an+ +egee N as Na!. To

avoi+ e+*n+an&! te +ata4ase is not +esigne+ on/! in one 4ig ta4/e genea//!

&a//e+ a f/at fi/eG ate it is +esigne+ as man! e/ate+ ta4/es. Fo exam%/e Ta4/es

6.1 an+ 6.' es%e&tive/! i//*state te e%esentation of +ata 4! te e/ationa/mo+e/. Ta4/e 6.1 e%esents a vaiet! of +ata e/ements on ea& of a &o*se offee+

4! a 4*siness s&oo/ "i/e Ta4/e 6.' e%esents +ata a4o*t te fa&*/t! of te

s&oo/. Te t"o ta4/es ae /in#e+ to ea& ote 4! a &ommon &o/*mn

Da"ing an+ Ta4/e

man! intee/ate+ ta4/es te ovea// +esign ma! get &om%/i&ate+ "i& ma!

/ea+ to s/o"e seaees an+ t*s affe&ting te a&&ess time. o"eve s*&

%o&essing ineffi&ien&ies ae &ontin*a//! 4eing e+*&e+ to*g +ata4ase +esign

an+ %ogamming. Initia//! D3' "as +eve/o%e+ as a mainfame %o+*&t 4*t no"

man! mini%/atfom %o+*&ts ae avai/a4/e in te ma#et tat in&/*+e Inges

Oa&/e an+ Infomix. D4ase I8 an+ R4ase ae some of te mi&o%/atfom

%o+*&ts.

6., STRUCTURED 5UER LAN9UA9E ;S5L<

St*&t*e+ 5*e! Lang*age %o%*/a/! #no"n as S5L ;%ono*n&e+ as seB*e/=<

is te /ang*age tat is *se+ in most e/ationa/ +ata4ase s!stems. It is &a//e+

st*&t*e+ B*e! /ang*age 4e&a*se it fo//o"s a igoo*s set of */es an+%o&e+*es in ans"eing B*eies. S5L is a/so teme+ as )9L to +isting*is it

fom ote $9L %ogamming /ang*ages /i#e Pas&a/ Co4o/ o C.

S5L is a sim%/e an+ %o"ef*/ B*e! /ang*age tat is &a%a4/e of ans"eing sim%/e

to most &om%/ex B*eies. An! B*e! on a sing/e ta4/e &an 4e %efome+ 4! *sing

on/! t"o 4asi& o%eatos name/! SELECT an+ PROECT

Te SELECT o%eato se/e&ts a set of e&o+s ;o"s< fom te ta4/e "eeas

PROECT ta#es o*t se/e&te+ fie/+s ;&o/*mns< fom te ta4/e. Te t"o o%eatos

ma! 4e *n+estoo+ in te *ses= vie" as a oiHonta/ &*t an+ veti&a/ &*t

es%e&tive/! of te ta4/e. Anote o%eato OIN is a/so *se+ in S5L "en te

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B*e! eB*ies moe tan one ta4/e. OIN /in#s o &om4ines t"o ta4/es togete

ove a &ommon fie/+.

Let *s i//*state te "o#ing of RD3MS s!stem "it te e/% of te fo//o"ing

exam%/es. Te ta4/es ae &eate+ *sing +ata +efinition /ang*age. T!%i&a/

&onst*&ts fo &eating Ta4/es 6.1 8 an+ 6.' "o*/+ 4e as fo//o"s.Ceate Ta4/e Co*se

CNO Ca ;(<

CTITLE Ca ;'(<

CREDITS intege

STDNO intege

TCODE Ca ;$<

Ceate Ta4/e Tea&e

TCODE Ca ;$<

NAME Ca ;'0<

DEPTT Ca ;(<

DESI9 Ca ;1'<PONE Ca ;6<

aving &eate+ te ta4/es an+ aving entee+ te +ata as so"n in Ta4/es 6.1 an+

6.' te a4ovementione+ 4asi& o%eatos viH. SELECT PROECT an+ OIN

ma! 4e *se+. Fo exam%/e

;i.< SELECT DEPTT V CS=

FROM te ta4/e Tea&e "e get Ta4/e 6.$ ;a<.

Ta4/e 6.$ ;a<

;ii< PROECT CNO STDNO

FROM te ta4/e Co*se "e get Ta4/e 6.$ ;4<

Ta4/e 6.$ ;4<

;iii< Simi/a! t"o o moe tan t"o ta4/es &an 4e oine+ ove a &ommon fie/+

Fo exam%/e ta4/e &o*se an+ ta4/e tea&e ma! 4e oine+ togete ove a

&ommon fie/+ TCODE to o4tain te fo//o"ing es*/t ;see Ta4/e 6.$ ;&<.

In te a4ove exam%/e te *se of tee 4asi& o%eatos as 4een ex%/aine+.

o"eve it ma! 4e mote+ tat S5L +oes not *se te SELECT PROECT an+

OIN fomats at te s!nta&ti& /eve/ ate it fo//o"s a genei& fomat &onsisting

of tee s*4&omman+s as fo//o"s.

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SELECT Fie/+ /ist

FROM List of ta4/es

?ERE Con+ition

Fo exam%/e "e "ant to #no" te name of &o*se;s< "ee te n*m4e of

st*+ents ae /ess tan '1 fom o* ea/ie +ata4ase stoe+ as e/ation &o*se;Ta4/e 6.1<

SELECT CNO CTITLE CREDITS STDNO

FROM Co*se

?ERE STDNO \ '1

Tis "i// %o+*&e te e%ot as given 4e/o".

Ta4/e 6.$ ;&<

In a simi/a "a! te es*/t of te fo//o"ing inst*&tion so*/+ 4e o4vio*s.

Infomation fom t"o +iffeent ta4/es ma! 4e exta&te+ 4! *sing +o ;.< notation

as so"n 4e/o".

SELECT CTITLE NAME

FROM Co*se Tea&e

?ERE Co*se. TCODE V Tea&e.TCODEG

S5L &an a/so %efom man! ote f*n&tions tat in&/*+e soting ;o+eing<

go*% f*n&tions of aveaging s*mming /o&ating maxim*m an+ minim*m

va/*es &o*nting te n*m4es in a &o/*mn et&. ;efe to an! S5L text fo moe

feat*es<.

8 6.- NORMALISATION

In o+e to fa&i/itate a f/exi4/e *sage of te +ata4ase an+ to minimise te effe&t of

a%%/i&ation &anges on its st*&t*e a %o&ess &a//e+ n0ma/isation= is *se+.

Noma/isation ma! 4e +efine+ as a ste4!ste% %o&ess of sim%/if!ing te

e/ationsi%s 4et"een +ata e/ements in a e&o+. Te +esignes of infomation

s!stemss!stem ana/!sts m*st #no" te %o&ess of noma/isation sin&e tis%o&ess &an im%ove te B*a/it! of +ata4ase +esign. Te tee t!%es of

noma/isations i&. noma/ise+ e/ations name/! fist noma/ fom ;1NF< se&on+

noma/ fom ;'NF< an+ ti+ noma/ fom ;$NF< ae +is&*sse+ 4e/o" to*g an

exam%/e of &ons*/tant +ata.

Exam%/e: Cons*/tant Data

CONSULTANT DATA

NUM3ER NAME 9RADE SCALE CAR TPE

0(1011 Nitin E S' Fiat

ADDRESS

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3'1, i//vie" To"e

M 9 Roa+

3oiv/i ;Not<

M*m4ai )00 O/$

S7ILLS

CODE DESCRIPTION 5UALIFICATION

CS01 CO3OL CSI Cet.

CS0( C CMC Co*se

S?O' UNI IIT Cet.

Te Cons*/tant Data is in *nnoma/ise+ fom. Let *s ma#e a e/ation fom a//

atti4*tes.

CONSULTANT RELATION

Cons*/tantName

A++ess

9a+e

S&a/e

Ca T!%e

S#i// Co+e

S#i// Des&

5*a/ifi&ation

Note: Last $ atti4*tes ave man! va/*es fo ea& &ons*/tantG &a//e+ a e%eating

go*%.

Fist Noma/ Fom

;ii.< A%%/ie+ to a// e/ations

;iii.< Test: No e%eating go*%s

Ste%s

;i.< Remove e%eating go*% to fom ne" e/ation

;ii.< Ne" e/ation as &om%o*n+ #e! &onsisting of

a< 7e! of %aent e/ation

4< 7e! of e%eating go*%

Exam%/e: Cons*/tant Data Fist Noma/ Fom

Existing Re/ation Ne" Re/ations

CONSULTANT RELATION CONSULTANT RELATION

Cons*/tant b Cons*/tant b

Name Name

A++ess A++ess

9a+e 9a+e

S&a/e S&a/e

Ca T!%e Ca T!%e

S#i// Co+eS#i// Des& 5UALIFICATION

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5*a/ifi&ation RELATION

Cons*/tant b

S#i// Co+e

S#i// Des&

5*a/ifi&ation

Ea& ne" e/ation no" meets fist noma/ fom eB*iements.

Se&on+ Noma/ Fom

;a< A%%/ies to &om%o*n+ #e! e/ations on/!

;4< Test: Ea& non#e! fie/+ m*st +e%en+ on entie #e! ;No %at #e!

+e%en+en&ies<

Ste%s

;a< Remove fie/+s "i& +e%en+ on %at of #e!

;4< Se%aate e/ation "it %at #e! as %ime #e!

De%en+en&e: atti4*te A +e%en+s on 3 "en its va/*e in ea/ "o/+ &an 4e+etemine+ given va/*e of 3 e.g. S#i// +es& +e%en+s on S#i// &o+e

Exam%/e: Cons*/tant Data Se&on+ Noma/ Fom


5UALIFICATION RELATION 5UALIFICATION RELATION

Cons*/tant b Cons*/tant b

S#i// Co+e S#i// Co+e

S#i// Des& 5*a/ifi&ation

5*a/ifi&ation

S7ILL RELATION

S#i// Co+e

Des&i%tion

Ea& ne" e/ation no" meets se&on+ noma/ fom eB*iements

Ti+ Noma/ Fom

A%%/ies to a// e/ations A

Test: +e%en+en&ies 4et"een non#e! atti4*tes is not a//o"e+.

De%en+en&ies so*/+ 4e 4et"een #e! an+ ion#e! atti4*tes on/!.

Re/ationsi% 4et"een ea& %ossi4/e &om4ination of fie/+s ;in&/*+ing#e! fie/+s< "itin a e/ation is examine+.

Ste%s

Remove +e%en+ent items to fom ne" e/ation

Retain #e! of ne" e/ation in %aent e/ation as foeign #e! e.g. S&a/e +e%en+s

on 9a+e ;intis a%%/i&ation<

Exam%/e: Cons*/tant Data Ti+ Noma/ Fom


CONSULTANT RELATION CONSULTANT RELATIONCons*/tant b Cons*/tant tt

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Name cName

A++ess A++ess

9a+e c9a+e

S&a/e Ca T!%e

Ca T!%e

RELATION9a+e

S&a/e

Ea& ne" e/ation no" meets ti+ noma/ fom eB*iements.

Integation of 8ie"s

;i.< e/ations +eive+ fom a// *se vie"s ;In%*tO*t%*t +o&*ments<

;ii.< Ce&# e/ationsfie/+ names fo:

a< Same name 4*t +iffeent meaning

4< Diffeent name 4*t same meaning

;iii.< Consi+e i+enti&a/ e/ations on/! on&e;iv.< Mege e/ation "it same #e! e.g. R/ ;A 3 C< an+ R' ;A D E<

4e&ome R;A 3 C D E<

;v.< Ens*e tat mege+ e/ations +o not vio/ate ioma/isation

&on+itions ;ote"ise e%eat noma/isation ste%s<: inteatti4*te

+e%en+en&ies ma! get into+*&e+ in meging e/ations "it same

#e!.

6.10 AD8ANCES IN DATA3ASE TECNOLO9

6.10.1 O4e&tOiente+ Data4ase

O4e&toiente+ +ata4ase is an a%%oa& to +ata management tat stoes 4ot

+ata an+ te %o&e+*es ;f*n&tions< a&ting on te +ata as o4e&ts tat &an 4e

a*tomati&a//! etieve+ an+ sae+. ?i/e ta+itiona/ +ata4ase management

s!stems ae +esigne+ fo omogeneo*s +ata tat &an 4e st*&t*e+ into %e

+efine+ +ata fie/+s an+ e&o+s o4e&toiente+ +ata4ases ae &a%a4/e of

mani%*/ating eteogeneo*s +ata tat in&/*+e +a"ings images %otoga%s

voi&e an+ f*//motion vi+eo. O4e&toiente+ a%%oa& a/so ena4/es to ove&ome

te /imitations of te e/ationa/ +ata4ase management s!stem. No +o*4t te

e/ationa/ mo+e/ is %o"ef*/ 4*t its a4sta&tion /eve/ is /o" an+ te mani%*/ation

of te e/ationsi%s of ta4/es is &a%t*e+ 4! te %ogams an+ not 4! te mo+e/itse/f. On te ote an+ an o4e&toiente+ +ata4ase stoes te +ata an+

%o&e+*es as o4e&ts tat &an 4e a*tomati&a//! etieve+ an+ sae+.

6.10.' Disti4*te+ Data4ases

A +isti4*te+ +ata4ase as te name in+i&ates is stoe+ in moe tan one %!si&a/

/o&ation. Te +ata4ase is stoe+ %at/! in one /o&ation "i/e it is %at/! stoe+

an+ maintaine+ in ote /o&ations. In ote "o+s a +isti4*te+ +ata4ase

&oo+inates +ata a&&ess fom vaio*s /o&ations. In tis a%%oa& +ata4ases ae

+esigne+ as an entit! an+ ae /in#e+ to*g &omm*ni&ation net"o#s.

Disti4*te+ +ata4ase a%%oa& is an a/tenative to te &enta/ +ata4ase a%%oa&tat a+vo&ates .Con&entation of a// +ata4ases at a &enta/ %/a&e. o"eve an!

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4ea#+o"n in te &enta/ +ata4ase I a%%oa& /ea+s to s!stem"i+e 4ea#+o"n

an+ it a/so &a*ses *n+*e &ongestion of taffi& at te &enta/ *4. On te ote

an+ +isti4*te+ s!stems ove&ome tese %o4/ems. Te! a/so a//o" in&eases in

te s!stem=s %o&essing %o"e 4! insta//ing sma//e /ess ex%ensive

mini&om%*tes tee4! in&easing te es%onsiveness to /o&a/ *ses. No"a+a!s

man! +ata4ases ae +isti4*te+ a&oss geoga%i&a/ aeas. Fo exam%/enet"o#s of /i4aies net"o#s of 4an#s tansa&tions of &e+it in one o moe

&o*nties an+ net"o#s of offi&es of oganisations a&oss te "o/+ ae a ea/it!.

Tese s!stems ae go"ing a%i+/!. Te a+vent of mi&o&om%*tes an+ %o"ef*/

te/e&omm*ni&ation s!stems "i// f*te 4oost te go"t of +isti4*te+ s!stems.

6.10.$ C/ientSeve S!stems

Tese s!stems ae &/ose/! e/ate+ to te &on&e%t of +isti4*te+ +ata4ase. In te

&/ien+seve mo+e/ te +ata4ase an+ %o&essing %o"e ae +isti4*te+ ove te

oganisation ate tan aving a &enta/ise+ +ata4ase. Tis mo+e/ s%/its

%o&essing 4et"een &/ients= an+ seves= on a net"o# assigning tese f*n&tions

to te ma&ine tat it is most a4/e to %efom. Seves in genea/ ae ig%efoman&e ma&ines tat s*%%ot eav! tansa&tion %o&essing #no"n as

seve %o&esses "eeas te &/ients ae /o"en+ mi&o&om%*tes "it i&

ga%i&a/ *se intefa&e ;9UI<. C/ientseves ae go"ing in %o%*/ait! tese

+a!s an+ ae 4eing *se+ 4! a /age n*m4e of oganisations.

SUMMAR

In o+e to s*%%ot +e&isionma#ing stong +ata4ases ae essentia//! maintaine+

in oganisations. Te &om%/exit! of te +ata4ase as "e// as te vaiet! of B*eies

is eve in&easing. To e/i&it B*i&# es%onses tee is a nee+ to oganise +ata in te

most effe&tive an+ effi&ient manne. Data is oganise+ in a ieae! "ee +ata

e/ements o fie/+s ae at te /o"est /eve/ of ieae!. A &o//e&tion of e/ate+ +ata

e/ements is teme+ as a e&o+ e/ate+ e&o+s ae &om4ine+ into a fi/e an+

e/ate+ fi/es in a +ata4ase. Ta+itiona//! +ata as stoe+ an+ maintaine+

se%aate/! fo in+ivi+*a/ a%%/i&ations in te oganisation. Tis a+ man!

+isa+vantages /i#e +ata +*%/i&ation +ata in&onsisten&! +ata +e%en+en&e an+

%ogam +e%en+en&e. An a/tenative a%%oa& to te ta+itiona/ fi/e %o&essing

s!stem "as +eve/o%e+ an+ is #no"n as te Data4ase a%%oa&. In +ata4ase

a%%oa& &ommon %oo/ of +ata &an 4e sae+ 4! a n*m4e of *ses &on&*ent/!.

Moeove +ata4ase a%%oa& %ovi+es moe f/exi4i/it! an+ ease of *se.

Unstt*&t*te+ B*eies &an a/so 4e an+/e+ "it tis a%%oa&. In te +ata4ase

+ata is st*&t*e+ on te 4asis of one of te tee +ata mo+e/s name/!ieaei&a/ net"o# an+ e/ationa/ mo+e/. In te ieaei&a/ st*&t*e entities

ae e/ate+ 4! %aent&i/+ o s*%eios*4o+inate e/ationsi%s. Tis mo+e/

a//o"s one to one an+ one to man! e/ationsi%s. Te net"o# mo+e/ is a/so

simi/a to te ieaei&a/ mo+e/ ex&e%t tat in tis a%%oa& an entit! &an ave

moe tan one %aent. Te e/ationa/ +ata mo+e/ "i& is 4ase+ on a t"o

+imensiona/ ta4/e #no"n as e/ation is &*ent/! te most %o%*/a +ata mo+e/.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

1< Ex%/ain te +a"4a&#s of te fi/e %o&essing s!stem. ?at is te

a/tenative to te fi/es a%%oa&@

'< Define in !o* o"n "o+s a +ata4ase an+ +ata4ase management s!stem.Dis&*ss te o4e&tives an+ a+vantages of a +ata4ase. I//*state.

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$< Define +ata4ase st*&t*e. I//*state its mao t!%es.

)< o" "o*/+ !o* +iffeentiate 4et"een ieaei&a/ an+ net"o# +ata

mo+e/s@

(< Dis&*ss te feat*es of a e/ationa/ D3MS.

6< Consi+e te fo//o"ing s&ema an+ "ite te B*eies in S5L.

FACULT ;eno name +no sa/a! age. n*m%*4s<

DEPT ;+no name 4*+get f/oo<

COURSES ;&no. name %eeB<

STUDENTS ;sno. name no age !ea ga+e<

RE9ISTERED FOR ;sno &no<

TAU9T 3 ;sno &no<

5*eiesG

;i.< Pint te names of st*+ents "o ave egistee+ fo Disti4*te+ Data4ase

&o*se.

;ii.< Pint te names of st*+ents in oste/ n*m4e ( in sote+ o+e;as&en+ing<.

;iii.< Pint te +istin&t sa/a! va/*es of te fa&*/t! in Com%*te S&ien&e

De%atment.

2. 3ief/! +es&i4e te &on&e%t of S5L. 9ive te es*/ts of te fo//o"ing

&onst*&ts:

;i< Se/e&t fa&*/t! name fom fa&*/t! +e%t "ee fa&*/t!.+no V +e%t.an+

+e%t.name

;ii< Se/e&t &.nan1e %.&name fom &o*se as & &o*se as "ee &.%eeB V %

&no

,. Define noma/isation an+ ex%/ain te fist se&on+ an+ ti+ noma/ foms 4!

ta#ing a s*ita4/e exam%/e.

Exe&ise

In%*to*t%*t foms an+ o%eationa/ +ata in St*+ent A&a+emi& S!stem at an

a&a+emi& instit*tion is given 4e/o".

• Co*se egistation fom: gives &o*se n*m4e tit/e an+ &e+its fo

&o*ses eno//e+ 4! a st*+ent tota/ &e+its an+ a&a+emi& !ea semeste

n*m4e a/so given.

• Ro// /ist: %o+*&e+ fo ta#ing &/assoom atten+an&e. .

• Tea&e=s eva/*ation: gives ga+es o4taine+ 4! egistee+ st*+entsGin&/*+es some &onto/ fie/+s /i#e tota/ st*+ents n*m4e of st*+ents in ea&

ga+e.

• St*+ent=s ga+e &a+: &onso/i+ate+ ga+e e%ot giving &o*ses an+

ga+es semeste &*m*/ative %efoman&e in+ex et&.

• Co*ses of st*+! 4*//etin: +efines &o*ses avai/a4/e an+ tei %e

eB*isites.

o* ae eB*ie+ to *se noma/isation a%%oa& to +esign a s&ema fo tis

a%%/i&ation.

-. Ceate ta4/es *sing te fo//o"ing S5L &omman+s.

&eate ta4/e st*+entso// no n*m4e ;,<

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name &a ;$0<

+e%t&o+e &a ;$<

oste/ n*m4e ;'<

%aent]in& n*m4e ;, 1<G

&eate ta4/e +e%ts

+e%t&o+e &a ;$< %ima! #e!+e%tname &a ;$0<G

Using inset statement /oa+ te a4ove ta4/es "it +ata *sing inset statement

an+ t! o*t te fo//o"ing B*eies on tese ta4/es: inset into +e%ts ;+e%t&o+e

+e%tnane< va/*es ;>CSE Com%*te S&ien&e an+ Engg<G

se/e&t c fom st*+entsG

se/e&t o/Ino fom st*+entsG

se/e&t +istin&t &/Ino fom st*+entsG

se/e&t o/Ino name fom st*+ents o+e 4! o/InoG

se/e&t o/Ino name fom st*+ents o+e 4! o/Ino DESCG

se/e&t o/Ino name +e%t&a+e fom st*+ents o+e 4! o/Ino+e%t&o+e DESCG

se/e&t fom st*+ents "ee +e%t&o+e V CSEG

se/e&t c fom st*+ents "ee +e%t&o+e V CSE= an+ oste/ V $G

se/e&t c fom st*+ents

"ee +e%t&o+e : CSE> o +e%teo+& V ELE=G

se/e&t =c fom st*+ents

"ee ;+e%t&o+e V CSE= an+ oste/ V $< o

;+e%t&o+e V ELE= an+ oste/ : -<G

se/e&t o/Ino name +e%tname

fom st*+ents s +e%ts +

"ee s.+e%t&o+e V +.+e%t&o+eG

se/e&t o/Ino name +e%tname

fom st*+ents +e%ts +

"ee s.+e%t&o+e V +.+e%t&o+e an+ oste/ V $

an+ s+e%t&o+e : CSE=G

Exe&ises

1. Co*nt te n*m4e of st*+ents in CSE +e%t.

'. Fin+ o*t te n*m4e of st*+ents 4! oste/ an+ +e%t&o+e.

$. Co*nt te n*m4e of st*+ents in ea& of te +e%ts ELE an+ CSE.

). Pint o*t te name an+ %aenta/ in&ome of ea& st*+ent geate te%aenta/ in&ome of o/Ino -'00(00, ;sa!<.

ASSI9NMENTS

1< 8isit !o* /o&a/ 4an#. Detemine te Data 3ase A+ministato=s

es%onsi4i/ities to te oganisation an+ to te *ses. Fin+ o*t "ete o

not te D3A /ogi&a//! +esigns +ata4ases. Do !o* tin# D3As=

es%onsi4i/ities "i// &ange in te f*t*e@

'< Conta&t te /i4aian of !o* instit*tion. Detemine te s&o%e of

infomation avai/a4/e to /i4a! *ses. o" man! +iffeent fi/es ae

maintaine+@ ?at D3MS is 4eing *se+@ Do&*ment te 4enefits tat ave

es*/te+ fom te *se of te D3MS if not a/ea+! in *se. o" extensive/!is te +ata4ase *se+@

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$< Com%ae te stengts an+ "ea#nesses of te fo//o"ing D3MS %o+*&ts:

;i< ORACLE

;ii< S3ASE an+

;iii< IN9RES.

REFERENCES3a+/e! ames Fi/e an+ Data4ase Te&niB*es o/t Rineat an+ ?inston

Ne" o# 1-,'.

C/a!4oo#e 3i//! Fi/e Management Te&niB*es on ?i/e! Ne" o# 1-,$.

Date C. An Into+*&tion of Data 3ase S!stems (t e+. A++ison ?es/e!

Rea+ing MA 1--0.

A Matin ames An En+ Uses 9*i+e to Data4ase Penti&ea// Eng/e"oo+

C/iffs N.. 1-,1.

Com%*te Data 3ase Oganisation 'n+ e+. Penti&ea// Eng/e"oo+

C/iffs N.W. 1-22.

O=Nei/ Pati&# Data4ase: Pin&i%/es Pogamming Pefoman&es Mogan

7a*fmann San Fan&is&o 1--).U//man effe! D. Pin&i%/es of Data4ase S!stems Com%*te S&ien&es Pess

Ro&#vi//e M.D. 1-,0.

?a/s M!/es Data4ase Management S!stems: An O%eationa/ Pes%e&tive=

o*na/ of S!stems Management

A%i/ 1-,$ %%. '0'$.

?a/tes Ri&a+ Data4ase Pin&i%/es fo Pesona/ Com%*tes Penti&e

a// Eng/e"oo+ C/iffs N1-,2.

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CASE STUD 1Pa!ing 9*est Data4ase Management S!stem

M Navot o"ns a Pa!ing 9*est ;P9< o*se in a meto &it! in In+ia. Man!

St*+ents often sta! at M Navot=s o*se 4e&a*se it is easona4/e in %i&e &/ean

an+ &omfota4/e. Te P9 o*se as nine ooms some of "i& ae +o*4/e

ooms i.e. ave t"o t"in 4e+s an+ some ae sing/e ooms. In a++ition some

ooms ave an atta&e+ 4atoom.

M Navot as ie+ a &ons*/tant to +eve/o% an A&&ess +ata4ase s!stem foim to steam/ine is o%eation.

Te +ata4ase management s!stem "i// 4e *se+ to +o te fo//o"ing:

1. 7ee% ta&# of &*stome an+ tei %emanent a++ess.

'. 7ee% ta&# of te ooms in te o*se an+ tei oom t!%e.

$. List te %i&e of ea& t!%e of te oom.

). Re&o+ te /engt of te sta! in te s%e&ifi& oom 4! a &*stome.

(. Ran# te %o%*/ait! of ea& oom.

6. 9eneate mont/! 4i//s fo &*stomes.

Te &ons*/tant as +esigne+ te fo* ta4/es as given 4e/o" ;in Mi&osoft

A&&ess< to +o te fist fo* tas#s.In a++ition to aving tese ta4/es M Navot eB*este+ t"o e%ots:_

;i< A e%ot so*/+ so" im o" often ea& t!%e of oom is ente+ "it

te most %o%*/a oom 4eing note+ fist sote+ fo te /east %o%*/aG

an+

;ii< A e%ot on o&&*%ants= en+ofmont 4i//s. Tis e%ot so*/+

in&/*+e te o&&*%ant=s name a++ess an+ +ate fist etie+ an+ tota/

amo*nt +*e.

TA3LE 1

TA3LE '

TA3LE $

TA3LE )

ASSI9NMENTS

1. Use Mi&osoft A&&ess to &eate te fo* ta4/es. Use te +ata %ovi+e+ in

te ta4/es. A++ !o* name an+ a++ess to te &*stome ta4/e *sing a

&*stome ID of 1006.

'. Ceate a e%ot tat /ists te n*m4es of nigts ea& oom is ente+

/isting te most %o%*/a oom at te to% an+ te /east %o%*/a oom at te4ottom.

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` Ceate a sigma B*e! an+ sot te o*t%*t on te n*m4e of nigts.

` Tit/e te e%ot N*m4e of Nigts Rooms "ee Rente+.

` ea+ings fo te e%ot ae as fo//o"s:

Room T!%e N*m4e of Nigts

$. 9eneate a e%ot tat so"s ea& &*stome=s 4i// fo *ne.

• Ceate a B*e! "it a &a/&*/ate+ fie/+ to fig*e te &anges fo ea&%eson.

• 9ive te tit/e *ne 3i// to te e%ot.

• Use te fo//o"ing ea+ings in te o+e given:

Fist NameG Last NameG A++essG Date inG Cages.

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CASE STUD '

SMS Instit*te Data4ase Management S!stem

SMS instit*te is e%*te+ instit*te of management sit*ate+ in te eat of

Cennai. Te instit*te as moe tan $00 fa&*/t! mem4es on its o//s.

Te instit*te as got Maaaa Fa&*/t! C/*4 "i& &ontains a 4a an+

esta*ant. Fa&*/t! mem4es fom SMS instit*te &an oin te &/*4 an+ ave+inne o +in#s. Te &/*4 &ages te mem4es a !ea/! fee of Rs 10000 fo

oining. Te &/*4 +oes not an+/e an! &as tansa&tions.

A// mea/s an+ +in#s ae &age+ to te mem4es *sing a %/asti& &a+ simi/a

to a &e+it &a+. No ti%s ae a//o"e+. Mem4es m*st %a! fo g*ests. At %esent

a// tansa&tions an+ 4i//s ae %e%ae+ 4! an+.

Ea& of te mem4es gets a mont/! 4i// fom te &/*4 itemising &ages 4!

te t!%e of foo+ an+ +in# 4o*gt on ea& +ate. Fo instan&e &ages on a

mem4e=s 4i// fo a mont ma! /oo# /i#e as given in te fo//o"ing ta4/e.

Mont/! 3i//

TA3LE

Te Maaaa C/*4 of SMS instit*te "ants to &om%*teise its o%eations.

Te manage of te &/*4 as a%%oa&e+ a &ons*/tant to +eve/o% a +ata4ase

management s!stem so as to +o te fo//o"ing tas#s:

1. List fa&*/t! mem4es an+ tei &am%*s a++essG

'. List te t!%e of foo+ an+ +in#G

$. List te %i&es of foo+ an+ +in#G

). Re&o+ in+ivi+*a/ mem4es= %*&ases of foo+ an+ +in#G

(. Ran# te feB*en&! of %*&ases of foo+ an+ +in#s t!%esG an+6. 9eneate mont/! 4i//s fo in+ivi+*a/ mem4es

Te &ons*/tant +esigne+ te fo//o"ing fo* ta4/es to %efom te fist fo*

tas#s:

a< List mem4esG

4< List foo+ an+ +in# avai/a4/e /ist %i&esG an+

&< Re&o+ &ages mem4es ave in&*e+.

Te st*&t*e of tese fo* ta4/es is given as 4e/o":

TA3LE 1

TA3LE 'TA3LE $

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TA3LE )

ASSI9NMENTS

;i< Use Mi&osoft A&&ess to &eate te o*t%*t as given a4ove. Use te +ata

given in te ta4/e. A++ !o* name an+ a++ess to te mem4e Ta4/e *sing

mem4e ID 606.;ii< Ceate a e%ot tat an#s in +es&en+ing o+e te feB*en&! of an+ +in#

t!%e %*&ase+.

• o* "i// nee+ to &eate a sigma B*e!.

• Tit/e te e%ot feB*en&! of foo+ an+ +in# o+ee+ in *ne.

• ea+ing so*/+ 4e as fo//o"s:

Foo+ an+ Din# T!%eG No. of Time O+ee+.

• o* e%ot so*/+ /oo# as given 4e/o":

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2

Te/e&omm*ni&ation an+ Net"o#s

Leaning O4e&tives


• *n+estan+ a &on&e%t*a/ mo+e/ of &omm*ni&ationG

• +es&i4e an+ +iffeentiate among te most &ommon t!%es of +ata

&omm*ni&ation me+iaG

• *n+estan+ &aa&teisti&s of +ata &omm*ni&ation me+ia an+ &ommon

t!%es of a+"ae *se+ in +ata &omm*ni&ationG

• ex%/ain te +iffeent t!%es of &omm*ni&ation net"o# aeite&t*esG

• i+entif! an+ +es&i4e te most &ommon a%%/i&ations of +ata

&omm*ni&ations.

2.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Te/e&omm*ni&ation im%/ies te tansmission of infomation fom one %oint to

anote to*g a &omm*ni&ation me+i*m. In to+a!=s +!nami& 4*siness

envionment %eo%/e in o+e to %efom tei "o# a&tivities an+ to &om%ete

s*&&essf*//! nee+ to &omm*ni&ate e/e&toni&a//! "itin an+ o*tsi+e te

oganisation. As a es*/t te/e&omm*ni&ation ta#es on a signifi&ant o/e in an

oganisation. Sometimes te tem +ata &omm*ni&ation "i& is a nao" tem

an+ efes to te tansmission of +ata is a/so *se+ an+ t*s +ata &omm*ni&ation

is a moe s%e&ifi& tem.

A te/e&omm*ni&ation s!stem ma! 4e e%esente+ 4! "a! of a sim%/e &on&e%t*a/mo+e/ as so"n in Fig. 2.1.

Te +ata so*&e is te oiginato of infomation "i/e +ata +estination is te

e&eive of infomation. Te &anne/ is te %at to*g "i& te infomation

is tansmitte+ to te +estination fom te so*&e. 3efoe an infomation is sent

to*g te &omm*ni&ation &anne/ it is &onvete+ into &o+e+ s!m4o/s 4!

tansmitte en&o+e on/! to 4e +e&o+e+ at te e&eive=s en+ 4! e&eive +e&o+e.

Te en&o+e+ +ata is tansmitte+ to*g te &anne/ 4! an e/e&toni& signa/ o

"avefom.

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Fig. 2.1 A Con&e%t*a/ Mo+e/ of Comm*ni&ation S!stem

2.' TPES OF SI9NALS

To &onne&t &om%*te4ase+ infomation s!stems tee ae t"o 4asi& t!%es of

signa/s. Tese ae +is&*sse+ 4e/o".

2.'.1 Ana/og Signa/s

Tese signa/s ae &ontin*o*s "aves "it no +is&ontin*it! o 4ea# in 4et"een.

A// te ea/ "o/+ signa/s o nat*a/ signa/s /i#e so*n+ %ess*e tem%eat*e

et&. ae ana/og in nat*e. To ex%/ain ana/og signa/s /et *s ta#e an exam%/e of

te/e%one &onvesation. ?en "e s%ea# on te te/e%one te mo*t%ie&e in te

te/e%one set &onvets o* voi&e o s%ee& into ana/og e/e&ti&a/ signa/s. Tese

signa/s ae ten tansmitte+ to*g te te/e%one /ines to te &a//e+ %at!

"ee tese ae &onvete+ 4a&# to te s%ee& signa/s 4! te ea%ie&e in te

te/e%one set. An im%otant feat*e of ana/og signa/s is tat te! &an tave/ /ong

+istan&es 4*t te! get +istote+ 4! noise "i& is anote ana/og signa/ an+ t*s&an affe&t te &ontents. Se&on+/! in /ong +istan&e tave/ te stengt of te

signa/ stats +e&easing. Signa/ stengt is in&ease+ "it te e/% of 4oostes.

A/to*g in +oing so te noise &ontent a/so in&eases.

2.'.' Digita/ Signa/s

Digita/ signa/s ae +is&ete onoff %*/ses i.e. te! e%esent infomation in tems

of on/! t"o states of signa/s eite one ;1< o Heo ;O<. An! n*m4e as to 4e

e%esente+ as a &om4ination of ones an+ Heoes &a//e+ 4ina! +igits ;4its<.

Digita/ tansmission is %efee+ ove ana/og signa/s 4e&a*se of its ig B*a/it!.

Digita/ signa/s ae /ess affe&te+ 4! +ist*4an&es o noise an+ te! &an 4e

e%eate+/! stengtene+ fo /ong+istan&e tansmission "ito*t a&&*m*/ating

noise. Sin&e +igita/ signa/s in /ong+istan&e tansmission ae am%/ifie+ 4! fist

a4so4ing an+ ten egeneating tem at eg*/a inteva/s noise signa/s in te

%o&ess ae &om%/ete/! e/iminate+. Fig*e 2.' e%esents te t"o t!%es of

e/e&toni& signa/s.

2.$ COMMUNICATION CANNEL

To tans%ot +ata fom one /o&ation to anote some t!%e of me+i*m o &anne/

is *se+. A "i+e vaiet! of &omm*ni&ation &anne/s #no"n as /ines ae *se+ in

+ata &omm*ni&ation. Te fo//o"ing text +is&*sses tese /ines 4oa+/! *n+e t"o

&ategoies.

;i< P!si&a/ Conne&tion Lines: Tis &anne/ in&/*+es: t"iste+%ai "ies

;4< &oaxia/ &a4/es an+

;&< fi4e o%ti& /ines.

;ii< ?ie/ess Lines: Comm*ni&ation &anne/ *n+e tis &atego! in&/*+es:

;a< mi&o"ave

;4< sate//ite an+

;&< a+io.

2.$.1 P!si&a/ Conne&tion Line

It is one of te &ommon/! *se+ &anne/s fo tansfeing +ata fom one /o&ationto anote. Data tansfes ta#e %/a&e ove &ommon t"iste+%ai of &o%%e "ie o

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ove &oaxia/ &a4/e o ove g/ass fi4e &a4/es a// of "i& %!si&a//! /in# te

+evi&es in +ata &omm*ni&ations.

)wisted#air +ire

Tis meto+ is e/ative/! inex%ensive "i+e/! *se+ an+ eas! to im%/ement.

o"eve it is s*4e&t to e/e&ti&a/ intefeen&es. Te o+ina! te/e%one "ie&onsisting of &o%%e "ie t"iste+ into %ais is an exam%/e of t"iste+%ai "ie.

Coa&ial Ca*le

A &oaxia/ &a4/e is a &o%%e o a/*mini*m "ie "a%%e+ "it s%a&es to ins*/ate

it. Tis &a4/e &anm &a! m*& moe +ata an+ is /ess s*s&e%ti4/e to e/e&ti&a/

intefeen&e. 3e&a*se of tese feat*es &oaxia/ &a4/e is #no"n as ig s%ee+

tansmission &a4/e. o"eve it is moe ex%ensive an+ e/ative/! inf/exi4/e. It is

a4o*t 1( times moe &ost/! tan t"iste+%ai &a4/e. Tis &a4/e is 4eing *se+ in

&a4/e T8 an+ fo sot +istan&e &onne&tion of &om%*tes an+ %ei%ea/ +evi&es.

Fi*reo#tic Ca*leTis &a4/e &onsists of to*san+s of ve! tin a%%oximate/! a/f te +iamete of

a *man ai fi/aments of g/ass. S*& a &a4/e tansmits +ata as 4eams of /igt as

o%%ose+ to %*/ses of e/e&ti&it!. Tis &a4/e is imm*ne to e/e&ti&a/ intefeen&es

an+ en&e is moe e/ia4/e. 3esi+es %ovi+ing s%ee+! tansmission an+ geate

&a!ing &a%a&it! tis &a4/e %ovi+es s*4stantia/ siHe an+ "eigt e+*&tions ove

&oaxia/ &a4/e. A a/f in& +iamete fi4e o%ti& &a4/e &an &a! *%to (0000

&anne/s &om%ae+ to a4o*t ((00 &anne/s fo a stan+a+ &oaxia/ &a4/e. Its

main +isa+vantage is te +iffi&*/t! of s%/i&ing te &a4/e to ma#e &onne&tions.

o"eve 4e&a*se of its o4vio*s a+vantages fi4eo%ti& &a4/e is 4eing *se+

extensive/! in te/e%one net"o#s et&. Te tee t!%es of &omm*ni&ation &a4/es

ae so"n in Fig. 2.$.

2.$.' ?ie/ess Comm*ni&ations

P!si&a/ &onne&tion /ines "i& ave 4een +is&*sse+ in te %e&e+ing text ave a

fai/! /imite+ &a%a&it!. Tis /imitation is ove&ome 4! anote a/tenative of

&omm*ni&ation &anne/ #no"n as "ie/ess &omm*ni&ation. Let *s 4ief/!

+is&*ss te moe &ommon "ie/ess /ines.

Fig. 2.$ T!%es of Comm*ni&ation Ca4/es

Mi&o"ave

In mi&o"ave &anne/ tansmission is &aie+ o*t 4! ve! ig feB*en&! a+io

"aves in a /ine of sigt= %at. Tat is tese signa/s tave/ in a staigt /ine

to*g te ai. 3e&a*se of Eat=s &*vat*e an+ te mi&o"ave tansmission

4eing in staigt /ine tis s!stem eB*ies a e/a! station "it a +is /i#e antenna

eve! $0 to )0 #i/ometes fo te e&e%tion am%/ifi&ation an+ tansmission of

+ata. To minimiHe /ineofsigt %o4/ems mi&o"ave antennas ae *s*a//!

%/a&e+ on to% of 4*i/+ings o on s%e&ia//! &onst*&te+ to"es. Mi&o"ave

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tansmission +es%ite its /imitations is sti// a %o%*/a me+i*m fo 4ot /ong

+istan&e an+ meto%o/itan aea net"o#s.

Sate//ite

It is anote im%otant +ata &omm*ni&ation me+i*m fo mi&o"ave

tansmission. Sate//ites seve as e/a! stations fo &omm*ni&ation signa/stansmitte+ fom eat stations. Sate//ites ae /a*n&e+ 4! o&#ets to an o4it

ao*n+ te eat at a +istan&e of a%%oximate/! $(000 #i/ometes ove te

eB*ato. On&e te sate//ite is %*t in its %osition +ata in te fom of mi&o"ave

signa/s &an 4e 4eame+ to it fom an eat station. Te sate//ite am%/ifies an+

etansmits te signa/s to some ote eat stations "i& ma! 4e a geat

+istan&e a"a!. To+a! tee ae man! sate//ites fom sevea/ &o*nties in

stationa! ;geos!n&ono*s< o4its.

Ra+io

No mi&o"ave o sate//ite /in#s es%e&ia//! fo sot anges ae eB*ie+ fo tis

&anne/ of +ata &omm*ni&ation. It is *se+ to &onne&t &om%*tes an+ %ei%ea/eB*i%ment o &om%*tes an+ Lo&a/ Aea Net"o#s ;LANs<. To*g tis &anne/

/i#e ote e/e&tomagneti& me+ia as a// te a+vantages it s*ffes fom a

/imitation of 4eing s*s&e%ti4/e to e/e&ti&a/ intefeen&e.

2.) CARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION CANNELS

Te fo//o"ing ae te main &aa&teisti&s of &omm*ni&ation &anne/s:

2.).1 3an+"i+t

Te 4an+"i+t of a &omm*ni&ation &anne/ in+i&ates its &a%a&it! to tansmit

+ata. Te &a%a&it! &an 4e ex%esse+ in 4its %e se&on+= ;4%s<. Tis is sometimes

efee+ to as te 4a*+ ate to*g 4a*+ moe &oe&t/! is a meas*e of te

s%ee+ of tansmission. Canne/ &a%a&it! is &ategoiHe+ into tee &/asses name/!:

$arrow*and or (ow S#eed

In tis 4an+"i+t +ata is tansmitte+ in a ange of $00 to 1'00 4its %e se&on+.

Te! ae main/! *se+ fo /o"s%ee+ temina/s.

2oice %and or Medium S#eed

Tis &anne/ is te stan+a+ te/e%one /ine "i& a//o"s tansmission ates fom

$00 to ')00 4a*+s. o"eve +e+i&ate+ /ines &an a//o" +ata tansfe ates *% to-600 4a*+ o moe.

%road*and or "igh S#eed

Tese &anne/s a//o" tansmission ates at s%e&ifi& inteva/s fom 1-'00 4%s to

sevea/ 4i//ions> 4%s. T*s "en /age vo/*mes of +ata ave to 4e tansmitte+ at

ig s%ee+s a 4oa+4an+ &anne/ is a%%o%iate. S*& &a%a&ities &an 4e

a&ieve+ "it +ata tansmission to*g &oaxia/ &a4/es fi4eo%ti& &a4/es

mi&o"ave an+ sate//ites.

2.).' S!n&onisation

Data tansmission ma! eite 4e as!n&ono*s o s!n&ono*s. As!n&ono*stansmission tansmits one &aa&te at a time "it ea& &aa&te %e&e+e+ 4!

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a stat 4it fo//o"e+ 4! a sto% 4it. A s!n&ono*s tansmission is ineffi&ient

4e&a*se of te a++itiona/ 4its eB*ie+ fo in+i&ating stat an+ sto% an+ an i+/e

time 4et"een tansmission of &aa&tes. It is teefoe noma//! *se+ fo /o"

s%ee+ +ata tansmissions at ates 4e/o" ')00 4%s.

In s!n&ono*s tansmission a go*% of &aa&tes is sent at a time. Te statan+ en+ of a &aa&te is +etemine+ 4! a timing signa/ initiate+ 4! te sen+ing

+evi&e. T*s it e/iminates te nee+ fo te stat an+ sto% 4its. o"eve te

sen+e an+ e&eive so*/+ 4e in %efe&t s!n&onisation to avoi+ te /oss o gain

of +ata. Fo tis %*%ose a *niB*e %atten of 4its &a//e+ s!n& 4its "i& is

geneate+ a*tomati&a//! an+ s!n&onise+ &/o&#s ae *se+. S!n&ono*s

tansmission is genea//! *se+ fo igs%ee+ +ata tansfes.

2.).$ Tansmission Eo Conto/

A &omm*ni&ation /ine= ma! 4e s*4e&t to noise i.e. +ist*4an&es fom stoms

signa/s fom ote /ines an+ intefeen&e fom some ote so*&es. Tis noise

ma! &a*se eos in te +ata tansmitte+ ove te &omm*ni&ation /ine /ea+ing to+ata &o*%tion. To*san+s of 4its tave/ ove a /ine an+ te /oss of even one of

tem ma! a/te a &aa&te o &onto/ &o+e. Tis ne&essitates a&&*a&! &onto/s

fo +ata tansmission. Tese &onto/s &onsist of 4its #no"n as %ait! 4its tat ae

simi/a to &e&# s*ms a++e+ to +ata at te sen+ing en+ of te /ine. Pait! 4its ae

&e&#e+ at te e&eiving en+ to fin+ "ete 4its "ee /ost +*ing +ata

tansmission. Eos on&e +ete&te+ ma! 4e e&tifie+ 4! ta#ing t"o t!%es of

a&tions name/! 4a&#"a+ eo &oe&tion an+ fo"a+ eo &oe&tion.

3a&#"a+ Eo Coe&tion ;3EC<

In tis meto+ te sen+e is eB*este+ to etansmit te entie +ata o a

%ati&*/a %at if it &an 4e i+entifie+.

Fo"a+ Eo Coe&tion ;FEC<

Tis te&niB*e ma#es *se of #no"/e+ge a4o*t te message steam an+

matemati&a/ a/goitms to a//o" te e&eive to &oe&t te e&eive+ +ata

"ito*t going 4a&# to te sen+e. 3EC is sim%/e an+ /ess ex%ensive "en tee

ae fe" eos o "en time +e/a!s ae not &iti&a/. o"eve FEC is moe

&om%/ex 4*t ma! 4e %efee+ ove /ong +istan&es "en etansmissions ae

&ost/!.

2.).) Tansmission Mo+esIn &omm*ni&ations +ata &an f/o" in one of tee mo+es o +ie&tions: Sim%/ex

Canne/ *ses one &i&*it in one +ie&tion on/! an+ t*s a//o"s +ata to 4e

tansmitte+ on/! in one +ie&tion tat is sen+ on/!= o e&eive on/!= e.g. a+io

o T8 4oa+&asting. Tis mo+e is ae/! *se+.

A a/f+*%/ex &anne/ a/so *ses on/! one &i&*it 4*t it is *se+ in 4ot te

+ie&tionsone +ie&tion at a time. T*s tis &anne/ a//o"s +ata to 4e

tansmitte+ in eite +ie&tion 4*t in on/! one +ie&tion at a time. To give

es%onse 4a&# to te so*&e temina/ te /ine as to s"it& +ie&tions. Fo

exam%/e an inte&om *se &an eite e&eive o tansmit at a time. Tis is *s*a//!

*se+ fo /o"s%ee+ temina/s ;PC &omm*ni&ations<. In f*//+*%/ex mo+e t"o&i&*its ae *se+ fo +ata tansmissionone fo ea& +ie&tion sim*/taneo*s/! e.g.

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a te/e%one. Te f*//+*%/ex mo+e is faste an+ moe effi&ient 4*t is ex%ensive.

Tis mo+e is genea//! *se+ fo mainfame &onne&tions.

Fig*e 2.) +e%i&ts te tee t!%es of tansmission mo+es.

Fig. 2.) Tansmission Mo+es

2.( COMMUNICATIONS ARD?ARE

aving +is&*sse+ +ata &omm*ni&ation /ines it "i// 4e a%%o%iate to +is&*ss teintefa&e 4et"een te &om%*te an+ &omm*ni&ation eB*i%ment i.e. o" to get

onto te &omm*ni&ation &anne/. Te fo//o"ing text +ea/s "it te most &ommon

eB*i%ment *se+ in +ata &omm*ni&ation an+ its *se. It in&/*+es mo+ems

m*/ti%/exes &on&entatos an+ fonten+ %o&essos.

2.(.1 Mo+ems

Most of te &omm*ni&ation s!stems /i#e %*4/i& te/e%one s!stems "ee +esigne+

to &a! voi&e o so*n+ signa/s in an ana/og fomat. To tansmit +igita/

infomation ove tis &anne/ it as to 4e fist &onvete+ into an ana/og "ave

%atten. Tis &onvesion fom +igita/ to ana/og is #no"n as mo+*/ation an+ te

evese is +emo+*/ation. Te +evi&e tat mo+*/ates+emo+*/ates is &a//e+ a

mo+em ;see Fig. 2.(<.

Mo+ems ae of t"o t!%es.

;i< Intena/ mo+em an+

;ii< Extena/ mo+em.

An intena/ mo+en /oo#s /i#e a %inte+ &i&*it 4oa+. Li#e ote PC34ase+

+evi&es s*& as a net"o# intefa&e &a+ an intena/ mo+em s/i%s into a fee s/ot

"itin te PC. Sin&e an intena/ mo+em is %/*gge+ +ie&t/! into te &om%*te=s

mote4oa+ it is %o"ee+ 4! te s!stem=s %o"e s*%%/!. Tis %ote&ts it fom%o"e f/*&t*ations.

An extena/ mo+em is a stan+a/one +evi&e an+ as to 4e %/*gge+ 4ot to a

%o"e %oint an+ to te &om%*te. Re&ent/! a ti+ t!%e of mo+em #no"n as te

soft"ae mo+em as a/so 4e&ome a ea/it!. In&easing %o"e of mi&o%o&essos

ma#es it %ossi4/e to em*/ate a mo+em in te memo!. So instea+ of te mo+em=s

%o&esso +oing a// te +igita/toana/og an+ ana/ogto+igita/ %o&essing it is

PC=s mi&o%o&esso tat +oes a// te "o# 4ase+ on inst*&tions fom te

soft"ae. Sin&e it +oes not invo/ve an! a+"ae &om%onents soft"ae mo+ems

ae e/ative/! &ea%e.

On te f/i% si+e te soft"ae mo+ems &ons*me a /ot of &om%*ting %o"e.

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A mo+em +oes moe tan *st tansmitting an+ e&eiving +igita/ +ata in te

ana/og fom It a/so +ea/s "it eos tat &ee% into te tansmitte+ o e&eive+

+ata as a es*/t of te noise te tansmission net"o#s s*ffe fom. Sin&e +ata

tave/s in ana/og fom ove te te/e%one /ine it is s*s&e%ti&a/ to /ine

+ist*4an&es es*/ting in &o*%tion. Tis is manage+ 4! te mo+em to*g a

&!&/i& e+*n+an&! &e&#. ?en mo+ems tansmit +ata te! +o not sen+ it ovete "ie in one &ontin*o*s steam. Te +ata is +ivi+e+ in sma// %a&#ets. Te

mo+em ten *ns a matemati&a/ fom*/a on te +ata %a&#et an+ aives at a

fig*e #no"n as te &!&/i& e+*n+an&! &e&# ;CRC< va/*e. Te CRC va/*e is

ten s*ffixe+ to te +ata %a&#et an+ te &om4ine+ %a&#et is fina//! tansmitte+.

U%on ea&ing te +estination te e&eiving mo+em sti%s te CRC va/*e fom

te %a&#et an+ *sing te same a/goitm e&a/&*/ates te CRC va/*e. If +ata as

4een &o*%te+ +*ing te tansmission te t"o CRC va/*es "i// not mat& an+

te e&eiving mo+em eB*ests etansmission of te +ata %a&#et.

To "o# effi&ient/! togete mo+ems nee+ to a+ee to &etain stan+a+s.

Tese stan+a+s ae genea//! #no"n as 8+ot= stan+a+s tat te// te mo+ems

o" to &om%ess +ata &a! o*t eo &oe&tion an+ a/so at "at s%ee+s too%eate. Tese stan+a+s ae +efine+ 4! te intenationa/ te/e&omm*ni&ations

*nion ;ITU<. No"a+a!s mo+ems ae avai/a4/e "it s%ee+s *% to (6 #4%s.

Fig. 2.( Use of Mo+em "it Ana/og Tansmission

o"eve a mo+em is not eB*ie+ if te &omm*ni&ation &aie is +esigne+ fo

+igita/ tansmission

2.(.' M*//i%/exes

A m*/ti%/exe is a &omm*ni&ation e/e&toni& +evi&e tat a//o"s a sing/e

&omm*ni&ation &anne/ to &a! +ata sim*/taneo*s/! fom man! temina/s.

T*s a sing/e &omm*ni&ation /ine &an 4e sae+ 4! a n*m4e of +evi&es. Te

%*%ose of a m*/ti%/exe is to e+*&e te &ost of +ata &omm*ni&ation 4! ma#ing

it moe effi&ient. 9enea//! a m*/ti%/exe meges te tansmission of sevea/

temina/s at one en+ of a &omm*ni&ation &anne/ "i/e a simi/a *nit se%aates

te in+ivi+*a/ tansmissions at te e&eiving en+. Tee ae sevea/ a%%oa&es

to m*/ti%/exing. Tee main a%%oa&es ae /iste+ 4e/o".

Fre3uency Division Mulfi#le&ing .FDM/

In tis meto+ te m*/ti%/exe +ivi+es a igs%ee+ &anne/ into m*/ti%/e /o"

s%ee+ &anne/s 4! a//o&ating +iffeent feB*en&ies to +iffeent &anne/s.

o"eve FDM is no" ae/! *se+ fo genea/ %*%ose +ata m*/ti%/exing 4e&a*se

of its ineffi&ien&! an+ inf/exi4i/it!.

)ime Division Multi#le&ing .)DM/

In TDM te m*/ti%/exe +ivi+es te time ea& temina/ &an *se on a igs%ee+

/ine into ve! sot time s/ots o time fames i.e. te temina/s &an sen+ o

e&eive +ata on/! in tei es%e&tive

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Fig. 2.6 Data Tansmisison "it TDM

t*ns. In tis te&niB*e te +ata fom one temina/ is inte/eave+ "it +ata fom

anote temina/.

Fig*e 2.6 gives an inte"oven +ata steam.

Statisti&a/ Time Division M*/ti%/exe ;STDM<

An STDM +etemines "i& of te temina/s &*ent/! "ant to sen+ o tansmit

+ata an+ seves on/! tem. T*s in tis meto+ vaia4/e ate tan fixe+ time

s/ots ae a//otte+ to temina/s 4ase+ on %ioities. An STDM is i//*state+ in Fig.

2.2.

Fig. 2.2 Data Tansmisison "it STDM

Con&ent*to

A &on&entato is a/so anote +ata &omm*ni&ations e/e&toni& +evi&e "i&

e/%s in &on&entating a set of temina/s at a site. It as mi&o%o&esso

inte//igen&e stoe+ &omm*ni&ation soft"ae an+ 4*ffe stoage. T*s a

&on&entato ma! 4e &a//e+ a sma// &om%*te tat %efoms a f*n&tion simi/a to

a m*/ti%/exe a/ong "it ote f*n&tions e/ate+ to va/i+ation of +ata fomatting

of +ata 4a&#*% et&.

2.(.$ FontEn+ Po&essos

A fonten+ %o&esso is a s%e&ia/ise+ &om%*te "i& is +e+i&ate+ to an+/ingte +ata &omm*ni&ation &onto/ f*n&tions fo a /age &om%*te s!stem. Tese

&onto/ f*n&tions in&/*+e +ata &o+ing an+ +e&o+ing eo +ete&tion an+

e&ove! e&o+ing %o&essing an+ inte%eting of &onto/ infomation

tem%oa! 4*ffe stoage et&. A fonten+ %o&esso &an %o// emote temina/s to

+etemine if te! ave a message to sen+ o ae ea+! to e&eive a message. In

a++ition it as te es%onsi4i/it! of &onto//ing a&&ess to te net"o# assigning

%ioities to messages /ogging a// +ata &omm*ni&ation a&tivit! &om%*ting

statisti&s on net"o# a&tivit! an+ eo*ting messages among a/tenative

&omm*ni&ation /in#s. T*s a fonten+ %o&esso &an e/ieve te ost &om%*te

of its +ata &omm*ni&ation &onto/ f*n&tions to %ovi+e *% to $0 %e &ent

a++itiona/ %o&essing time. Fig*e 2., I//*states te *se of a fonten+ %o&esso.

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2.6 COMMUNICATION NET?OR7S

An infomation s!stem ma! &onsist of a se/f&ontaine+ an+ stan+a/one &om%*te

"it no +ata &omm*ni&ations o"eve in man! instan&es te infomation

s!stem is a net"o# of temina/s o ote +evi&es inte&onne&te+ 4! a

&omm*ni&ation net"o#. A &omm*ni&ation net"o# is eB*ie+

Fig. 2., Use of FontEn+ Comm*ni&ation Po&esso

to &onne&t a &enta/ &om%*te to emote +evi&es an+ a &om%*te in one /o&ation

to a &om%*te in some ote /o&ation "itin o o*tsi+e te oganisation.

De%en+ing main/! on te a%%/i&ations an+ geoga%i&a/ /o&ations to 4e

s*%%ote+ a net"o# &an 4e &onfig*e+ ;+esigne+< in man! +iffeent "a!s. Te

&ommon net"o# aeite&t*es o to%o/ogies te main t!%es of net"o#s in

tems of s&o%e an+ &ommon net"o# %o&essing aangements ae +is&*sse+ inte fo//o"ing text.

2.6.1 Net"o# To%o/og!

It is te %!si&a/ an+ /ogi&a/ aangement of its %ats e/ative to one anote.

Ea& %at is teme+ as a no+e "i& is an! +evi&e on te net"o# tat &an

a&&e%t an+ e+ie&t a message. T*s a no+e ma! 4e a &om%*te a m*/ti%/exe o

a temina/ &onto//e. No+es ae &onne&te+ to ea& ote 4! /in#s. Lin#s &an 4e

te/e%one /ines %ivate /ines sate//ite &anne/s et&. T*s a net"o# to%o/og!

ma! 4e vie"e+ as an aeite&t*a/ +esign of te &omm*ni&ation /in#s 4et"een

no+es.

Tee ae tee &ommon net"o# to%o/ogies name/! 4*s ing an+ sta ;see Fig.

2.-<.

A 4*s net"o# is a net"o# in "i& no+es ae aange+ a/ong a sing/e /engt of

&a4/e tat &an 4e exten+e+ at te en+s. In te ing net"o# no+es ae oganise+

in a &i&*/a fasion. In tis net"o# tansmission ta#es %/a&e fom one no+e to

anote in a given +ie&tion. A sta net"o# as a &enta/ no+e tat &onne&ts to

ea& of te ote no+es 4! a sing/e %ointto%oint /in#. T*s in sta to%o/og!

a// messages %ass to*g te &enta/ &om%*te fom "ee te! ae s"it&e+ to

te +esie+ no+e. Tis %o&ess of s"it&ing messages fom te &enta/ no+e to its

es%e&tive no+e

Fig. 2.- Tee Net"o#s fo Data Comm*ni&ations

is #no"n as message s"it&ing. Te tee t!%es of to%o/ogies ave tei o"n

a+vantages an+ +isa+vantages. o"eve an oganisation ma! +e&i+e one t!%e of

to%o/og! o te ote 4ase+ on its %o&essing nee+s an+ %efoman&e iss*es /i#e

+e/a! to*g%*t e/ia4i/it! et&.

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2.6.' Net"o# S&o%e

Te s&o%e of +ata &omm*ni&ation net"o# is im%otant to st*+! 4e&a*se te

*ses= nee+ to &omm*ni&ate +iffes fom sot +istan&es to /ong +istan&es. On te

4asis of net"o# s&o%e +ata &omm*ni&ations ma! 4e teme+ as /o&a/ aea

net"o# o "i+e aea net"o#. Let *s 4ief/! +is&*ss ea& of te net"o#s.

(ocal Area $etwor!s

A /o&a/ aea net"o# ;LAN< is a +ata &omm*ni&ation s!stem fo inte&onne&ting

t"o o moe &omm*ni&ating +evi&es "itin one to t"o #i/omete. Te +evi&es

ma! ange fom a /age mainfame s!stem to %esona/ &om%*tes an+

%ei%ea/s. A /o&a/ aea net"o# is +esigne+ *sing ig &a%a&it! /ines s*& as

&oaxia/ &a4/es. o"eve if te &a4/e is /ong e/e&toni& +evi&es ae atta&e+ to#ee% signa/s stong an+ &/ea. A LAN a//o"s a /age n*m4e of +evi&es to sae

oganisationa/ eso*&es /i#e stoage +evi&es %intes %ogams an+ +ata fi/es.

3esi+es a LAN a/so integates a "i+e ange of f*n&tions into a sing/e s!stem.

Fig*e 2.10 +e%i&ts a t!%i&a/ /o&a/ aea net"o# &onsisting of temina/s an+

seves. A seve on te net"o# %ovi+es a s%e&ifi& sevi&e /i#e fi/e stoage an+

a&&ess fa&i/it! extena/ &omm*ni&ation fa&i/it! an+ %inting fa&i/it! fo a//

temina/s &onne&te+ to Comm*ni&ation Pint

Fig. 2.10 A T!%i&a/ Lo&a/ Aea Net"o# =

te LAN. Te temina/ ma! 4e a %esona/ &om%*te o a "o#station "it

m*/ti*se an+ m*/titas#ing &a%a4i/ities.

Te &ommon %o%ieta! +esigns fo &onst*&ting a LAN in&/*+e Etenet

;eox< De&net ;Digita/ EB*i%ment< !%e Canne/ ;Net"o# S!stems

Co%oation< an+ IEEE ,0'.$ et&. Anote a/tenative to te LAN is te %ivatea*tomati& 4an& ex&ange ;PA3< "i& a&ts as a &enta/ s"it& 4oa+ to

&onne&t +evi&es nee+ing to &omm*ni&ate. In integate+ sevi&es +igita/ net"o#s

;ISDN< a PA3 integates +ata an+ voi&e.

+ide Areu $etwor!s

A "i+e aea net"o# ;?AN< in &ontast to a LAN %ovi+es &omm*ni&ation ove

/ong +istan&es. A ?AN ma! 4e s%ea+ ove a &it! a egion a nation o "o/e of

te "o/+ an+ ma! in&/*+e egiona/ net"o#s %ovi+e+ 4! te/e%one +e%atment

o intenationa/ net"o#s manage+ 4! g/o4a/ &omm*ni&ation sevi&e %ovi+es.

A B*ite %o%*/a ?AN "i& is in&easing/! 4eing *se+ 4! 4*sinesses is te

Intenet ;see /atte %at of tis &a%te<.

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3esi+es LAN an+ ?AN sometimes anote tem &a//e+ MAN i.e. meto%o/itan

aea net"o# "i& is a !4i+ some"ee 4et"een te t"o is a/so *se+.

2.6.$ Disii4*te+ Data Po&essing Net"o#s

In +isti4*te+ +ata %o&essing net"o#s a n*m4e of geoga%i&a//! +is%ese+

in+e%en+ent &om%*tes ae &onne&te+ 4! te/e&omm*ni&ation net"o#s. T*s in+isti4*te+ %o&essing infomation %o&essing is a&&om%/ise+ 4! a net"o# of

&om%*tes inte&onne&te+ 4! +ata &omm*ni&ation /in#s instea+ of +e%en+ing on

a &enta/ise+ %o&essing a%%oa& "i& e/ies on one /age &enta/ &om%*te o

on a +e&enta/ise+ %o&essing a%%oa& "i& invo/ves &om%/ete/! in+e%en+ent

*se &om%*tes "it tei o"n +ata4ases %ogams a%%/i&ations et&. Te

o4e&tive

Fig. 2.11 Disti4*te+ Data4ase Using ieae! of Po&essos

of +isti4*te+ +ata %o&essing is to %ovi+e to te en+ *se at is o"n /o&ation a//

te eB*ie+ +ata to im as "e// as te eB*isite &om%*ting an+ &omm*ni&ation

eso*&es. Disti4*te+ &om%*tes ma! 4e aange+ in a ieae! o in a ing.

Fig*e 2.11 gives a ieae! of %o&essos.

2.6.) Poto&o/s

A stan+a+ set of */es an+ %o&e+*es fo te &onto/ of &omm*ni&ations in a

net"o# is #no"n as a %oto&o/. To*g it is o4vio*s tat +iffeent &om%*tes

*sing +iffeent o%eating s!stems so*/+ ave a &ommon &omm*ni&ation

%oto&o/ to fa&i/itate +ata &omm*ni&ation man! &om%eting an+ in&om%ati4/e

%oto&o/s ae in *se to+a!. Effots ae 4eing ma+e to +eve/o% a &ommon

&omm*ni&ation %oto&o/ "i& "i// fa&i/itate +iffeent &om%*tes to

&omm*ni&ate "it ea& ote. Some of te im%otant stan+a+s tat ae 4eing

*se+ to+a! ae +es&i4e+ in te fo//o"ing se&tion.

O#en System 'nterconnect .OS'/

Tis mo+e/ as 4een +eve/o%e+ 4! Intenationa/ Stan+a+s Oganisation fo/in#ing +iffeent t!%es of &om%*tes an+ net"o#s an+ seves as a stan+a+ fo

net"o# aeite&t*e. Te OSI mo+e/ is a seven/a!e s!stem tat +ivi+es te

te/e&omm*ni&ation %o&ess into seven /a!es "ee ea& /a!e +ea/s "it a

s%e&ifi& as%e&t of te &omm*ni&ation %o&ess. Te OSI 4eing a m*/ti/a!e

%oto&o/ as te a+vantage of aving ea& /a!e in+e%en+ent of te otes. T*s

an! /a!e &an 4e &ange+ "ito*t affe&ting te ote /a!es.

)ransmission Control Protocol4'nternet Protocol .)CP4'P/

I tis mo+e/ "as +eve/o%e+ 4! te US +e%atment of +efen&e fo &onne&ting

+iffeent t!%es of &om%*tes.

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'ntegrated Service Digital $etwor! .'SD$/

Tis %oto&o/ as 4een +eve/o%e+ fo tansmitting +igita/ +ata ove %*4/i&

s"it&e+ net"o#s.

2.2 COMPUTER NET?OR7S IN INDIA

A n*m4e of &om%*te net"o#s ave 4een %/anne+ in In+ia an+ ae at vaio*sstages of exe&*tion as mentione+ 4e/o".

;i< RAIINET is a &o*nt!"i+e &om%*te net"o# "i& is oganise+ 4!

In+ian Rai/"a!s "it /age &om%*tes at ea& of its nine Hona/ ai/"a!

ea+B*ates an+ one at Rai/"a! 3oa+ at De/i. Tis &om%*te net"o#

is 4eing *se+ fo &omme&ia/ an+ %o+*&tion a&tivities of In+ian Rai/"a!s.

;ii< NICNET is a Nationa/ Infomati&s Cente Net"o# "i& is oganise+ 4!

Nationa/ Infomati&s Cente De/i. Te ost &om%*te is a &!4e

&om%*te "i& is &onne&te+ to NEC &om%*tes at vaio*s %/a&es in In+ia

/i#e P*ne !+ea4a+ 3*4anes"a et&. Its main %*%ose is to &o//e&t

fist an+ infomation fom +isti&t /eve/ fo &ente an+ state se&tos e.g.

agi&*/t*e ea/t e+*&ation et&.;iii< EDUNET is oganise+ 4! Tata Instit*te of F*n+amenta/ Reseae

M*m4ai fo a&a+emi& instit*tions an+ &entes of ex&e//en&e fo

e+*&ationa/ &om%*ting.

;iv<OIINET is a &om%*te net"o# "i& as 4een oganise+ 4! Oi/ an+

Nat*a/ 9as Commission ;ON9C< "it I3M $0,$ s*%e&om%*te as te

ost &om%*te at Dea+*n an+ EC1061 &om%*tes at 3ao+a Ca/&*tta

an+ NaHia ;oat<. Tis net"o# as 4een +eve/o%e+ %imai/! fo

seismi& ex%/oation "e///ogging an+ esevoi mo+e//ing

;v< POLICENET as 4een oganise+ 4! Die&toate of Coo+ination of

Po/i&e Com%*tes ;DCPC< "it TDC$16 &om%*tes in man! states of

In+ia. Te net"o# is *se+ fo &time &imina/ statisti&a/ s!stem finge

%int s!stem ams /i&ensing s!stem an+ vei&/e /i&ensing s!stem.

;vi<3AN7NET as 4een +eve/o%e+ among In+ian 4an#s fo 4an#ing

a%%/i&ations an+ e/e&toni& f*n+ tansfes.

;vii< ERNET ;E+*&ation an+ Reseae Net"o#< is te net"o# tat

as 4een set *% as a %at of te A+van&e+ Te&no/og! Pogam in

Com%*te Net"o#ing ;ATPCN< initiate+ *n+e te a*s%i&es of te

De%atment of E/e&toni&s 9ovt. of In+ia an+ UNDP ;Unite+ Nations

Deve/o%ment Pogam<. Te o4e&tive of tis net"o# "as to set *% an

a&a+emi& an+ eseae net"o# in In+ia an+ to %omote &omm*ni&ation

net"o#ing eseae an+ taining.

Te initia/ %ati&i%ation in tis vent*e "as of five IITs IIS& NCST an+ DOE.

ERNET is %a&#ets"it&ing &om%*te &omm*ni&ations net"o# tat *ses te

Intenet Poto&o/s an+ is f*//! inte&onne&te+ "it te ?o/+"i+e ?e4. Te

net"o# &an 4e vie"e+ as &om%ising of a 4a&#4one tat inte&onne&ts te eigt

&oe no+es /iste+ a4ove.

2.2.1 Intenet

Te intenet "i& is te "o/+=s /agest &om%*te net"o# is teme+ as a

net"o# of net"o#s an+ is often +es&i4e+ as te %otot!%e fo a "o/+"i+e

infomation s*%eig"a!=. Te "o+ Intenet= as 4een &oine+ fom te"o+s Inte&onne&tions= an+ Net"o#s=. Te Intenet "as 4on in 1-6- o*t of

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effots to &onne&t togete a US Defen&e De%atment net"o# &a//e+ te

ARPAnet ;A+van&e+ Reseae Poe&ts Agen&! Net"o#< an+ vaio*s ote

a+io an+ sate//ite net"o#s. In o+e to sae infomation eseaees an+

s&ientists fom *nivesities an+ eseae /a4oatoies +eve/o%e+ te

inte&onne&tion of tei &om%*tes an+ ove time te intenet as 4e&ome a

g/o4a/ eso*&e./Te intenet as go"n ex%/osive/! in te 1--0s. It is &om%ose+of ove $0000 &onne&te+ net"o#s fom moe tan 100 &o*nties.

Po%*/ait! of Intenet

Te %o%*/ait! of intenet ma! 4e atti4*te+ to te eason tat %eo%/e ao*n+

te "o/+ &an o*tine/! sen+ an+ e&eive Emai/ ove te intenet at a /o" &ost

an+ tee is someting fo a// ages on te intenetm*si& vi+eos &omi&sG to

me+i&a/ en&!&/o%ae+iasG to te /atest in s%ots an+ "o/+ ne"s.

Intenet O"nesi%

No one o"ns te intenet ate eve! %eson "o ma#es a &onne&tion eve!

go*% "ose Lo&a/ Aea Net"o# ;LAN< 4e&omes &onne&te+ o"ns a s/i&e of teIntenet. T*s "i/e no one %eson o entit! o"ns te Intenet a// "o *se it o

s*%%/! mateia/s fo it %/a! a %at in its existen&e.

Intenet Conne&tivit!

Tee ae man! "a!s to &onne&t to an intenet. 3*t tee ae t"o main t!%es of

intenet &onne&tions one to*g sate//ite tat is a/so #no"n as t*e +ie&t

net"o# IP &onne&tion an+ te ote to*g te/e%one /ines a/so &a//e+ Dia/*%

o vit*a/= +ie&t net"o# IP &onne&tion.

Conne&tivit! To*g Sate//ite

A %eson "o*/+ 4e *sing tis t!%e of intenet a&&ess if is &om%*te ;o LAN< is

+ie&t/! &onne&te+ to a ost &om%*te via a +e+i&ate+ igs%ee+ /ine ;e.g. fame

e/a! o T1< ate tan via a mo+em an+ te ost &om%*te is +ie&t/!

&onne&te+ to te intenet *sing TCPIIP %oto&o/s. Te a+vantages of tis t!%e of

set*% ae tat man! &om%*tes &an a&&ess te intenet sim*/taneo*s/! via a

sing/e ig s%ee+ /ine +ata tansmission is ve! fast an+ te &om%*tes &an *n

*se fien+/! ;i.e. ga%i&a/ *se intefa&e o 9UI< soft"ae ;e.g. Nets&a%e an+

Fet&<. Te +isa+vantages ae %imai/! &ost an+ maintenan&e. Tis is te

%efee+ t!%e of &onne&tion fo tea&es "ising to &onne&t an entie net"o#e+

&om%*te /a4 to te intenet.

Conne&tivit! To*g Te/e%one Lines

In o+e to *se a mo+em to esta4/is a +ie&t IP &onne&tion one m*st ave t"o

t!%es of s!stem soft"ae insta//e+ on one=s Ma&intos &om%*te=s a+ +ive

TCPIP ;e.g. Ma&TCP vesion '.06 o /ate< an+ eite SLIP o PPP. Tese t"o

%ie&es of soft"ae "i// nee+ to 4e &onfig*e+ to &onne&t !o* to a ost &om%*te

tat %ovi+es SLIP o PPP a&&ess. One so*/+ &e&# "it te /o&a/ intenet

sevi&e %ovi+e fo s%e&ifi& +etai/s a4o*t getting a SLIP o PPP a&&o*nt. Te

a+vantages of tis t!%e of a&&ess ae tat one &an *n *sefien+/! soft"ae on

one=s &om%*te an+ no s%e&ia/ a+"ae ;ote tan a igs%ee+ mo+em< is

eB*ie+. Te +isa+vantages ae tat igs%ee+ mo+ems ;-600 4%s to ',., #4%s<

ae m*& s/o"e tan +ie&t igs%ee+ /ines an+ some Intenet %ovi+es &agea %emi*m fee fo tis t!%e of Intenet &onne&tion. In a++ition it is not feasi4/e

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to &onne&t an entie &/assoom of net"o#e+ &om%*tes in tis manne 4e&a*se

ea& &om%*te "o*/+ nee+ its o"n mo+em an+ +e+i&ate+ %one /ine. Tis is te

%efee+ t!%e of &onne&tion fo in+ivi+*a/s "ising to *n Nets&a%e fom a

sing/e &om%*te.

Intenet Poto&o/Poto&o/s ae */es tat a//o" &oo%eating &om%*tes to sae eso*&es o

*n+estan+ ea& ote a&oss a net"o#. Te vaio*s %oto&o/s ae sets of

te&ni&a/ s%e&ifi&ations tat /et &om%*tes ex&ange infomation no matte

"at #in+ of &om%*tes te! ae o "at #in+ of te&no/og! oo#s tem

togete.

TCPL%

Tansmission Conto/ Poto&o/Intenet Poto&o/ is a set of %oto&o/s +eve/o%e+

to a//o" &oo%eating &om%*tes to sae eso*&es a&oss te net"o#. It "as

+eve/o%e+ 4! a &omm*nit! of eseaees &ente+ ao*n+ te ARPANET

TCPIP is a fami/! of %oto&o/s an+ it is &ommon to *se TCPIP to efe to te"o/e fami/!. TCP IP an+ UDP ae a fe" tat %ovi+e te /o"/eve/ f*n&tions

nee+e+ fo man! a%%/i&ations. Otes ae fo +oing s%e&ifi& tas#s e.g.

tansfeing fi/es 4et"een &om%*tes an+ sen+ing mai/ et&.

TCPIP is 4*i/t on &onne&tion/ess te&no/og!. Infomation is tansfee+ as a

seB*en&e of +atagams= ;%a&#ets<. A +atagam is a &o//e&tion of +ata tat is sent

as a sing/e message. Te tem +atagam an+ %a&#et seem to 4e nea/!

inte&angea4/e. Te&ni&a//! +atagam is te igt "o+ "en +es&i4ing

TCPIP. A +atagam is a *nit of +ata "i& is "at te %oto&o/ +ea/s "it an+ a

%a&#et is a %!si&a/ ting a%%eaing on an etenet o a "ie. In most &ases a

%a&#et &ontains a +atagam. TCP is es%onsi4/e fo 4ea#ing *% te message in

+atagams eassem4/ing tem at te ote en+ esen+ing an!ting tat gets /ost

an+ %*tting tings 4a&# in te igt o+e. TCP a/so as to #no" "i&

&onne&tion tis +atagam is a %at of. Tis %o&ess is efee+ to as

+em*/ti%/exing. In fa&t sevea/ /eve/s of +em*/i%/exing ae o%eating in TCPIP.

intenet Ca%a4i/ities

Fo//o"ing is given a 4ief +is&*ssion of intenet &a%a4i/ities.

Emai/ ;E/e&toni& Mai/<

Enai/ is te o/+est an+ te most "i+e/! *se+ a%%/i&ation on Intenet. As te

name im%/ies e/e&toni& mai/ %o%*/a/! &a//e+ Emai/ is sen+ing messagesto*g &om%*te temina/s instea+ of %!si&a//! +e/ivee+ mai/. Fo sen+ing an

e/e&toni& mai/ message te sen+e in%*ts te message at a temina/ "it te

a++ess of te inten+e+ e&i%ient. Te s!stem ten tansmits te message to te

e&eive=s temina/ fom "ee te e&eive ma! ea+ te message %int it fi/e it

e+it it o %ass it on to ote *ses. Emai/ &an 4e sent sim*/taneo*s/! to man!

%esons. It e/iminates time +e/a!s an+ . ote %o4/ems asso&iate+ "it %!si&a/

mai/. As a message tansmitte+ via Emai/ &an 4e stoe+ te e&i%ient nee+ not

4e %!si&a//! %esent at te time of sen+ing te message. It is &a//e+ Emai/

4e&a*se it is simi/a to te %a%e mai/ tat te %osta/ sevi&e +e/ives.

• o* &an %*t it into an e/e&toni& enve/o%e an+ a++ess it.

• o* an+ te message off to someone e/se to 4e +e/ivee+.• o* +o not #no" "en te Emai/ is ea+.

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• If te a++ess is in&oe&t !o* get it 4a&#.

• If te e&i%ient /eaves a fo"a+ing a++ess te Emai/ s!stem "i// #ee%

t!ing to o*te it to ime *nti/ it *ns o*t of fo"a+ing /o&ations.

• An!one "o #no"s !o* a++ess &an sen+ Emai/ to !o*.

• Comme&ia/ &om%anies &an sen+ !o* a+vetising o *n# mai/=.

• If !o* go on va&ation !o* mai/4ox &an fi//*%.

• Emai/ a++ess is *se+ to i+entif! a %eson an+ a &om%*te fo %*%oses

of ex&anging e/e&toni& mai/ messages.

Eve! Emai/ a++ess as tee %ats:

;i< A *se name

;ii< at= sign d an+

;iii< A++ess of *se mai/ seve.

Exam%/e: +aamd%4i.enet.in "ee +aam is te *se name an+

%4i.enet.in= is te mai/ seve=s a++ess.

?o/+ ?i+e ?e4

Te ?o/+ ?i+e ?e4 #no"n sim%/! as te ?e4 o ?$ is an Intenet etieva/

too/. It e/%s !o* to seae infomation *sing /in#s to ote ??? %ages. ?e4

/in#s ae stoe+ "itin te %age itse/f an+ "en !o* "is to *m%= to te %age

tat is /in#e+ !o* se/e&t te ots%ot= o an&o=. Tis te&niB*e is a/so &a//e+

!%eme+ia o !%etext.

9o%e

9o%e "as +eve/o%e+ at te Univesit! of Minnesota. It is a men*+iven

*ti/it! tat a//o"s te *se to o% ao*n+ te g/o4e /oo#ing fo infomation invaio*s infomation /i4aies o seves. To*san+s of s%e&ia/ise+ /i4aies ae

inte&onne&te+ an+ ma#e *% "at is &a//e+ 9o%e s%a&e=. ?eeas Aeie te//s

!o* "ee a %ati&*/a infomation /ies 9o%e a&t*a//! goes o*t gets te

infomation tat !o* "ant an+ %*ts te infomation on !o* &om%*te s&een.

Aeie

Aeie is a *ti/it! tat seaees to*g *n+e+s of +iffeent anon!mo*s FTP

sites an+ te//s *s "ee a// of te fi/es tat "e "ant ae /o&ate+. Aeie is a&t*a//!

a &o//e&tion of seves. Ea& of tese seves is es%onsi4/e fo #ee%ing ta&# of

fi/e /o&ations in sevea/ +iffeent anon!mo*s FTP sites. A// of te Aeie seves

ta/# to ea& ote an+ te! %oo/ tei infomation in a *ge g/o4a/ +ata4ase tat

is %eio+i&a//! *%+ate+. No"a+a!s a n*m4e of ne" too/s a/so #no"n as seae

engines /i#e A/tavista Ex&ite L!&os. ; Infosee# aoo ?e4&a"/e et&. ave

4een +eve/o%e+ tat ena4/e infomation avai/a4/e on te ?e4 to 4e seaee+

moe effe&tive/!.

Remote Login ;TeInet<

TeInet is a *ti/it! "i& a//o"s te *se to /ogin anote s!stem an+ *se vaio*s

sevi&es avai/a4/e on tat ost. o* &an TeInet into *ge +ata4ases to +o eseae

o even TeInet into ote /i4aies ao*n+ te "o/+ to &e&# if te! ave a

&etain 4oo# tat !o* ae /oo#ing fo. TeInet a/so offes an eas! ent! into te

mailto:[email protected]



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"o/+ of 9o%es an+ te ?o/+ ?i+e ?e4 fo tose %eo%/e "o ma! ave

a&&ess to tese too/s.

Fi/e Tansfe Poto&o/ ;FTP<

Fi/e Tansfe Poto&o/ ;FTP< is a too/ as te name s*ggests to &o%! fi/es fom

one &om%*te to anote. *n+e+s of soft"ae s*ites &onne&te+ to te Intenetave fi/e /i4aies o aeives a&&essi4/e to te %*4/i&. One &an &o%! tese fi/es

if eB*ie+. Tee ae /i4aies of +o&*ments as "e//. o* &an get a &o%! of a

e&ent US S*%eme Co*t +e&ision &o%ies of istoi&a/ +o&*ments song /!i&s

%oems an+ even s*mmaies of events.

Usenet Ne"s 9o*%s

?i/e Emai/ /ets !o* sen+ a message to a s%e&ifi& %eson o go*% *senet /ets

!o* sen+ a message on an e/e&toni& 4*//etin 4oa+ fo an!one to see. Usenet is

te intenationa/ meeting %/a&e "ee %eo%/e gate to meet tei fien+s

+is&*ss te +a!=s events #ee% *% "it &om%*te ten+s o ta/# a4o*t "ateve is

in tei min+s. Te 4asi& 4*i/+ing 4/o&# of Usenet is te ne"s go*% "i& is a&o//e&tion of messages "it a e/ate+ teme. Ove 10000 s*& ne"s go*%s exist

on a/most an! &on&eiva4/e to%i&.

?i+e Aeo Infomotion Seves ;?AIS<

Te ?AIS "i& "as +eve/o%e+ 4! Ms Tin#ing Ma&ines s&ans Intenet

/i4aies. It is anote "a! to an+/e te %o4/em of seaeing fi/es ao*n+ te

"o/+. It et*ns a maste in+ex %ovi+ing /in#s to a// te sites e/ate+ to !o*

eB*est. Te in+ex is "eigte+ i+entif!ing "i& /in#s ae most &/ose/! e/ate+ to

te to%i&.

E&omme&e

E/e&toni& &omme&e is te genea/ tem *se+ fo a 4*!ing an+ se//ing %o&ess

"i& is &aie+ o*t e/e&toni&a//!. In tis %o&ess te se//ing &om%anies +es&i4e

tei %o+*&ts an+ sevi&es on te net "i& &an 4e seaee+ 4! %os%e&tive

&*stomes an+ o+es ma! 4e %/a&e+ 4! te 4*!es *sing tei &e+it &a+s. Te

%o+*&t is ten +e/ivee+ %!si&a//! to te 4*!e. Soft"ae &an 4e sent

e/e&toni&a//! +ie&t/! to te &om%*te of te &*stome.

2.2.' Intanet

Intanet "i& is an im%otant a%%/i&ation of te Intenet is a net"o# +esigne+

to +e/ive intena/ infomation ove te /o&a/ aea net"o#. It *ses Intenette&no/og!. Intanet genea//! &onsists of intena/ &o%oate "e4 seves "i&

*se te &o%oate +ata4ases. ?en a&&esse+ em%/o!ees a&oss 8 te LAN o

to*g %ivate +ia/ *% it %ovi+es +ivese #in+s of infomation. To+a! intanet

as 4e&ome ve! %o%*/a in oganisations. Most of te &om%anies a/ea+! a+

LANs in %/a&e. Effe&tive/! tat meant tat a// te eB*ie+ a+"ae "as

a/ea+! *% an+ *nning. Te on/! a++itiona/ eB*iement to *n intanet "as te

a%%/i&ations an+ a 4it of stan+a+isation. Sin&e intanets em%/o! exa&t/! te

same te&no/ogies *se+ on te Intenet an+ "it te in&e+i4/e go"t

ex%eien&e+ 4! te intenet itse/f a%%/i&ations "ee avai/a4/e in a4*n+an&e.

To+a! ne" vesions of a%%/i&ations ;/i#e "o+ %o&essos s%ea+seets +ata4ase

%ogams< ave 4*i/tin Intenet an+ tee4! intanet &a%a4i/ities

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Te Intenet an+ intanets &an 4e &a//e+ i+enti&a/ t"ins as 4ot *se te same

te&no/og! te same a%%/i&ations an+ te same &on&e%ts. o"eve tee ae

s*4t/e +iffeen&es tat +iffeentiate te t"o. Te 4iggest +iffeen&e is te iss*e of

4an+"i+t. Te Intenet t!%i&a//! *ses ',., #4%s +ia/*% mo+ems 6) #4%s1',

#4%s ISDN an+ /ease+ /ines o 1.( m4%s T1 /ines. Teefoe te +esign of te

net"o# nee+s to in&/*+e tis 4an+"i+t fa&to. ?eeas te intanets avemoe tan eno*g 4an+"i+t avai/a4/e to tem. Even te s/o"est LAN to+a!

&/aims to ave 10 m4%s etenet s%ee+s "i/e moe mo+en LANs offe 100

m4%s an+ even faste s%ee+s. Te ote +iffeen&es ae of &o*se a&&essi4i/it!

an+ se&*it!. Te Intenet is an o%en envionment "ee an!ting stoe+ tee is

essentia//! fo %*4/i& *se. Intanet4ase+ infomation on te ote an+ is

se&*e+ an+ is &ontaine+ "itin te oganisation.

2.2.$ Iss*e of Intenet Se&*it!

Se&*it! "as not a %ioit! fo te oigina/ +esignes of Intenet %oto&o/s.

Net"o#s "ee ass*me+ to 4e eite %ivate iso/ate+ an+ %!si&a//! se&*e o

e/se &om%/ete/! %*4/i&. Tis ass*m%tion is no /onge t*e 4e&a*se of te go"ing&omme&ia/ *se of te IntenetG a &onsi+ea4/e amo*nt of %ivate infomation is

no" 4eing sent ove %*4/i& net"o#s. C!%toga%i& te&niB*es ave 4een

+eve/o%e+ to #ee% tis taffi& se&*e. o"eve man! of te im%/ementations ae

%o%ieta! an+ eB*ie te t"o %aties to *se te same soft"ae. A n*m4e of

stan+a+s ave 4een %o%ose+ "i& "o*/+ a//o" +iffeent s!stems to ex&ange

se&*e +ata ove te intenet.

Possi4/e Conto/s

Te se&*it! of a &om%*te net"o# as tee as%e&ts.

a< A*tenti&ation

4< A*toisation an+

&< Piva&!.

A*tenti&ation

Te main %*%ose of a*tenti&ation is to veif! te i+entit! of te %eson *sing a

sevi&e to*g it &an a/so 4e *se+ to %ove te i+entit! of te sevi&e to te *se.

Te eB*ie+ /eve/ of %oof "i// va! +e%en+ing on te nat*e of te sevi&e 4*t

"i// *s*a//! 4e 4ase+ on one o moe of te fo//o"ing:

?at !o* #no"@ ;fo exam%/e a *sename an+ %ass"o+<

?at !o* ave@ ;a smat&a+ o ote to#en<?at !o* ae@ ;finge%ints etina/ s&an et&.<

Most se&*it! s!stems eB*ie a &om4ination of at /east t"o of tese foms of

%oof: man! to#ens eB*ie tat a %ass"o+ 4e entee+ to *n/o&# tem. Tis

%ote&ts against a&&i+enta/ /oss o teft of a to#en 4*t &annot %event +e/i4eate

+e&e%tion "ee a egistee+ *se an+s ove is i+entit! to anote %eson.

Uses so*/+ a/"a!s 4e "ane+ against +oing tis 4*t ex%ensive 4iometi&

te&niB*es ma! 4e ne&essa! fo te most se&*e infomation. An! a*tenti&ation

meto+ "i& is tansmitte+ a&oss a %*4/i& net"o# ma! 4e e&o+e+ 4! an!

ti+ %at! "it a&&ess to te net"o#. If tis %eson &an /ate *se te e&o+e+

tansa&tion as is o"n a*tenti&ation= ten te meto+ is of /itt/e va/*e. Tesee%/!= atta&#s &an 4e %evente+ 4! ens*ing tat te &e+entia/s ex&ange+

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a&oss te net"o# ae +iffeent fo eve! tansa&tion eite 4! *sing onetime

%ass"o+s o 4! en&!%ting ea& tansa&tion "it a *niB*e #e!. A f*te +ange

of e%/a! atta&#s is tat *n/i#e te /oss of a %!si&a/ to#en te teft ma! go

*nnoti&e+ 4! te igtf*/ o"ne.

Meto+s "i& %event e%/a! atta&#s ae #no"n as stong a*tenti&ation= an+&an 4e +ivi+e+ into tee &/asses.

a< Sae+ SeB*en&e

4< Ca//engeRes%onse an+

&< As!mmeti& 7e!.

a< In sae+ seB*en&e meto+s te *se an+ te sevi&e 4ot ave a&&ess to

a seB*en&e of %ass"o+s "i& ae *se+ in t*n to a*tenti&ate te *se.

Te seB*en&e ma! 4e %inte+ as a /ist o 4e geneate+ on +eman+ 4! a

+e+i&ate+ &a/&*/ato o %ogam. On&e *se+ ea& %ass"o+ is inva/i+ate+

so a e%/a! atta&# is 4o*n+ to fai/. Te 4est #no"n of tese meto+s is

3e//&oe=s S#e! "i& as 4een im%/emente+ on 4ot a+"ae to#ensan+ genea/ %*%ose &om%*tes.

4< In &a//engees%onse s!stems te sevi&e iss*es a &a//enge sting "i&

so*/+ e +iffeent fo eve! tansa&tion an+ te *se es%on+s "it a

&om4ination of te &a//enge an+ is o"n %ass"o+. Te o%eation *se+

to fom te es%onse is a message +igest f*n&tion +esigne+ to ma#e it

vit*a//! im%ossi4/e to e&onst*&t te %ass"o+ fom te es%onse.

Re%/a! atta&#s "i// fai/ 4e&a*se te es%onse is on/! va/i+ fo te

%ati&*/a &a//enge iss*e+. Te +igest a*tenti&ation s&eme in&/*+e+ in

vesion 1.1 of te !%etext Tansfe Poto&o/ *ses &a//engees%onse as

+o &omme&ia/ s!stems s*& as C!%toCARD an+ Digita/ Pat"a!s

Se&*eNet.

&< As!mmeti& #e! s!stems *se %ais of n*m4es "it te %o%et! tat a

message en&!%te+ *sing one of te %ains &an on/! 4e +e&!%te+ *sing te

ote. If eve! *se as is o"n %ai one of "i& is "i+e/! %*4/i&ise+ ;te

%*4/i& #e!< "i/e te ote is #no"n on/! to im ;te %ivate #e!< tese

&an 4e *se+ to a*tenti&ate te *se. If a sevi&e e&eives a message "i&

+e&!%ts &oe&t/! *sing someone=s %*4/i& #e! it &an 4e vit*a//! &etain

tat it "as en&!%te+ *sing te %ivate #e!. Simi/a/! a sevi&e "i&

en&!%ts its e%/ies "it te *se=s %*4/i& #e! &an 4e &onfi+ent tat te!

&an on/! 4e ea+ 4! *se of te &oes%on+ing %ivate #e!. Te 4est #no"n

im%/ementation of tese meto+s is P9P ;Pett! 9oo+ Piva&!< no"fee/! avai/a4/e as soft"ae fo most %/atfoms.

A*toisation

On&e a *se as %ove+ is i+entit! te sevi&e m*st &e&# "ete tat %eson

is a//o"e+ to %efom te o%eation "i& e as eB*este+. Tis a*toisation is

noma//! +one "itin te sevi&e ma&ine 4! &e&#ing against a /ist of egistee+

*ses an+ tei a&&ess igts. Fo some sevi&es o"eve it ma! 4e ne&essa! fo

te /ists of *ses an+ tei igts to 4e maintaine+ 4! te *ses= o"n instit*tion

ate tan te %ovi+e of te sevi&e. Tis migt a%%/! "ee an instit*tion as

%ai+ fo a /i&ense to *se te sevi&e an+ nee+s to &onto/ "i& *ses ave a&&ess

to it.

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A se&*e %oto&o/ is ten nee+e+ fo te sevi&e to B*e! an a*toisation seve

at te instit*tion. A sing/e sevi&e ma! ave +iffeent aeas of infomation fo

exam%/e +iffeent +atasets ea& of "i& as a +iffeent go*% of a*toise+

*ses.

Tis means tat te eB*est fo a*toisation m*st in&/*+e +etai/s of te

infomation 4eing eB*este+ fo 4! te *se not *st te i+entit! of te sevi&einvo/ve+.

Te sim%/est a%%oa& "o*/+ 4e to &om4ine te f*n&tions of te a*toisation

an+ a*tenti&ation seves at te instit*tion an+ on/! iss*e a*tenti&ation

infomation to tose sevi&es fo "i& te *se is a*toise+. o"eve tis

eB*ies tat ea& a*tenti&ation seve a&ts as a Cetifi&ate A*toit!. It a/so

means tat te same a*tenti&ation infomation &annot 4e *se+ fo signat*es

an+ e/e&toni& mai/ sin&e eB*ests to va/i+ate signat*es ma! &ome fom an!

ost on te Intenet.

Piva&!Te Intenet &aies an in&easing amo*nt of %ivate taffi&. Tis ma! 4e

%esona/ infomation a4o*t te *se o infomation of &omme&ia/ va/*e.

?ete te messages &ontain &e+it &a+ +etai/s %*&ase+ soft"ae o

examination ma#s tei o"nes nee+ to #ee% tem se&et. Unfot*nate/!

messages &an 4e ea+ off te net"o# as easi/! as *senames an+ %ass"o+s so

te on/! so/*tion is to en&!%t tem. It is im%otant to OIC tat an!

matemati&a/ en&!%tion s&eme &an 4e 4o#en 4! te *se of s*ffi&ient

&om%*ting %o"e te 4est tat &an 4e o%e+ fo is to ma#e te &ost in time an+

CPU %o"e nee+e+ to 4ea# te &o+e signifi&ant/! geate tan te va/*e of te

en&!%te+ mateia/.

If an a*tenti&ation %o&ess o&&*s 4efoe a *se gains a&&ess to a sevi&e it ma!

4e %ossi4/e to *se infomation gaine+ +*ing a*tenti&ation to en&!%t te

s*4seB*ent taffi&. Tis eB*ies &ae to ens*e tat on/! te inten+e+ *se &an

+e&!%t te taffi& so is most s*ite+ to as!mmeti& #e! meto+s. If te seve

iss*es a %*4/i& #e! as %oof of its i+entit! tis #e! ma! 4e *se+ to negotiate an

en&!%tion meto+ fo te s*4seB*ent session. Tis ma! a/so 4e +one in evese

if te seve #no"s te *se=s %*4/i& #e!. As!mmeti& #e! s!stems eB*ie too

m*& &a/&*/ation to 4e *se+ +ie&t/! to en&!%t te "o/e sessionG te *s*a/

meto+ is to &oose a an+om s!mmeti& #e! fo te session an+ ex&ange tis

se&*e/! *sing te as!mmeti& #e!s. If neite of te %aties as 4eena*tenti&ate+ ten it is sti// %ossi4/e to agee to a session #e! o"eve tis

%ovi+es no %ote&tion against &/ients o seves o4taining infomation 4! +e&eit.

Intenet %oto&o/s ae 4ase+ on nesting +iffeent /a!es of infomation so tee is

a &oi&e of /a!e to a%%/! en&!%tion. One a%%oa& is to en&!%t at te

Tans%ot La!e /eaving *nen&o&/e+ on/! te infomation eB*ie+ to o*te

%a&#ets to tei +estination. Te net"o# sim%/! tansfes te %a&#ets 4et"een

te t"o en+%oints "i& ae te on/! ma&ines &a%a4/e of ma#ing an! sense of

te infomation. Te en&!%tion o&&*s 4e/o" te /eve/ "ee +iffeent sevi&es

;??? Emai1 FTP et&.< ae +isting*ise+ so &an 4e *se+ eB*a//!"e// 4! an!

of tem. Tans%ot /a!e en&!%tion is *se+ 4! Nets&a%e=s Se&*e So&#et La!e

;SSL< %oto&o/ a/so #no"n as TLS an+ is %o%ose+ as an o%tion fo te ne"vesion of te Intenet Poto&o/ itse/f IPv6. ?i/e it seems atta&tive to a%%/! a

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sing/e en&!%tion meto+ to a// Intenet Sevi&es some sevi&es 4enefit fom

s%e&ifi& o%eations %efome+ 4! inteme+iate s!stems. Fo exam%/e

mai/4agging e+*&es te 4an+"i+t eB*ie+ to sen+ m*/ti%/e &o%ies of e/e&toni&

mai/ messages to +istant sites FTP eB*ests ma! 4e e+ie&te+ to /o&a/ mio

sites an+ "e4 eB*ests ma! 4e sevi&e+ 4! &a&es ate tan te oigina/

seves. Ea& of tese o%eations eB*ies tat some inteme+iate ma&ine 4ea4/e to ea+ te eB*est &ontaine+ "itin a %a&#et "i& is im%ossi4/e "it

tans%ot /a!e en&!%tion. Te a/tenative is to en&!%t at te a%%/i&ation /a!e

/eaving te *sef*/ ea+e infomation ea+a4/e 4*t en&!%ting te &ontent. Te

most %o%*/a s!stem fo en&!%tion at tis /eve/ is Pett! 9oo+ Piva&! ;P9P<

"i& is "i+e/! *se+ fo Emai/ an+ FTP an+ is one of te o%tions s*%%ote+ 4!

te %o%ose+ Se&*e TTP ;STTP<.

9iven 4e/o" ae some genea/ ti%s fo Intenet %iva&!.

;i< Coose a %ass %ase tat is a+ to g*ess. Do not *se Eng/is "o+s. Te

4est %ass %ases &ontain nona/%an*mei& an+ 4ot &a%ita/ an+ sma//

/ettes.;ii< Cange !o* %ass"o+ eg*/a/!. Do not *se te same one on m*/ti%/e

a&&o*nts. Do not stoe !o* %ass %ase in !o* Intenet a&&o*nt. An+ +o

not sae it o "ite it.

;iii< If !o* *se TeInet emote a&&ess &a%a4i/it! to get !o* Intenet

a&&o*nt fom a %*4/i& %/a&e &ange it as soon as is %a&ti&a/ afte"a+.

;iv<Do not give o*t %esona/ infomation to stanges on Intenet.

;v< Do not save sensitive fi/es in !o* Intenet a&&o*nt.

;vi<As e/e&toni& mai/ ae *st /i#e %ost&a+s. Do not *se *nen&!%te+ Emai/

to sen+ e&eive o stoe messages !o* "ant to #ee% %ivate.

;vii< Don=t "a/# a"a! fom !o* &om%*te "it !o* Emai/ "in+o"

o%en.

;viii< Revie" !o* e/e&toni& messages &aef*//! 4efoe !o* sen+ tem.

;ix<Don=t sen+ !o* &e+it &a+ n*m4e o 4an# a&&o*nt n*m4e

*nen&!%te+ ove Emai/.

2., APPLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Tee is a "i+e vaiet! of &omm*ni&ation a%%/i&ations "i& %ovi+e inva/*a4/e

sevi&es to te oganisations an+ tei *ses. Fig*e 2.1' /ists te mao

&ategoies an+ t!%es of a%%/i&ations s*%%ote+ 4! &omm*ni&ations. Some of te

most %eva/ent a%%/i&ations ae e/e&toni& mai/ fa&simi/e ;fax< vi+eo

te/e&onfeen&ing e/e&toni& +ata inte&ange e/e&toni& f*n+ tansfe et&. "i&ae +is&*sse+ in te fo//o"ing text.

Fa&simi/e

Fa&simi/e %o%*/a/! #no"n as Fax a//o"s a *se to tansmit images of

+o&*ments ove &omm*ni&ation /in#s. It ma! 4e &a//e+ /ong+istan&e &o%!ing.

9enea//! a fax ma&ine at a /o&ation tansmits to a fax ma&ine at anote

/o&ation "it 4ot *nits &onne&te+ to igs%ee+ intena/ mo+ems.

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Fig. 2.1' A%%/i&ations of Comm*ni&ation

8i+eo&onfeen&ing

Tis te&niB*e a//o"s t"o o moe %esons to ave fa&etofa&e= &omm*ni&ation

"it a go*% se%aate+ 4! /ong +istan&es. 8i+eo&onfeen&ing "i& is a

m*/ti%/ein%*t te/evision session fa&i/itates meetings an+ &onfeen&es "ito*t tenee+ to tave/ at an ex%ense of time an+ mone!.

E/e&toni& Data Inte&ange ;EDI<

It invo/ves te e/e&toni& tansmission of o*tine 4*siness tansa&tions +ata

+ie&t/! 4et"een te &om%*te s!stems of +iffeent oganisations +oing 4*siness

"it ea& ote. In EDI fomatte+ +o&*ments ae tansmitte+ ove

&omm*ni&ation /in#s +ie&t/! 4et"een &om%*tes "ito*t %a%e +o&*ments o

man*a/ +ata ent!. T*s EDI e/%s %ovi+ing faste &onsistent an+ &om%/ete

infomation to oganisations.

E/e&toni& F*n+s Tansfe ;EFT<No"a+a!s e/e&toni& f*n+s tansfe is "i+e/! *se+ in te 4an#ing in+*st!. It is

a ve! fast te&niB*e in &a%t*ing an+ %o&essing of &as an+ &e+it tansfes

4et"een 4*sinesses an+ &*stomes. EFT e/iminates +e/a!s asso&iate+ "it

sen+ing a+ &o%! +o&*ments. o"eve se&*it! 4eing a seio*s iss*e "it EFT

it so*/+ 4e *se+ "it *tmost &ae an+ %e&a*tions.

SUMMAR

An *n+estan+ing of +ata &omm*ni&ation is ve! im%otant in te +esign of

man! infomation s!stems. Data &omm*ni&ation efes to te means an+

meto+s of ex&anging +ata 4et"een vaio*s t!%es of temina/s an+ te main

&om%*tes "i& ae se%aate+ geoga%i&a//!. Data ma! 4e tansmitte+ fom

one %/a&e to anote in te fom of signa/s "i& ma! 4e of t"o t!%es i.e. ana/og

an+ +igita/ signa/s. Tese signa/s %ass ove a vaiet! of &omm*ni&ation me+ia

&ommon/! &a//e+ &omm*ni&ation /ines. 3oa+/! +ata &omm*ni&ation /ines ma!

4e &/assifie+ into t"o &ategoies name/! %!si&a/ &onne&tion /ines an+ "ie/ess

tansmission /ines. P!si&a/ &onne&tion /ines in&/*+e t"iste+%ai "ies &oaxia/

&a4/es an+ fi4e o%ti& /ines "eeas "ie/ess tansmission /ines in&/*+e

mi&o"ave sate//ite an+ a+io. Data tansmission ma! ave an! one o a

&om4ination of moe tan one &omm*ni&ation /ines. One +ata &omm*ni&ation

&anne/ ma! 4e se/e&te+ ove te ote on te 4asis of +ata &omm*ni&ation nee+s

an+ te feat*es of +ata &omm*ni&ation &anne/. Im%otant &aa&teisti&s of +ata &omm*ni&ation &anne/ in&/*+e 4an+"i+t s!n&onisation tansmission

mo+e tansmission eo &onto/ et&. To &omm*ni&ate +ata a me+i*m a/one is

not s*ffi&ient ate a "i+e vaiet! of &omm*ni&ation a+"ae is a/so

ne&essa!. Some of te &ommon *se+ &omm*ni&ation a+"ae ma! 4e mo+ems

m*/ti%/exes &on&entatos fonten+ %o&essos et&.

De%en+ing main/! on te a%%/i&ations an+ geoga%i&a/ /o&ations to 4e

s*%%ote+ a &omm*ni&ation net"o# is +esigne+. A &omm*ni&ation net"o#

"i& ma! 4e vie"e+ as an aeite&t*a/ +esign of te &omm*ni&ation /in#s

4et"een vaio*s no+es ma! ave +iffeent t!%es of +esigns o aeite&t*es. Te

&omm*ni&ation aeite&t*es ae #no"n as &omm*ni&ation to%o/ogies. Te&ommon/! *se+ net"o# to%o/ogies ma! 4e 4*s ing an+ sta. On te 4asis of

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te s&o%e fo te net"o# +ata &omm*ni&ation net"o# 4asi&a//! is of t"o t!%es

i.e. Lo&a/ Aea Net"o#s ;LAN< an+ ?i+e Aea Net"o#s ;?AN<. Disti4*te+

+ata %o&essing net"o#s ae a e&ent +eve/o%ment in "i& a /age n*m4e of

geoga%i&a//! se%aate+ in+e%en+ent &om%*tes ae /in#e+ 4! &omm*ni&ation

net"o#s. A %oto&o/ esta4/ises a set of */es an+ %o&e+*es fo te &onto/ of

&omm*ni&ations in a net"o#. Intenationa/ Stan+a+s Oganisation ;ISO< ist!ing to +eve/o% &ommon %oto&o/s to fa&i/itate &omm*ni&ation of +iffeent

&om%*tes "it ea& ote.

To+a! a "i+e vaiet! of a%%/i&ations of &omm*ni&ation ae in *se. A fe"

im%otant +ata &omm*ni&ation a%%/i&ations ma! 4e name+ as e/e&toni& mai/

fa&simi/e ;fax< e/e&toni& f*n+ tansfe et&.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

1. E/a4oate te &on&e%t of +ata &omm*ni&ations. Des&i4e te t"o main

t!%es of +ata tansmission me+ia.

'. Define te fo//o"ing tems:a< Ana/og signa/

4< Digita/ tansmission

&< Comm*ni&ation sate//ite /ine

+< 8oi&e 4an+

e< Define an+ &ontast te fo//o"ing tems:

f< M*/ti%/exe an+ &on&entato

g< Fonten+ an+ Main &om%*te

< LAN an+ ?AN

i< Sta an+ Ring net"o#

< Sim%/ex an+ D*%/ex tansmissions.

$. ?at is meant 4! net"o# to%o/og!@ Dis&*ss te &ommon net"o#

to%o/ogies.

). Dis&*ss te &on&e%t of +isti4*te+ +ata %o&essing. List vaio*s

a%%/i&ations of +ata &omm*ni&ations.

(. ?at is 4an+"i+t an+ "! is it im%otant@ ?at ae te t"o t!%es of

+ata tansmission s!n&oniHations an+ o" ae te! +iffeent@ ?at is

+ata &omm*ni&ation %oto&o/@

6. Dis&*ss +ata &omm*ni&ation a+"ae. ?at %*%ose +o mo+ems seve@

?at is a m*/ti%/exe an+ "! is it *se+@

2. 3ief/! +is&*ss E/e&toni& Mai/ Fa&simi/e 8i+eo Confeen&ing E/e&toni&

Data Inte&ange an+ E/e&toni& F*n+ Tansfe.

ASSI9NMENTS

1. S*%%ose !o* ave 4een as#e+ to e&ommen+ a net"o# to%o/og! fo !o*

*nivesit! net"o#. S*ggest te most o%tim*m net"o# to%o/og! fo

in+ivi+*a/ +e%atments /an+ fo "o/e of te *nivesit!. *stif! te

net"o# to%o/ogies !o* ave e&ommen+e+.

'. S*ggest a tansmission me+i*m fo:

a< Univesit! net"o#

4< 3an#ing net"o#.

Pe%ae a &at giving a+vantages +isa+vantages an+ a%%oximate &osteB*ie+ fo te %o%ose+ me+ia.

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A/so +is&*ss te #in+ of &omm*ni&ation a%%/i&ations te net"o# "i// 4e a4/e

to an+/e.

REFERENCES

3/a&# U. Data Net"oes Penti&ea// Eng/e"oo+ C/iffs N 1-,-.Cas ames . an+ 3enn 7ons!ns#i IS Re+a"s Com%etitive 3o*n+aies=

ava+ 3*siness Revie" MaeA%i/ 1-,(.

FitHgea/+ 3*siness Data Comm*ni&ations: 3asi& Con&e%ts Se&*it! an+

Design )t e+ition on ?i/e! 3L Sons NW 1--$.

o*s/e! Tevo Data Comm*ni&ations an+ Te/e%o&essing S!stems 'n+

e+ition Penti&ea//. Eng/e"oo+ C/iffs N 1-,2.

PC 5*est */! 1--,.

Ro&e E.M. Te/e&omm*ni&ations an+ 3*siness Stateg! Te D!+en Pess

Ci&ago 1--1.

S%ag*e Ra/% an+ 3a4aa M&N*/in Infomation S!stems Managementin Pa&ti&e e+ite+ Penti&ea// Eng/e"oo+ C/iffs N 1-,6.

T*4an Efaim et a/. Infomation Te&no/og! fo Management: Im%oving

5*a/it! an+ Po+*&tivit! on ?i/e! 3C Sons Ne" o# 1--6.

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CASE STUD /

Net"o#ing to a Te&no/og! Instit*te

O3ECTI8ES OF NET?OR7IN9

Te o4e&tives of net"o#ing at Te&no/og! Instit*te ;TI< ;ea/ name as 4een

+isg*ise+< ma! 4oa+/! 4e +ivi+e+ into te fo//o"ing t"o &ategoies.

1. A&a+emi&: Tis in&/*+es a// *sage 4! fa&*/t! an+ st*+ents fo

inst*&tiona/ an+ eseae %*%oses an+ a/so in&/*+es a&&ess to te /i4a!&ata/og an+ +ata4ase seaees.

'. NonA&a+emi&: Tis it se/f &an 4e s%/it into t"o some"at inte+e%en+ent

s*4&ategoies.

;i< Intemi/ Usage: Tis in&/*+es &om%*teising an+ /in#ing a// se&tions

in&/*+ing a+ministation a&&o*nts a&a+emi& e&o+s stoes oste/ *nits

an+ te os%ita/ tee4! fa&i/itating a// intena/ tansa&tions an+

intea&tions.

;ii< Extena/ Intefa&e: Te TI net"o# &an a/so e/% te instit*te in vaio*s

inte a&tions "it te o*tsi+e "o/+ in&/*+ing siste &am%*ses &o%oate

instit*tions ven+os an+ o+ina! visitos. Tee is a/so te %otentia/ to

geneate even*e 4!:

a< ma#ing avai/a4/e sevi&es to te est of te "o/+ *sing te TI net"o#.

4< a&ting as &ons*/tants to ote oganisations invo/ve+ in setting *% s*&

net"o#s. On&e te net"o#ing is &om%/ete one "o*/+ 4e a4/e toa&&ess a//

on/ine eso*&es in&/*+ing +e%atmenta/ &om%*tes /i4a! s!stem an+

te instit*te a+ministation s!stem.

CURRENT STATUS

To+a! TI as eigt a&a+emi& +e%atments ;&om%*te s&ien&e e/e&ti&a/

te&ani&a/ aeona*ti&a/ meta//*gi&a/ *manities &emi&a/ an+ &emist!< onte TI net"o# ;an+ en&e ae no+es on te INTERNET< in a++ition to te

/i4a! an+ vaio*s a+ministative se&tions ;a&&o*nts &as +ean RSLD

a&a+emi& +ministation<. Five moe +e%atments an+ &entes ;&ivi/ %!si&s

matemati&s RSIC an+ ACRE< "i// 4e on/ine "itin te next fe" "ee#s. Tis

"o*/+ /eave on/! a fe" a&a+emi& &entes ;/i#e 4iote& eat s&ien&es< an+ some

nona&a+emi& aeas ;oste/ os%ita/< tat "o*/+ emain to 4e oo#e+ on to te

TI net"o#.

T!%i&a//! tese +e%atments ave fist set *% a +e%atmenta/ LAN an+ ten

ave &onne&te+ to te TI 4a&#4one afte 4eing a//otte+ IP a++esses 4! ERNET

9iven 4e/o" is te s*ve! of te &*ent s&ene in tems of te a+"ae *se+ an+te s!stem soft"ae.

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Net"o#ing Te&no/og!

Etenet is te o4vio*s &oi&e fo most +e%atments. Fo istoi&a/ easons

tee +o exist one o t"o ARENET segments in te me&ani&a/ engineeing

+e%atment an+ %ats of te main 4*i/+ing ;a+ministation< 4*t even tese ae

ex%e&te+ to 4e %ase+ o*t soon.

Te TI 4a&#4one ;ti&# Etenet< *ns &/ose eno*g fo most +e%atments to

oo# on to. ?itin +e%atments te &*ent ten+ is to *se on/! t"iste+ %ai ;10

3ase T< etenet in te %/a&e of tin etenet +*e to its e/ia4i/it! an+ ease of

management. Some +e%atments ;es%e&ia//! &om%*te s&ien&e< *se &atego! (

&a4/e ;"i& &an s*%%ot 100 M4%s< to &onne&t tei &oe segments. Catego! $

&a4/ing is *se+ in a// ote %/a&es.

3i+ging Segments "itin De%atment

D*e to an in&easing n*m4e of ma&ines an+ te %!si&a/ +istan&e most

+e%atment LANs nee+ to 4e 4o#en into segments an+ 4i+ge+. Fo 4i+ges teso/*tion of &oi&e as 4een to +e+i&ate a PC *nning fee %*4/i&+omain 4i+ging

soft"ae ate tan %*&asing a+"ae 4i+ges. A ve! *sef*/ in novavion

+eve/o%e+ in te &om%*te s&ien&e +e%atment at TI is te m*/tisegment

4i+ging soft"ae. Tis +e%atment &*ent/! *ses a +is#/ess ),6 ma&ine to

4i+ge fo* Etenet segments. Te %efoman&e an+ e/ia4i/it! as 4een fo*n+

to 4e ex&e//ent.

Ro*ting IP an+ IP

Unix ma&ines an+ Nove// net"ae fi/e seves ae te t"o mao s!stems in *se

in te instit*te. Te! *se +iffeent net"o#ing %oto&o/s ;TCPIP of Unix an+

SPIP of Net"ae<. ?itin a sing/e LAN te! &an &oexist %ea&ef*//! 4*t as

+iffeent +e%atment LANs ae &onne&te+ to te TI 4a&#4one *sing o*tes

sometimes o4/ems s*fa&e.

As fa as INTERNET a&&ess ;TCPIP< is &on&ene+ $' C/ass C a++esses ae

avai/a4/e fo *se at TI. 3ig +e%atments ae given a f*// &/ass C a++ess an+

otes ae given s*4net mas#s ;a//o"ing 6) IP a++esses fo tat +e%atment<.

Te o*tes an+ o*ting soft"ae in *se at TI ae te fo//o"ing.

CISCOTee is one CISCO o*te *se+ 4! ERNET to &onne&t te TI 4a&#4one to te

est of ERNET ;an+ INTERNET<. It o*tes on/! TCPIP %a&#ets. Tis is a &ost/!

4*t ig%efoman&e an+ e/ia4/e o*te fo ?i+eAea Net"o#ing. Its m*/ti

%oto&oI o*ting &a%a4i/ities ;.'( IP< is not 4eing *ti/ise+ in te &*ent

s&enaio.

$etware Servers5

De%atments ;/i#e &om%*te s&ien&e /i4a! main 4*i/+ing< *se tei Net"ae

seves temse/ves as o*tes to &onne&t to te TI 4a&#4one. Net"ae ;vesions

$.11 an+ a4ove< &an o*te 4ot IP an+ IP ma#ing a&&ess of ote +e%atments=

ma&ines ;4ot Unix an+ Net"ae< %ossi4/e.

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Dedicated PCs 0sing PD Software

Fo TCPIP o*ting some fee %*4/i&+omain soft"ae %a&#ages ae avai/a4/e.

At TI PCROUTE is *se+ 4! e/e&ti&a/ an+ *manities +e%atments an+

P7TP7T is *se+ 4! &emi&a/ engineeing. ?i/e tis is &osteffe&tive an+ goo+

eno*g fo TCPR te! +o not an+/e IP %a&#ets inte//igent/!. Te! a/so

eB*ie a PC to 4e +e+i&ate+ as te o*te.

LINU

Moe e&ent/! te aeona*ti&a/ +e%atment is *sing tei LINU ma&ine as te

o*te. LINU is a fee vesion of UNI avai/a4/e "it f*// so*&e &o+e an+ no

esti&tions on *sage an+ as 4een a 4oon fo te &am%*s.Net"o# Soft"ae

Use+ on DOS Fonten+s Ma&ines *sing DOS ae te most &ommon on te

&am%*s. Te! nee+ &onne&tivit! to 4ot Net"ae an+ Unix ma&ines. Te

so/*tion a+o%te+ as 4een to *se fee %*4/i&+omain soft"ae on/! an+ tis as

"o#e+ ve! "e//.

;i< TCPIP: Te teInet s*ite of %ogams fom NCSA an+ C/a#son

Univesit! ae te most "i+e/! *se+ to &onne&t to Unix ma&ines. Tese*n on to% of %a&#et +ives avai/a4/e fee ;C!n" Pa&#et Dive

Co//e&tion< fo a// &ommon Etenet &a+s ;NE '00 ?D DLIN7 et&.<

ODIP7T of Nove// is a/so in *se. Te Min*et s*ite of %ogams is a/so

4eing *se+ of /ate sin&e it in&/*+es man!*ti/ities /i#e teInet FTP go%e

ne"sfinge an+ ns/oo# *%.

;ii< IP: Nov&//=s ODI so/*tion ;Is/ ne'000i%ox+i< is one of te meto+s *se+

to get DOS ma&ines to &onne&t to Net"ae seves. Te ote is to *n

te C!n" %a&#et +ives fo//o"e+ 4! %&/i%x.

Net"aeUnix Conne&tivit!

Tee ae sti// man! iss*es to 4e eso/ve+ ee. Net"ae a//o"s ;4! %*&asing

%a&#ages fo tei seve< eno*g a&&ess to ma&ines ;FTP NFS mo*nting an+

so on<. 3*t in te %*4/i& +omain on/! EXmai/ &onne&tivit! is eas!. 3! *nning

Me&*! an+ Pegas*s Mai/ ;4ot avai/a4/e fee< one &an get f*// Emai/

&onne&tivit! fo a// Net"ae an+ Unix *ses. LINU is te ans"e to a&&essing

Net"ae eso*&es fom Unix ma&ines. Lin*x as DOSem*/ation %a&#age tat

ma#es tis %ossi4/e. Tis is sti// in ex%eimenta/ stages an+ is 4eing tie+ o*t at

TI.

FACILITIES AND USA9E

Te 4enefits of &am%*s net"o#ing ae immense. Fo a&a+emi& *se te a4i/it! toa&&ess so m*& infomation ;&a// fo %a%es te&ni&a/ e%ots eseae soft"ae

so*&e< an+ eso*&es ;"o#ing "it ma&ines an+ %ogams *navai/a4/e in te

&am%*s< as o%ene+ *% ne" aven*es fo %ogess. S%e&ifi& exam%/es ae &o//e&te+

in a se%aate +o&*ment. Tese of &o*se e/! on te a4i/it! to *se net"o#

sevi&es /i#e teInet FTP ne"sgo*%s Emai/ go%e an+ """. Net"o#ing of

te nona&a+emi& se&tions ;a+ministation a&&o*nts stoes et&.< a/so as man!

in+ie&t 4enefits in&/*+ing saving of &ost to te instit*te. Te stat*s of tis as%e&t

of &am%*s net"o#ing is to 4e s*ve!e+.

0sage Policies

Tee ae ve! fe" esti&tions on *ses a&&essing M.I.S1$ net"o# eso*&es"itin te instit*te. Peo%/e &an sen+ Emai/ to an! *se teInet an+ PTP to an!

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ma&ine ea+ ne"sgo*%s ;NNTP< fom man! seves an+ *se te infomation

seves ;go%e<. Tese %o/i&ies ae +e&i+e+ 4! in+ivi+*a/ +e%atments an+

s!stem a+ministatos.

To+a! a&&ess to an! eso*&e o*tsi+e te instit*te as to go to*g ERNET. E

mai/ an+ ne"s sevi&es ave sta4i/ise+. Emai/ is a&&essi4/e to fa&*/t! eseaes&o/as an+ %oe&t enginees fo offi&ia/ "o#. Fina/ !ea 3.Te&. an+ M.Te&.

st*+ents &an *se Emai/ afte %a!ment ;Rs '00 fo (0 messages in&oming %/*s

o*tgoing<. Otes +o not ave Emai/ a&&ess. Te %o/i&! on ote sevi&es ;FTP

teInet et&.< is 4eing evo/ve+ ?i/e te ten+ at TI as 4een to"a+s

+e&enta/ising te %o/i&! +e&ision ma#ing tis as 4een a ve! s/o" evo/*tion

/eaving man! *ses *nsatisfie+. Po4a4/! te main easons fo tis ae te

fo//o"ing.

;i< Te %e&e%tion tat ERNET eso*&es ae main/! fo eseae *se of te

ERNET %oe&t go*% mem4es an+ not fo genea/ a&&ess 4! ote *ses.

;ii< Te %e&e%tion tat giving *ses moe a&&ess to INTERNET "i// /ea+ to

a4*se ;/i#e o4taining +it!= %i&t*es *sing tis fo a%%/!ing to foeign*nivesities<.

;iii< Te %e&e%tion tat te 4an+"i+t ;-600 to sangam< "i// get

&o#e+ if geate *se is a//o"e+.

?i/e some of tese ma! 4e *stifia4/e feas a 4oa+e %es%e&tive nee+s to 4e

ta#en to ea/ise te immense 4enefits a moe o%en a&&ess "i// ave on te

a&a+emi& "o# of te instit*te. In an! &ase te esti&tions so*/+ 4e on/! time

4ase+ ;avai/a4/e at &etain times< o /oa+4ase+ ;avai/a4/e "en te net"o# /oa+

is 4e/o" a teso/+< ate tan a 4/an#et +enia/.

PRO3LEMS AND SU99ESTIONS

To s*mmaise te TI net"o# is a &o//e&tion of +e%atment LANs ;10 3ase T an+

10 3ase ( Etenet< oo#e+ on to a ti&# Etenet TI 4a&#4one. 3i+ges ae

*se+ to segment +e%atment LANs an+ o*tes to inte&onne&t vaio*s

+e%atments. Unix an+ Net"ae ma&ines ae &ommon in man! +e%atments

an+ te! &an 4ot 4e a&&esse+. TI so/*tion is "o#a4/e &osteffe&tive an+ easi/!

im%/ementa4/e at ote %/a&es.

Te mao iss*es emaining ae te fo//o"ing.

;i< Distant Units: Some *nits /i#e oste/s an+ te os%ita/ ae too fa fom te

TI 4a&#4one. Costeffe&tive "a!s ;*sing +ia/*% %one /ines an+ SLIPPPP< so*/+ 4e +esigne+ an+ im%/emente+.

;ii< S*4netting: D*e to a sotage of IP a++esses s*4net mas#s ave 4een

given "i& &a*ses some %o4/ems to some avai/a4/e o*ting soft"ae.

Tis m*st 4e avoi+e+ 4! ex%/oing one of te fo//o"ing te&niB*es.

a< Deve/o%ing &*stomise+ s%e&ia/%*%ose o*ting soft"ae.

4< Ro*ting m*/ti%/e /ogi&a/ segments on te same %!si&a/ segment.

&< 3*i/+ing a fie"a// a o*te tat a//o"s *se of f*// a++ess on one si+e

4*t %esents on/! /ega/ o*tes to te ote si+e.

;iii< Maintenan&e S!stem A+ministation an+ Management: As te

net"o# siHe an+ *sage go"s effe&tive %o&e+*es an+ staff fo net"o#

maintenan&e an+ management so*/+ 4e avai/a4/e. Te i+ea of foming

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s%e&ia/ inteest go*%s tat meet eg*/a/! to ta#e sto&# of te sit*ation

"i// e/%.

;iv<Net"o# Se&*it!: Se&*it! "i// 4e&ome an iss*e on&e eso*&es ae

a&&essi4/e fom +istant /o&ations. 7e4eos is te so/*tion a+o%te+ 4!

MITs Atena %oe&t. A %oe&t to +eve/o% s*& se&*e +isti4*te+ s!stems

"i// 4e ve! *sef*/.;v< P*4/i&Domain Soft"ae: ?i/e te avai/a4i/it! an+ *se of PDsoft"ae

as 4een of immense 4enefit at TI it +oes nee+ a /ot of ex%etise an+

ex%eimenta&tion to get tings "o#ing %o%e/!. Stan+a+ising tese

%a&#ages an+ &*stomising tem fo te s%e&ifi& nee+ of te &am%*s "i// 4e

anote *sef*/ %oe&t.


1. Comment on te stengts an+ "ea#nesses of net"o#ing at Te&no/og!

Instit*te.

'. 7ee%ing in min+ te a+van&ements in te&no/og! o" "o*/+ !o* %o&ee+

+iffeent/!@ Dis&*ss.$. Comment on te mao iss*es on net"o#ing at Te&no/og! Instit*te.

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-

e 3*siness an+ e&omme&e

Leaning O4e&tives

Afte ea+ing tis &a%te !o* so*/+ 4e a4/e to:• *n+estan+ te 4asi& +iffeen&es 4et"een e3*siness an+ eComme&eG

• *n+estan+ te &on&e%t of &ossf*n&tiona/ ente%ise s!stemsG

• +is&*ss te tems ente%ise eso*&e %/anning s!stemG &*stome

e/ationsi% management s!stems an+ s*%%/! &ain management

s!stemG

• +is&*ss mao a%%/i&ation &om%onents of ea& s!stem an+ *n+estan+

te mao &a//enges fa&ing tese s!stemsG

• i+entif! a+vantages an+ &a//enges of eComme&e s!stemG

• o*t/ine te #e! &om%onents of te&no/og! infast*&t*e tat m*st 4e

in %/a&e fo eComme&e to s*&&ee+G• +is&*ss te #e! feat*es of te e/e&toni& %a!ment s!stems nee+e+ to

s*%%ot eComme&e.

,.1 INTRODUCTION

Te a+vent of Intenet te&no/ogies as ea//! evo/*tionise+ te 4*siness "o/+

to+a!. Intenet is esa%ing te "a! infomation s!stems ae 4eing *se+ in

4*siness.

Ne" *ses of infomation s!stems an+ ne" 4*siness mo+e/s ave 4e&ome %ossi4/e

4e&a*se of te Intenet "i& as e/iminate+ man! te&ni&a/ geoga%i& an+

&ost 4aies o4st*&ting te g/o4a/ f/o" of infomation. Te fast&anging "o/+

of infomation te&no/og! ;IT< a%%/i&ations in 4*siness is no" %o%*/a/! #no"nas e3*siness. Te g/o4a/ avai/a4i/it! of Intenet fo te ex&ange of tansa&tions

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4et"een 4*!es an+ se//es as 4een inst*menta/ in te go"t of E/e&toni&

Comme&e ;eComme&e<.

Diffeent s&o/as ave +efine+ te tems e3*siness an+ eComme&e +iffeent/!

an+ sti// man! &onsi+e tese t"o tems as s!non!ms an+ t*s. often te t"o

tems ae *se+ inte&angea4/!. Fo te sa#e of &/ait! "e ave *se+ te tems of e3*siness an+ eComme&e as +iffeent tems. In a ve! nao" sense e

Comme&e is te %o&ess of 4*!ing an+ se//ing goo+s an+ sevi&es e/e&toni&a//!

"eeas e3*siness is a m*& 4oa+e &on&e%t. E3*siness in a++ition to

en&om%assing eComme&e in&/*+es 4ot font an+ 4a&# offi&e a%%/i&ations tat

+ive te mo+en 4*siness. In ote "o+s e3*siness is te *se of te

infomation te&no/ogies to s*%%ot e/e&toni& Comme&e ente%ise

&omm*ni&ations an+ &o//a4oations an+ "e4ena4/e+ 4*siness %o&esses 4ot

"itin a net"o#e+ ente%ise an+ "it its sta#eo/+es. In tis &a%te "e "i//

+is&*ss te &on&e%ts an+ a%%/i&ations of e3*siness as "e// as eComme&e.

Un+e e3*sin&ss "e "i// +is&*ss exam%/es of &ossf*n&tiona/ ente%ise s!stems

/i#e Ente%ise Reso*&e P/anning ;ERP<G S*%%/! Cain Management ;SCM<Gan+ C*stome Re/ationsi% Management ;CRM<. F*n&tiona/ infomation

s!stems "i& a/so fa// *n+e e3*siness ave a/ea+! 4een +is&*sse+ in

Ca%te '. Late %at of tis &a%te +is&*sses te &on&e%t /i#e: eComme&e

infast*&t*e eComme&e a%%/i&ations %a!ment s!stems an+ &a//enges an+

o%%ot*nities in te aeas of eComme&e. 3efoe +is&*ssing te exam%/es of

&ossf*n&tiona/ ente%ise infomation s!stem /i#e ERP SCM an+ CRM /et *s

ta#e a /oo# at te &on&e%t of &ossf*n&tiona/ ente%ise infomation s!stem.

,.' CROSSFUNCTIONAL ENTERPRISE INFORMATION SSTEM

To+a! infomation te&no/og! is 4eing *se+ to +eve/o% integate+

&oss^f*n&ti0na/ ente%ise infomation s!stems tat &*t a&oss te ta+itiona/

f*n&tiona/ aeas of a 4*siness oganisation "it an o4e&tive to eenginee an+

im%ove vita/ 4*siness %o&esses a// a&oss te oganisation. In fa&t tese &oss

f*n&tiona/ ente%ise infomation s!stems ae seen as a stategi& "a! to *se IT to

sae infomation eso*&es an+ im%ove te effi&ien&! an+ effe&tiveness of

4*siness %o&esses an+ +eve/o% /ong tem e/ationsi%s "it te &*stomes

s*%%/ies an+ ote 4*siness %atnes T*s instea+ of aving f*n&tiona/

mainfame4ase+ /ega&! s!stems oganisations ae sifting to integate+ &oss

f*n&tiona/ &/ientseve a%%/i&ations fo exam%/e ERP SCM o CRM soft"ae

s!stems fom SAP Peo%/e Soft Oa&/e et&. S*& ente%ise soft"ae fo&*ses on

s*%%oting integate+ go*%s of 4*siness %o&esses ate tan infomation%o&essing eB*iements of te es%e&tive 4*siness f*n&tion. ERP fo&*ses on

effi&ien&! of a fim=s intena/ %o+*&tion /ogisti&s +isti4*tion R an+

Finan&ia/ %o&esses. CRM fo&*ses on a&B*iing an+ etaining %ofita4/e

&*stomes to*g ma#eting sa/es an+ sevi&e %o&esses. SCM fo&*ses on

+eve/o%ing te most effi&ient an+ effe&tive so*&ing an+ %o&*ement 8 %o&esses

"it s*%%/ies fo te %o+*&ts an+ sevi&es nee+e+ 4! a 4*siness. 7no"/e+ge

management ;7M< a%%/i&ations fo&*s on %ovi+ing a fim=s em%/o!ees "it too/s

tat s*%%ot go*% &o//a4oation an+ +e&ision s*%%ot ;Sa"ne! Moan an+

eff a4in '001<. Let *s no" +is&*ss te exam%/e of &ossf*n&tiona/ ente%ise

infomation s!stems.

;i< Ente%ise Reso*&e P/anning ;ERP< S!stems ERP s!stem "i& is anente%ise"i+e fame"o# in&/*+ing Sa/es an+ Ma#etingG Po+*&tion

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an+ Invento! ManagementG A&&o*nts an+ Finan&e *man Reso*&es

et&. is ega+e+ as te 4*siness 4a&#4one of an oganisation.

ERP seves as a &oss`f*n&tiona/ ente%ise 4a&#4one tat integates a// te

%o&esses of te 4*siness an+ e/% %/an te eso*&es of te oganisation. Tese

s!stems e/% in fo&*ssing on %o+*&tion &a%a&ities /ogisti&s management an+

"o#ing o*t finan&ia/ im%/i&ations of ea& +e&ision ate tan *st &om%*ting&osts. Te 4asi& %i/oso%! of an ERP s!stem is tat 4*siness %o&esses ae to 4e

integate+ at a// /eve/s an+ a// te eso*&es of te oganisation ae to 4e teate+

as &ommon eso*&es tat ae to 4e *se+ most effi&ient/! to satisf! its &*stomes.

As te nee+s of &*stomes #ee% &anging ERP s!stems %ovi+e a+a%ta4i/it! to

tese &anging nee+s. ERP s!stems ena4/e te manage to ta#e an ovea// vie" of

te 4*siness as a "o/e instea+ of aving a m!o%i& vie" of 4*siness f*n&tions

an+ t*s offes te 4enefits of s!neg! of vaio*s f*n&tions in a&ieving te goa/s

an+ o4e&tives of te oganisation. Tese s!stems a/so offe f/exi4i/it! to 4*siness

%o&esses as te %o&ess itse/f instea+ of some f*n&tion in te %o&ess is

a*tomate+. A// te eB*ie+ &anges ae im%/emente+ B*i&#/! "it ERP s!stems.

Fo exam%/e SAPR$ an ERP soft"ae %a&#age %ovi+es moe tan 200%o&esses tat ae a*tomate+ an+ integate+ "it ea& ote.

Fig*e ,.1 i//*states a t!%i&a/ ERP s!stem. In tis s!stem te sa/es o+e

%o&essing intea&ts "it te invento! s!stem "o# o+e maintenan&e an+

a&&o*nts e&eiva4/e s*4s!stems. In ote "o+s tee im%otant f*n&tiona/

aeas of a 4*siness name/! ma#eting %o+*&tion an+ finan&e ae integate+. In

te s!stem integation of some ote a&tivities /i#e %o+*&tion %/anning

%o+*&tion ] s&e+*/ing %o&*ement of a" mateia/s Mateia/ Reso*&e

P/anning ;MRP< as a/so 4een a&ieve+.

Fig. ,.1 Ente%ise Reso*&e P/anning S!stem An Exam%/e

A fe" /ea+ing ven+os of ERP s!stems an+ names of te ERP soft"ae ae /iste+

in Ta4/e ,.1. ERP soft"ae s*its t!%i&a//! &onsist of integate+ mo+*/es of

man*fa&t*ing +isti4*tion sa/es a&&o*nting an+ *man eso*&e a%%/i&ations.

Tese mo+*/es s*%%ot vaio*s %o&esses *n+e ea& f*n&tiona/ aea. Fo

exam%/e man*fa&t*ing %o&esses tat ae s*%%ote+ 4! te man*fa&t*ingmo+*/e ae mateia/s eB*iements %/anning %o+*&tion %/anning an+ &a%a&it!

%/anning.

Fig. ,.' Mao A%%/i&ation Com%onents in a T!%i&a/ ERP S!stem

Ca//enges of ERP

In te "o+s of 7a/a#ota an+ Ro4inson ;'000< An ERP im%/ementation is /i#ete &o%oate eB*iva/ent of a 4ain tans%/ant. ?e %*//e+ te %/*g on eve!

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&om%an! a%%/i&ation an+ move+ to %eo%/e soft soft"ae. Te is# "as &etain/!

+is*%tion of 4*siness 4e&a*se if !o* +o not +o ERP %o%e/! !o* &an #i// !o*

&om%an! g*aantee+K Te fa&t &annot 4e +enie+ tat te im%/ementation of

ERP s!stem is a &om%/ete 4*siness tansfomation "i& %ovi+es a &om%etitive

e+ge ove ote &om%etitos 4*t te &osts an+ is#s ae a/so B*ite ig. Tee

ave 4een +iffeent ERP im%/ementation ex%eien&es fom +iffeent &om%anies.Man! &om%anies /i#e ese! Foo+ Ni#e ADEC et&G s*staine+ /oses *nning

into *n+e+s of mi//ions of +o//as. In te &ase of FoxMe!e D*gs a ( 4i//ion

%ama&e*ti&a/ "o/esa/e te Com%an! a+ to fi/e fo 4an#*%t&! %ote&tion

an+ ten "as 4o*gt o*t 4! its ae &om%etito M&#esson D*gs ;7a/a#ota S&

Ro4inson '000<.

Te main eason fo te fai/*e of tese s!stems as 4een /a&# of *n+estan+ing

of te &om%/exit! of te %/anning +eve/o%ment an+ im%/ementation eB*ie+ fo

ne" ERP s!stem. ERP s!stem so*/+ not 4e ega+e+ as anote IT a%%/i&ationG

ate it is a &om%/ete 4*siness tansfomation "i& A a+i&a//! &anges te

4*siness %o&esses as "e// as infomation s!stems of an oganisation. Anotet!%i&a/ &a*se of *ns*&&essf*/ ERP s!stems is fai/*e to invo/ve a// te affe&te+

*ses in a// te stages of ERP s!stem in a *!.

;ii< C*stome Re/ationsi% Mon*gement ;CRM< ?it te &ange of 4*siness

fo&*s fom sa/es to te ma#eting &om%anies no" stive to %ovi+e maxim*m

satisfa&tion to tei &*stomes. In o+e to a&ieve &*stome satisfa&tion

o4e&tive te! t! to fo&*s on te &*stomes an+ to 4*i/+ a /ongtem

e/ationsi% "it tem. Managing &*stome e/ationsi% is a t"o"a! %o&ess in

"i& te oganisation an+ a// of its em%/o!ees "o nee+ to intefa&e "it te

&*stomes get a &om%/ete a&&ess to eve! &*stome at eve! to*& %oint an+

a&oss a// &anne/sG an+ a/so te &*stomes get a// te eB*ie+ infomation

a4o*t te &om%an! an+ of its %o+*&ts "ito*t m*& effot. Te &on&e%t of CRM

as to*g 4een %a&tise+ fo /ong 4*t to+a! 4e&a*se of envionmenta/

%ess*es oganisations in o+e to s*vive an+ go" in &*ttoat 4*siness

envionment ae fo&e+ to fo//o" it m*& moe seio*s/!. F*te to a%%e&iate

te im%otan&e of te CRM &on&e%t /et *s /oo# at some of te fa&ts given 4!

7a/a#ota an+ Ro4inson ;'001<.

• It &osts six times moe to se// to a ne" &*stome tan to se// to an existing

one.

• A t!%i&a/ +issatisfie+ &*stome "i// s%ea+ te "o+ to ,10 %eo%/e a4o*tis o e ex%eien&e.

• A &om%an! &an 4oost its %ofits ,( %e &ent 4! in&easing to ann*a/

&*stome etention 4! on/! ( %e &ent.

• Te o++s of se//ing a %o+*&t to a ne" &*stome ae 1( %e &ent "eeas

te o++s of se//ing a %o+*&t to an existing &*stome ae (0 %e &ent.

• Sevent! %e &ent of &om%/aining &*stomes "i// +o 4*siness "it te

&om%an! again if it B*i&#/! ta#es &ae of a seve snaf*.

Te a4ove +ata f*te %oves a %oint tat 4esi+es a&B*iing ne" &*stomesG

%ovi+ing 4ette sevi&es an+ s*%%otG etaining of te existing &*stomes aem*& moe im%otant fo te &om%anies tat eB*ie a mao 4*siness stateg!.

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CRM is an iteative %o&ess tat t*ns &*stome infomation into %ositive

&*stome e/ationsi%.

Fig. ,.$ Te Po&ess C!&/e of CRM

CRM is te ne" manta "i& *ses inte//igent meto+s in fom of +ata mining

te&niB*es to get 4ette insigts of &*stome nee+s. Te CRM &!&/e ;Rig4! an+

Le&/ingam '00)< &onsists of five %o&ess stages:

• Taget an+ Ma#eting

• Deve/o%ment of offeings

•

Sa/es• S*%eio ex%eien&e

• Retention an+ "in4a&#

C*stome e/ationsi% management ;CRM< ma! 4e +efine+ as an integate+

sa/es ma#eting an+ sevi&e stateg! tat fo&*ses on managing a// of te "a!s

tat an oganisation +ea/s "it its existing an+ %otentia/ ne" &*stomes. It *ses

infomation te&no/og! to &eate a &ossf*n&tiona/ ente%ise s!stem tat

integates an+ a*tomates man! of te &*stomee/ate+ %o&esses in sa/es

ma#eting an+ &*stome sevi&es.

T*s CRM &onso/i+ates a// tis infomation to %ovi+e a *nifie+ vie" of a&*stome a&oss te oganisation. S*& infomation "as not avai/a4/e in te %ast

as te oganisations *se+ to fo//o" atmenta/ise+ f*n&tiona/ a oa& to te

4*siness o&esses an+ +i+ not sae m*& of te infomation e/ating to te

&*stomes. No"a+a!s CRM too/s integate a// te &*stomee/ate+ %o&esses of

an oganisation an+ &onso/i+ates &*stome infomation fom m*/ti%/e &anne/s

/i#e etai/ stoes te/e%one emai/ Intenet Extanet et&. so tat a &onsistent

an+ &onso/i+ate+ infomation ma! 4e %ovi+e+ to te &*stomes. Maoit! of te

B*estions %etaining to te &*stomes "i& ae ana/!sis 4ase+ ae %ovi+e+ 4!

CRM s!stems so as to fom*/ate stategies an+ fom*/ate 4*siness %o/i&ies.

In ote "o+s CRM s!stem is an integate+ &ossf*n&tiona/ infomation

s!stem tat in&/*+es a set of too/s to integate an+ a*tomate &*stomene/ate+

%o&esses in sa/es ma#eting an+ &*stoie sevi&es to %ovi+e fast &onvenient

an+ e/ia4/e sevi&es to its &*stome. Fig*e ,.) +e%i&ts a &on&e%t*a/ mo+e/ of a

t!%i&a/ CRM s!stem.

Some of te /ea+ing ven+os of CRM s!stems ae Sie4e/ s!stems Oa&/e

Peo%/eSoft SAP A9. Some of te mao a%%/i&ations &om%onents of a t!%i&a/

CR.M s!stem ae given in Fig*e ,.(. Let *s 4ief/! +is&*ss ea& of tese

&om%onents.

;i< C*stome Itea&e: Tis &om%onent of CRM s!stem assists sa/esma#eting an+ sevi&e em%/o!ees in &a%t*ing an+ ta&#ing a// +ata

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a4o*t te existing an+ %os%e&tive &*stomes. S*& infomation is

&a%t*e+ fom te &*stome to*& %oints s*& as te/e%one emai/ fax

an+ &om%an!=s "e4site ;Intenet< etai/ stoes an+ an! %esona/ &onta&t.

CRM s!stem stoes a// te &a%t*e+ +ata in a &ommon &*stome +ata4ase

tat integates a// &*stome a&&o*nt infomation an+ ma#es it avai/a4/e

to*go*t te oganisation to*g Intenet o Intanet fo sa/esma#eting an+ sevi&e CRM a%%/i&ations.

;ii< Sa/es: CRM s!stem %ovi+es te soft"ae too/s an+ infomation to a//

sa/es %eo%/e "i& is eB*ie+ to s*%%ot an+ manage te sa/es a&tivities.

It gives tem ea/time a&&ess to a sing/e &ommon vie" of te &*stome in

o+e to %ovi+e e/ia4/e an+ &onsistent infomation.

;iii< Ma#eting: Te CRM s!stem e/%s ma#eting %ofessiona/s

&a%t*e an+ manage &*stome es%onse +ata in te CRM +ata4ase an+

ana/!se te &*stome an+ 4*siness va/*e of a &on1%an!=s ma#eting

&am%aigns.

Fig. ,.( A%%/i&ation Com%onents in a T!%i&a/ CRM S!stem

;iv<C*stome Sevi&e an+ S*%%ot: CRM s!stem a/so %ovi+es sevi&e %eo%/e

"it soft"ae too/s an+ ea/time a&&ess to te &*stome +ata4ase. It e/%s

in managing te eB*ests fo sevi&es 4! te A &*stome. To an+/e

s%e&ifi& t!%es of eB*ests CRM s!stem a/so a//o&ates te sevi&es to

vaio*s 4*siness %ofessiona/s. On te 4asis of /eve/s of tei a*toit!

&a//s &an 4e o*te+ to te &*stome s*%%ot %eo%/e to*g &a// &ente

soft"ae. ?e44ase+ se/fsevi&e ena4/es &*stome to eso/ve tei

%o4/ems on/ine.

CRM mo+e/ 4ase in&/*+es ana/!ti&a/ too/s /i#e +ata mining too/s an+ ote

ana/!ti&a/ ma#eting soft"ae an+ CRM +ata4ase &onsists of a &*stome +ata

"aeo*se an+ CRM +ata mats.

Data Mining fo CRM

Data mining attem%ts to fom*/ate ana/!se an+ im%/ement 4asi& in+*&tion

%o&esses tat fa&i/itate te exta&tion of meaningf*/ infomation an+ #no"/e+ge

fom *nst*&t*e+ +ata. Data mining exta&ts %attens &anges asso&iationsan+ anoma/ies fom /age +ata sets. Te s&o%e of +ata mining in&/*+es fom

teoeti&a/ "o# on te %in&i%/es of /eaning an+ matemati&a/ e%esentations

of +ata to 4*i/+ing a+van&e+ engineeing s!stems tat %efom infomation

fi/teing on te "e4.

Data mining soft"ae a//o"s *ses to ana/!se /age +ata4ases to so/ve 4*siness

+e&ision %o4/ems. Data mining is in some "a!s an extension of statisti&s "it a

fe" atifi&ia/ inte//igen&e an+ ma&ine /eaning t"ists to"n in. Data mining is

not a 4*siness so/*tion it is *st a te&no/og!. Fo exam%/e &onsi+e a &ata/og

etai/e "o nee+s to +e&i+e "o so*/+ e&eive infomation a4o*t a ne"

%o+*&t. Te infomation o%eate+ on 4! te +ata mining %o&ess is &ontaine+ ina istoi&a/ +ata4ase of %evio*s intea&tions "it &*stomes an+ te feat*es

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asso&iate+ "it te &*stomes s*& as age Hi% &o+e an+ tei es%onses. Te

+ata mining soft"ae "o*/+ *se tis istoi&a/ infomation to 4*i/+ a mo+e/ of

&*stome 4eavio* tat &o*/+ 4e *se+ to %e+i&t "i& &*stomes "o*/+ 4e

/i#e/! to es%on+ to te ne" %o+*&t. 3! *sing tis infomation a ma#eting

manage &an se/e&t on/! te &*stomes "o ae most /i#e/! to es%on+. Te

o%eationa/ 4*siness soft"ae &an ten fee+ te es*/ts of te +e&ision to tea%%o%iate to*& %oint s!stems ;&a// &entes +ie&t mai/ "e4 seves emai/

s!stems et&.< so tat te igt &*stomes e&eive te igt offes.

Ca//enges of CRM

It is 4e!on+ +o*4t tat a 4*siness oganisation ma! get a /ot of 4enefits "it te

im%/ementation of CRM s!stems. o"eve it as 4een evea/e+ 4! s*ve!s tat

ove (0 %e &ent of CRM s!stems +i+ not %o+*&e te es*/ts tat "ee %omise+

an+ '0 %e &ent of te 4*siness s*ve!e+ s*%%ote+ te fa&t tat CRM

im%/ementations a+ a&t*a//! +amage+ /ongstan+ing &*stome e/ationsi%s.

Sti// in anote s*ve! of senio management satisfa&tion "it '( managementtoo/s CRM an#e+ nea te 4ottom in *se satisfa&tion even to*g 2' %e &ent

ex%e&te+ to ave CRM s!stems im%/emente+ sot/! ;Rig4! '00'<. Te fai/*e o

+issatisfa&tion "it CRM s!stems &an 4e atti4*te+ I to te /a&# of

*n+estan+ing an+ %/anne+ im%/ementation of CRM s!stems. C*stome

so/*tions &annot 4e a*tomati& an+ geneate+ "it te 4*!ing of CRM s!stemsG

ate im%/ementation of s*& s!stems is %ossi4/e too*g %/anning an+ %o%e

taining of te *ses. CRM s!stems is a 4*siness stateg! fo "i& 4*siness

%o&ess e+esigning in sa/es ma#eting an+ &*stome sevi&e %o&esses ae

eB*ie+ t*s CRM s!stem is to 4e ega+e+ as a 4*siness tansfomation

%oe&t an+ not mee an IT a%%/i&ation. Te fo//o"ing CRM im%/ementation

fame"o# &an 4e a+o%te+ 4! te oganisations.

• Un+estan+ !o* 3*siness an+ C*stome: Ma#e an ana/!sis of te

sevi&es an+ %o+*&ts !o* "ant to offe to !o* &*stomeG an+ o" +oes

!o* &*stome *se !o* %o+*&ts an+ sevi&es@

• Do S?OT Ana/!sis: Un+estan+ !o* &om%an!=s stengtsG "ea#nessesG

o%%ot*nitiesG an+ teats in tems of sa/es ma#eting an+ sevi&es

infast*&t*e to a&B*ie s*%%ot an+ etain !o* &*stomes "it e/ation

to !o* &om%etitos.

• DeBne CRM S!stem Stateg! fo o* Oganisation: CRM stateg!

so*/+ 4e a/igne+ to !o* 4*siness stateg!. CRM s!stems so*/+ 4e

integate+ "it ote a%%/i&ations.• Ma#e o* Oganisation 3*siness Po&ess Reenginee Rea+!G ?i/e

e+esigning 4*siness %o&esses a+o%t a &*stome=s vie" not te %o+*&t

vie" &*stomes m*st not 4e at +isa+vantage 4e&a*se of 3PR of an

oganisation.

• P/an Im%/ementation of CRM S!stem: Im%/ementation of CRM S!stem

so*/+ not 4e ta#en as %ana&ea fo a// &*stome %o4/emsG te

im%/ementation of CRM s!stem m*st 4e a s/o" an+ taget4ase+ %o&ess.

S!stems so*/+ 4e im%/emente+ in in&ements ate tan in a geat

*! an+ in one go.

•

To% Management S*%%ot: CRM s!stems m*st get te s*%%ot fom teto% management on a &ontin*o*s 4asis.

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• Deve/o% a Pefoman&e S&oe&a+: /f !o* &an=t meas*e !o* "i// not 4e

a4/e to &onto/ an+ im%ove te %oe&t an+ t*s !o* m*st +eve/o%

&on&ete meas*ement goa/s so as to ens*e its s*&&ess.

;iii< S*%%/! Cain Management ;SCM<

S*%%/! Cain Management as 4e&ome in&easing/! im%otant in te /ast fe"!eas. SCM is no" ega+e+ as a &om%etitive too/ an+ is ega+e+ not mee a

te&no/og! iss*e ate a 4*siness stateg! tat &eates man! ne" an+

innovative o%%ot*nities fo oganisations. ?it te 4*siness %aa+igm sift

fom man*fa&t*ing to &*stome va/*e te B*estion is no /onge a4o*t

man*fa&t*ing &osts an+ %o+*&ing ig B*a/it! %o+*&tG ate te B*estion is

a4o*t +e/iveing te ne" va/*e %o%osition i.e. "at te &*stome "ants "en

e "ants an+ "ee it is "ante+ at te /o"est %ossi4/e &ost. Meeting tis

&a//enge entai/s a &am%aign tat 4esi+es %o&ess eengineeing B*a/it!

im%ovement et&. a/so eB*ies f*sing &om%an!=s intena/ s!stems to tose of its

s*%%/ies %atnes an+ &*stomes. T*s &om%anies eB*ie integation of tei

s!stems not on/! fom "itin 4*t a/so it as to go a ste% f*te an+ integate te

%o&esses "it te %o&esses of ote &om%anies. SCM s!stem is a moe o*t"a+

fa&ing fo&*ssing on e/%ing te oganisations e/ationsi% "it s*%%/ies.

In sim%/e tems SCM is managing te s*%%/! &ain. Te s*%%/! &ain is a

net"o# of oganiHations an+ 4*siness %o&esses fo %o&*ing mateia/s

tansfoming a" mateia/s into finise+ goo+s an+ +isti4*ting tese %o+*&ts

to te &*stomes.

Fig*e ,.6 %ota!s te &on&e%t of s*%%/! &ain.

S*%%/! &ain management s!stem is a &ossf*n&tiona/ inteente%ise s!stem

;invo/ving moe tan one oganisation< tat *ses infomation te&no/og! to e/%

s*%%ot an+ manage te /in#ages 4et"een &om%an!=s %o&esses invo/ve+ in

4*!ing ma#ing an+ moving a %o+*&t. It integates s*%%/ie man*fa&t*e

+isti4*to an+ &*stom /ogisti&s %o&esses to im%ove man*fa&t*ing effi&ien&!

an+ +isti4*tion effe&tiveness.S*%%/! &ain management s!stems ae +eve/o%e+ *sing Intenets Extanets o

s%e&ifie+ s*%%/! &ain management soft"ae. S*%%/! &ain management s!stems

&an %ovi+e te fo//o"ing 4enefits to te oganisations:

• Te oganisation "o*/+ 4e a4/e to +e&i+e "en an+ "at to %o+*&e

stoe an+ move.

• O+es &an 4e &omm*ni&ate+ B*i&#/!.

• Oganisations &an ta&# te stat*s of o+es.

• Invento! avai/a4i/it! &an 4e &e&#e+ an+ invento! /eve/s &an 4e

monitoe+.• Invento! tans%otation an+ "aeo*sing &osts &an 4e e+*&e+.

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• Si%ments &an 4e ta&#e+.

• Po+*&tion &an 4e %/anne+ 4ase+ on te a&t*a/ %/an.

• An! &anges in te %o+*&t +esign &an 4e &omm*ni&ate+ B*i&#/!.

Te 4asi& &om%onents of te s*%%/! &ain management s!stems ae so"n in

Fig. ,.2

Fig. ,.2 A T!%i&a/ SCM S!stem

Ca//enges of SCM

As SCM s!stems %ovi+e te &om%anies "it 4enefits of managing stategi&e/ationsi%s "it tei s*%%/ies 4esi+es ote 4enefits /i#e faste moe a&&*ate

o+e %o&essing e+*&tion in in vento! /eve/s /o"e tansa&tion an+ mateia/s

&osts et&. tese s!stems ae vie"e+ as a mao 4*siness stateg! 4! te

oganisations. Tese 4enefits of SCM ae main/! aime+ at e/%ing an

oganiHation a&ieve agi/it! an+ es%onsiveness in meeting te +eman+s of tei

&*stomes an+ te nee+s of tei 4*siness %atnes. o"eve +eve/o%ment of

SCM s!stems is a &om%/ex an+ +iffi&*/t a%%/i&ation of infomation te&no/og! to

4*siness %o&esses "i& %oses a n*m4e of &a//enges. Oganisations 4efoe

%/anning fo SCM s!stems m*st *n+estan+ te &a*ses of %o4/ems in s*%%/!

&ain management. Sevea/ easons ma! 4e atti4*te+ to s*& %o4/ems. Fo

exam%/e a /a&# of %o%e +eman+ %/anning #no"/e+ge too/s an+ g*i+e/ines is amao so*&e of SCM fai/*e. Deman+ foe&asts "i& ae not a&&*ate "i//

/ea+ to mao %o+*&tion invento! an+ ote 4*siness %o4/ems. In&onsistent o

"ong +ata +*e to /a&# of integation "it ERP of te oganisation is anote

&ommon &a*se of SCM %o4/ems. Simi/a/! /a&# of a+eB*ate &o//a4oation

among ma#eting %o+*&tion an+ invento! "itin a &om%an! an+ "it

s*%%/ies +isti4*tos an+ otes "i// a+vese/! affe&t SCM s!stem.

Te fo//o"ing SCM im%/ementation fame"o# s*ggesting g*i+ing ste%s &an 4e

a+o%te+ 4! te oganisation.

• Un+estan+ o* 3*siness an+ S*%%/ie: Ma#e an ana/!sis of te /in#agesof te s*%%/! &ain of !o* oganisation an+ *n+estan+ "at is eB*ie+

o*t of !o* s*%%/! &ain.

• DeBne SCM S!stem Stateg! fo o* Oganisation: SCM S!stem

stateg! m*st 4e a/igne+ to !o* 4*siness stateg!. SCM s!stems ae

inteente%ise s!stems an+ en&e m*st 4e f*se+ "it te SCM s!stems

of !o* s*%%/ies= s!stems.

• Ma#e o* Oganisation 3*siness Po&ess Reenginee Rea+!: In te

%o&ess of SCM s!stems man! %o&esses of te oganisations ae eB*ie+

to 4e e+esigne+ an+ a %o%e ea+iness of te oganisation fo te same is

eB*ie+.

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• P/an Im%/ementation of SCM S!stem: Te im%/ementation of SCM

s!stem so*/+ 4e %/anne+ an+ ma+e &/ea to ea& %eson invo/ve+ in te

SCM %o&ess.

• To% Management S*%%ot: SCM s!stem in o+e to 4e s*&&essf*/ m*st

4e %ovi+e+ to% management s*%%ot.

• Deve/o% a Pefoman&e S&oe&a+: Even 4efoe te im%/ementation of

SCM s!stem stats s*%%/! &ain meas*ement iss*es so*/+ 4e

*n+estoo+ "it te se/e&te+ s*%%/ie of SCM s!stem.

,.$ eCOMMERCE

eComme&e to+a! is not *st 4*!ing an+ se//ing %o+*&ts on/ine as it "as

%e&eive+ a fe" !eas 4efoeG it ate en&om%asses te entie on/ine %o&ess of

+eve/o%ing ma#eting se//ing +e/iveing sevi&ing an+ %a!ing fo %o+*&ts an+

sevi&es tansa&te+ to*g te Intenet. EComme&e 4oa+/! in&/*+es te

fo//o"ing tas#s:

•

Povi+ing infomation a4o*t a %o+*&t F• Defining te eB*iements of te &*stome

• Pefoming te %*&ase tansa&tion.

• E/e&toni& +e/ive! of te %o+*&t ;fo exam%/e soft"ae m*si& vi+eo o

an! infomation4ase+ %o+*&t<

• Povi+ing &*stome sevi&e e/e&toni&a//!.

It is te Intenet "i& as 4een te mao +iving fo&e to ma#e eComme&e

%ossi4/e. To*g eComme&e %ovi+es a n*m4e of 4enefits to te &om%anies

sti// maoit! of te &omme&ia/ tansa&tions ta#e %/a&e to*g te ta+itiona/

&anne/s. eComme&e as &ome a /ong "a! in te /ast +e&a+e 4*t tee is sti// a

/ong "a! to go. Te fai/*e of te +ot.&om &om%anies in mi+'000 +oes not mean

an en+ of eComme&eG ate &om%anies ave /eane+ a /ot a4o*t te %a&ti&a/

/imitations of eComme&e. To+a! a /age n*m4e of &om%anies sma// an+ /age

ae *sing some fom of eComme&e a&tivities. It is mat*ing an+ evo/ving to

ena4/e &ons*mes an+ &om%anies to gain a&&ess to "o/+"i+e ma#ets. e

Comme&e is a/so *se+ to e+*&e tansa&tion &osts im%ove &*stome sevi&es

s%ee+ *% te f/o" of infomation an+ enan&e &oo+ination among

man*fa&t*es s*%%/ies an+ &*stomes. Te n*m4e of eComme&e *ses an+

te vo/*me of sa/es via Intenet ae in&easing in te +eve/o%e+ as "e// as in te

+eve/o%ing &o*nties.

,.$.1 Categoies of eComme&e

On te 4asis of te nat*e of te %ati&i%ants in te eComme&e tansa&tions e

Comme&e a%%/i&ations ae +ivi+e+ into tee mao &ategoies:

;i< 3*sinesstoCons*me ;3CK eConHme&e: In tis t!%e of eComme&e

&ons*mes +ea/ +ie&t/! "it an oganisation an+ t*s tee ae no

inteme+iaies exam%/e: AmaHon.&om.

;ii< 3*sinessto3*siness ;33< eComme&e: In 3'3 eComme&e te

%ati&i%ants ae oganisations exam%/e: Neofoma.&om.

;iii< Cons*metoCons*me ;CC< eComme&e: Tis &atego! of e

Comme&e invo/ves &ons*mes se//ing +ie&t/! to ote &ons*mes.

C*stomes 4*! an+ se// items +ie&t/! fom ea& ote to*g te"e4site exam%/e: e3a!.&om "i& is a /age "e4 a*&tion site tat a//o"s

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%eo%/e to se// tei goo+s to ote &ons*mes 4! a*&tioning te

me&an+ise off to te igest 4i++e.

3esi+es tese tee main &ategoies of eComme&e 3*sinessto9ovemment

;39< an+ e9ovenment a%%/i&ations a/so a%%/! &on&e%t of eComme&e.

?it te a+van&es in &omm*ni&ation te&no/og! "e4sites &an 4e a&&esse+

to*g &e// %ones an+ ote "ie/ess an+e/+ +igita/ a%%/ian&es. Te *se of

an+e/+ "ie/ess +evi&es fo %*&asing goo+s an+ sevi&es is #no"n as mo4i/e

Comme&e o mComme&e.

,.$.' eComme&e Sa/es Life C!&/e ;ESLC< Mo+e/

eComme&e Sa/es Life C!&/e ;ESLC< Mo+e/ +e%i&ts vaio*s stages in te sa/es

/ife &!&/e a &*stome *n+egoes an+ eComme&e s!stem s*%%ots ea& of tese

stages. In ote "o+s ELSC mo+e/ +es&i4es te &*stome %es%e&tive fo te

%*&ases of an item ove te Intenet. T!%i&a//! a &*stome %asses to*g te

fo//o"ing stages:;i< Seaeing fo te item

;ii< Se/e&tion an+ negotiation

;iii< P*&asing

;iv<Po+*&t an+ sevi&e +e/ive!

;v< Afte sa/es sevi&e

Fig*e ,., +e%i&ts ESLC mo+e/ +iagammati&a//!.

Let *s +is&*ss in 4ief ea& stage of ESLC mo+e/. Se*&in o te Item: In tis

sta e te &*stome "i// seae fo te e *ie+ items. e, ) 5 "i// /og on to te

Intenet an+ visit te "e4sites of vaio*s s*%%/ies. Fom te s*%%/ie=some

%age te &*stome &an a&&ess a %o+*&t &ata/og an+ &an seae te eB*ie+

item.

;ii< Se/e&tion an+ Negotiation: Afte te eB*ie+ items ae seaee+ on te

Intenet te &*stome fi//s o*t a eB*estfoB*otation fom 4! enteing

te item &o+es an+ B*antities nee+e+. Te fi//e+ o*t e *estfoa*otationis entetaine+ 4 te s* /ie=s "e4 a /i&ation an+ it *otes te %i&e of te

se/e&te+ items a/ong "it ote tems. Afte te B*otations ae e&eive+

te

Fig. ,., eComme&e Sa/es Life C!&/e

&*stome examines tem an+ se/e&ts te item;s< 4! &/i&#ing on te eB*estfo

B*otation fom. Te &*stome a/so s%e&ifies te +e/ive! +ate. In a++ition to

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%i&e te &*stome ma! /i#e to &onsi+e an item=s B*a/it! an+ te s*%%/ie=s

sevi&e an+ s%ee+ of +e/ive! in se/e&tion an+ negotiation.

;iii< P*&asing: aving se/e&te+ te eB*ie+ item an+ negotiate+ fo

it te &*stome &om%/etes te %*&ase o+e 4! sen+ing a &om%/ete+

e/e&toni& fom to te s*%%/ie. D*ing tis stage a &*stome ma! 4e

eB*ie+ to %a! e/e&toni&a//! to*g te &*ston1e=s &e+it &a+.Com%anies ta#e exta &ae to avoi+ e/e&toni& &as tansa&tions fa*+ an+

t*s *se Se&*e E/e&toni& Tansa&tions ;SET<G an+ Se&*e So&#ets La!e

;SSL< &omm*ni&ations %oto&o/s. Tese an+ man! ote se&*it!

%o&e+*es ma#e %*&asing on te Intenet eas! an+ safe.

;iv<Po+*&t an+ Sevi&e De/ive!: Man! %o+*&ts /i#e soft"ae m*si&

%i&t*es an+ "itten mateia/s &an 4e +e/ivee+ *sing Intenet. Te

&*stome &an +o"n/oa+ tese %o+*&ts +ie&t/! on tei &om%*tes.

o"eve most of te %o+*&ts &annot 4e +e/ivee+ ove te Intenet so

te! ae +e/ivee+ in a ta+itiona/ meto+s /i#e &o*ie mai/ 4! ai o 4!

oa+. Po+*&t +e/ive! ma! eite 4e 4! te &om%an! o it ma! 4e

o*tso*&e+. In te &ase of o*tso*&ing a &*stome o+es fo a %ati&*/a%o+*&t to a &om%an! 4*t te infomation fo te +is%at& of te o+ee+

%o+*&t is sent +ie&t/! to te ti+ %at! fom "ee te %o+*&t is

+e/ivee+ to te &*stome.

;v< AfteSa/es Sevi&es: Man! aftesa/es B*estions ae ans"ee+ to*g te

"e4sites of te &om%anies. M*& of te infomation /i#e o" to maintain

a %ie&e of eB*i%ment o" to *se te %o+*&t e%ai sevi&es *n+e

"aant! et&. &an 4e o4taine+ fom te "e4sites. To &on&/*+e ESLC

mo+e/ a+vo&ates tat a// stages of te Sa/es Life C!&/e so*/+ 4e

s*%%ote+ 4! te eComme&e s!stem of te &om%an!.

,.$.$ eComme&e Infast*&t*e

eCon1ne&e te&no/og! infast*&t*e is te #e! t0 s*&&essf*/ eComme&e. A

4ief ovevie" of te #e! te&no/og! infast*&t*e is given as 4e/o":

a+"ae

A "e4seve a+"ae %/atfom is one of te main eComme&e te&no/og!

infast*&t*e &om%onents. Te vaio*s feat*es of te "e4^seve /i#e te

stoage &a%a&it! an+ &om%*ting %o"e et&. +e%en+ *%on te soft"ae tat *ns

on te seve an+ te vo/*me of te eComme&e tansa&tions to 4e %o&esse+

Man! a times tese eB*iements ae not exa&t/! #no"n in a+van&e en&e te e

Comme&e so/*tions ae +esigne+ to 4e ig/! s&a/a4/e so tat te! &an 4e*%ga+e+ to meet te eB*iements. In some &ases te &om%anies ma! a&B*ie

te /ease sevi&es fom te ti+ %aties fo te eComme&e "e4 seve. Te

&om%anies ma! +e&i+e #ee%ing in vie" te meits an+ +emeits of 4ot o%tions.

Te main g*i+ing %in&i%/e emains tat tee m*st 4e a+eB*ate a+"ae

4a&#*% to avoi+ a mao 4*siness +is*%tion in &ase of a fai/*e of te %ima!

"e4 seve.

Soft"ae

Soft"ae fo eComme&e &an 4e go*%e+ in t"o %ats:

a< ?e4seve Soft"ae

4< eComme&e Soft"ae

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;a< ?e4seve Soft"ae

To %efom a /age n*m4e of f*n&tions /i#e se&*it! an+ i+entifi&ation etieva/

an+ sen+ing of "e4 %ages "e4site ta&#ing "e4site +eve/o%ment an+ "e4 %age

+eve/o%ment te "e4site m*st ave "e4seve soft"ae. Tis soft"ae is nee+e+

in a++ition to te "e4seve o%eating s!stem.

Fig. ,.- eComme&e Infast*&t*e

;4< eComme&e Soft"oe

aving /o&ate+ o 4*i/t a ost seve one &an stat to investigate an+ insta// e

Comme&e soft"ae. eComme&e soft"ae m*st s*%%ot te fo//o"ing

%o&esses:

;i< Cata/og Management

;ii< Po+*&t Config*ation;iii< Si%%ing Cat

;iv< eComme&e Tansa&tion Po&essing an+

;v< ?e4 Taffi& Data Ana/!sis.

Cata/og Management is eB*ie+ to +e/ive &*stomise+ &ontent to te *se=s

s&een. Cata/og management soft"ae &om4ines +iffeent %o+*&t +ata fomats

into a stan+a+ fomat fo *nifom vie"ing aggegating an+ integating &ata/og

+ata into a &enta/ e%osito!. Po+*&t Config*ation %o&ess s*%%ots "e4

4ase+ &*stome se/fsevi&e an+ te mass &*stomisation of a &om%an!=s

%o+*&t. ?e44ase+ %o+*&t &onfig*ation soft"ae is *se+ to 4*i/+ te eB*ie+

%o+*&t on/ine "ito*t an! e/% fom sa/es %eson. Fo exam%/e 4ot De//

Com%*tes an+ CISCO S!stems *se &onfig*ation soft"ae to se// 4*i/+too+e

an+ net"o# %o&essos to tei on/ine &*stomes. So%%ing Cat is a mo+e/

"i& is &ommon/! *se+ 4! man! eComme&e sites to ta&# te items se/e&te+ to

%*&ase a//o"ing te 4*!es to vie" "at is in tei &at a++ ne" items to it

an+ emove te items fom it. To o+e an item te 4*!e is eB*ie+ to &/i&#

tat item. C/i&#ing te &e&#o*t 4*tton +is%/a!s anote s&een tat *s*a//! as#s

te 4*!e to fi// o*t 4i//ing si%%ing an+ %a!ment +etai/s an+ to &onfim te

o+e. eComme&e Tansa&tion Po&essing is eB*ie+ to *n+eta#e te

%o&essing of +ata e&eive+ fom te so%%ing &at an+ to &a/&*/ate te &ost. e

Comme&e tansa&tion %o&essing soft"ae &a/&*/ates te tota/ &ost 4esi+es

&onne&ting %ati&i%ants in te eComme&e tansa&tion. ?e4 Taf& DataAna/!sis is eB*ie+ to ana/!se a// te +ata &a%t*e+ in te "e4 /og fi/e. Tis

ana/!sis is *sef*/ to im%ove "e4site %efoman&e. ?e4site taffi& +ata ana/!sis

soft"ae %o&esses an+ ana/!ses +ata fom te "e4 /og fi/e to %ovi+e *sef*/

infomation to im%ove "e4site %efoman&e.

,.$.) eComme&e A%%/i&ations

eComme&e fin+s its a%%/i&ations in +ivese aeas of 4*siness /i#e etai/ an+

"o/esa/e man*fa&t*ing ma#eting finan&e et&. 9iven 4e/o" is a 4ief

+es&i%tion of eComme&e a%%/i&ations in vaio*s aeas.

;i< Retai/ an+ ?o/esa/e

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Tee ae a /age n*m4e of eComme&e a%%/i&ations in etai/ an+ "o/esa/e. e

Tai/ing is a %o%*/a tem 4eing *se+ fo on/ine etai/ing. It is a +ie&t sa/e fom

4*siness to &ons*me to*g e/e&toni& stoefonts "i& ae +esigne+ *sing

e/e&toni& &ata/og an+ so%%ing &at mo+e/. Tee ae n*meo*s e/e&toni& etai/

"e4sites se//ing +ie&t/! to te &ons*mes. C!4ema// anote "a! to s*%%ot e

tai/ing is a sing/e "e4site tat offes man! %o+*&ts an+ sevi&es at one "e4/o&ation.

An Intenet &!4ema// atta&ts m*/ti%/e 4*!es an+ se//es togete into one

vit*a/ s%a&e to*g a "e4 4o"se. Simi/a/! eComme&e sites ae *se+ in te

"o/esa/e 4*!ing an+ se//ing 4! te &om%anies.

;ii< Ma#eting

eComme&e &an a/so 4e *se+ in ma#eting. Li#e &o//e&tion of +ata a4o*t

&*stome 4eavio* tei %efeen&es nee+s an+ 4*!ing %attens to*g te

"e4 an+ eComme&e tansa&tions. Te ana/!sis of s*& infomation &an 4e *se+

in ma#eting a&tivities /i#e %i&e fixation negotiations tai/o %omotions

%o+*&t feat*e enan&ement an+ e/ationsi% "it te &*stomes. Fo exam%/e+o*4Ie &/i&#= an Intenet a+vetising &om%an! /eveages te&no/og! an+

me+ia ex%etise to e/% a+vetises *se te %o"e of te "e4 to 4*i/+ e/ationsi%

"it te &*stomes.

;iii< Finan&e

No"a+a!s a /age n*m4e of eComme&e a%%/i&ations ae a/so fo*n+ in te aea

of finan&e. Finan&ia/ &om%anies ae a%%/!ing eComme&e in a 4ig "a!. On/ine

4an#ing ena4/e+ te &*stomes to &e&# 4a/an&es of tei saving an+ /oan

a&&o*nts tansfe mone! to ote a&&o*nts o+e fo &e&#4oo#s +eman+

+afts on/ine %a! tei 4i// to*g e3an#ing. On/ine sto&# ta+ing is anote

im%otant a%%/i&ation of eComme&e in te finan&ia/ sto&#. Man! sites %ovi+e

a&&ess to ne"s &ats Com%an! %ofi/es an+ ana/!st atings on te sto&#s.

;iv< Man*fa&t*ing

eComme&e is a/so 4eing a%%/ie+ in s*%%/! &ain o%eations of a &om%an!. Some

of te &om%anies &an fom an e/e&toni& ex&ange 4! giving togete 4*! an+ se//

goo+s ta+e ma#et infomation an+ *n 4a&# offi&e o%eations s*& as

invento! &onto/. Tis a%%oa& &an s%ee+ *% te f/o" of a" mateia/ an+

finise+ %o+*&ts among te mem4es of te 4*siness &omm*nit! an+ tis "i//

e+*&e te invento! "i& is eB*ie+ to 4e maintaine+ 4! te &om%an!.

o"eve tis mo+e/ as its o"n /imitations as tee ma! 4e vaio*s iss*ese/ating to stategi& an+ &om%etitive iss*es.

Man! &om%anies ma! not t*st tei &om%etitos an+ ma! fea tat te! ma!

/ose ta+e se&ets to*g %ati&i%ation in s*& e/e&toni& ex&anges.

;v< A*&tions

CC "i& is +ie&t/! se//ing among &*stomes in&/*+ing e/e&toni& a*&tions is

anote a%%/i&ation of eComme&e. 3i++ing "i& is a s%e&ia/ t!%e of a*&tion

a//o"s %os%e&tive 4*!es to %/a&e a 4i+ fo an item o sevi&e. Fo exam%/e

ai/ine &om%anies no"a+a!s as# &ons*mes to B*ote tei %i&e fo a seat on a

s%e&ifi& o*te on s%e&ifie+ +ate an+ time.

,.$.( E/e&toni& Pa!ment S!stems

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One of te main teats to eComme&e as 4een %a!ments to*g Intenet.

?it man! in&i+ents of &om%*te &imina/s &a%t*ing +ata a4o*t &e+it &a+

n*m4es on/ine te &*stomes 4e&ome s*s%i&io*s a4o*t mone! tansa&tions.

o"eve &*ent eComme&e te&no/og! as a+van&e+ to a geat extent an+

to+a! it %ovi+es man! safeg*a+s in tems of *se i+entifi&ations an+

en&!%tion.Pa!ments ae ma+e in a n*m4e of +iffeent mo+es /i#e e/e&toni& &asG

e/e&toni& "a//etsG smat &a+G &e+it &a+G an+ +e4it &a+ et&. 3efoe "e +is&*ss

vaio*s meto+s of on/ine %a!ments /et *s 4ief/! +is&*ss te te&no/og!

invo/ve+ in eComme&e %a!ment. It m*st 4e &/ea/! *n+estoo+ tat tee is no

a4so/*te se&*it! on te Intenet. o"eve te 4ette !o* se&*it! te geate

te &a//enge to te %eo%/e "o invo/ve temse/ves in te 4ea& of te se&*it!.

A*tenti&ation te&no/og! e/%s an oganisation to &onfim te i+entit! of a

*seeB*esting a&&ess to infomation.

Te i+entif! of a sen+e o of a "e4site is veifie+ 4! a +igita/ &etifi&ate iss*e+

4! a ti+ %at! &om%an! "i& is sent as an atta&ment to an emai/ message o+ata em4e++e+ in a "e4site. Te &etif!ing a*toit! %ovi+es a g*aantee tat

te in+ivi+*a/s o oganisations gante+ tese *niB*e &etifi&ations ae in fa&t

"o te! &/aim to 4e. In ote "o+s +igita/ &etifi&ates a&t as a t*st 4*i/+ing

agents in te tansa&tion "i& veifies te i+entities of 4ot te %*&ases as

"e// as te s*%%/ies.

Se&*e So&#et La!e ;SSL< &omm*ni&ation %oto&o/ is anote Intenet

te&no/og! *se+ to se&*e sensitive +ata. Tis %oto&o/ sits a4ove te TCP /a!e

of te OSI mo+e/ an+ ote %oto&o/s s*& as TeInet an+ TTP &an 4e /a!ee+

on to% of it. SSL in&/*+es a an+sa#e stage "i& a*tenti&ates te seve an+

te &/ient +etemines te en&!%tion an+ asing a/goitms to e *se+ an+

ex&anges en&!%tion #e!s. Te an+sa#e ma! *se %*4/i& #e! en&!%tion. Data

tansfe tat is a/"a!s en&!%te+ ta#es %/a&e afte te an+sa#e stage is

&om%/ete. Tis %events te tansa&tion fom an! inte&e%tion 4! an! fa*+*/ent

%eson. Diffeent Intenet 4o"ses *se tei +iffeent s!m4o/s to +enote a se&*e

site Some "e4sites /i#e net&aft.&om %ovi+e te infomation a4o*t te se&*it!

on te "e4site. Let *s no" 4ief/! +is&*ss a4o*t te meto+s of te on/ine

%a!ments.

;i< E/e&toni& C*s

E/e&toni& Cas is /i#e a a+ &as "i& &an 4e *se+ fo on/ine %a!ments. Foe/e&toni& &as a &*stome nee+s to o%en an a&&o*nt "it a 4an# afte %oving

ise i+entit!. In o+e to "it+a" &as te &*stome a&&esses te 4an#

to*g te Intenet an+ %esents a %oof of i+entit! in tems of te +igita/

&etifi&ate iss*e+ 4! a &etifi&ation a*toit!. Afte te 4an# veifies te

&*stome=s i+entit! it iss*es te e/e&toni& &as "i& &an 4e stoe+ in te

&*stome=s e/e&toni& "a//et on is e &om%*te=s a+ +ive o on a smat

&a+. Tis &as &an 4e *se+ 4! te &*stome fo tei e/e&toni& tansa&tions on

tose "e4sites "i& a&&e%t e/e&toni& &as fo %a!ments. On&e te goo+s o

sevi&es ae +e/ivee+ to te &*stome te se//e %esents te e/e&toni& &as to

te iss*ing 4an# fo %a!ments.

;ii< E/e&toni& ?o//efs

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E/e&toni& ?a//et is a &om%*teise+ stoe+ va/*e tat o/+s &e+it &a+

infomation e/e&toni& &as o"ne i+entifi&ation an+ a++ess infomation. It is a

&onvenient meto+ fo te &*stomes "o "ant to %*&ase items on/ine.It

%ovi+es a// &*stomes= infomation on an eComme&e site=s &e&#o*t &o*nte.

Instea+ of enteing a// +etai/s a4o*t %a!ments te &*stome &/i&#s on te items to

4e %*&ase+ an+ on tei e/e&toni& "a//et.

;iii< Ca+s

Ca+s ae te most %o%*/a me+ia fo on/ine 4*!es A &e+it &a+ s*& as visa

o Maste &a+ as a %e+efine+ s%en+ing /imit 4ase+ on te &e+it /imit a//o"e+

to a *se. Te *se %a!s off +*e amo*nt a/ong "it inteest ;as %e te tems< to

te 4an#. A &age &a+ s*& as Amei&an Ex%ess &aies no %e+efine+

s%en+ing /imit an+ te entie amo*nt &age+ to te &a+ is +*e at te en+ of te

4i//ing %eio+. De4it &a+s ae anote mo+e of %a!ments on te Intenet. De4it

&a+s o%eate /i#e &as o a %esona/ &eB*e. De4it &a+ "i& "o#s on te

%i/oso%! 4*! no" %a! no"= a//o"s a &*stome to s%en+ on/! "at is in ise

4an# a&&o*nt. As an+ "en +e4it &a+ is *se+ te mone! is +e+*&te+ fom te&*stome=s a&&o*nt. Tese &a+s ave a magneti& sti% in "i& %esona/

infomation is ea+ ea& time te &a+ is s"i%e+ to ma#e a %*&ase. A smat

&a+ on te ote an+ as an em4e++e+ mi&o&i% tat %ovi+es e/e&toni&

memo! an+ %o&essing &a%a4i/it!. Smat &a+s &an 4e *se+ fo a vaiet! of

%*%oses /i#e &e+it &a+ n*m4e ea/t ins*an&e +ata *se=s finan&ia/

infomation net"o# i+entifi&ation &o+es an+ %ass"o+s et&. Smat &a+s ae

4ette %ote&te+ fom fa*+ tan ote &a+ 4e&a*se of te smat &a+

infomation is en&!%te+ an+ a #e! to *n/o&# te en&!%te+ infomation is

eB*ie+ to *se smat &a+. Moeove tee is no extena/ n*m4e an+ no

%!si&a/ signat*es on te fa&e of te smat &a+ as is in te &ase of ote &a+s

"i& ma#es a smat &a+ safe.

,.$.6 Management Ca//enges an+ O%%ot*nities

Tee is no +en!ing te fa&t tat Intenet te&no/og! as %ovi+e+ am%/e

o%%ot*nities an+ "a!s of +oing 4*siness e/e&toni&a//!G o"eve it a/so %oses a

n*m4e of &a//enges "i& ae ta#en as teats to eComme&e. Let *s 4ief/!

+is&*ss some of tese &a//enges.

Ne" 3*siness Mo+e/

Te mi++/e of '000 as seen a s*++en fa// of +ot &om &om%anies "i& is teme+

as 4*44/e 4*st=. Doing 4*siness ove te Intenet is not ne&essai/! moeeffi&ient o &ost effe&tive tan ta+itiona/ 4*siness mo+e/s. On/ine etai/es ma!

not nee+ to %a! fo &ost/! stoefonts an+ etai/ "o#es 4*t te! eB*ie eav!

o*t/a!s fo "aeo*sing &*stome sevi&e &a// &entes an+ &*stome a&B*isition.

Ca//enges a/so &onfont 4*sinesses tat ae t!ing to *se te "e4 to s*%%/ement

o enan&e a ta+itiona/ 4*siness mo+e/. 3*sinesses tat ae *n&/ea a4o*t tei

on/ine stateg! an+ its e/ationsi% to tei ovea// 4*siness stateg! &an "aste

to*san+s an+ even mi//ions of +o//as 4*i/+ing an+ maintaining a "e4site tat

fai/s to +e/ive te +esie+ es*/ts ;Pin#e Sei+mann an+ > Foste '00'< In ote

"o+s te 4*siness mo+e/s "i& ae 4eing *se+ fo eComme&e ae !et to

%ove tei "ot.

ReB*ie+ Canges in 3*siness Po&esses

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In o+e to im%/ement eComme&e a%%/i&ations oganisations nee+ to e+esign

tei 4*siness %o&esses. Oganisations "o*/+ a/so nee+ "e//+efine+ %o/i&ies an+

%o&e+*es fo saing +ata "it ote oganisations.

Canne/ Conf/i&ts

?it te eComme&e a%%/i&ations in %/a&e tee is /i#e/ioo+ of &anne/&onf/i&ts. Te sa/es fo&e an+ +isti4*tos ma! fea te /oss of tei even*es as a

es*/t of +ie&t 4*!ing of te %o+*&t 4! te 4*!es.

Lega/ an+ Reg*/ato! Envionment fo eComme&e

One of te geatest &a//enges of eComme&e is te an+/ing of /ega/ iss*es. Te

/a"s govening eComme&e ae !et to 4e esta4/ise+. Te iss*es %etaining to

/ega/ va/i+it! of emai/ &onta&ts te o/e of e/e&toni& signat*es an+ te

a%%/i&ation of &o%!igt /a"s to e/e&toni&a//! &o%ie+ +o&*ments et&. is sti// a

ge! aea. Te Intenet 4eing g/o4a/ is 4eing *se+ 4! +iffeent %esons in

+iffeent &o*nties "i& &an 4e ex%/oite+ 4! te &om%anies. Fo exam%/e if an!

goo+ is offee+ fo sa/e in In+ia via a seve in USA to a %*&ase in Fan&e it isa &om%/ex sit*ation in /a" as 4asi& B*estion is "ose /a" "o*/+ a%%/!@ Fo te

/ega/ an+ eg*/ato! envionment to get esta4/ise+ ma! ta#e a /ong time.

Se&*it! an+ Piva&!

Te iss*e of se&*it! an+ %iva&! is !et anote &a//enge to te go"t of e

Comme&e. 3e&a*se of man! in&i+ents of fa*+ on te Intenet &*stomes fea

a4o*t te se&*it! an+ &onfi+entia/it! of te &e+it &a+ an+ ote %esona/ +ata

tat te! ae eB*ie+ to %ovi+e fo te eComme&e tansa&tion an+ tis /ea+s

to /a&# of t*st among 4*!es se//es an+ ote %atnes invo/ve+ in e

Comme&e.

Mon&gei*/ O%%ot*nities

eComme&e %ovi+es am%/e o%%ot*nities to te oganisations. Manages &an

get man! a+vantages "it te *se of tis te&no/og!. Fo exam%/e te! &an

+esign ne" 4*siness %o&esses esta4/is ne" e/ationsi%s "it te

oganisation=s &*stomes an+ s*%%/ies an+ &ome o*t even "it ne" 4*siness

+esigns.

Te Intenet &an geat/! e+*&e tansa&tion &ostG ex&ange %*&ase an+ sa/es

tansa&tions +ie&t/! "it &*stomes an+ s*%%/ies t*s e/iminating ineffi&ient

inteme+iaies. Oganisationa/ &omm*ni&ation an+ &oo+ination &an 4e ma+emoe effi&ient "it eComme&e te&no/ogies.

SUMMAR

Te a+vent of Intenet te&no/ogies as ea//! evo/*tionise+ te 4*siness "o/+

to+a!. Intenet is esa%ing te "a! infomation s!stems ae 4eing *se+ in

4*siness. eComme&e is te %o&ess of 4*!ing an+ se//ing goo+s an+ sevi&es

e/e&toni&a//! "eeas e3*siness is a m*& 4oa+e &on&e%t. e3*siness in

a++ition to en&om%assing eComme&e in&/*+es 4ot font an+ 4a&# offi&e

a%%/i&ations tat +ive te mo+en 4*siness. In ote "o+s e3*siness is te *se

of te infomation te&no/ogies to s*%%ot e/e&toni& &omme&e ente%ise

&omm*ni&ations an+ &o//a4oations an+ "e4ena4/e+ 4*siness %o&esses 4ot"itin a net"o#e+ ente%ise an+ "it its sta#eo/+es. Fo exam%/e &oss

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f*n&tiona/ ente%ise s!stems /i#e Ente%ise Reso*&e P/anning ;ERP< S*%%/!

Cain Management ;SCM< C*stome Re/ationsi% Management ;CRM< an+

F*n&tiona/ infomation s!stems. ERP s!stem is an ente%ise"i+e fame"o#

in&/*+ing Sa/es an+ Ma#etingG Po+*&tion an+ Invento! Management

A&&o*nts an+ Finan&e *man Reso*&es et&.

C*stome e/ationsi% management ;CRM< is +efine+ as an integate+ sa/esma#eting an+ sevi&e stateg! tat fo&*ses on managing a// te "a!s tat an

oganisation +ea/s "it its existing an+ %otentia/ ne" &*stomes. It *ses

infomation te&no/og! to &eate a &ossf*n&tiona/ ente%ise s!stem tat

integates an+ a*tomates man! of te &*stomee/ate+ %o&esses in sa/es

ma#eting an+ &*stome sevi&es. Te goa/ of eCRM is to seve te same

essentia/ %*%ose of &*stome sevi&e in an! 4*siness. Tat is *n+estan+ "o

te &*stomes ae an+ "at +o te! "ant. Te &a//enge fo e3*siness is to

B*i&#/! mege te infomation fom a vaiet! of +ivese so*&es into a sa/es fo&e

tat &an %ovi+e te &*stome "it te &omfots of so%%ing envionment "it

"i& te! ae a/ea+! fami/ia.

S*%%/! Cain Management ;SCM< s!stem is a &ossf*n&tiona/ inteente%ise

s!stem ;invo/ving moe tan one oganisation< tat *ses infomation te&no/og!

to e/% s*%%ot an+ manage te /in#ages 4et"een &om%an!=s %o&esses invo/ve+

in 4*!ing ma#ing an+ moving a %o+*&t. It integates s*%%/ie man*fa&t*e

+isti4*to an+ &*stom /ogisti&s %o&esses to im%ove man*fa&t*ing effi&ien&!

an+ +isti4*tion effe&tiveness.

S*%%/! Cain Management S!stems ae +eve/o%e+ *sing Intenets extanets o

s%e&ifie+ s*%%/! &ain management soft"ae. eComme&e is not *st 4*!ing an+

se//ing %o+*&ts on/ineG it ate en&om%asses te entie on/ine %o&ess of

+eve/o%ing ma#eting se//ing +e/iveing sevi&ing an+ %a!ing fo %o+*&ts an+

sevi&es tansa&te+ to*g te Intenet. eComme&e Sa/es Life C!&/e ;ESLC<

Mo+e/ +e%i&ts vaio*s stages in te Sa/es Life C!&/e a &*stome *n+egoes an+ e

Comme&e s!stem s*%%ots ea& of tese I stages. In ote "a!s ELSC mo+e/

+es&i4es te &*stome %es%e&tive fo te %*&ases of an item ove te

Intenet. eComme&e te&no/og! infast*&t*e is te #e! to s*&&essf*/ e

Comme&e. T*s oganisations so*/+ ta#e &ae of a+"ae soft"ae an+ e

Comme&e soft"ae.

One of te main teats to eComme&e as 4een te %a!ments to*g Intenet.

?it man! in&i+ents of &om%*te &imina/s &a%t*ing +ata a4o*t &e+it &a+n*m4es on/ine te &*stomes 4e&ome s*s%i&io*s a4o*t mone! tansa&tions.

o"eve &*ent eComme&e te&no/og! as a+van&e+ to a geat extent an+ it

%ovi+es man! safeg*a+s in tems of *se i+entifi&ations an+ en&!%tion. e

Comme&e %ovi+es am%/e o%%ot*nities an+ "a!s of +oing 4*siness

e/e&toni&a//!G o"eve tee ae man! &a//enges "i& %ose a n*m4e of

%otentia/ teats to eComme&e.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

1. Diffeentiate 4et"een eComme&e an+ e3*siness. Dis&*ss a fe"

a%%/i&ations of e3*siness.

'. ?at is Ente%ise Reso*&e P/anning S!stem@ Dis&*ss te Con&e%t an+Ca//enge of ERR

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-

De&isionMa#ing an+

De&ision S*%%ot S!stem

Leaning O4e&tives

Afte st*+!ing te &a%te !o* "i// 4e a4/e to:

• *n+estan+ te &on&e%t a%%/i&ation an+ te&no/og! of DSSG

• *n+estan+ te &on&e%t of +e&ision`m#ing an+ i+entit! te &ategoies ot

s%e&ifi& +e&isions !o* ma#eG

• +es&i4e vaio*s meto+s fo &oosing omong a/tenativesG

• a%%e&iate te e/evan&e an+ o/e of infomation an+ tat of MIS in

+e&isionma#ing.

?i/e *n+estan+ing Management as a &om%onent of management infomation

s!stem "e ave a+vo&ate+ tat +e&isionma#ing is te essen&e of management.

In ote "o+s "ateve a manage +oes in an oganisation ese +oes it

to*g +e&isionma#ing. Tat is "! +e&isionma#ing is ega+e+ as te &oe of

manageia/ f*n&tions. MIS assists eve! manage+e&isionma#e in %ovi+ingte eB*ie+ infomation "i& is vita/ an+ an essentia/ in%*t in an! #in+ of

+e&isionma#ing.

De&isionma#ing is no /onge 4ase+ on te &eativit! *+gement int*ition

an+o ex%eien&e of a manage o */e of t*m4 a%%oa&G ate to+a!=s

manage as to o%eate *n+e evein&easing &om%/exities of 4*siness as "e// as

tat of management. It is moe +iffi&*/t to ma#e +e&isions fo sevea/ easons

Fo exam%/e te n*m4e of avai/a4/e a/tenatives is m*& /age tan eve

4efoe 4e&a*se of im%ove+ te&no/og! an+ &omm*ni&ation s!stems. Se&on+ an!

"ong +e&ision ma! 4e ve! &ost/! 4e&a*se of te &om%/exit! an+ magnit*+e of

o%eations a*tomation an+ te &ain ea&tions tat it &an &a*se in an

oganisation. Ti+ te envionment to+a! is moe +!nami& an+ fina//! te

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evein&easing &om%etition fo&es te manages to a&t fast an+ ta#e B*i&#

+e&isions. Te im%otant fa&tos an+ tei effe&t on te +e&isionma#ing ae

/iste+ in Fig. -.1.

Fig. -.1 Fa&tos affe&ting De&ision Ma#ing

In o+e to &o%e "it s*& a sit*ation to+a!=s manage m*st *n+estan+ te

+e&isionma#ing %o&essG +e&ision sit*ationsG a%%/i&ation of ne" too/s an+

te&niB*esG an+ te a%%/i&ations of &om%*teise+ s*%%ot s!stems in tei

+e&isionma#ing. Let *s fist +is&*ss te &on&e%t of +e&ision ma#ing.

-.1 DECISIONMA7IN9: A CONCEPT

Litea//! s%ea#ing +e&ision ma#ing as 4een ta#en fom te "o+ +e&i+e="i& is a Latin "o+ meaning to &*toff= o to &ome to a &on&/*sion. De&ision

ma! 4e ega+e+ as a &oi&e= "ee4! a +e&isionma#e &omes to a &on&/*sion

a4o*t a given sit*ation. A +e&ision e%esents a &o*se of 4eavio* se/e&te+ fom

a n*m4e of ;moe tan one< %ossi4/e a/tenatives. De&isionma#ing on te ote

an+ is a %o&ess of se/e&ting one o%tim*m a/tenative fom among a/tenatives

of a &o*se of a&tion. T*s a +e&ision is an en+ o te fina/ %o+*&t of te

+e&isionma#ing %o&ess.

o"eve te +e&ision so*/+ not 4e mista#en ee as an en+ in itse/f ate it is

ega+e+ as a means fo a&tion. De&isions ae not stati& an+ ave to 4e es%onsive

to va!ing sit*ations. In fa&t +e&isionma#ing means &oosing one &o*se of

a&tion ate tan anote an+ fin+ing an a%%o%iate so/*tion to a ne" %o4/em

%ose+ 4! a +!nami& "o/+=. It is im%/ie+ tat +e&isionma#ing envisages t"o o

moe a/tenatives fom "i& a fina/ +e&ision &an 4e ma+e. o"eve if tee is

no o%tion i.e. on/! one a/tenative is avai/a4/e tee is no +e&ision to 4e ma+e. In

oganisations some of te +e&isions &an 4e ma+e easi/! "it a minim*m of

menta/ effot 4*t in most &ases +e&isionma#ing 4e&omes a &om%/ex iss*e

4oa+e tan mee/! ma#ing a &ommitment afte eva/*ating a/tenatives. It

invo/ves te entie %o&ess of esta4/ising goa/s +efining a&tivities seaeing fo

a/tenatives an+ +eve/o%ing %/ans. It in&/*+es a// te a&tivities of &oo+inating

infomation %o&essing %o4/em so/ving an+ eva/*ating tat *s*a//! %e&e+e a+e&ision.

-.' SIMON=S MODEL OF DECISIONMA7IN9

De&isionma#ing in oganisations is ega+e+ as a ationa/ %o&ess. e4et A.

Simon as given a mo+e/ to +es&i4e te +e&isionma#ing Po&ess. Te mo+e/

&om%ises of tee mao %ases name/!

;i< Inte//igen&e

;ii< Design an+

;iii< Coi&e.

Te ex%/anation fo tese tee %ases is as fo//o"s.

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'ntelligence Phase

In tis %ase te +e&isionma#e s&ans te envionment an+ i+entifies te

%o4/em o o%%ot*nit!.

Te s&anning of envionment ma! 4e &ontin*o*s o intemittent. Fo exam%/e

a< a %o+*&tion manage evie"s te +ai/! s&a% e%ot to &e&# fo

%o4/ems e/ating to B*a/it! &onto/ ;&ontin*o*s s&anning<.4< a sa/es exe&*tive %eio+i&a//! visits #e! &*stomes to evie" %ossi4/e

%o4/ems an+ to i+entif! ne" &*stome nee+s ;intemittent s&anning<.

S&anning of envionment nee+ not a/"a!s 4e &ons&io*s. It ma! sometimes even

4e an *n&ons&io*sG one. Fo exam%/e ea& time te *se of a s&oote&a stats

te engine ese &ons&io*s/! o *n&ons&io*s/! /istens fo an! *n+esia4/e noise

to +ete&t %ossi4/e engine %o4/ems. T*s "e see tat inte//igen&e a&tivities es*/t

in +issatisfa&tion "it te existing state o i+entifi&ation of %otentia/ e"a+s

fom a ne" state.

Inte//igen&e %ase of te +e&isionma#ing %o&ess invo/ves:

;a< Po4/em seaeing an+;4< Po4/em fom*/ation.

Fig. -.' De&isionma#ing Po&ess

Po4/em Seaeing

Po4/em= is +efine+ as te +iffeen&e= 4et"een someting tat is ex%e&te+ an+

ea/it!.

Desie+Ex%e&te+ A&t*a/Rea/it! V Diffeen&e ;Po4/em<

In a&t*a/ %a&ti&e te ea/it! o a&t*a/ is &om%ae+ to some stan+a+ ;some

mo+e/ of "at is +esie+<. Diffeen&es ae meas*e+ an+ te +iffeen&es ae

eva/*ate+ to +etemine "ete tee is an! %o4/em o not. 8aio*s t!%es of

mo+e/s &an 4e *se+ to &om%ae ea/it!. Some of tem ae:

;i< P/anning mo+e/

;ii< istoi&a/ mo+e/s 4ase+ on exta%o/ation

;iii< Mo+e/s *se+ 4! ote %eo%/e in te oganisation

;iv<Exta oganisationa/ mo+e/s in "i& ex%e&tations ae +eive+ fom&om%etition &*stomes an+ &ons*/tants et&.

To i//*state %o4/em seaeing "e ma! ta#e te exam%/e of a Sa/es Manage

"o as set a sa/es taget of Rs ( /a# in one %ati&*/a mont ;Stan+a+ o a

Mo+e/< an+ e &o*/+ a&ieve on/! Rs ) /a# "ot of sa/es fo tat %ati&*/a

mont ;Rea/it!<. T*s te +iffeen&e 4et"een a stan+a+mo+e/ an+ ea/it! i.e.

of Rs one /a# is a %o4/em "i& "oies te manage.

Po4/em Fom*/ation

?en te %o4/em is i+entifie+ tee is a/"a!s a is# of so/ving te "ong

%o4/em. To avoi+ s*& is# it is ve! im%otant tat te %o4/em is "e// *n+estoo+ an+ &/ea/! state+. Man! a times te %o&ess of &/ea/! +efining te

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%o4/em is s*ffi&ient. In ote &ases "e ave to sim%/if! te %o4/em 4!

+etemining its 4o*n+aies 4ea#ing it +o"n into sma//e managea4/e s*4

%o4/ems o fo&*sing on te &onto//a4/e e/ements. In %o4/em fom*/ation

esta4/ising e/ations "it some %o4/em so/ve+ ea/ie o an ana/og! %oves

B*ite *sef*/.

Design Pase

In tis %ase te +e&isionma#e i+entifies a/tenative &o*ses of a&tion to so/ve

te %o4/em. Inventing o +eve/o%ing of vaio*s a/tenatives is a time&ons*ming

an+ &*&ia/ a&tivit! as te +e&isionma#e as to ex%/oe a// %ossi4/e a/tenatives

an+ e &annot ta#e a is# of missing an! a/tenative as te misse+o*t

a/tenative migt 4e te 4est one. Deve/o%ing a/tenatives is a &eative a&tivit!

"i& &an 4e enan&e+ 4! vaio*s ai+s s*& as 4ainstoming &e&#/ists

ana/ogies et&.

Coi&e Pase

At tis stage one of te a/tenatives +eve/o%e+ in +esign %ase is se/e&te+ an+ is&a//e+ a +e&ision. Fo se/e&ting an a/tenative a +etai/e+ ana/!sis of ea& an+

eve! a/tenative is ma+e. Meto+s fo &oosing among a/tenatives is +is&*sse+

/ate. aving ma+e te +e&ision it is im%/emente+. Simon=s mo+e/ of +e&ision

ma#ing s*ggests tee %ases an+ te f/o" of a&tivities is fom inte//igen&e to

+esign to &oi&e. o"eve at an! %ase te +e&isionma#e ma! et*n to a

%evio*s %ase. Fo

exam%/e te +e&isionma#e in te &oi&e %ase ma! ee&t a// a/tenatives an+

et*n to te +esign %ase fo +eve/o%ing moe a/tenatives. Tis as 4een

+e%i&te+ in Fig. -.'.

-.$ TPES OF DECISIONS

Oganisationa/ +e&isions +iffe in a n*m4e of "a!s. Tese +iffeen&es affe&t te

+eve/o%ment of a/tenatives an+ te &oi&e among tem. Te! a/so affe&t te

+esign of infomation s!stem s*%%ot fo +e&ision a&tivities. Te fo//o"ing 4ases

ae im%otant to &/assif! +e&isions.

-.$.1 P*%ose of De&isionma#ing

On te 4asis of te %*%ose of te +e&isionma#ing a&tivities Ro4et 3. Anton!

;1-6(< as +iffeentiate+ oganisationa/ +e&isions into tee &ategoies name/!

stategi& %/anning +e&isions management &onto/ +e&isions an+ o%eationa/

&onto/ +e&isions. Stategi& %/anning +e&isions ae tose +e&isions in "i& te+e&isionma#e +eve/o%s o4e&tives an+ a//o&ates eso*&es to a&ieve tese

o4e&tives. De&isions in tis &atego! ae of /ongtime %eio+ an+ *s*a//! invo/ve

a /age investment an+ effot. S*& +e&isions ae ta#en 4! stategi& %/anning

/eve/ ;to% /eve/< manages. Exam%/es of s*& +e&isions ma! in&/*+e into+*&tion

of a ne" %o+*&t a&B*isition of anote fim et&. Management &onto/ +e&isions

ae ta#en 4! management &onto/ /eve/ ;mi++/e /eve/< manages an+ +ea/ "it

te *se of eso*&es in te oganisation. Ana/!sis of vaian&e %o+*&t mix

%/anning +e&isions fa// in tis &atego! of +e&isions. O%eationa/ &onto/ +e&isions

+ea/ "it te +a!to+a! %o4/ems tat affe&t te o%eation of te oganisation.

Fo exam%/e %o+*&tion s&e+*/ing +e&isions an+ invento! &onto/ +e&isions

/i#e te %o+*&t to 4e %o+*&e+ fo te +a! o te items an+ tei B*antities to 4eo+ee+ ae o%eationa/ &onto/ +e&isions. S*& t!%e of +e&isions ae noma//!

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ta#en 4! manages at te o%eationa/ /eve/ ;4ottom /eve/< of te management

ieae! in te oganisation.

3e&a*se of te ove/a%%ing nat*e of some +e&isions te /ines of +emaeation

&/assif!ing +e&isions in tese &ategoies ae not ve! &on&ete an+ t*s tese

+e&ision t!%es so*/+ not 4e ta#en as +is&ete ones ate te! fom a&ontin**m fo &/assif!ing +e&isions.

-.$.' Leve/ of Pogamma4i/it!

Simon ;1-6(< on te 4asis of te /eve/ of te %ogamma4i/it! of a +e&ision

%o%ose+ t"o t!%es of +e&isions: %ogamme+ an+ non%ogamme+ a/so #no"n

as st*&t*e+ an+ *nst*&t*e+ +e&isions ;9o! an+ S&ott Moton 1-21<.

o"eve tee is no +istin&t /ine of +emaeation 4et"een te t"o t!%es of

+e&isions ate te! exi4it a &ontin**m fo te &/assifi&ation of +e&isions.

Pogamme+St*&t*e+ De&isions

Pogamme+ o st*&t*e+ +e&isions ae tose +e&isions "i& ae "e// +efine+an+ some s%e&ifie+ %o&e+*e o some +e&ision */e ma! 4e a%%/ie+ to ea& a

+e&ision. S*& +e&isions ae o*tine an+ e%etitive an+ eB*ie /itt/e time fo

+eve/o%ing a/tenatives in te +esign %ase. Pogamme+ o st*&t*e+ +e&isions

ave ta+itiona//! 4een ma+e to*g a4it 4! o%eating %o&e+*es o "it

ote a&&e%te+ too/s. Moe mo+en te&niB*es fo ma#ing s*& +e&isions invo/ve

o%eations eseae ;OR< matemati&a/ ana/!sis mo+e//ing an+ sim*/ation et&.

De&isions of tis #in+ &an 4e +e/egate+ to /o"e /eve/s in an oganisation o &an

4e a*tomate+. Fo exam%/e invento! eo+e +e&isions fa// *n+e tis &atego!.

Non%ogamme+Unst*&t*e+ De&isions

De&isions "i& ae not "e//+efine+ an+ ave no %es%e&ifie+ %o&e+*e o

+e&ision */e ae #no"n as *nst*&t*e+ o non%ogamme+ +e&isions. Tese

+e&isions ae nove/ ones "i& ma! ange fom onetime +e&isions e/ating to a

&isis ;s*& as a &atasto%e at te /o&ation of te *nit< to +e&isions e/ating to

e&*ing %o4/ems "ee &on+itions &ange so feB*ent/! an+ to s*& an extent

tat +e&ision */es &annot 4e s%e&ifie+. Fo tese +e&isions s*ffi&ient time as to

4e s%ent in te +esign %ase. Unst*&t*e+ +e&isions ten+ to 4e so/ve+ to*g

*+gement int*ition an+ te */e of t*m4. Mo+en a%%oa&es to s*&

+e&isions in&/*+e s%e&ia/ +ata ana/!sis on &om%*tes e*isti& te&niB*es et&.

De&isions of tis #in+ ae *s*a//! an+/e+ 4! stategi& %/anning /eve/ manages.

3e&a*se of *nst*&t*e+ nat*e tese +e&isions &annot 4e +e/egate+ to /o"e/eve/s an+ ae +iffi&*/t to a*tomate. Fo exam%/e into+*&tion of a ne" %o+*&t

%/anning fo RSLD ae *nst*&t*e+ +e&isions.

Man! +e&ision sit*ations in te ea/ "o/+ ae eite *nst*&t*e+ o st*&t*e+

ones. o"eve +e&ision sit*ations "i& +o not fa// "itin an! of tese t"o

extemes ae #no"n as semist*&t*e+ +e&isions ;+e&isions "i& fa//

some"ee 4et"een te st*&t*e+ an+ *nst*&t*e+ &ontin**m<.

Ove time as te&no/og! ;+e&isionma#ing te&niB*es< a+van&es an+ %ovi+es

moe %ogamming to non%ogamme+ +e&isions "e ex%eien&e a ten+en&! to

move to"a+s te moe %ogamme+ exteme of te &ontin**m. Fo exam%/e

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te EO5 +e&ision "i& "as &onsi+ee+ as a non%ogamme+ +e&ision in te

%ast is &/assifie+ as a %ogamme+ +e&ision to+a!.

Te a4ove +is&*ssion on +iffeent &/asses of +e&isions 4ase+ on Anton! an+

Simon ae i//*state+ in Ta4/e -.1.

De&isionMa#ing on+ De&isionS*%%ot S!stems '02

Ta4/e -.1

-.$.$ 7no"/e+ge of O*t&omes

Anote a%%oa& of &/assif!ing +e&isions is te /eve/ of #no"/e+ge of o*t&omes.

An o*t&ome +efines "at "i// a%%en if a +e&ision is ma+e o &o*se of a&tion

ta#en. ?en tee ae moe tan one a/tenative te #no"/e+ge of o*t&ome

4e&omes im%otant. On te 4asis of te /eve/ of #no"/e+ge of o*t&omes +e&isionma#ing &an 4e &/assifie+ into tee &ategoies.

;i< De&ision *n+e &etaint!

;ii< De&ision *n+e is# an+

;iii< De&ision *n+e *n&etaint!.

De&ision *n+e Cetaint!

De&isionma#ing *n+e &etaint! ta#es %/a&e "en te o*t&ome of ea&

a/tenative is f*//! #no"n. Tee is on/! one o*t&ome fo ea& a/tenative. In

s*& a sit*ation te +e&isionma#e is eB*ie+ to &om%*te te o%tima/

a/tenative o o*t&ome. 8aio*s o%timisation te&niB*es ma! 4e *se+ fo s*&

+e&isions.

De&ision *n+e Ris#

De&isionma#ing *n+e is# o&&*s "en tee is a %ossi4i/it! of m*/ti%/e

o*t&omes of ea& a/tenative an+ a %o4a4i/it! of o&&*en&e &an 4e atta&e+ to

ea& o*t&ome. S*& a +e&ision ma#ing is a/so simi/a to +e&isionma#ing *n+e

&etaint! "ee instea+ of o%timising o*t&omes te genea/ */e is to o%timise

te ex%e&te+ o*t&ome. Te +e&isionma#e is ass*me+ to 4e ationa/. Fo

exam%/e &onfonte+ "it a &oi&e 4et"een t"o a&tions one offeing a ' %e &ent

%o4a4i/it! of %ofit of Rs 100000 an+ te ote an ,0 %e &ent %o4a4i/it! of a

%ofit of Rs 10000 te ationa/ +e&isionma#e "i// &oose te se&on+ a/tenative4e&a*se it gives a ige ex%e&te+ va/*e.

O*t&ome x Po4a4i/it! V Ex%e&te+ 8a/*e

S1 1 00000 Y0.0' V '000

S' 10000 Y0.,0 V ,000

De&ision *n+e Un&etaint!

De&isionma#ing *n+e *n&etaint! ta#es %/a&e "en tee ae a n*m4e of

o*t&omes fo ea& a/tenative an+ te %o4a4i/ities of tei o&&*en&e ae not

#no"n. O%timisation &iteia &annot 4e a%%/ie+ fo ma#ing +e&isions *n+e

*n&etaint! 4e&a*se tee is no #no"/e+ge of te %o4a4i/ities. Un+e s*& a

sit*ation +iffeent %eo%/e ta#e +e&isions a%%/!ing +iffeent +e&ision */es. Somema! assign eB*a/ %o4a4i/ities to a// te o*t&omes fo ea& a/tenative so as to

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teat te +e&isionma#ing as a +e&isionma#ing *n+e is#. ?eeas otes ma!

a+o%t +iffeent &iteia s*& as to minimise eget Maximax an+ Maximin

&iteia. Tese &iteia ae ex%/aine+ /ate in tis &a%te.

-.) METODS FOR COOSIN9 AMON9 ALTERNATI8ES

A +e&isionma#e ma#es *se of vaio*s meto+s fo &oosing among a/tenatives.Tese meto+s genea//! ass*me tat a// a/tenatives ae #no"n. 9iven 4e/o" is

a 4ief ex%/anation of some of tese meto+s.

-.).1 De&ision Teo! o De&ision Ana/!sis

Te +e&ision teo! ;+e&ision ana/!sis< efes to te te&niB*es fo ana/!sing

+e&isions *n+e is# an+ *n&etaint!. In te %o&ess of +e&isionma#ing te

+e&isionma#e "ants to a&ieve someting "i& ma! 4e &a//e+ is goa/

%*%ose o o4e&tive. Te +e&isionma#e ma! &oose one %ati&*/a a/tenative

"i& is &a//e+ Stateg! of te +e&isionma#e fom among vaio*s a/tenatives.

A// a/tenatives an+ o*t&omes ae ass*me+ to 4e #no"n. Tee ae &etain

fa&tos "i& affe&t te o*t&ome fo +iffeent stategies. 3*t tese fa&tos o&on+itions a/so &a//e+ states of nat*e= ae 4e!on+ te &onto/ of te +e&ision

ma#e. Te stateg! ;a/tenative< a/ong "it te state of nat*e +etemines te

+egee to "i& te goa/ is a&t*a//! a&ieve+. A meas*e of a&ievement of te

goa/ is &a//e+ te Pa!off=.

Te %a!off matix is *se+ as a meto+ of %esenting +ata in +e&isionana/!sis. A

%a!off matix is a goo+ e%esentation of te +e&ision%o4/em 4e&a*se te

a/tenatives o stategies avai/a4/e to te +e&isionma#e ma! 4e e%esente+ 4!

o"s an+ &on+itions ;states of nat*e< 4! &o/*mns. Ea& &e// "i& is an

intese&tion of a stateg! an+ a state of nat*e &ontains te %a!off. Tis as

4een so"n in Fig. -.$.

If te state of nat*e is #no"n "it &etaint! te +e&isionma#e is eB*ie+ on/!

to se/e&t te stateg! tat %ovi+es im te igest %a!off. Let *s ex%/ain te

&on&e%t of te %a!off matix 4! ta#ing an exam%/e.

Fig. -.$ Pa!off Matix

Ass*me tat a ma#eting manage of a &om%*te man*fa&t*e is to &oose fom

tee a/te natives.

1. Mo+if! te existing PC to im%ove its +esign an+ %o&essing %o"e.

'. La*n& a ne" PC aving /atest te&no/og!.

$. Do noting i.e. /eave te PC as it is.

Tee ae tee states of nat*e tat affe&t te %a!off fom ea& of te

a/tenative stategies.

Tese states of nat*e ae:;i.< A &om%etito ma! /a*n& a ne" PC "it /atest te&no/og!.

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;ii.< Te govenment ma! im%ose ig ex&ise +*t! on te man*fa&t*e

of PCs an+ e+*&e ex&ise to minim*m on /a%to%s to en&o*age te *se of

/a%to%s.

;iii.< Con+itions "i// emain te same as te! ae.

Te vaio*s %a!offs ;%ofit o /oss< fom te &om4ination of a stateg! an+ astate of nat*e ae given in te %a!off matix in Fig. -.).

Fig. -.) Pa!off Matix

Te %o4a4i/ities tat ea& state of nat*e &o*/+ o&&* ae a/so so"n in te

fig*e. It &an 4e seen tat tee ae tee states of nat*e "ose %o4a4i/ities of

o&&*en&e is #no"n. Tis %o4/em sit*ation is &a//e+ +e&ision *n+e is#. Te

%o4a4i/ities e%esent te /i#e/ioo+ of o&&*en&e of te s%e&ifi& states of nat*e eite 4ase+ on istoi&a/ +ata o on %esona/ *+gement of te +e&ision

ma#e. No" to ma#e a +e&ision *n+e s*& a sit*ation a ationa/ +e&isionma#e

"i// &om%*te te ex%e&te+ va/*e of ea& a/tenative. Te ex%e&te+ va/*e is

+etemine+ 4! m*/ti%/!ing ea& %a!off 4! te %o4a4i/it! of o&&*en&e of te

state of nat*e ;given in &o/*mns< an+ s*mming tese va/*es a&oss a// states of

nat*e ;a&oss te o"s<. In te a4ove exam%/e te ex%e&te+ va/*e

;E8< of ea& stateg! is:

E8 of S1 V ;2< ;0.)0< Z ;(< ;0.)0< Z ;(< ;0.'0<

V '., Z '.0 1.0 V $.,

E8 of S' V ;10< ;0.)0< Z ;$< ;0.)0< Z ;1$< ;0.'0<

: ).0 Z1.' '.6 V '.6

E8 of S$ V ;(< ;O.)0< Z ;1< ;0.)0< Z ;'<;0.'0<

V '.0 Z 0.) 0.) V '.0

Te maxim*m ex%e&te+ va/*e $., /a# is fo*n+ to 4e of te o%tion to mo+if! an+

if te +e&ision is ma+e 4ase+ on te ex%e&te+ va/*e o4e&tive f*n&tion te

stateg! S1 i.e. to mo+if! te existing PC "i// 4e se/e&te+. As a/ea+! mentione+

in +e&isionma#ing *n+e is# te %o4a4i/ities of vaio*s states of nat*e ae

ass*me+ to 4e #no"n. o"eve in te &ase of +e&isionma#ing *n+e

*n&etaint! te %o4a4i/ities of te vaio*s states of nat*e ae not #no"n to te

+e&isionma#e an+ t*s e &annot a%%/! te maximisationminimisation of ex%e&te+ va/*e &iteia as in te &ase of +e&ision *n+e is#. In s*& a +e&ision

%o4/em te fo//o"ing +e&ision */es&iteia +e%en+ing *%on te attit*+e of te

+e&isionma#e ma! 4e a%%/ie+.

;i.< Maximax */e o &iteion of o%timism

;ii.< Maximin */e o &iteion of %essimism

;iii.< Citeion of minimise eget an+

;iv.< Citeion of ationa/it!.

In o+e to *n+estan+ te a4ove &iteia /et *s ta#e te ea/ie exam%/e

ass*ming no #no"/e+ge of %o4a4i/it!. Te %a!off matix is given in Fig. -.(.

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Fig. -.( Pa!off Matix ;"ee %o4a4i/ities of states of nat*e ae not #no"n<

;i.< Moxim&Hx o Citeion to O%timism

In tis &ase te +e&isionma#e is of o%timisti& attit*+e an+ t*s "o*/+ se/e&t te

stateg! "i& "i// %ovi+e im te geatest ;max< %a!off *n+e te most

favo*a4/e o te 4est &on+ition ;max<. In te a4ove exam%/e te +e&isionma#e

"i// se/e&t stateg! S' "i& "i// give im a maxim*m %a!off of Rs 10 /a# fo

/a*n&ing a ne" PC an+ fo te same &on+itions ;see Ta4/e -.'<.

Ta4/e -.'

;ii.< Moximin o Citeion to Pessimism

As te name of te &iteion in+i&ates te +e&isionma#e is of %essimisti&

attit*+e an+ t*s "i// se/e&t te stateg! "i& "i// give im te igest %a!off

;max< if te "ost &on+ition ;min< o&&*s. ee te +e&ision`ma#e 4eing of

%essimisti& vie" "i// not /i#e to ta#e an! is# an+ t*s "i// tin# a4o*t te safest

%osition in te "ost sit*ation. T*s te +e&isionma#e "i// se/e&t stateg! S$

sin&e in te "ost sit*ation ;govenment 4an< e "i// s*stain te minim*m /oss

;Rs ' /a#< +*e to tis +e&ision. Tis is so"n in Ta4/e -.$.

Ta4/e -.$

iii< Citeion of Reget

Un+e te &iteion of eget a +e&isionma#e se/e&ts te stateg! "i&

minimises te maxim*m eget fo ea& +e&ision. Te +e&isionma#e migt

ex%eien&e eget if e as not se/e&te+ te a%%o%iate stateg! in tems of te%ati&*/a states of nat*e tat ma! a&t*a//! ta#e %/a&e "i& is te +iffeen&e

4et"een te %a!off e a&t*a//! e&eives an+ te %a!off e &o*/+ ave e&eive+

fo te 4est stateg! a+ e #no"n te state of nat*e tat "as going to o&&*.

Te eget is te +iffeen&e 4et"een te igest %a!off fo a state of nat*e an+

te ote %a!off fo te same state of nat*e eget matix ;see Ta4/e -.)< an+

ma! 4e &om%*te+ 4! s*4ta&ting te va/*e in ea& ent! in te &o/*mn fom te

igest va/*e in te &o/*mn. Te +e&isionma#e "o*/+ se/e&t tat stateg! "i&

"i// give im te minim*m of s*& maxim*m egets.

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Ta4/e -.)

In tis &ase te minim*m eget is Rs $ /a#. Te +e&isionma#e teefoe

so*/+ se/e&t S1 stateg! of mo+if!ing te %o+*&t. To*g tis is te minim*m

eget if a// ote stategies avai/a4/e to a +e&isionma#e ae ta#en into a&&o*nt

Rs $ /a# is te maxim*m eget e ma! ex%eien&e fo stateg! S1. It is &/eatat +e%en+ing *%on te state of nat*e tis eget ma! 4e /ess ;as in te &ase of

ne" &om%etito<.

;iv< Citeion of Rofiono/it!

Citeion of ationa/it! is a/so #no"n as La%/a&e Citeion "i& ass*mes eB*a/

%o4a4i/ities of vaio*s states of nat*e. T*s it is &onsi+ee+ a ationa/

a%%oa& of +e&isionma#ing. On&e eB*a/ %o4a4i/ities ae atta&e+ to te states

of nat*e it 4e&omes a +e&ision %o4/em *n+e is# an+ te ex%e&te+ %a!off fo

ea& stateg! is &a/&*/ate+. Te stateg! "i& as te geatest ex%e&te+ %a!off

is se/e&te+.

In o* exam%/e te ex%e&te+ %a!off fo ea& stateg! is given in Ta4/e -.(. Astee ae tee states of nat*e te %o4a4i/it! of ea& state is ass*me+ to 4e

eB*a/ to 1$.

Ta4/e -.(

T*s as %e te &iteion of ationa/it! stateg! S1 so*/+ 4e se/e&te+ 4e&a*se

of te geatest %a!off ex%e&te+. Ex&e%t &iteion of ationa/it! a// ote &iteia

ae 4ase+ on te attit*+e of te +e&isionma#e.

T*s tee is no 4est &iteion ate *n+e *n&etaint! a stateg! 4e&omes

e/evant +e%en+ing *%on te &iteion of te +e&isionma#e. In te a4ove

exam%/e te fo//o"ing stategies ma! 4e se/e&te+.

-.).' Uti/it!

It as 4een o4seve+ tat in +e&ision ana/!sis te vaio*s %a!offs ae meas*e+

in moneta! va/*e ;R*%ees< 4*t some of te fa&tos /i#e goo+"i// image of an

oganisation %e&e%tion of B*a/it! a+vetising effe&ts et&. ;B*a/itative in

nat*e< ae eB*ie+ to 4e &onsi+ee+. Tese nee+ not 4e meas*e+ in moneta!

va/*e. Fo tis eason anote meas*e &a//e+ Uti/it! aving Uti/es as its *nits is*se+. Uti/it! f*n&tion fo mone! is +iagammati&a//! so"n in Fig. -.6.

It &an 4e infee+ fom te sa%e of te &*ve tat te e/ation is /inea ;Re 1 V 1

*ti/e Rs ' V ' *ti/es et&.< ove a &etain ange ;a4< 4*t ten ises a%i+/! ;4e

%osition of te &*ve<. Tis means of mone! as sma// *ti/it! 4*t /age amo*nt of

mone! as m*& moe *ti/it! ;/age tan te *ti/it! &om%*te+ fom a set of

sma// amo*nts<. In ote "o+s Re 1 V 1 *ti/e 4*t Rs (00000 in one %a!ment is

/age tan (00000 *ti/es fo Re 1. F*te te 4eavio* of te &*ve so"s

tat it f/attens o*t ;&+ %osition of te &*ve< "i& means te *ti/it! gets /imite+

"it moe mone!. Tis 4eavio* of te &*ve &an 4e ex%/aine+ 4! te /a" of

+iminising et*ns.

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Te *ti/it! &on&e%t fin+s vaio*s a%%/i&ations in oganisationa/ +e&isionma#ing

as it e/%s te +e&isionma#e to +e&i+e a4o*t te nonmoneta! fa&tos.

Fig. -.6 Uti/it! F*n&tions

-.).$ De&ision Tee

De&ision tee is a ga%i& e%esentation of a seB*en&e of +e&isions an+ a&tions. It

is an im%otant meto+ fo %esenting te ana/!sis. Te ana/!sis is &a//e+ a

+e&ision tee= 4e&a*se it esem4/es 4an&es of a tee. Te oot of te tee is te

stating %oint of te +e&ision seB*en&e. Te %ati&*/a 4an& to 4e fo//o"e+

+e%en+s on te &on+itions tat exist an+ te +e&ision to 4e ma+e ;Fig.

Fig. -.2 De&ision Tee SeB*en&e

-.2<. Te +e&ision tee e/%s 4ot in st*&t*ing te %o4/em tat is to

*n+estan+ te %o&ess /ogi& of a %o4/em as "e// as in its ana/!sis. Let *s ex%/ain

it "it exam%/es.

;i< Po4/em St*&t*ing

Consi+e te &ase of a &om%*te fim tat offes te fo//o"ing +is&o*nt %o/i&! to

its &*stomes.

If te %a!ment is ma+e "itin 10 +a!s

$ +is&o*nt is a//o"e+ on o+es a4ove Rs 10000G

' on o+es *% to Rs (001 to Rs 10000G

1 on o+es *% to Rs (000

o"eve if te %a!ment is ma+e in moe tan 10 +a!s no +is&o*nt is a//o"e+.

Te a4ove +is&o*nt %o/i&! &an 4e %ota!e+ "it te fo//o"ing +e&ision tee.

Fig. -., De&ision Tee fo Dis&o*nt Po/i&!

;ii< Po4/em Ana/!sis

S*%%ose &om%an! "ants to ma#e +isti4*tion &anne/ +e&isions fo

ma#eting of its %o+*&ts. Tee ae t"o a/tenative &anne/s avai/a4/e to te

&om%an!.

a< Die&t sa/es an+

4< Se//ing agent.

Te &om%an! ma! ave ig o /o" ma#et %enetation an+ ma#et sae. Te%o4a4i/ities an+ net gains ae as fo//o"s.

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Fig. -.- De&ision Tee An Exam%/e

De&ision: As se//ing to*g agent "o*/+ give a ige %a!off te &om%an!so*/+ se/e&t tis &anne/ fo ma#eting its %o+*&ts. To*g te a4ove exam%/e

is a sim%/e one it gives a fai/! goo+ i+ea of ma#ing an ana/!sis *sing a +e&ision

tee. o"eve "en a /age n*m4e of +e&isions ae to 4e ma+e an+ ea&

+e&ision as a 4eaing on te s*4seB*ent +e&ision te %o&e+*e of o//4a&# is

a+o%te+. In te o//4a&# %o&e+*e te +e&isionma#e stats at te ti%s o en+s

of te 4an&es an+ "o#s 4a&#"a+ to &a/&*/ate te ex%e&te+ %a!off fo a// te

4an&es of a// te no+es of te tee Te &oi&e tat maximises te ex%e&te+ %a!

off on te "o/e is fo*n+ 4! ana/!sing te %ossi4/e o*t&omes at ea& +e&ision

%oint "o#ing 4a&#"a+s ti// te stat ;+e&ision %oint< of te +e&ision tee is

ea&e+.

-.).) O%timisation Te&niB*es

Mo+en management s&ien&e offes a n*m4e of o%timisation te&niB*es fo

ea&ing a +e&ision. Tese te&niB*es ass*me tat a// a/tenatives an+ tei

o*t&omes ae #no"n. Te +e&isionma#e is eB*ie+ to &a/&*/ate te o%tima/

a/tenative fo is o4e&tive f*n&tion. 8aio*s te&niB*es "i& ae *se+ *n+e

tis &atego! in&/*+e Linea Pogamming Intege Pogamming D!nami&

Pogamming 5*e*ing Mo+e/s Invento! Mo+e/s et&.

-.( DECISIONMA7IN9 AND MIS

aving *n+estoo+ te %o&ess an+ &on&e%t of +e&isionma#ing /et *s no"

+is&*ss te o/e of an infomation s!stem in %ovi+ing infomation to s*%%ot

+e&isionma#ing in an oganisation. ?e "i// a/so ex%/oe te e/evan&e of tis

#no"/e+ge of +e&isionma#ing fo te +esign of an infomation s!stem

infomation S*%%ot fo De&isionMa#ing Po&ess Simon=s mo+e/ of +e&ision

ma#ing %o%oses tee stages in te +e&isionma#ing %o&ess. MIS %/a!s its o/e

in a// te tee stages. 9iven 4e/o" is a 4ief +es&i%tion of tese tee stages of

te +e&isionma#ing %o&ess an+ te o/e of MIS.

Inte//igen&e Stage

In tis stage an infomation s!stem ma! %ovi+e infomation a4o*t intena/ as

"e// as extena/ envionments. Intena/ infomation is geneate+ fom tef*n&tiona/ aeas "eeas extena/ infomation is &o//e&te+ fom vaio*s so*&es

s*& as +ata4ases ne"s%a%es govenment e%ots %esona/ &onta&ts et&.

Avai/a4i/it! of a /age amo*nt of infomation ma#es it ne&essa! to s&an te

envionment an+ +ata so*&es to get te e/evant infomation. T*s infomation

s!stems &an 4e *se+ to s&an te 4*siness envionment of an oganisation.

In o+e to get te eB*ie+ infomation in te inte//igen&e %ase of +e&ision

ma#ing MIS m*st 4e +esigne+ so as to ans"e %es%e&ifie+ as "e// as *+ o&

B*eies ;*niB*e *ns&e+*/e+ sit*ation s%e&ifi&< ma+e 4! te +e&isionma#e. In

ote "o+s infomation s!stem +esign ma! ave vaio*s mo+e/s ;/i#e istoi&a/

%/anning an+ exta oganisationa/< an+ a B*e! /ang*age &a%a4i/it! ;+e&isions*%%ot s!stem &a%a4i/it!<.

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Design Stage

At tis stage vaio*s a/tenatives ae +eve/o%e+ an+ eva/*ate+. In te &ase of

st*&t*e+ +e&isions infomation s!stems &an s*%%ot 4! B*antif!ing an+

a*tomating a +e&isionma#ing %o&ess. On te ote an+ fo semist*&t*e+ to

*nst*&t*e+ +e&isions infomation s!stems &an s*%%ot s*& +e&isionma#ing4! %ovi+ing

;i.< te a4i/it! to ma#e *+ o& B*eies fo infomation in te

oganisationa/ +ata4ases an+

;ii.< te a4i/it! to ea& a +e&ision in an intea&tive %o&ess ;+e&ision

s*%%ot s!stem &a%a4i/it!<.

T*s infomation s!stems so*/+ 4e +esigne+ to in&o%oate vaio*s mo+e/s of

4*siness o%eations an+ a+van&e+ statisti&a/ o%timisation te&niB*es et&. so

tat tese &o*/+ 4e *se+ to mani%*/ate infomation a/ea+! &o//e&te+ in te

inte//igen&e stage to +eve/o% an+ eva/*ate vaio*s a/tenatives.

Coi&e Stage

It is te &oi&e stage in "i& a &o*se of a&tion is se/e&te+ an+ fee+4a&# is

&o//e&te+ on te im%/emente+ +e&ision. Infomation s!stems &an %ovi+e

s*mmaise+ an+ oganise+ infomation to te +e&isionma#es at tis stage.

Sevea/ mo+e/s ma! 4e *se+ to se/e&t te most a%%o%iate a/tenative an+ t*s

e/% +e&isionma#es se/e&t te 4est &o*se of a&tion. Infomation s!stems &an

a/so e/% te +e&isionma#e monito te s*&&essf*/ im%/ementation of a +e&ision

4! %ovi+ing fee+4a&#. D*ing te %o&ess of +e&isionma#ing if te +e&ision

ma#e &ooses to et*n to an! of te %e&e+ing stage fo moe infomation s*&

infomation s*%%ot is again %ovi+e+ 4! te infomation s!stem. An

infomation s!stem to s*%%ot te &oi&e stage of te +e&isionma#e so*/+

ave o%timisation mo+e/s an+ s*ggestion mo+e/s.

Te&niB*es Use+ in De&isionMa#ing

3efoe "e +is&*ss te im%otan&e of DSS /et *s a/so ave a 4ief /oo# at some of

te te&niB*es "i& ae often *se+ in +e&isionma#ing s*%%ot. Tese

te&niB*es tat fo//o" &om%/ex a%%oa&es ae +is&*sse+ in 4ief ee:

;i.< Sim*/ation: In tis a%%oa& a matemati&a/ mo+e/ of te

sit*ation is &eate+. Main +e&ision vaia4/es ae +efine+ an+ te

mo+e/ is o%eate+ *n+e +iffeent ass*m%tions o "it +iffeentstating &on+itions to e/% ex%/oe a/tenative %ats fo te ea/

sit*ation.

;ii.< O%timisation: In o%timisation te&niB*e a matemati&a/ mo+e/ of

te sit*ation is +eve/o%e+. Te mo+e/ is +esigne+ so tat

o%timisation te&niB*es &an 4e *se+ to seae fo o%tima/ va/*es of

+e&ision vaia4/es.

;iii.< OLAP an+ Data Mining: It *ses statisti&a/ te&niB*es to ana/!se

4*siness es*/ts an+ fin+ i++en e/ationsi%s.

;iv.< Ex%et S!stems: ee an ex%et=s vie" of an aea of #no"/e+ge in

tems of fa&ts an+ */es ae s*mmaise+ an+ ten te fa&ts an+

*/es to a %ati&*/a sit*ation ae a%%/ie+ to e/% someone e/se+e&i+e "at to +o.

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;v.< Ne*a/ Net"o#s: It stats "it a /age set of &o+e+ exam%/es tat

e%esents te ange an+ feB*en&! of %ossi4i/ities in te sit*ation

4eing st*+ie+. Ne*a/ net"o#s a%%/! a*tomate+ statisti&a/

/eaning= te&niB*es to fin+ te statisti&a/ %aametes tat 4est

%esent &oe/ations 4et"een go*%s of &aa&teisti&s "itin te

ta+ing set.;vi.< F*HH! Logi&: In tis a%%oa& +e&ision %o&esses ae &onto//e+

*sing /ogi& s!stems tat e%/a&e eite o= /ogi& "it /ogi& 4ase+

on e/ative +egees of in&/*sion in sets.

;vii.< Case4asea/ Reasoning: Tis a%%oa& &eates a +ata4ase of

exam%/es tat ma! e/% in ma#ing +e&ision. A++ anote exam%/e

to te +ata4ase "en te +ata4ase +oes not &ove a ne" sit*ation.

;viii.< Inte//igent Agents: In tis te&niB*e +e&ision %aametes ae

s%e&ifie+ fo a &om%*teiHe+ agent= tat seaees one o moe

+ata4ases to fin+ a s%e&ifi& ans"e s*& as te /o"est %i&e fo a

%ati&*/a mo4i/e set.

-.6 DECISION SUPPORT SSTEMS ?@

aving +is&*sse+ te &on&e%t*a/ fame"o# fo +e&isionma#ing /et *s no"

*n+estan+ te nee+ fo &om%*teise+ +e&ision s*%%ot s!stems. Tese s!stems

ave 4e&ome ne&essa! fo to+a!=s manage 4e&a*se of fo//o"ing easons:

;i.< Fast Com%*tation: A +e&isionma#e &an %efom a /age n*m4e

of &om%*tations ve! B*i&#/! an+ tat too at a /o" &ost "it te

e/% of &om%*te s*%%ot s!stems. To+a! in maoit! of te

+e&isions time is te essen&e.

;ii.< Enan&e+ Po+*&tivit!: S*%%ot s!stems &an enan&e te

%o+*&tivit! of s*%%ot staff an+ a/so ena4/e te go*% mem4es to

+is&*ss te %o4/ems among temse/ves at a +istan&e.

;iii.< Data Tansmission: Sometimes te +ata "i& ma! 4e stoe+ at

+iffeent /o&ations ma! 4e eB*ie+ to 4e tansmitte+ B*i&#/! fom

+istant /o&ations. Com%*te s*%%ot s!stems &an seae stoe an+

tansmit te eB*ie+ +ata B*i&#/! an+ e&onomi&a//!.

;iv.< 3ette De&isions: Com%*te s*%%ot s!stems &an e/% a +e&ision

ma#e in aiving at a 4ette +e&ision. Fo exam%/e moe

a/tenatives &an 4e eva/*ate+ is# ana/!sis 4e %efome+ B*i&#/!

an+ vie"s of ex%ets fom +iffeent %/a&es &an 4e &o//e&te+ B*i&#/!

an+ at a /o"e &ost.

;v.< Com%etitive E+ge: De&ision s*%%ot s!stems ena4/e te *ses toget a &om%etitive e+ge ove tei &om%etitos as tese s!stems

ena4/e oganisations to &ange tei o%eations feB*ent/! e

enginee %o&esses an+ st*&t*es em%o"e em%/o!ees an+

innovate. De&ision s*%%ot te&no/ogies &an &eate *sef*/

em%o"ement 4! a//o"ing %eo%/e to ma#e goo+ +e&isions even if

te! /a&# some #no"/e+ge.

In vie" of te a4ovestate+ easons +e&ision s*%%ot s!stems ae im%otant too/s

in te an+s of +e&isionma#es "i& &ome an+! es%e&ia//! in tei semi

st*&t*e+ to *nst*&t*e+ %o4/ems.

-.2 DECISION SUPPORT SSTEMS: A FRAME?OR7

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De&ision S*%%ot S!stems /i#e MIS ave a/so 4een +efine+ +iffeent/! 4!

+iffeent %eo%/e an+ t*s tee is no *nivesa//! a&&e%te+ +efinition of DSS. It

"as in te ea/! 1-20s "en S&ott Moton %*t fo"a+ te &on&e%t of DSS an+

+efine+ DSS as an intea&tive &om%*tee4ase+ s!stem "i& e/%s +e&ision

ma#es *ti/ise +ata an+ mo+e/s to so/ve *nst*&t*e+ %o4/ems an+ teeafte

man! ote s&o/as /i#e Litt/e ;1-20< A/te ;1-,0< Mooe an+ Cang ;1-,0<7een ;1-,0< et&. ave +efine+ te &on&e%t in +iffeent "a!s. o"eve te fo&*s

of a// tese +efinitions as 4een on te "at= as%e&t i.e. "at a DSS +oes an+

o"= as%e&t i.e. o" te o4e&tives of DSS &an 4e a&ieve+. Fo te %*%ose of

tis 4oo# "e *n+estan+ te +efinition of DSS as fo//o"s:

A +e&ision S*%%ot S!stem is a s%e&ia/ise+ #in+ of infomation s!stem "i& is

an intea&tive s!stem tat s*%%ots in te +e&isionma#ing %o&ess of a manage

in an oganisation es%e&ia//! in semist*&t*e+ an+ *nst*&t*e+ sit*ations.

Te s!stem *ti/ises infomation mo+e/s an+ +ata mani%*/ation too/s to e/%

ma#e +e&isions in semist*&t*e+ to *nst*&t*e+ sit*ations. Te &om%onents of

DSS ave a/ea+! 4een +is&*sse+ in Ca%te '. Let *s no" 4ief/! +is&*ss&aa&teisti&s an+ &a%a4i/ities of DSS.

-., CARACTERISTICS AND CAPA3ILITIES OF DSS

Diffeent s&o/as ave +efine+ te &aa&teisti&s an+ &a%a4i/ities of DSS

+iffeent/!. 9iven 4e/o" ae te mao DSS &aa&teisti&s an+ &a%a4i/ities as

s*ggeste+ 4! T*4an et a/.:

1. DSS %ovi+e s*%%ot fo +e&isionma#es main/! in semist*&t*e+ an+

*nst*&t*e+ sit*ation 4! 4inging togete *man *+gements an+

&om%*teise+ infomation. S*& %o4/em &annot 4e so/ve+ ;o &annot 4e

so/ve+ &onvenient/!< 4! ote &om%*teise+ s!stems o 4! stan+a+

B*antitative meto+s o too/s.

'. S*%%ot is %ovi+e+ fo vaio*s manageia/ /eve/s anging fom to%

exe&*tives to /ine manages.

$. S*%%ot is %ovi+e+ to in+ivi+*a/s as "e// as to go*%s. Lessst*&t*e+

%o4/ems often eB*ie te invo/vement of sevea/ in+ivi+*a/s fom

+iffeent +e%atments an+ oganiHationa/ /eve/s o even fom +iffeent

oganisations.

). DSS %ovi+e s*%%ot to sevea/ inte+e%en+ent an+o seB*entia/

+e&isions. Te +e&ision ma! 4e ma+e on&e sevea/ times o e%eate+/!.

(. DSS s*%%ot a// %ases of te +e&isionma#ing %o&ess: inte//igen&e+esign &oi&e an+ im%/ementation.

6. DSS s*%%ot a vaiet! of +e&isionma#ing %o&esses an+ st!/es.

2. DSS ae a+a%tive ove time. Te +e&isionma#e so*/+ 4e ea&tive a4/e

to &onfont &anging &on+ition B*i&#/! an+ 4e a4/e to a+a%t te DSS to

meet tese &anges. DSS ae f/exi4/e an+ so *se &an a+&/ +e/ete

&om4ine &ange o eaange 4asi& e/ements.

,. Uses m*st fee/ at ome "it DSS. Usefien+/iness stong ga%i&a/

&a%a4i/ities an+ an Eng/is/i#e intea&tive *man ma&ine intefa&e &an

geat/! in&ease te effe&tiveness of DSS. DSS attem%t to im%ove te

effe&tiveness of +e&isionma#ing ;a&&*a&! time/ines B*a/it!< ate tan

its effi&ien&! ;te &ost of ma#ing +e&isions<.

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-. Te +e&isionma#e as &om%/ete &onto/ ove a// ste%s of te

+e&isiomma#ing %o&ess in so/ving a %o4/em. A DSS s%e&ifi&a//! aims to

s*%%ot an+ not to e%/a&e te +e&isionma#e.

10. En+ *ses so*/+ 4e a4/e to &onst*&t an+ mo+if! sim%/e s!stems 4!

temse/ves. Lage s!stems &an 4e 4*i/t "it assistan&e fom infomation

s!stem ;IS< s%e&ia/ists.11. A DSS *s*a//! *ti/ises mo+e/s fo ana/!sing +e&isionma#ing sit*ations.

Te mo+e/ing &a%a4i/it! ena4/es ex%eimenting "it +iffeent stategies

*n+e +iffeent &onfig*ations.

Fig. -.10 Te I+ea/ Caa&teisti& an+ Ca%a4i/ities of DSS ;T*4an et a/. '001 %.

--<

Te DSS so*/+ %ovi+e a&&ess to vaiet! of +ata so*&es fomats an+ t!%es

anging fom geoga%i& infomation s!stem ;9IS< to o4e&toiente+ ones. A

DSS &an 4e em%/o!e+ as a stan+ a/one too/ *se+ 4! an in+ivi+*a/ +e&isionma#e

in one /o&ation o it &an 4e +isti4*te+ to*go*t an oganisation an+ in

sevea/ oganisations a/ong te s*%%/! &ain. It &an 4e integate+ "it ote DSS

an+o a%%/i&ations an+ it &an 4e +isti4*te+ intena//! an+ extena//! *sing

net"o#ing an+ ?e4 te&no/ogies.

Tese &aa&teisti&s a//o" +e&isionma#es to ma#e 4ette moe &onsistent

+e&isions in a time/! manne an+ te! ae %ovi+e+ 4! DSS mao &om%onents.

SUMMAR

De&isionma#ing is an essen&e of management. In ote "o+s "ateve a

manage +oes ese +oes it to*g +e&isionma#ing an+ MIS assists eve!

manage in %ovi+ing te eB*ie+ infomation "i& is a vita/ an+ ne&essa!

in%*t in +e&isionma#ing. De&isionma#ing is a %o&ess of se/e&ting one o%tim*m

a/tenative fom vaio*s a/tenatives. T*s +e&ision is te en+ es*/t of te

+e&isionma#ing %o&ess. Simon as s*ggeste+ tee %ases of te %o&ess of

+e&ision ma#ing.

Te! ae Inte//igen&e Design an+ Coi&e %ase. To*g te f/o" of a&tivities isfom inte//igen&e to +esign to &oi&e at an! %ase a +e&isionma#e ma! et*n

to a %evio*s %ase. Oganisationa/ +e&isions va! in a n*m4e of "a!s. On te

4asis of te %*%ose of +e&isionma#ing tese +e&isions ma! 4e &/assifie+ into

tee &/asses name/! stategi& %/anning +e&isions management &onto/ +e&isions

an+ o%eationa/ &onto/ +e&isions. Leve/ of %ogamma4i/it! &an 4e anote 4asis

fo &ategoising +e&isions into t"o main &/asses i.e. %ogamme+ an+ non

%ogamme+ +e&isions.

Tese +e&isions ae a/so #no"n as st*&t*e+ an+ *nst*&t*e+ +e&isions

es%e&tive/!. De&ision &an a/so 4e &ategoise+ into tee &/asses name/! +e&ision

*n+e &etaint! +e&ision *n+e is# an+ +e&ision *n+e *n&etaint! on te 4asis

of #no"/e+ge of o*t&omes. Se/e&tion of an a/tenative eB*ies a meto+ o a&om4ination of meto+s to 4e em%/o!e+. A +e&isionma#e m*st #no" a4o*t

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tese meto+s. Some of te im%otant meto+s in&/*+e +e&ision teo! o

+e&ision ana/!sis *ti/it! +e&ision tee an+ o%timisation te&niB*es. MIS %/a!s a

%ivota/ o/e in %ovi+ing infomation at ea& an+ eve! %ase of +e&ision

ma#ing.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS1. Diffeentiate 4et"een a +e&ision= an+ a +e&isionma#ing %o&ess=.

I//*state Simon=s mo+e/ of +e&isionma#ing.

'. 9ive vaio*s 4ases fo &/assif!ing +e&isions. ?i& is te most "i+e/! *se+

4asis@ ?!@

$. A +e&ision %o4/em invo/ves fo* stategies name/! A 3 C an+ D. Tee

ae tee %ossi4/e states of nat*e. On te 4asis of te fo//o"ing %a!off

matix ma#e te +e&ision an+ %ovi+e %a!off *sing ea& of te fo//o"ing

+e&ision */es.

Maximax Maximin minimise eget ex%e&te+ va/*e "it eB*a/ %o4a4i/ities.

). ?it a s*ita4/e exam%/e give an a%%/i&ation of +e&ision ana/!sis *ti/it!

an+ +e&ision tee. Dis&*ss a+vantages an+ +isa+vantages of ea& meto+.

(. Dis&*ss te e/evan&e an+ o/e of MIS in vaio*s %ases of +e&ision

ma#ing.

6. ?at is a +e&isions*%%ot s!stem@ Dis&*ss its &om%onents

&aa&teisti&s an+ &a%a4i/ities.

ASSI9NMENTS

1. An exam%/e of ea& t!%e of +e&ision is given in te text fo &/assifi&ation

s!stem of +e&isionsG name a +iffeent exam%/e of a +e&ision fo ea& &/ass.

'. Ass*me !o* ae to ta#e te fo//o"ing +e&isions.

;a< ie Sii+a as 8i&ePesi+ent fo !o* &om%an!.

;4< Deve/o% a ne" %o+*&t.

;&< P*&ase a &om%*te s!stem fo !o* +e%atment.

I+entif! te a&tivities "i& ma! ave %e&e+e+ te &oi&e. A/so &/assif! ea&

a&tivit! as eite inte//igen&e o +esign.

$. 3*i/+ a DSS Using Mi&osoftEx&e/. Ta#e a ea//ife exam%/e.

REFERENCESAnton! R. P/anning an+ Conto/ S!stems: A Fame"o# fo Ana/!sis


Univesit! 3oston 1-6(.

Davis 9.3. an+ M.. O/son Management Infomation S!stems Con&e%t*a/

Fo*n+ations St*&t*e an+ Deve/o%ment M&9a"i// 3oo# Com%an!

Singa%oe 1-,).

9o! 9.A. an+ M.S. S&ott Moton A Fame"o# fo Management

Infomation S!stems= S/oan Management Revie*G 8o/. 1$ No. 1 1-21 %%. ((

20.

Pete 9? 7een an+ Mi&ae/ S&ott Moton De&ision S*%%ot S!stems: An

OganiHationa/ Pes%e&tiveA++ison?es/e! Rea+ing MA 1-2,.

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Simon . Te Sa%e of A*tomation fo Man an+ Management a%e an+

Ro" Ne" o# 1-6(.

Simon e4et A. Te Ne" S&ien&e of Management De&ision a%e an+

Ro" Ne" o# 1-60.

10

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S!stem Deve/o%ment A%%oa&es

Leaning O4e&tives


• *n+estan+ s!stem +eve/o%ment as a /ife &!&/e a%%oa& an+ +es&i4e

s!stem +eve/o%ment stagesG

• +is&*ss te meto+s fo &on&/*+ing %e/imina! investigationsG

• +es&i4e vaio*s s!stem +eve/o%ment a%%oa&es.

S!stem +eve/o%ment is ega+e+ as anote fom of %o4/emso/ving in soft"ae

"i& &onsists of a&tivities /i#e

;i.< *n+estan+ing te %o4/em

;ii.< +e&i+ing a %/an fo a so/*tion;iii.< &o+ing te %/anne+ so/*tion an+

;iv.< testing te &o+e+ %ogam.

10.1 SSTEM DE8ELOPMENT STA9ES

In o+e to +eve/o% a s!stem s*&&essf*//! it is manage+ 4! 4ea#ing te tota/

+eve/o%ment %o&ess into sma//e 4asi& a&tivities o %ases. An! s!stem

+eve/o%ment %o&ess in genea/ is *n+estoo+ to ave te fo//o"ing %ases.

;i.< Investigation

;ii.< Ana/!sis

;iii.< Design

;iv.< Const*&tion

;v.< Im%/ementation an+

;vi.< Maintenan&e.

A 4ief +es&i%tion of te a4ovementione+ stages is +is&*sse+ as fo//o"s.

10.1.1 S!stem Investigation

Some %o4/em ma! 4e 4oteing a 4*siness oganisation. Te manages in te

oganisation ;*se< ma! o ma! not 4e ve! &/ea a4o*t te %o4/em. Te *se

ma! invite a s!stem ana/!st o infomation ana/!st ;&ons*/tant< to assist ime

in +efining an+ eso/ving te %o4/em in a &/ea "a!.

Pe/imina! investigation is te fist ste% in te s!stem +eve/o%ment %oe&t. Te

%e/imina! investigation is a "a! of an+/ing te *se=s eB*est to &ange

im%ove o enan&e an existing s!stem. Te o4e&tive is to +etemine "ete te

eB*est is va/i+ an+ feasi4/e 4efoe an! e&ommen+ation is ma+e to +o noting

im%ove o mo+if! te existing s!stem o 4*i/+ a/togete a ne" one. It is not a

+esign st*+! no +oes it in&/*+e te &o//e&tion of +etai/s to &om%/ete/! +es&i4e

te 4*siness s!stem. Te fo//o"ing o4e&tives so*/+ 4e a&&om%/ise+ "i/e

"o#ing on te %e/imina! investigation. S!stem investigation in&/*+es te

fo//o"ing t"o s*4stages.

;i.< Po4/em +efinition an+;ii.< Feasi4i/it! st*+!.

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Po4/em Definition

A/to*g te nee+ fo %o4/em +efinition ma! seem o4vio*s tis is %ea%s te

most feB*ent/! 4!%asse+ ste% in te entie s!stem +eve/o%ment %o&ess. So te

fist es%onsi4i/it! of a s!stem ana/!st is to %e%ae a "itten statement of te

o4e&tives an+ s&o%e of te %o4/em. 3ase+ on intevie"s "it te *se te

ana/!st "ites a 4ief +es&i%tion of ise *n+estan+ing of te %o4/em an+evie"s it "it 4ot go*%s i+ea//! in a oint *seinfomation ana/!st meeting.

Peo%/e es%on+ to "itten statements. Te! as# fo &/aifi&ations an+ te!

&oe&t o4vio*s eos o mis*n+estan+ings. Tis is "! a &/ea statement of

o4e&tives is so im%otant.

In ote "o+s %o%e *n+estan+ing an+ +efinition of te %o4/em is essentia/

to +is&ove te &a*se of te %o4/em an+ to %/an a +ie&te+ investigation 4!

as#ing B*estions /i#e "at is 4eing +one@ ?!@ Is tee an *n+e/!ing eason

+iffeent fom te one te *se i+entifies@

ee ae some %ossi4/e +efinitions of %o4/ems.;i.< Te existing s!stem as a %oo es%onse time i.e. it is s/o".

;ii.< It is *na4/e to an+/e te "o#/oa+.

;iii.< Te %o4/em of &ost i.e. te existing s!stem is not e&onomi&a/.

;iv.< Te %o4/em of a&&*a&! an+ e/ia4i/it!.

;v.< Te eB*isite infomation is not %o+*&e+ 4! te existing s!stem.

;vi.< Te %o4/em of se&*it!.

Simi/a/! a s!stem ana/!st so*/+ %ovi+e a o*g estimate of te &ost invo/ve+

fo te s!stem +eve/o%ment Tis is again a ve! im%otant B*estion tat too

often is not as#e+ *nti/ it is B*ite /ate in te s!stem +eve/o%ment %o&ess.

Feasi4i/it! St*+!

Te /itea/ meaning of feasi4i/it! is via4i/it!. Tis st*+! is *n+eta#en to #no"

te /i#e/ioo+ of te s!stem 4eing *sef*/ to te oganisation. Feasi4i/it! st*+!

4asi&a//! is a ig/eve1 &a%s*/e vesion of te entie %o&ess inten+e+ to ans"e

a n*m4e of B*estions /i#e "at is te %o4/em@ Is te %o4/em even "ot

so/ving@ IIo"eve as te name in+i&ates in %e/imina! investigation feasi4i/it!

st*+! so*/+ 4e e/ative/! 4ief as te o4e&tive at tis stage is on/! to get an i+ea

of te s&o%e. Te fin+ing of tis st*+! so*/+ 4e foma//! %esente+ to te *se

management. Tis %esentation ma#s a &*&ia/ +e&ision %oint in te /ife of te

%oe&t. If te management a%%oves te %oe&t te feasi4i/it! st*+! e%ote%esents an ex&e//ent mo+e/ of te s!stem ana/!st=s *n+estan+ing of te

%o4/em an+ %ovi+es a &/ea sense of +ie&tion fo te s*4seB*ent +eve/o%ment

of te s!stem.

Te aim of a feasi4i/it! st*+! is to assess a/tenative s!stems an+ to %o%ose te

most feasi4/e an+ +esia4/e s!stem fo +eve/o%ment. T*s feasi4i/it! st*+!

%ovi+es an ovevie" of te %o4/em an+ a&ts as an im%otant &e&#%oint tat

so*/+ 4e &om%/ete+ 4efoe &ommitting moe eso*&es. Te feasi4i/it! of a

%o%ose+ s!stem &an 4e assesse+ in tems of fo* mao &ategoies as

s*mmaise+ 4e/o".

Oganisationa/ Feasi4i/it!

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Te extent to "i& a %o%ose+ infomation s!stem s*%%ots te o4e&tive of te

oganisation=s stategi& %/an fo infomation s!stems +etemines te

oganisationa/ feasi4i/it! of te s!stem %oe&t. Te infomation s!stem m*st 4e

ta#en as a s*4set of te "o/e oganisation.

E&onomi& Feasi4i/it!In tis st*+! &osts an+ et*ns ae eva/*ate+ to #no" "ete et*ns *stif! te

investment in te s!stem %oe&t. Te e&onomi& B*estions aise+ 4! ana/!sts

+*ing te %e/imina! investigation ae fo te %*%ose of estimating te

fo//o"ing:

;a< te &ost of &on+*&ting a f*// s!stem investigation.

;4< te &ost of a+"ae an+ soft"ae fo te &/ass of a%%/i&ation 4eing

&onsi+ee+.

;&< te 4enefits in te fom of e+*&e+ &osts im%ove+ &*stome sevi&e

im%ove+ eso*&e *ti/isation o fe"e &ost/! eos.

;iii< Te&ni&a/ Feasi4i/it! ?ete e/ia4/e a+"ae an+ soft"ae &a%a4/e

of meeting te nee+s of te %o%ose+ s!stem &an 4e a&B*ie+ o +eve/o%e+ 4! teoganisaton in te eB*ie+ time is a mao &on&en of te te&ni&a/ feasi4i/it!. In

ote "o+s te&ni&a/ feasi4i/it! in&/*+es B*estions /i#e:

;a< Does te ne&essa! te&no/og! exist to +o "at is s*ggeste+ an+ &an it 4e

a&B*ie+@

;4< Does te %o%ose+ eB*i%ment ave te te&ni&a/ &a%a&it! to o/+ te +ata

eB*ie+ to *se te ne" s!stem@

;&< ?i// te %o%ose+ s!stem %ovi+e a+eB*ate es%onses to inB*iies

ega+/ess of te n*m4e of /o&ations an+ *ses@

;+< Can te s!stem 4e ex%an+e+@

;e< Is tee an! te&ni&a/ s*et! of a&&*a&! e/ia4i/it! ease of a&&ess an+

+ata se&*it!@ O%eationa/ Feasi4i/it!.

Te "i//ingness an+ a4i/it! of te management em%/o!ees &*stomes s*%%/ies

et&. to o%eate *se an+ s*%%ot a %o%ose+ s!stem &ome *n+e o%eationa/

feasi4i/it!. In ote "o+s te test of o%eationa/ feasi4i/it! as#s if te s!stem

"i// "o# "en it is +eve/o%e+ an+ insta//e+. Ae tee mao 4aies to

im%/ementation@ Te fo//o"ing B*estions ae as#e+ in o%eationa/ feasi4i/it!.

;a< Is tee s*ffi&ient s*%%ot fom te management@ Fom em%/o!ees@ Fom

&*stomes@ Fom s*%%/ies@

;4< Ae &*ent 4*siness meto+s a&&e%ta4/e to te *ses@

;&< ave te *ses 4een invo/ve+ in te %/anning an+ +eve/o%ment of tes!stem %oe&t@

O%eationa/ feasi4i/it! "o*/+ %ass te test if te s!stem is +eve/o%e+ as %e */es

eg*/ations /a"s oganisationa/ &*/t*e *nion ageements et&. an+ a4ove a//

"it te a&tive invo/vement of te *ses.

3esi+es tese fo* main &ategoies te s!stem so*/+ a/so 4e assesse+ in tems of

/ega/ feasi4i/it! an+ s&e+*/e feasi4i/it!. ?eeas /ega/ feasi4i/it! efes to te

via4i/it! of te s!stem fom te /ega/ %oint of vie" i.e. it &e&#s "ete te

s!stem a4i+es 4! a// /a"s an+ eg*/ations of te /an+ te s&e+*/e feasi4i/it!

eva/*ates te %o4a4i/it! of &om%/eting te s!stem in te time a//o"e+ fo its

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+eve/o%ment sin&e fo te s!stem to 4e *sef*/ it m*st 4e finise+ "e// 4efoe te

a&t*a/ eB*iement of its *sage.

Fo +etemining feasi4i/it! a %oe&t %o%osa/ m*st %ass a// tese tests.

Ote"ise it is not a feasi4/e %oe&t. Fo exam%/e a %esonne/ e&o+ s!stem

tat is e&onomi&a//! feasi4/e an+ o%eationa//! atta&tive is not feasi4/e if tene&essa! te&no/og! +oes not exist. Infeasi4/e %oe&ts ae a4an+one+ at tis

stage *n/ess te! ae e"o#e+ an+ es*4mitte+ as ne" %o%osa/s.

Fo//o"ing ae te meto+s fo &on+*&ting a %e/imina! investigation.

Meto+s of Pe/imina! Investigation

D*ing a %e/imina! investigation te fo//o"ing t"o main meto+s ae *se+.

;i.< Revie"ing +o&*ments an+

;ii.< Intevie"ing se/e&te+ %esons.

;i< Revie"ing Oganisation Do&*mentsTe ana/!sts &on+*&ting te investigation fist /ean a4o*t te oganisation

invo/ve+ in o affe&te+ 4! te s!stem %oe&t. Fo exam%/e to evie" an

invento! s!stems %o%osa/ means #no"ing fist o" te invento! +e%atment

o%eates an+ "o te manages an+ s*%evisos ae@ It &an 4e /eant 4!

examining te oganisation &ats an+ st*+!ing "itten o%eating %o&e+*es.

Te %o&e+*es +es&i4e o" te invento! %o&ess so*/+ o%eate an+ i+entif!

te most im%otant ste%s invo/ve+ in e&eiving managing an+ +is%ensing sto&#.

;ii< Con+*&ting Intevie"s

?itten +o&*ments +o not give *sevie"s a4o*t &*ent o%eations. To /ean

tese +etai/s ana/!sts &on+*&t intevie"s. Intevie"s a//o" ana/!sts to /ean

moe a4o*t te nat*e of te s!stem %oe&t eB*est an+ te eason fo

s*4mitting it. To a&&om%/is te %*%ose of te intevie" ana/!sts m*st 4e s*e

to em%asise te eB*est an+ te %o4/em it a++esses. In ote "o+s

intevie"s so*/+ %ovi+e +etai/s tat f*te ex%/ain te %oe&t an+ so"

"ete assistan&e is meite+ e&onomi&a//! o%eationa//! an+ te&ni&a//!. It

m*st 4e #e%t in min+ tat "o#ing o*t a so/*tion to te sit*ation &omes /ate

+*ing te +etai/e+ investigation.

Te fo//o"ing fomat is s*ggestive of te %e/imina! investigation s&o%e.

1. Poe&t Tit/e'. Po4/em Statement H Con&ise %ossi4/! in a fe" /ines stating te %o4/em.

$. Poe&t O4e&tives : State o4e&tives of te %oe&t +efine+ 4! te %o4/em.

). Pe/imina! I+eas : Possi4/e so/*tions if an! o&&*ing to *se an+o

ana/!st &o*/+ 4e state+ ee.

(. Poe&t S&o%e : 9ive ovea// &ost estimate.

6. Feasi4i/it! St*+! : In+i&ate ee time an+ &ost fo te next ste%.

10.1.' S!stem Ana/!sis

Ana/!sis is a +etai/e+ st*+! of te vaio*s o%eations of a 4*siness a&tivit!

;s!stem< a/ong "it its 4o*n+aies Te o4e&tive of tis %ase is to +etemine

exa&t/! "at m*st 4e +one to so/ve te %o4/em. Man! s!stem ana/!sts ave ate&ni&a/ 4a&#go*n+. Te tem%tation of man! te&ni&a//! taine+ %eo%/e is to

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move too B*i&#/! to %ogam +esign to 4e&ome %emat*e/! %!si&a/. S*& a

tem%tation m*st 4e avoi+e+ ate a /ogi&a/ mo+e/ of te s!stem so*/+ 4e

+eve/o%e+ *sing vaio*s mo+en too/s s*& as +ata f/o" +iagams an e/ementa!

+ata +i&tiona! an+ o*g +es&i%tions of te e/evant a/goitms. S!stem

ana/!sis invo/ves a +etai/e+ st*+! of:

;i< Te infomation nee+s of te oganisation an+ its en+ *ses.;ii< Existing infomation s!stems ;tei a&tivities eso*&es an+ %o+*&ts<.

;iii< Te ex%e&te+ infomation s!stem ;in tems of &a%a4i/ities of IS eB*ie+

to meet te infomation nee+s of *ses<.

Te fina/ %o+*&t of s!stem ana/!sis is a set of s!stem eB*iements of a %o%ose+

infomation s!stem. 7ee%ing in vie" te im%otan&e of s!stem ana/!sis it as

4een +is&*sse+ in +etai/ in Ca%te 11. Te ana/!sis %ase %ovi+es te ana/!st

"it a &/ea *n+estan+ing of "at is to 4e +one. Te next ste% is to +e&i+e as to

o" te %o4/em migt 4e so/ve+.

10.1.$ S!stem DesignS!stem ana/!sis +es&i4es ?AT a s!stem so*/+ +o to meet te infomation

nee+s of *ses. S!stem +esign s%e&ifies O? te s!stem "i// a&&om%/is tis

o4e&tive. Te tem +esign efes to te te&ni&a/ s%e&ifi&ation ;ana/ogo*s to te

aeite&t=s 4/*e %ints< tat "i// 4e im%/ie+ in &onst*&ting te s!stem. S!stem

+esign so*/+ stess on te fo//o"ing tee a&tivities.

;i< Use intefa&e

;ii< Data +esign an+

;iii< Po&ess +esign.

?ee an intefa&e +esign a&tivit! fo&*ses on +esigning te intea&tions 4et"een

en+ *ses an+ &om%*te s!stemsG te +ata +esign a&tivit! fo&*ses on te +esign of

te /ogi&a/ st*&t*e of +ata4ase an+ fi/es to 4e *se+ 4! te %o%ose+ infomation

s!stem. Po&ess +esign a&tivit! fo&*ses on te +esign of te soft"ae eso*&es

tat is te %ogams an+ %o&e+*es nee+e+ 4! te %o%ose+ infomation

s!stem. In tis %ase s!stem +esignes so*/+ *se tei #no"/e+ge of 4*siness

o%eations infomation %o&essing an+ a+"ae an+ soft"ae to s%e&if! te

%!si&a/ +esign of an infomation s!stem. Te +esign m*st s%e&if! "at t!%e of

a+"ae eso*&es soft"ae eso*&es ;%ogams an+ %o&e+*es< an+ %eo%/e

eso*&es ;en+ *ses an+ s!stem staff< "i// 4e nee+e+. Tese s%e&ifi&ations ae

a/so #no"n as s!stem s%e&ifi&ations. Detai/e+ s!stem +esign is given in Ca%te

11.

10.1.) Const*&tion *n+ Testing

On&e te s!stem s%e&ifi&ations ae *n+estoo+ te s!stem is %!si&a//! &eate+.

Te eB*ie+ %ogams ae &o+e+ +e4*gge+ an+ +o&*mente+. Te s!stem

so*/+ 4e teste+ "it some test +ata to ens*e its a&&*a&! an+ e/ia4i/it!. In fa&t

&onst*&tion of te s!stem ta#es %/a&e on te 4asis of te s!stem +esign

s%e&ifi&ations. So in tis %ase te vaio*s +ie&tions as %e s!stem s%e&ifi&ations

ae fo//o"e+. In a++ition to te a&tivities %efome+ +*ing s!stem +eve/o%ment

some a&tivities ae %efome+ afte te 4asi& +eve/o%ment is &om%/ete. S*&

a&tivities ae &ovee+ *n+e te im%/ementation %ase an+ maintenan&e %ase.

Tese %ases ae +es&i4e+ 4e/o".

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10.1.( Im%/ementation

Te s!stem im%/ementation stage invo/ves a+"ae an+ soft"ae a&B*isition

site %e%aation *se taining an+ insta//ation of te s!stem. ee again testing

of te s!stem invo/ving a// &om%onents an+ %o&e+*es so*/+ 4e +one. It m*st

4e ea/ise+ tat im%/ementation ma! 4e te most &*&ia/ %ase of S!stem

Deve/o%ment Life C!&/e 4e&a*se tis ste% is vita/ in ass*ing te s*&&ess of an!ne"/! +eve/o%e+ s!stem. Even a "e//+esigne+ s!stem "i// fai/ if it is not %o%e/!

im%/emente+. Ca%te 1' +is&*sses in +etai/ te %o&esses an+ stategies fo te

im%/ementation of a ne"/! +eve/o%e+ infomation s!stem.

10.1.6 Maintenan&e

S!stem maintenan&e invo/ves te monitoing eva/*ating an+ mo+if!ing of a

s!stem to ma#e +esia4/e o ne&essa! im%ovements. In ote "o+s

maintenan&e in&/*+es enan&ements mo+ifi&ations o an! &ange fom te

oigina/ s%e&ifi&ations. Teefoe te infomation ana/!st so*/+ ta#e &ange as

ise es%onsi4i/it! so as to #ee% te s!stem f*n&tioning at an a&&e%ta4/e /eve/.

Tis as%e&t as a/so 4een to*&e+ *%on in Ca%te 1'.

Soft"ae nee+s to 4e maintaine+ not 4e&a*se some of its mo+*/es o %ogams

"ea o*t= an+ = nee+ to 4e e%/a&e+ 4*t 4e&a*se tee ae often some esi+*a/

eos emaining in te s!stem "i& ave to 4e emove+ as soon as te! ae

+is&ovee+. Tis is an ongoing %o&ess *nti/ te s!stem sta4i/ises.

10.' SSTEM DE8ELOPMENT APPROACES

As +is&*sse+ in te %e&e+ing %aaga%s s!stem +eve/o%ment in genea/ is

&onsi+ee+ as a %o&ess &onsisting of vaio*s %ases. In o+e to ma#e s*e tat

te s!stems ae ana/!se+ an+ +esigne+ effi&ient/! an+ effe&tive/! it is essentia/ to

a+o%t a s*ita4/e mo+e/ fo "i& a 4asi& *n+estan+ing of vaio*s s!stem

+eve/o%ment a%%oa&esmo+e/s &*ent/! in *se is a m*st. In a s!stem

+eve/o%ment effot te goa/ is to %o+*&e ig B*a/it! soft"ae. As as a/ea+!

4een +is&*sse+ te +eve/o%ment %o&ess &onsists of a&tivities name/!

;i< Investigation

;ii< Ana/!sis

;iii< Design

;iv< Const*&tion

;v< Im%/ementation an+

;vi< Maintenan&e.

A s!stem +eve/o%ment mo+e/ s%e&ifies o" tese a&tivities ae oganise+ in tetota/ s!stem +eve/o%ment effot. 8aio*s mo+e/s fo s!stem +eve/o%ment ae

+is&*sse+ 4e/o".

10.'.1 ?atefa// Mo+e/

?atefa// mo+e/ "i& fo//o"s te SDLC ;S!stem Deve/o%ment Life C!&/e<

a%%oa& 4e&ame %o%*/a in 1-20s. Te mo+e/ states tat te %ases ae

oganise+ in a Linea O+e. In ote "o+s te o*t%*t of one %ase 4e&omes

te in%*t fo te next %ase. 8aio*s %ases ave a/ea+! 4een ex%/aine+ *n+e a

genea/ mo+e/ of s!stem +eve/o%ment. Te "atefa// mo+e/ is so"n in Fig. 10.1.

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In SDLC a%%oa& te s!stem is vis*a/ise+ as a /iving oganism. Te s!stem

ta#es 4it ea&es te mat*it! stage to*g a+o/es&en&e an+ */timate/! +ies

its nat*a/ +eat. Limitations of ?atefa// Mo+e/

;i< In te "atefa// mo+e/ eve! %ase is &onsi+ee+ as a +istin&t %ase "i&

&an 4e iso/ate+ fom te est o te next %ase. To e/a4oate te mo+e/ ass*mestat te eB*iements of a s!stem &an 4e foHen 4efoe te +esign 4egins. 3*t fo

a ne" s!stem +etemining eB*iements is a +iffi&*/t %o&ess as te *se imse/f

+oes not #no" ise infomation eB*iements an+ t*s to feeHe tem 4efoe

+esign is not %a&ti&a/.

;ii< FeeHing te eB*iements *s*a//! eB*ies te &oi&e of a+"ae to 4e

ma+e. o"eve in te &ase of /age %oe&ts "i& migt ta#e a fe" !eas to 4e

&om%/ete+ te eama#e+ a+"ae te&no/og! ma! 4e&ome o4so/ete even

4efoe te s!stem 4e&omes %!si&a/.

;iii< Te mo+e/ stesses tat te eB*iements so*/+ 4e &om%/ete/! s%e&ifie+

4efoe te 4eginning of te next %ase. 3*t in some of te sit*ations it migt 4e

+esia4/e to fist +eve/o% a %at

Fig. 10.1 Te ?atefa// Mo+e/

of te s!stem &om%/ete/! an+ /ate enan&e te s!stem in %ases. Fo exam%/e

s!stems +eve/o%e+ fo genea/ ma#eting.

10.'.' Potot!%ing

In te %otot!%ing a%%oa& a %otot!%e of te s!stem is +eve/o%e+ instea+ of

te &om%/ete s!stem. A %otot!%e is a &om%eensive s!stem an+ +oes not in&/*+e

a// te eB*iements of te *se. Tis mo+e/ is 4ase+ on te evo/*tiona! meto+

of s!stem +eve/o%ment ;see Fig. 10.'<.

Potot!%ing is *se+ in tose s!stems in "i& i+entifi&ation of eB*iements is

+iffi&*/t an+ eB*iements ma! &ange +*ing te +eve/o%ment %o&ess. Tis

mo+e/ a+vo&ates te +eve/o%ment

Fig. 10.' Potot!%e Mo+e/

of a to"a"a! %otot!%e to 4e given to te *se to e/% *n+estan+ ise

eB*iements. On te 4asis of fee+4a&# te a&t*a/ s!stem is +eve/o%e+. Te

mo+e/ in genea/ as te fo//o"ing fo* ste%s.

;i< I+entit! te *se=s 4asi& intomation eB*iements

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In tis ste% te *se i+entifies is eB*iements in te fom of o*t%*ts eB*ie+

fom te s!stem.

Te infomation ana/!st on te 4asis of *se ex%e&tations estimates te &ost of a

"o#a4/e %otot!%e.

;ii< Deve/o% te initia/ %otot!%e s!stem

ee te initia/ %otot!%e s!stem "i& meets te *se=s 4asi& infomation

eB*iements is +eve/o%e+.

It is +eve/o%e+ in te minim*m %ossi4/e time. Te s%ee+ of 4*i/+ing ate

tan effi&ien&! of te %otot!%e is te main &onsi+eation.

;iii< Use to te %otot!%e s!stem to efine te *ses eB*iements

Te initia//!+eve/o%e+ %otot!%e is +e/ivee+ to te *se to a//o" im to gain

an+son ex%eien&e "it te s!stem to i+entif! f*te efinements&anges

eB*ie+ in te %otot!%e.

;iv< Revise *n+ en&in&e te %otot!%e s!stem

In tis stage te +esigne ma#es te ne&essa! &angesefinements %ointe+o*t 4! te *se afte *sing te %otot!%e. Ste%s ;iii< an+ ;iv< ae e%eate+ again

an+ again ti// te %otot!%e is efine+ to te satisfa&tion of te *se. Potot!%ing

a%%oa& ma! not 4e &osteffe&tive in sma// oganisations. It is moe s*ita4/e fo

/age oganisations "ee it is +iffi&*/t to i+entif! *se eB*iements.

Te %otot!%ing a%%oa& as te fo//o"ing signifi&ant a+vantages in te

+eve/o%ment of a s!stem.

;i< A4i/it! to t! o*t= i+eas "ito*t in&*ing /age &osts.

;ii< Lo"e ovea// +eve/o%ment &osts "en eB*iements &ange feB*ent/!.

;iii< Te a4i/it! to get a f*n&tioning s!stem into te an+s of te *se B*i&#/!.

o"eve a mao &iti&ism of tis a%%oa& is 4e&a*se of its iteative nat*e.

Tis a%%oa& eB*ies at /east t"o iteations. Moeove it ma! 4e&ome an

*nen+ing %o&ess of efinement "i& ma! ta#e too m*& time effot an+

mone!.

Se&on+ it is a/so &iti&ise+ 4e&a*se %otot!%es ae *s*a//! not &om%/ete s!stems

an+ man! of te +etai/s ae not 4*i/t in te %otot!%e. Ti+ +*e to feB*ent

&anges management of te +eve/o%ment %o&ess a/so 4e&omes +iffi&*/t

10.'.$ Ite*tive En*n&emen/ Mo+e/

In an iteative enan&ement mo+e/ te s!stem is +eve/o%e+ in in&ements an+ea& in&ement a++s some f*n&tiona/ &a%a4i/ities to te s!stem *nti/ te f*//

s!stem is +eve/o%e+. A++itions an+ mo+ifi&ations &an 4e +one at ea& ste%. To

4egin "it on/! a s*4set of te ovea// %o4/em is &onsi+ee+ in +eve/o%ing te

s!stem. Te se/e&te+ s*4set ma! 4e one of te im%otant s*4sets "i& ma!

&ontain some of te #e! as%e&ts of te %o4/em. Te iteative enan&ement

%o&ess mo+e/ is *n+estoo+ to ave on/! tee %ases name/! ana/!sis

im%/ementation an+ +esign as so"n in Fi . 10.$.

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Fig. 10.$ Te Iteative Enan&ement Mo+e/

Tis mo+e/ as an o4vio*s a+vantage tat it &an es*/t in 4ette testing as testing

ea& in&ement is e/ative/! easie tan testing te entie s!stem as in te

"atefa// mo+e/. A/so as in %otot!%ing te in&ements %ovi+e fee+4a&# to te

*se "i& is *sef*/ fo +etemining te fina/ eB*iements of te s!stem T*siteative enan&ement mo+e/ &om4ines te 4enefits of 4ot %otot!%ing an+ te

"atefa// mo+e/.

o"eve iteative enan&ement mo+e/ a/so s*ffes fom te fo//o"ing

/imitations.

;i< Te mo+e/ +oes not give a &om%/ete s!stem an+ t*s man! of te +etai/s ma!

not 4e in&o%oate+ in te +eve/o%e+ s!stem.

;ii< As te mo+e/ is 4ase+ on mo+if!itagain= a%%oa& it ma! 4e time

&ons*ming an+ is not &osteffe&tive.

10.'.) S%ia/ Mo+e/Te s%ia/ mo+e/ is te most e&ent s!stem +eve/o%ment mo+e/ "i& as 4een

%o%ose+ 4! 3oem. Tis mo+e/ s*ggests tat te vaio*s a&tivities invo/ve+ in

s!stem +eve/o%ment so*/+ 4e oganiHe+ /i#e a s%ia/. Tis mo+e/ %ovi+es a

fame"o# fo +eve/o%ing a %o&ess "i& is g*i+e+ 4! te is# /eve/ of te

%oe&t. Tis mo+e/ as te name in+i&ates is &!&/i& in nat*e an+ is so"n in Fig.

10.). Ea& &!&/e of te s%ia/ &onsists of fo* stages e%esente+ 4! one B*a+ant

ea&. Te ang*/a +imension e%esents te %ogess in te +eve/o%ment %o&ess

"eeas te a+i*s of te s%ia/ e%esents te &ost invo/ve+.

Fig. 10.) S%ia/ Mo+e/

Te fist stage is &on&ene+ "it te i+entifi&ation of te o4e&tives vaio*s

+eve/o%menta/ a/tenatives an+ &onstains to +eve/o% an infomation s!stem.

Eva/*ation of vaio*s a/tenatives an+ i+entifi&ation of te is# is *n+eta#en in

te se&on+ stage. In te ti+ stage next /eve/ %otot!%e is +eve/o%e+ an+ veifie+

an+ te es*/ts of te %evio*s stages ae evie"e+ an+ %/anning fo next

iteation is +one in te fo*t stage.

Te s%ia/ mo+e/ is moe s*ita4/e fo igis# %oe&ts. Fo sma// %oe&ts tis

mo+e/ ma! not 4e time an+ &osteffe&tive. No"a+a!s anote te&niB*e #no"n

as te Fo*t 9eneation Te&niB*e ;)9T< is a/so 4eing *se+ to B*i&#/! +eve/o%

infomation s!stems. Tis te&niB*e ma#es *se of a n*m4e of soft"ae

+eve/o%ment too/s. Te +eve/o%e as on/! to s%e&if! a fe" &aa&teisti&s of te

soft"ae at a ig /eve/. Te too/s ten a*tomati&a//! +eve/o% te &o+e fo te

given s%e&ifi&ations. Tis mo+e/. No +o*4t is B*i&# 4*t its s*&&ess is esti&te+ 4!

te &a%a&it! of te avai/a4/e )9Ls.

o"eve te mo+e/ ma! 4e *sef*/ fo sma//e %oe&ts.

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It ma! 4e note+ tat te +iffeent a%%oa&es +is&*sse+ a4ove ae *se+ as

s*%%/ementa! ate tan &om%/ementa! a%%oa&es to soft"ae +eve/o%ment.

De%en+ing *%on te nat*e an+ siHe of te %oe&t an+ te is# invo/ve+ teein

a &om4ination of moe tan one mo+e/ ;!4i+ A%%oa&< ma! 4e an

a%%o%iate stateg!.

SUMMAR

S!stem +eve/o%ment is ega+e+ as a &om%/ete %o&ess &onsisting of vaio*s

%ases name/! investigation ana/!sis +esign &onst*&tion im%/ementation

an+ maintenan&e. S!stem investigation "i& is te fist ste% in te s!stem

+eve/o%ment is a "a! of an+/ing *ses= eB*est to &ange im%ove o enan&e

an existing s!stem. Te o4e&tive of tis %ase is to +etemine "ete te

eB*est is va/i+ an+ feasi4/e 4efoe an! e&ommen+ation is ma+e ega+ing te

s!stem. 3asi&a//! tis %ase invo/ves t"o s*4stages name/! %o4/em +efinition

an+ feasi4i/it! st*+!. Pe/imina! investigation ma! 4e &on+*&te+ 4! evie"ing

oganisation +o&*ments an+o intevie"ing se/e&te+ %esons.

S!stem ana/!sis is a +etai/e+ st*+! of te vaio*s o%eations of a 4*siness a&tivit!

a/ong "it its 4o*n+aies. Main o4e&tive of tis %ase is to fin+ o*t te

eB*iements of te *ses #no"n as eB*iement s%e&ifi&ations. In ote "o+s

s!stem ana/!sis +es&i4es ?AT a s!stem so*/+ +o to meet te infomation

nee+s of *ses. S!stem +esign s%e&ifies O? te s!stem "i// a&&om%/is tis

o4e&tive. S!stem +esign stesses on *se intefa&e +ata +esign an+ %o&ess

+esign. aving %e%ae+ te +esign s%e&ifi&ations "i& is an o*t%*t of te

+esign %ase te s!stem is %!si&a//! &eate+ i.e. te eB*ie+ %ogamming is

+one. Te &onst*&te+ s!stem is teste+ +e4*gge+ an+ +o&*mente+.

S!stem im%/ementation is a %ase afte te s!stem is %!si&a//! &eate+ an+ is

ea+! fo insta//ation. Te s!stem is %*t to o%eation 4! insta//ing it in te *ses=

%emises an+ te %o&ess is #no"n as s!stem im%/ementation. Maintenan&e of an

im%/emente+ s!stem is an ongoing a&tivit! "i& invo/ves monitoing va/*ating

an+ mo+if!ing te s!stem to #ee% it *%+ate+ an+ "o#ing at te igest /eve/ of

effi&ien&!. Tee ae sevea/ +eve/o%ment a%%oa&es "i& &o*/+ 4e a+o%te+ in

+eve/o%ing an infomation s!stem. Tese a%%oa&es in&/*+e "atefa// mo+e/

%otot!%ing iteative enan&ement mo+e/ s%ia/ mo+e/ et&. No a%%oa& &o*/+

4e teme+ as te 4est a%%oa&. o"eve it is te +eve/o%e of te s!stem "o

+e&i+es a %ati&*/a a%%oa& o a &om4ination of moe tan one a%%oa& fo+eve/o%ing a s!stem +e%en+ing on te sit*ation.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

1. 3ief/! ex%/ain te %ases invo/ve+ in s!stem +eve/o%ment.

'. ?at a/tenative +eve/o%ment stategies exist@ ?! ae tee +iffeent

stategies@

$. o" +o te SDLC an+ Potot!%ing meto+s +iffe@ o" migt te! 4e

intee/ate+@

). ?! is a s!stem %otot!%e@ ?i// !o* e&ommen+ te *se of te %otot!%e

meto+ fo s!stem +eve/o%ment@ ?en an+ ?!@

(. Dis&*ss te iteative enan&ement meto+. I/o" +oes tis meto+ +iffefom ote +eve/o%ment meto+s@

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ASSI9NMENT

1. Ass*me !o* ave 4een as#e+ to +eve/o% an infomation s!stem fo

%o&essing te es*/t of !o* &/ass.

?i& meto+ "o*/+ !o* %efe fo +eve/o%ing s*& a s!stem@ A/so &on+*&t

a feasi4i/it! st*+! an+ %e%ae a feasi4i/it! e%ot.

REFERENCES


S!stems: Con&e%t*a/ Fo*n+ations St*&t*e an+ Deve/o%ment M&9a"i//

Co. Ne" De/i 1-,).

a/ote Pan#a An Integate+ A%%oa& to Soft"ae Engineeing Naosa

P*4/ising o*se Ne" De/i 1--1.

Senn ames A. Ana/!sis an+ Design of Infomation S!stems M&9a"i//

P*4/ising Co. Singa%oe 1-,-.

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CASE STUD /

MIS at Mani# Man*fa&t*ing

Mani# Man*fa&t*ing is a me+i*msiHe+ man*fa&t*e "it ann*a/ sa/es of Rs

(0 mi//ion %e !ea. It is %imai/! a o4so% man*fa&t*e #no"n fo its a4i/it!

in &*stomman*fa&t*ing %oe&ts %imai/! invo/ving meta/ fa4i&ation. Ove

te %ast '0 !eas Mani# as 4een a4/e to a*tomate most of te mao

tansa&tion oiente+ &om%*te4ase+ infomation s!stems "it magina/

s*&&ess. Te mao &om%/aint a4o*t te s!stems is tat te! assist %imai/! *st

in te tansa&tion&/ei&a/ aea. Te! %ovi+e+ /itt/e s*%%ot fo mi++/e an+

*%%e /eve/ management +e&isionma#ing. In an effot to im%ove Mani#=s

infomation s!stems D.S. 8as* vi&e %esi+ent of infomation s!stems e&ent/!

4o*gt in a ne" s!stems +eve/o%ment manage 7.7. Raina %evio*s/! "o#ing

fo a &om%etito. M Raina a+ a e%*tation fo +oing innovative tings in te

aea of infomation s!stem +eve/o%ment. Te genea/ an+ to%management of is

%evio*s em%/o!e "as exteme/! %/ease+ "it te t!%es of infomation s!stem

s*%%ot tat te! a+ e&eive+.

M Raina a+ 4een %ati&*/a/! s*&&essf*/ in im%/ementing a e*isti&

+eve/o%ment in te s!stem ana/!sis an+ +esign %o&ess as a "a! to +efine moe

a&&*ate/! en+*se eB*iements an+ to &*tsot te s!stem +eve/o%ment%o&ess. e "as a/so geat/! s#i//e+ in se/e&ting te 4est infomation s!stem

+eve/o%ment too/s avai/a4/e an+ tee4! ens*ing tat is staff "as as %o+*&tive

as te&no/og! "o*/+ a//o".

?en M Raina aive+ at Mani# Man*fa&t*ing e "as %e%ae+ to

im%/ement te te&no/ogies an+ te&niB*es tat e a+ 4een so s*&&essf*/ "it

%io to oining Mani# Man*fa&t*ing. Unfot*nate/! e an into a seio*s

%o4/em. Te s!stem ana/!sis an+ +esign staff a+ e&ent/! gone to*g a

evam%ing of tei s!stem +eve/o%ment meto+o/ogies. Te! a+ a ate

s*4stantia/ s!stem +eve/o%ment meto+o/og! tat a+ evo/ve+ ove te !eas

an+ in tei most e&ent evision te! a+ in&o%oate+ te /atest st*&t*e+

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te&niB*es into tei o/+ meto+o/og!. aving 4een invo/ve+ in its +eve/o%ment

te staff a+ a stong &ommitment to te meto+o/og!.

In assessing te meto+o/og! Raina B*i&#/! +e&i+e+ tat it "as too %o&e+*e

an+ */eoiente+ an+ "as ex&e%tiona//! time&ons*ming to *se as a s!stem

+eve/o%ment g*i+e. Te staff a/so a+ ma+e no %ovision fo in&o%oatinge*isti& o %otot!%ing te&niB*es into tei s!stem +eve/o%ment meto+o/og!.

In a staff meeting M Raina aise+ e*isti& an+ %otot!%ing &on&e%ts "it te

staff 4*t tei es%onse "as +efensive. Most of tem a+ not ea+ of a e*isti&

o %otot!%ing te&niB*e 4*t fe/t it "as a "a! to +eve/o% s!stems fo s/o%%!

+esignes "o +i+ not ave eno*g +is&i%/ine to +o it igt. Te! *ge+ tat

tee "as no "a! to ave !o* &a#e an+ eat it too.

Te! state+ tat if a s/o%%! a%%oa& to s!stem +eve/o%ment s*& as e*isti& o

%otot!%ing "ee to 4e *se+ !o* "o*/+ ave to 4e "i//ing to give *% te igo

an+ +is&i%/ine of goo+ foma/ %o&e+*es an+ goo+ st*&t*e+ te&niB*es.Ovea// tei genea/ es%onse "as B*ite negative.

Afte te meeting a &o*%/e of te !o*nge s!stem ana/!sts st*&# ao*n+ an+

in+i&ate+ some inteest in te &on&e%ts M Raina "as %o%osing. Te! a+

fien+s "o#ing at ote oganiHations "o a+ 4een *sing e*isti& o

%otot!%ing &on&e%ts an+ "ee B*ite %ositive a4o*t tem. Te !o*nge ana/!sts

+i+ stess te im%otan&e of aving te igt too/s avai/a4/e to *se s*& a %o&ess

4*t in+i&ate+ tat if M Raina "as inteeste+ in %*s*ing te &on&e%t at Mani#

Man*fa&t*ing te! "o*/+ 4e inteeste+ in giving it a t!. o"eve te!

ex%esse+ &on&en tat te o/+ g*a+= migt &eate some %o4/ems.

Te o/+ g*a+= migt vie" tei "o# as a 4ea#ing of te */es tat a+ ve!

&aef*//! 4een +eve/o%e+ 4! te /ea+es in te s!stem ana/!sis an+ +esign go*%.

M Raina fee/s e as a ti&#! sit*ation on is an+s. e #no"s a 4ette "a! to

a%%oa& s!stem +eve/o%ment 4*t e +oes not "ant to &oss s"o+s "it te

s!stem ana/!sts an+ +esign staff man! of "om ave moe ex%eien&e tan im

in s!stem +eve/o%ment. e #no"s tat if e ties te e*isti& a%%oa& an+ it

fai/s tee=s going to 4e a /ot of I to/+ !o* so= #in+ of ta/#. is a/so &on&ene+

tat if e %*//s te !o*ngs +esignes off to te si+e an+ "o#s "it te

meto+o/og! it migt &a*se a +ivision among te staff an+ some seio*s a+

fee/ings tat &o*/+ 4e +etimenta/ to te t"o !o*ng ana/!sts.


1. I+entif! te %o4/em in tis &ase st*+!.

'. Comment on te %o%osa/ of M Raina fo +eve/o%ing MIS *sing e*isti&

o %otot!%ing meto+o/ogies.

$. o" "o*/+ !o* manage te sit*ation at Mani# Man*fa&t*ing@

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11

S!stem Ana/!ses an+ Design

Leaning O4e&tives


• +efine s!stem ana/!sis an+ s!stem +esignG

• *n+estan+ te aim an+ %o&ess of s!stem ana/!sis n+ s!stem +esignG

• +es&i4e te stategies to +etemine infomation eB*iementsG

• *n+estan+ st*&t*e+ s!stem ana/!sis too/sG

• +es&i4e te %o&ess of &on&e%t*a/ an+ +etai/e+ s!stem +esign.

SSTEMS ANALSIS

11.1 INTRODUCTION

S!stem ana/!sis ma! 4e *n+estoo+ as a %o&ess of &o//e&ting an+ inte%eting

fa&ts i+entif!ing %o4/ems an+ *sing te infomation to e&ommen+im%ovements in te s!stem. In ote "o+s s!stem ana/!sis means

i+entifi&ation *n+estan+ing an+ examining te s!stem fo a&ieving %e

+etemine+ goa/so4e&tives of te s!stem. S!stem ana/!sis is &aie+ o*t "it te

fo//o"ing t"o o4e&tives.

;i< to #no" o" a s!stem &*ent/! o%eates an+

;ii< to i+entif! te *ses= eB*iements in te %o%ose+ s!stem.

3asi&a//! s!stem ana/!sis is a +etai/e+ st*+! of a// im%otant 4*siness as%e&ts

*n+e &onsi+eation an+ te existing s!stem an+ t*s te st*+! 4e&omes a 4asis

fo te %o%ose+ s!stem ;ma! 4e a mo+ifie+ o an a/togete ne" s!stem<.

S!stem ana/!sis is ega+e+ as a /ogi&a/ %o&ess. Te em%asis in tis %ase is on

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investigation to #no" o" te s!stem is &*ent/! o%eating an+ to +etemine

"at m*st 4e +one to so/ve te %o4/em.

Te s!stem ana/!sis %ase is ve! im%otant in te tota/ +eve/o%ment effots of a

s!stem. Te *se ma! 4e a"ae of te %o4/em 4*t ma! not #no" o" to so/ve it.

D*ing s!stem ana/!sis te +eve/o%e ;s!stem +esigne< "o#s "it te *se to+eve/o% a /ogi&a/ mo+e/ of te s!stem. A s!stem ana/!st 4e&a*se of is te&ni&a/

4a&#go*n+ ma! move too B*i&#/! to %ogam +esign to ma#e te s!stem

%emat*e/! %!si&a/ "i& is not +esia4/e an+ ma! affe&t te */timate s*&&ess

of te s!stem. In o+e to avoi+ tis te s!stem ana/!st m*st invo/ve te *se at

tis stage to get &om%/ete infomation a4o*t te s!stem. Tis &an 4e a&ieve+ if a

/ogi&a/ mo+e/ of te s!stem is +eve/o%e+ on te 4asis of a +etai/e+ st*+!. S*& a

st*+! ;ana/!sis< so*/+ 4e &/one 4! *sing vaio*s mo+en too/s an+ te&niB*es

s*& as +ata f/o" +iagams +ata +i&tiona! an+ o*g +es&i%tions of te

e/evant a/goitms. Te fina/ %o+*&t of te s!stem ana/!sis is a sets of s!stem

eB*iements of a %o%ose+ infomation s!stem. Te fo//o"ing %ages "i// +is&*ss

+etemination of s!stem eB*iements an+ s!stem ana/!sis too/s.

11.'RE5UIREMENT DETERMINATION

ReB*iement +etemination "i& is a/so teme+ as a %at of soft"ae

eB*iement s%e&ifi&ation ;SRS< is te stating %oint of te s!stem +eve/o%ment

a&tivit!. Tis a&tivit! is &onsi+ee+ as te most +iffi&*/t an+ a/so te most eo

%one a&tivit! 4e&a*se of te &omm*ni&ation ga% 4et"een te *se an+ te

+eve/o%e. Tis ma! 4e 4e&a*se te *se *s*a//! +oes not *n+estan+ soft"ae

an+ te +eve/o%e often +oes not *n+estan+ te *se=s %o4/em an+ a%%/i&ation

aea. Te eB*iement +etemination is a means of tans/ating te i+eas given 4!

te *se into a foma/ +o&*ment an+ t*s to 4i+ge te &omm*ni&ation ga%. A

goo+ SRS %ovi+es te fo//o"ing 4enefits.

;i< It 4i+ges te &omm*ni&ation ga% 4et"een te *se an+ te +eve/o%e 4!

a&ting as a 4asis of a eement 4et"een te t"o aties.

;ii< It e+*&es te +eve/o%ment &ost 4! ove&oming eos an+

mis*n+estan+ings ea/! in te +eve/o%ment.

;iii< It 4e&omes a 4asis of efeen&e fo va/i+ation of te fina/ %o+*&t

an+ t*s a&ts as a 4en&ma#.

ReB*iement +etemination &onsists of tee a&tivities name/! eB*iement

anti&i%ggm eB*iement i!gtgation an+ eB*iement s%e&ifi&ation.

ReB*iement anti&i%ation a&tivities in&/*+e te %ast ex%eien&e of te ana/!sis"i& inf/*en&e te st*+!. Te! ma! foesee te /i#e/ioo+ of f &etain %o4/ems

o feat*es an+ eB*iements fo a ne" s!stem. T*s te 4a&#go*n+ of te

ana/!sts to #no" "at to as# o "i& as%e&ts to investigate &an 4e *sef*/ in te

s!stem investigation.

ReB*iement investigation is at te &ente of s!stem ana/!sis. In tis te existing

s!stem is st*+ie+ an+ +o&*mente+ fofTE>1te ana/!sis. 8aio*s meto+s /i#e

fa&tfin+ing te&niB*es ae *se+ fo te%*%ose. In te eB*iement s%e&ifi&ation

&gvities te +ata %o+*&e+ +*ing te fa&tfin+ing investigation is ana/!se+ to

+etemine eB*iement s%e&ifi&ation "i& is te +es&i%tion of te feat*es fo

a %o%ose+ s!stem.

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ReB*iement +etemination infe&t is to /ean an+ &o//e&t te infomation a4o*t

;i< te 4asi& %o&ess

;ii< te +ata "i& is *se+ o %o+*&e+ +*ing tat %o&ess

;iii< te vaio*s &onstaints in tems of time an+ te vo/*me of "o#

an+

;iv<te %efoman&e &onto/s *se+ in te s!stem.

Let *s +is&*ss tese a&tivities in moe +etai/.

11.'.1 Un+estan+ te Po&ess

Po&ess *n+estan+ing &an 4e a&B*ie+ if te infomation is &o//e&te+ ega+ing

;a< te %*%ose of te 4*siness a&tivit!

;4< te ste%s "i& an+ "ee te! ae %efome+

;&< te %esons %efoming tem an+

;+< te feB*en&! time an+ *se of te es*/ting infomation.

11.'.' I+entif! Dt Use+ *n+ Infomation 9eneate+

Next to %o&ess *n+estan+ing an infomation ana/!st so*/+ fin+ o*t "at +ata

is *se+ to %efom ea& a&tivit!. Fo exam%/e in an invento! s!stem te 4*!e

ma! eB*ie +ata +es&i4ing te B*antit! of an item s*%%/ie name item &ost

an+ +eman+ fo te item. To #no" "en to %/a&e an o+e te 4*!e "o*/+ a/so

/i#e to get te infomation ega+ing /ea+ time. Te infomation geneate+ in

4*siness tansa&tions is a/so eB*ie+ to 4e gatee+ as s*& infomation ma! 4e

*se+ 4! manages in man! +e&isionma#ing a&tivities. Fo exam%/e +ata a4o*t

invento! s!stem a/so %ovi+es infomation a4o*t "aeo*sing sa/es an+ &as

f/o" +e&isions.

11.'.$ Detemine FeB*en&! Timing n+ 8o/*me

Infomation so*/+ a/so 4e &o//e&te+ to #no" o" often te a&tivit! is e%eate+

an+ te vo/*me of items to 4e an+/e+. Simi/a/! timing +oes affe&t te "a!

ana/!sts eva/*ate &etain ste%s in &a!ing o*t an a&tivit!. In ote "o+s timing

feB*en&! an+ vo/*me of a&tivities ae im%otant fa&ts to &o//e&t.

11.'.) 7no" te Pefoman&e Conto/s

S!stem &onto/s ena4/e ana/!sts to *n+estan+ o" 4*siness f*n&tions &an 4e

maintaine+ in an a&&e%ta4/e manne.

D*ing s!stem investigation infomation is gatee+ main/! fom %esonne/ an+"itten +o&*ments fom "itin te oganisation=s envionment "i& in&/*+es

finan&ia/ e%ots %esonne/ +o&*ments an+ vaio*s ote t!%es of +o&*ments /i#e

tansa&tion +o&*ments man*a/s et&. To get infomation a4o*t te extena/

envionment te so*&es in&/*+e ven+os vaio*s govenment an+ %ivate

agen&ies ne"s%a%es an+ o*na/s et&.

It m*st 4e *n+estoo+ tat te %esona/ manageia/ atti4*tes of te in+ivi+*a/

manage an+ te oganisationa/ envionment in "i& +e&isions ae ma+e affe&t

te infomation eB*iements fo te %o%ose+ s!stem. Te %esona/ atti4*tes

ma! 4e a manage=s #no"/e+ge of infomation s!stems manageia/ st!/e is

%e&e%tion of infomation nee+s "eeas oganisationa/ envionment fa&tos

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ma! in&/*+e nat*e of te &om%an! /eve/ of management an+ st*&t*e of te

oganisation.

As a/ea+! mentione+ s!stem ana/!sis &onsists of t"o main a&tivities.

;i< St*+!ing te 4*siness o%eations to *n+estan+ te existing s!stem.

;ii< To ma#e an ana/!sis of te infomation gatee+ to +etemineinfomation eB*iements of te manage in te %o%ose+ s!stem.

In o+e to st*+! te 4*siness o%eations of te oganisation an+ t*s to #no"

te existing s!stem an+ infomation eB*iements fo te ne" s!stem an

infomation ana/!st &o//e&ts te infomation an+ ten ma#es an ana/!sis of te

&o//e&te+ infomation 4! *sing &etain ana/!sis too/s.

11.$ STRATE9IES FOR RE5UIREMENT DETERMINATION

In o+e to &o//e&t infomation so as to st*+! te existing s!stem an+ to

+etemine infomation eB*iement tee ae +iffeent stategies "i& &o*/+

4e *se+ fo te %*%ose. Tese stategies ae +is&*sse+ 4e/o".

11.$.1 Intevie"

Te intevie" is a fa&etofa&e meto+ *se+ fo &o//e&ting te eB*ie+ +ata. In

tis meto+ a %eson ;te intevie"e< as#s B*estions fom te ote %eson

4eing intevie"e+. Te intevie" ma! 4e foma/ o infoma/ an+ te B*estions

as#e+ ma! 4e st*&t*e+ o *nst*&t*e+. Te intevie" is te o/+est an+ te

most often *se+ +evi&e fo gateing infomation a4o*t an existing s!stem.

Te es%on+ents ae genea//! &*ent *ses of te existing s!stem o %otentia/

*ses of te %o%ose+ s!stem. A/to*g it is one of te %efee+ te&niB*es

intevie"ing is not a/"a!s te 4est so*&e of a%%/i&ation +ata. 3e&a*se of te time

eB*ie+ fo intevie"ing an+ te ina4i/it! of te *ses to ex%/ain te s!stem in

+etai/ ote meto+s ae a/so *se+ to gate infomation.

o"eve tis meto+ is e/%f*/ fo gateing infomation fom in+ivi+*a/s "o

+o not &omm*ni&ate effe&tive/! in "iting o "o ma! not ave te time to

ans"e B*estionnaies. Intevie"sa//o" ana/!sts to +is&ove aeas of

mis*n+estan+ing *nea/isti& ex%e&tations an+ even in+i&ations of esistan&e to

te %o%ose+ s!stem.

Te ana/!st m*st %/an te intevie"s an+ m*st #no" &/ea/! in a+van&eega+ing te fo//o"ing iss*es.

;i< ?om to intevie"@

;ii< ?en to intevie"@

;iii< ?at to as#@

;iv<?ee to o/+ te intevie"@

;v< o" to 4egin te intevie"@

;vi<o" to &on&/*+e te intevie"@

Intevie"ing is ega+e+ as an at an+ it is im%otant tat ana/!sts m*st 4e

taine+ in te EI of 8 s*&&essf*/ intevie"ing. Tis is a/so im%otant 4e&a*se of

te fa&t tat te s*&&ess of an intevie" +e%en+s on te s#i// of te intevie"ean+ on is o e %e%aation fo te intevie".

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11.$.' 5*estionnaie

A B*estionnaie is a tem *se+ fo a/most an! too/ tat as B*estions to "i&

in+ivi+*a/s es%on+.

Te *se of B*estionnaies a//o"s ana/!sts to &o//e&t infomation a4o*t vaio*sas%e&ts of a s!stem fom a /age n*m4e of %esons. Te B*estionnaie ma!

&ontain st*&t*e+ o *nst*&t*e+ B*estions. Te *se of a stan+a+ise+

B*estionnaie ma! give moe e/ia4/e +ata tan ote fa&tfin+ing te&niB*es.

A/so te "i+e +isti4*tion ens*es geate anon!mit! fo es%on+ents "i& &an

/ea+ to moe onest es%onses. Te B*estionnaie s*ve! a/so e/%s in saving time

as &om%ae+ to intevie"s. o"eve tis meto+ +oes not a//o" ana/!sts to

o4seve te ex%essions o ea&tions of es%on+ents as is %ossi4/e +*ing

intevie"ing an+ a/so it is +iffi&*/t to +esign exa*stive B*estionnaies. Te

ana/!st so*/+ #no" te a+vantages an+ +isa+vantages of st*&t*e+ as "e// as

*nst*&t*e+ B*estionnaies. 5*estionnaies m*st 4e teste+ an+ mo+ifie+ as %e

te 4a&#go*n+ an+ ex%eien&e of te es%on+ents.

11.$.$ Re&o+ Revie"

Re&o+ evie" is a/so #no"n as evie" of +o&*mentation. Its main %*%ose is to

esta4/is B*antitative infomation ega+ing vo/*mes feB*en&ies ten+s atios

et&. In e&o+ evie" ana/!sts examine infomation tat as 4een e&o+e+ a4o*t

te s!stem an+ its *ses. Re&o+s+o&*ments ma! in&/*+e "itten %o/i&!

man*a/s eg*/ations an+ stan+a+ o%eating %o&e+*es *se+ 4! te

oganisation as a g*i+e fo manages an+ ote em%/o!ees. Po&e+*es man*a/s

an+ foms ae *sef*/ so*&es fo te ana/!st to st*+! te existing s!stem. Te

main /imitation of tis a%%oa& is tat te +o&*mentation on te existing s!stem

ma! not 4e &om%/ete an+ *%to+ate. It ma! 4e note+ ee tat tee ae t"o

+iffeent vie"s ega+ing te st*+! of te existing s!stem. One vie" "i&

favo*s te st*+! of te existing s!stem is tat to*g st*+! of te existing

s!stem one /eans a4o*t its sot&omings an+ ma! *se tis #no"/e+ge to avoi+

&ommitting te same mista#es again. ?eeas te vie" "i& is against s*& a

st*+! ag*es tat it ini4its te geneation of ne" i+eas an+ ma! 4ias te

+eve/o%e to"a+s te same /ogi& "i& is &ontaine+ in te o/+ s!stem. It is

+iffi&*/t to &omment *%on te t"o vie"s. o"eve 4ot te vie"s seem va/i+. It

&an on/! 4e s*ggeste+ ee tat an infomation ana/!st so*/+ st*+! te existing

s!stem if an! to #no" moe a4o*t te "o/e of te s!stem.

11.$.) O4sevation

Anote infomatiomgateing too/ *se+ in s!stem st*+ies is o4sevation. It is

te %o&ess of e&ognising an+ noti&ing %eo%/e o4e&ts an+ o&&*en&es to o4tain

infomation. O4sevation a//o"s ana/!sts to get infomation "i& is +iffi&*/t to

o4tain 4! an! ote fa&tfin+ing meto+. Tis a%%oa& is most *sef*/ "en

ana/!sts nee+ to a&t*a//! o4seve te "a! +o&*ments ae an+/e+ %o&esses ae

&aie+ o*t an+ "ete s%e&ifie+ ste%s ae a&t*a//! fo//o"e+. As an o4seve te

ana/!st fo//o"s a set of */es. ?i/e ma#ing o4sevations ese is moe /i#e/! to

/isten tan ta/#.

Te exe&ise is time&ons*ming an+ &ost/!. A/so te o4seve ma! not 4e a4/e toget a// te eB*ie+ nfomation es%e&ia//! a4o*t some inti&a&ies of te s!stem.

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No"a+a!s e/e&toni& o4sevation an+ monitoing meto+s ae 4eing *se+ "i+e/!

as infomationgateing too/s 4e&a*se of tei s%ee+ an+ effi&ien&!.

Te ana/!sts *s*a//! *se a &om4ination of a// tese a%%oa&es to st*+! an

existing s!stem as an! one a%%oa& ma! not 4e s*ffi&ient fo e/i&iting

infomation eB*iement of te s!stem.

Te fa&tfin+ing te&niB*es "i& ave 4een +is&*sse+ a4ove e%esent on/! one

as%e&t of s!stem ana/!sis. 8aio*s too/s fo oganising te +etai/s &o//e&te+ ae

+is&*sse+ as fo//o"s.

11.) STRUCTURED ANALSIS TOOLS

St*&t*e+ ana/!sis too/s e/% te s!stem ana/!st to +o&*ment te s!stem

s%e&ifi&ation of a s!stem to 4e 4*i/t. Te main too/s "i& ae *se+ fo te

%*%ose ae given 4e/o".

;i< Data F/o" Diagam ;DFD<

;ii< Data Di&tiona!;iii< St*&t*e+ Eng/is

;iv<De&ision Tees

;v< De&ision Ta4/es

11.).1 DataF/o" Di*g*m ;DFD<

Data F/o" Diagam ;DFD< is a ga%i&a/ e%esentation of te /ogi&a/ f/o" of

+ata. It e/%s in ex%essing te s!stem=s eB*iements in a sim%/e an+

*n+estan+a4/e fom.

It is a/so #no"n as a 4*44/e &at. Its aim is to &/aif! te s!stem eB*iements

an+ i+entif! mao tansfomations tat "i// 4e&ome %ogams in s!stem +esign.

It +e&om%oses te eB*iement s%e&ifi&ations +o"n to te /o"est /eve/ of +etai/s.

A DFD &onsists of a seies of 4*44/es oine+ 4! /ines e%esenting +ata f/o" in te

s!stem.

Tee ae fo* main s!m4o/s *se+ in a DFD "i& ae +e%i&te+ 4e/o".

;i< SB*ae: It e%esents so*&e+estination of s!stem +ata.

;ii< Ao": It i+entifies +ata f/o"G it is a %i%e/ine to*g "i& te +ata

f/o"s.

;iii< Ci&/e3*44/e: It e%esents a %o&ess tat tansfoms in&oming

+ata f/o" into o*tgoing +ata f/o". A %o&ess &an 4e e%esente+ 4! a &i&/eo an ova/ 4*44/e

;iv<O%en Re&tang/e: It e%esents a +ata stoe.

A n*m4e of */es ae to 4e fo//o"e+ in +a"ing a DFD:

;i< Po&esses so*/+ 4e name+ an+ n*m4ee+. Name so*/+ e%esent te

%o&ess.

;ii< Te +ie&tion of f/o" is fom to% to 4ottom an+ fom /eft to igt.

;iii< ?en a %o&ess is ex%/o+e+ into /o"e /eve/s te! ae n*m4ee+

%o%e/! e.g. te %o&ess o4taine+ fom te ex%/osion of %o&ess n*m4e

( so*/+ 4e n*m4ee+ as (.1 (.' et&.

;iv<Te name of +ata stoes so*&es an+ +estinations ae "itten in &a%ita//ettes. Po&ess an+ +ata f/o" names ave te fist /ette &a%ita/ise+.

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A DFD so*/+ ave no moe tan 101' %o&esses as aving even 1' "i// ma#e a

DFD &om%/ex an+ +iffi&*/t to *n+estan+. A DFD so"s te minim*m &ontents

of a +ata stoe. Ea& +ata stoe so*/+ &ontain a// te e/ements tat f/o" in an+

o*t of it.

DFD is ve! effe&tive "en te eB*ie+ +esign is not &/ea an+ te *se an+ te

ana/!st eB*ie some s!m4o/i& e%esentation fo &omm*ni&ation.

Te main +isa+vantage of a DFD is tat a /age n*m4e of iteations ae often

eB*ie+ to aive at an a&&*ate an+ &om%/ete so/*tion. Fo exam%/e &onsi+e

te &ase of a %a!o// s!stem to %e%ae sa/a! statements fo ea& em%/o!ee of an

oganisation. Data f/o" fo s*& a s!stem &an e e%esente+ as so"n in Fig.

11.1.

Em%/o!ees +ata oiginate fom a&&o*nts +e%atments ;so*&e< gets %o&esse+

sa/a! statements ae e&eive+ 4! em%/o!ees ;sin#< an+ *%+ate+ +ata onem%/o!ees ;e.g. tota/ tax +e+*&te+ %ovi+ent

Fig. 11.$ Ex%/osion of a DFD

11.).' Data Di&tiona!

A +ata +i&tiona! is a st*&t*e+ e%osito! of +ata a4o*t +ata. In ote "o+s

it is a set of %e&ise an+ a&&*ate +efinitions of a// DFDs +ata e/ements an+ +ata

st*&t*es.

It s*%%ots +o&*mentation in a 4ette "a!. /t a/so im%oves &omm*ni&ation

4et"een te *sean+ ana/!st as it %ovi+es %e&ise an+ &onsistent +efinitions fo

vaio*s +ata e/ements tems an+ %o&e+*es. It &an a/so seve as a &ommon

+ata4ase fo %ogammes an+ &an a/so 4e *se+ fo &onto/ %*%oses. Most

+ata4ases ave +ata +i&tiona! as a +esia4/e feat*e.

Tee ae main/! tee items of +ata %esent in a +ata +i&tiona!.

;i< Data E/ement: It is te sma//est *nit of +ata an+ &annot 4e +e&om%ose+

f*te.;ii< Data St*&t*es: It is a go*% of +ata e/ements an+/e+ as a *nit. A +ata

st*&t*e &ontains a n*m4e of +ata e/ements as its fie/+s.

;iii< Data F/o"s an+ Data Stoes: Data f/o"s ae noting 4*t +ata

st*&t*es in motion "eeas +ata stoes ae +ata st*&t*es at est. In

ote "o+s +ata stoes ae /o&ations "ee +ata st*&t*es ae

tem%oai/! stoe+. Data +i&tiona! is an intega/ %at of te st*&t*e+

s%e&ifi&ations.

Te fo//o"ing */es ae fo//o"e+ in &onst*&ting a +ata +i&tiona!.

;i< Te tems *se+ to +es&i4e +ata st*&t*es ae a/"a!s in &a%ita/ /ettes.

;ii< M*/ti%/e "o+ names ae !%enate+.;iii< Assigne+ names so*/+ 4e staigtfo"a+ an+ *seoiente+.

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;iv<Tee so*/+ 4e names fo eve! +ata f/o" +ata stoe +ata st*&t*e an+

+ata e/ement.

;v< Consisten&! &e&#s so*/+ 4e %efome+.

;vi<I+entifi&ation n*m4es of te %o&esses an+ tei names so*/+ 4e

mentione+ in te +ata +i&tiona!.

;vii< m*st 4e +is&o*age+.

Ta4/e 11.1

S!m4o/s Use+ in Data Di&tiona!

11.).$ De&ision Tee &m+ St*&t*e+ Eng/is

Te /ogi& of te %o&ess "i& ma! not 4e ve! &/ea to*g DD &an easi/! 4e

e%esente+ *sing a ga%i& e%esentation "i& /oo#s /i#e te 4an&es of a

tee &a//e+ +e&ision tee. A +e&ision tee as as man! 4an&es as tee ae

/ogi&a/ a/tenatives. It is eas! to &onst*&t ea+ an+ *%+ate.

Fo exam%/e a %o/i&! &an 4e so"n to*g a +e&ision tee ;see Fig. 11.)<

Te exam%/e i//*states te fo//o"ing +is&o*nt %o/i&!.

Com%*te +ea/es get a ta+e +is&o*nt of $( %e &ent if te o+e siHe is 6 o moe

PCs "eeas fo o+es fom e+*&ationa/ instit*tions an+ in+ivi+*a/s 1( %e

&ent +is&o*nt is a//o"e+ on o+es of 61- PCs %e PC t!%eG '0 %e &ent on

o+es fo '0)- PCsG $0 %e &ent on o+es fo (0 PCs o mote %e PC t!%e.

A/tenative/! te /ogi& &an 4e e%esente+ 4! *sing St*&t*e+ Eng/is. It *ses

/ogi&a/ &onst*&tion an+ im%eative senten&es +esigne+ to &a! o*t inst*&tions

fo a&tions. De&isions ae ma+e to*g IFTIIENELSE statements. St*&t*e+Eng/is &an 4e ma+e &om%a&t 4! *sing tems +efine+ in te +ata +i&tiona!

o"eve its senten&es so*/+ 4e &/ea &on&ise an+ %e&ise in "o+ing an+

meaning. Fo exam%/e te %o&essORDER ma! ave te +ata e/ement ORDER

SIE "i& +efines te fo//o"ing va/*es.

Fig. 11.) A De&ision Tee An Exam%/e

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Fig. 11.( St*&t*e+ Eng/is An Exam%/e

Using tese va/*es st*&t*e+ Eng/is "o*/+ ea+ as so"n in Fig 11.(.

De&ision tees &an 4e *se+ to veif! /ogi& in %o4/ems tat invo/ve fe" &om%/ex

+e&isions es*/ting in a /imite+ n*m4e of a&tions. o"eve its 4iggest /imitation

is te /a&# of infomation +*e to its st*&t*e.

11.).) De&ision Ta4/e

De&ision ta4/e is a matix of o"s an+ &o/*mns tat so"s &on+itions an+ a&tions.

De&ision */es state te %o&e+*e to 4e fo//o"e+ "en &etain &on+itions exist.

De&ision ta4/es ae 4ests*ite+ fo +ea/ing "it &om%/ex 4an&ing o*tines e.g.

invento! &onto/ et&.

A +e&ision ta4/e &onsists of fo* se&tions.

A &on+ition st*4 at te *%%e /eft a &on+ition ent! at te *%%e igt an a&tion

st*4 at te /o"e /eft an+ an a&tion ent! at te /o"e igt ;see Fig. 11.6<.

Fig. 11.6 A De&ision Ta4/e

5*estions ae /iste+ in te &on+ition st*4 an+ te a&tion st*4 o*t/ines te a&tion

to 4e ta#en to meet ea& &on+ition. Te &on+ition ent! %at &ontains te

ans"es to B*estions as#e+ in te &on+ition st*4 an+ te a&tion ent! %at

in+i&ates te a%%o%iate a&tion es*/ting fom te ans"es to te &on+itions in

te &on+ition ent! B*a+ant.

In &onst*&ting a +e&ison ta4/e te fo//o"ing */es ae o4seve+.

;i< A +e&ision so*/+ 4e given a name to 4e "itten at te to% /eft of te

ta4/e.

;ii< Te /ogi& so*/+ 4e in+e%en+ent ofte seB*en&e in "i& te &on+ition

*/es "ee "itten I 4*t te a&tions ta#e %/a&e in te o+e in "i&

te events o&&*.;iii< Consistent an+ stan+a+ise+ /ang*age so*/+ 4e *se+.

;iv<D*%/i&ation of tems so*/+ 4e avoi+e+ to te maxim*m extent.

A +e&ision ta4/e of te ea/ie %o4/em is &onst*&te+ in Fig. 11.2.

Fig. 11.2 De&ision Ta4/e An Exam%/e

SSTEMS DESI9N

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S!stem +esign is anote im%otant ste% in te s!stem +eve/o%ment %o&ess. Tis

%ase stats afte te s!stem ana/!sis %ase is ove. In ote "o+s te o*t%*t of

te s!stem ana/!sis %ase i.e. eB*iement s%e&ifi&ations 4e&ome an in%*t in te

+esign %ase. Data eB*iements ae "o#e+ o*t on te 4asis of *se eB*iement

estimates. Te i+entifi&ation of +ata eB*iements in&/*+es i+entif!ing +ata

so*&es te nat*e an+ t!%e of +ata tat is avai/a4/e an+ +ata ga%s. Fo exam%/efo +esigning a sa/a! s!stem a s!stem +esigne "o*/+ &ons*/t te in%*t

+o&*ments ;+ata so*&es< s*& as atten+an&e /eave a&&o*nt +e+*&tions to 4e

ma+e et&. so tat e ma! *n+estan+ "at #in+ of +ata is avai/a4/e in "at

fom "en it is s*%%/ie+ an+ 4! "om.

11.( DESI9N O3ECTI8ES

A s!stem is +esigne+ "it te fo//o"ing main o4e&tives.

Prucficulify

Te s!stem so*/+ 4e +esigne+ in s*& a "a! tat it ma! 4e /eant an+ o%eate+

"it ease 4! te *ses. T*s te +esign so*/+ 4e *seoiente+.

Fle&i*ility

Te 4*siness oganisations ae +!nami& in nat*e. Teefoe a s!stem m*st 4e

es%onsive to te &ange inevita4/! eB*este+ 4! its *ses.

Efficiency

A s!stem m*st 4e effi&ient i.e. it so*/+ %efom o4s "itin tei s%e&ifie+ time.

Te effi&ien&! of a s!stem ma! 4e meas*e+ in tems of te fo//o"ing

%aametes.

;i< To*g%*t: It is te a4i/it! to an+/e a s%e&ifie+ n*m4e of o4s %e *nit

of time.

;ii< Res%onse time: Te a4i/it! to es%on+ to a eB*est ma+e 4! te *se

"itin a given time /imit.

;iii< R*n time: It is te a4i/it! to *n+eta#e te &om%/ete o4 "itin a

given time /imit.

Security

Tis as%e&t e/ates to a+"ae e/ia4i/it! %!si&a/ se&*it! of +ata an+ te

+ete&tion an+ %evention of fa*+ an+ a4*se of +ata.

S!stem +esign is &aie+ o*t at t"o /eve/s name/! &on&e%t*a/ /eve/ an+ %!si&a/

/eve/ #no"n as &on&e%t*a/ +esign an+ %!si&a/ +esign es%e&tive/!. Tese t"o%ases ae a/so &a//e+ extena/ +esign o genea/ +esign an+ intena/ +esign o

+etai/e+ +esign.

11.6 CONCEPTUAL DESI9N

It is in te &on&e%t*a/ +esign stage tat a/tenative ovea// MIS +esigns ae

&on&eive+ an+ te 4est one is se/e&te+ 4! te s!stem ana/!st in &ons*/tation "it

te to% management. In te &on&e%t*a/ +esign te feasi4i/it! of meeting te

management o4e&tives fo te MIS is assesse+ an+ a 4oa+M.I.S2, 4*s

%i&t*e of te s!stem is %ainte+. Tat is "! &on&e%t*a/ +esign is a/so #no"n as

goss +esign ig//eve/ +esign o an ovea// MIS +esign "i& 4e&omes a 4asis

fo te +etai/e+ MIS +esign. In ote "o+s a &on&e%t*a/ +esign is a %eeB*isitefo te +etai/e+ +esign. Con&e%t*a/ +esign invo/ves te fo//o"ing ste%s.

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;i< Define %o4/em

;ii< Set s!stem o4e&tives

;iii< i+entif! &onstaints

;iv<Detemine infomation nee+s

;v< Detemine infomation so*&es

;vi<Deve/o% vaio*s +esigns;vii< Do&*ment te &on&e%t*a/ +esign

;viii< Pe%ae e%ot

A 4ief +is&*ssion of tese ste%s "i// ma#e te &on&e%t &/eae.

11.6.1 Define Po4/em

Te fist ste% in &on&e%t*a/ MIS +esign is to &/ea/! *n+estan+ an+ +efine te

%o4/em to 4e so/ve+. It so*/+ 4e note+ ee tat tese ae not on/! te &*ent

%o4/ems "i& ae of &on&enG ate MIS +esign so*/+ 4e e/ate+ to /ong

ange %/anning fo te oganisation so as to so/ve f*t*e %o4/ems. F*te MI(

f*n&tion is s*%%ose+ to so/ve te %o4/ems e/ating to infomation nee+s fo te4*siness oganisation. T*s infomation nee+s of te oganisation ae to 4e

i+entifie+ an+ *n+estoo+ in tis ste% "i& &an 4e +etemine+ 4!

*n+estan+ing te mission o4e&tives an+ stategi& an+ o%eating %/ans fo te

4*siness.

11.6.' Set S!stem O4e&tives

aving +efine+ an+ *n+estoo+ te %o4/em to 4e so/ve+ te s!stem ana/!st in

&ons*/tation "it te *se m*st set te s!stem o4e&tives. ?i/e setting s!stem

o4e&tives it m*st 4e #e%t in min+ tat te va/*e of an infomation s!stem /ies in

te 4enefits to its *ses. T*s mee effi&ien&! of te s!stem "o*/+ not seve te

%*%ose. o"eve it is ve! +iffi&*/t to set te ea/ o4e&tives of an infomation

s!stem. 5*ite often te o4e&tives of an infomation s!stem ae set in vag*e

tems fo exam%/e #ee% a&&*ate e&o+s= ave maxim*m effi&ien&!= e+*&e

&osts= %ovi+e B*a/it! infomation> %a! sa/a! to em%/o!ees 4! +*e +ate=. No

+o*4t setting of s%e&ifi& o4e&tives is +iffi&*/t 4*t it is ve! im%otant so tat

s!stem o4e&tives ma! %ovi+e a meas*e of %efoman&e of te s!stem o to

+esign an infomation s!stem to e/% a&ieve its o4e&tives. Teefoe s!stem

o4e&tives so*/+ 4e state+ as fa as %ossi4/e in B*antitative ate tan

B*a/itative tems. Fo exam%/e some of te a/ea+! given o4e&tives ma! 4e

estate+ as %a! sa/a! to 100 %e &ent em%/o!ees ! te /ast +a! of te mont>

%a! 100 %e &ent of invoi&es 4efoe +*e +ate= et&.

11.6.$ I+entif! Constaints

S!stem &onstaints ae a/so #no"n as %o4/em 4o*n+aies o esti&tions.

7no"/e+ge of te &onstaints is essentia/ as it e/%s te +esigne to &onsi+e te

/imitations tat esti&t te +esign of te s!stem. In ote "o+s &onstaints /imit

fee+om of a&tion in +esigning a s!stem to a&ieve te o4e&tive. In te /igt of

te &onstaints a &onstant evie" of o4e&tives is ne&essa!. T*s esta4/ising

&onstaints "i// e/% ens*e tat te +esign is ea/isti&.

S!stem &onstaints ma! 4e &/assifie+ *n+e t"o &ategoies name/!:

;i< Extena/ &onstaints an+;ii< Intena/ &onstaints.

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Extena/ &onstaints as te name in+i&ates ae extena/ to te oganisation. Fo

exam%/e &onstaints %ose+ 4! &*stomes te govenment an+ s*%%/ies.

?eeas intena/ &onstaints ae %ose+ fom "itin te oganisation fo

exam%/e non&oo%eation an+ /a&# of s*%%ot fom to% > managementG

oganisationa/ %o/i&!G eso*&e &onstaints /i#e man%o"e time an+ mone! et&.

11.6.) Detemine Infomation Nee+s

Fo a goo+ +esign of infomation s!stem it is ve! im%otant to #no" te ea/

infomation nee+s of management ;*ses< in a &/ea statement. T*s infomation

nee+s "i& &an ea//! e/% te management in +is&aging tei f*n&tions ae

i+entifie+. Fo +etemination of infomation nee+s *ses so*/+ s%e&if!

;i< ?at te! "ant o*t of an infomation s!stemG an+

;ii< Items of infomation tat ae nee+e+ to a&ieve te %e+etemine+

o4e&tives.

3*t *semanages ae ae/! s%e&ifi& on te a4ove %oints sin&e getting tem to4e s%e&ifi& a4o*t tei infomation nee+s is a &a//enging o4 fo te s!stem

ana/!st. A s!stem ana/!st t*s +e%en+ing on te sit*ation as to a+o%t eite a

+ie&t o an in+ie&t a%%oa& fo e/i&iting infomation nee+s. In te +ie&t

a%%oa& te s!stem ana/!st "o*/+ as# fo* o five mao es%onsi4i/ities of te

*semanage fo//o"e+ 4! one o t"o s%e&ifi& items of infomation tat ae

eB*ie+ to &a! o*t ea& of te es%onsi4i/ities. In+ie&t a%%oa& stesses on

te avoi+an&e of +ie&t B*estions. Instea+ te s!stem ana/!st as#s te *se to

+es&i4e ise +e&isionma#ing %o&ess.

Tis is fo*n+ an eas! "a! as te *semanage is "e//fami/ia "it te

o%eationo4 an+ t*s &an +es&i4e &/ea/! ise +e&isionma#ing %o&ess.

As a/ea+! +is&*sse+ in s!stem ana/!sis tee ae sevea/ a%%oa&es /i#e

intevie"ing te *se manages *sing B*estionnaies e&o+ evie" an+

o4sevation et&. 4*t te s!stem ana/!st as to ta#e a *+i&io*s +e&ision

ega+ing an a%%oa& o a &om4ination of a%%oa&es to *n+estan+ &/ea/! te

infomation nee+s of *semanages in an oganisation.

11.6.( Detemine Infomation So*&es

*st as a &/ea *n+estan+ing an+ "o/isti& vie" of te *ses= infomation nee+s

is te 4asis fo te +esign of MIS te so*&e of tis infomation eB*ies to 4e+etemine+ in o+e to i+entif! in%*t +ata a/ong "it i+entifi&ation of its so*&e

timing an+ fomat et&.

To*g some infomation s!stems ma! eB*ie &onsi+ea4/e extena/

infomation te main infomation in a maoit! of te infomation s!stems is

fo*n+ fom "itin te oganisation: te intena/ e&o+s fi/es 4oo#s statisti&a/

an+ a&&o*nting +o&*ments et&. T*s fo +etemining so*&es of infomation

st*+!ing te existing s!stem is B*ite e/%f*/. A s!stem ana/!st so*/+ &/ea/!

*n+estan+ tat in tis ste% te st*&t*e of te ne" s!stem stats to ta#e sa%e

an+ t*s e so*/+ not on/! +etemine infomation so*&es fo te %ati&*/a

s*4s!stem *n+e &onsi+eation 4*t a/so ITILISE ta#e into a&&o*nt o" te! fit

into te ovea// so*&es of infomation an+ te&niB*es of > ana/!sis. So*&es of infomation ma! 4e &/assifie+ as given 4e/o".

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;i< Intena/ an+ Extena/ Re&o+s: Te intena/ e&o+s ma! 4e in "itten

fom /i#e fi/es in%*ts an+ o*t%*ts &oes%on+en&e e%ots

+o&*mentation of te %esent o %/anne+ s!stems et&. "eeas extena/

so*&es ma! in&/*+e ta+e %*/i&ations govenment statisti&s et&.

;ii< Manages *n+ O%eating Pesonne/: Usemanages an+ o%eating

%esonne/ ma! 4e an im%otant so*&e fo *n+estan+ing in%*t o*t%*tan+ +ata %o&essing eB*iements of an infomation s!stem. o"eve

gateing +ata fom tis so*&e invo/ves intevie"ing te manages an+

o%eating %esonne/ "i& eB*ies %o%e %/anning an+ s#i//.

Fig. 11., Infomation Nee+sInfomation So*&es Matix

On&e te infomation so*&es an+ infomation nee+s ae +etemine+ te nexta&tivit! is to mat& te infomation nee+s an+ so*&es. Tis &an 4e +oi1e 4!

*sing a matix +iagam "i& is a va/*a4/e +evi&e fo integation of s*4s!stems

an+ in te est of te s!stem +esign %o&ess. Fig*e 11., i//*states te *se of a

matix +iagam in one of te s*4s!stems of te mateia/s management s!stem.

11.6.6 Deve/o% 8*io*s Designs

3! no" a s!stem ana/!st so*/+ 4e a4/e to &on&e%t*a/ise te ovea// st*&t*e of

te infomation s!stem e o se is going to +esign. As a/ea+! mentione+

&on&e%t*a/ +esign gives *s an ovevie" o a s#et& of te st*&t*e of te MIS.

T*s &on&e%t*a/ +esign is /i#e a s#e/eton of te MIS "i& g*i+es an+ esti&ts

te fom of te +etai/e+ +esign. To 4e moe &on&ise i ma! 4e sai+ tat if

&on&e%t*a/ +esign is te s#e/eton ten +etai/e+ +esign is te f/es. At tis stage

te &on&e%t*a/ +esign "o*/+ +efine te main +e&ision %oints infomation f/o"s

&anne/s of infomation an+ o/es of *semanages. ee te s!stem ana/!st

"o#s o*t 4oa+ feasi4/e a/tenative &om4inations of in%*t stoage %o&essing

&omm*ni&ation an+ o*t%*t to geneate vaio*s &on&e%t*a/ MIS +esigns.

Moe tan one a/tenative &on&e%t*a/ +esigns ae to 4e +eve/o%e+ "i& ae

&om%ae+ to se/e&t te o%tim*m one "i&

;i< meets te eB*iements of te *sesoganisation an+

;ii< is &ost effe&tive.

Te fo//o"ing exam%/es of a/tenative &on&e%t*a/ +esigns "i// f*te &/ea tis

%oint.

S*%%ose a %eson "o "ants to 4*i/+ is o*se a%%oa&es an aeite&t fo te

%/an of is "o*/+ 4e= o*se. Te aeite&t in t*n on te 4asis of te

eB*iements of te %eson %e%aes tee o fo* %/ans fo is o*se. Tesetee o fo* %/ans in fa&t ae a/tenative &on&e%t*a/ +esigns of te o*se. Ea&

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+esign ma! +iffe in tems of +imensions /o&ations o an! ote s%e&ifi&ations of

te ooms et&. Fo exam%/e one +esign ma! %o%ose t"o 4e+ooms on te

go*n+ f/oo an+ one oom on te fist f/oo fo a tee4e+oom o*se. 8eeas

ote +esigns ma! %o%ose a// te tee 4e+ooms at te go*n+ f/oo 4*t aving

+iffeent s%e&ifi&ations an+ /o&ations of ea& oom. Te %eson on te 4asis of

a/ea+! given &iteia se/e&ts te o%tim*m +esign fo is "o*/+ e= o*se fomtese a/tenative +esigns.

Simi/a/! &onsi+e an oganisation aving 1( finise+ invento! stoes "i& ae

s%ea+ a// ove In+ia. ea+ offi&e of te &om%an! an+ te man*fa&t*ing %/ant

ae /o&ate+ at De/i. Te oganiHation is fa&ing a &isis in +e/iveies to its

&*stomes. To %ovi+e 4ette sevi&e to its &*stomes it eB*ies an MIS to 4e

+eve/o%e+ "i& ma! eg*/ate its man*fa&t*ing an+ inventoies. Te s!stems

ana/!st ma! +eve/o% moe tan one a/tenative &on&e%t*a/ +esigns of MIS. One

+esign ma! s*ggest a// o+es fom &*stomes 4e sent +ie&t/! to ma#eting

+e%atment at te oganisationa/ ea+offi&e.

Ma#eting +e%atment "i// ten %ovi+e +eman+ foe&asts to te %o+*&tion

+e%atment an+ si%%ing o+e to te stoes of te oganisation. A &om%*te

4ase+ infomation s!stem "i// maintain a %e%et*a/ invento! of a// %o+*&ts in

a// te stoes. Te se&on+ +esign ma! %o%ose o+es to 4e sent 4! te &*stomes

+ie&t/! to te neaest stoe. Ea& stoe #ee%s its o"n invento! e&o+sG ea&

foe&asts its +eman+ fo te mont aea+ an+ sen+s it to te %o+*&tion

+e%atment. A ti+ +esign ma! %o%ose egion"ise &onto/ of te o+es "i&

ae sent 4! te &*stomes to te stoes . at te egion /eve/ "i& in t*n %o&ess

te o+es of &*stomes fom tei es%e&tive egions an+ tansmit te o+es to

te ma#eting +e%atment at te ea+ offi&e of te oganisation. Ma#eting

+e%atment sen+s te +eman+ o+e to te %o+*&tion +e%atment an+ si%%ing

o+es to te &on&ene+ stoes. 3efoe e&ommen+ing te o%tima/ &on&e%t*a/

+esign te s!stem ana/!st eva/*ates ea& of te a/tenative +esigns. Te

fo//o"ing &iteion ma! 4e a+o%te+ as a 4asis fo eva/*ating te +esigns:

E&onomi& 3asis A %e/imina! &ost4enefit ana/!sis of ea& of te +esigns is

ma+e. Pefoman&e 3osis Ea& a/tenative is o4e&tive/! eva/*ate+ fo te

anti&i%ate+ %efoman&e "it te o4e&tives of te s!stems as %evio*s/!

+eve/o%e+. O%eationa/ 3asis

Fo ea& a/tenative ana/!sis is ma+e to +etemine te stong an+ "ea# %oints in

es%e&t of B*a/it! of te +ata4ases infomation %otentia/ 4ea#+o"n %oints et&.

11.6.2 Do&*mentation of te Con&e%t*a/ Design

Te fina/ se/e&te+ &on&e%t*a/ a/tenative is +o&*mente+ in s%e&ifi& tems. Te

+o&*mentation of te &on&e%t*a/ +esign invo/ves:

;i< Ovea// s!stem f/o"

;ii< S!stem in%*ts

;iii< S!stem o*t%*ts an+

;iv<Ote +o&*mentations /i#e a&tivit! seet an+ s!stem +es&i%tion et&.

11.6., Re%ot Pe%aation

aving +o&*mente+ te &on&e%t*a/ +esign te next ste% is to get an a%%ova/ of te management ;*se< so as to stat te +etai/e+ +esign a&tivit!. T*s a %o%osa/

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giving te &ost to 4e in&*e+ an+ %ossi4/e oganisationa/ &anges is %e%ae+ fo

te management. Te e%ot t*s %e%ae+ so*/+ 4ief/! mention te %o4/em

te o4e&tives an ovea// vie" of te s!stem *stifi&ations fo se/e&ting one

a/tenative ove otes time an+ ote eso*&es eB*ie+ fo +eve/o%ing an+

im%/ementing te s!stem. Do&*mentation of te s!stem so*/+ a/so 4e a%%en+e+

in te annex*e o 4e given in a +iffeent vo/*me of te e%ot. Te e%ot t*ss*4mitte+ is evie"e+ 4! te to% management of te oganisation. If a%%ove+

te +etai/e+ s!stem +esign a&tivit! is *n+eta#en.

11.2 DESI9N METODS

Tee ae a n*m4e of meto+s fo +esigning infomation s!stems. Fo//o"ing is a

4ief +es&i%tion of some of te %o%*/a meto+s.

Pro*lem Portitioning

Te meto+ is 4ase+ on te %in&i%/e of +ivi+e an+ &onB*e=. In tis meto+

instea+ of so/ving te entie %o4/em at on&e te %o4/em is +ivi+e+ into sma//

managea4/e %ats ;mo+*/es< tat &an 4e so/ve+ se%aate/!. Tis %o4/em%atitioning meto+ aims at e+*&ing &om%/exit! 4e&a*se ea& mo+*/e &an 4e

+eve/o%e+ &o+e+ an+ teste+ e/ative/! in+e%en+ent/! of te otes. A/so

maintenan&eis minimise+ if ea& mo+*/e &an 4e mo+ifie+ se%aate/!.

Structured Design

In tis meto+ a st*&t*e+ &at is &eate+ "i& &an 4e *se+ to im%/ement te

s!stem. Te &at +e%i&ts mo+*/es +efining ea& mo+*/e 4! te s%e&ifi& f*n&tion.

Te aim is to %o+*&e a st*&t*e "ee te mo+*/es ave minim*m +e%en+en&e

on ea& ote ;+e&o*%/ing<G an+ ave a ig /eve/ of &oesion meaning a// te

statements "itin a mo+*/e ae f*n&tiona//! e/ate+. 8aio*s too/s /i#e f/o"

&ating +ata f/o" +iagams st*&t*e &ats st*&t*e+ Eng/is et&. ae *se+

in a st*&t*e+ +esign.

)o# Down Design

Te to%+o"n +esign is 4ase+ on te &on&e%t of a s!stem "i& s*ggests tat a

s!stem &onsists of s*4s!stems ;&om%onents< "i& ave s*4s!stems of tei

o"n. In ote "o+s a s!stem ma! 4e teme+ as a ieae! of s* 4^s!stems te

igest /eve/ s*4s!stem &oes%on+ing to te tota/ s!stem.

A&&o+ing/! tis meto+ invo/ves te i+entifi&ation of te main &om%onents of

te s!stem +e&om%osing tem into tei /o"e`heve/ &om%onents an+ iteating*nti/ te +esie+ /eve/ of +etai/ is ea&e+.

It attem%ts to smooten te %at of s!stem +esign 4! stating at te to% an+

+esigning te 4oa+ > mo+*/es fist. At ea& stage a+eB*ate attention is %ai+ to

s*4seB*ent intefa&ing so tat as te s!stem ex%an+s f*te mo+*/es &an 4e

a++e+ "ito*t to*4/e.

11., DETAILED SSTEM DESI9N

As a/ea+! state+ &on&e%t*a/ +esign in itse/f is not te en+ of te +esign %o&essG

ate it seves as a 4asis fo te +etai/e+ MIS +esign. Te %efoman&e

eB*iements s%e&ifie+ 4! te &on&e%t*a/ +esign 4e&ome in%*ts to te +etai/e++esign %ase in "i& tese ae f*te efine+ +etai/e+ an+ fina/ise+ to 4e

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&a//e+ te s!stem s%e&ifi&ations. T*s te main o4e&tive of te +etai/e+ s!stem

+esign is to %e%ae a 4/*e %int of a s!stem tat meets te goa/s of te

&on&e%t*a/ s!stem +esign eB*iements. Detai/e+ s!stem +esign invo/ves te

fo//o"ing %ases.

;i< Poe&t P/anning an+ Conto/;ii< Invo/ve te Use

;iii< Define te Detai/e+ S*4S!stems

;iv<In%*tO*t%*t Design

;v< Fee+4a&# fom te Use

;vi<Data4ase Design

;vii< Po&e+*e Design

;viii< Design Do&*mentation

A 4ief +is&*ssion on ea& of tese %ases is given 4e/o".

11.,.1 Poe&t P/*nning on+ Conto/In o+e to ens*e an effe&tive an+ effi&ient +esign of an MIS it is ve!

im%otant tat a +etai/e+ +esign %o&ess so*/+ in itse/f 4e &onsi+ee+ a &om%/ete

%oe&t. Teefoe te fist ste% in te +etai/e+ +esign is %/anning an+

&onto//ing so tat stan+a+s ma! 4e esta4/ise+ an+ a %o%e fo//o"*% is

ma+e. Some of te main %oints "i& ae im%otant in %/anning an+ &onto/ of a

+etai/e+ +esign ae given 4e/o".

Poe&t P/anning

;i< Fom*/ate te %oe&t o4e&tives.

;ii< Define te %oe&t tas#s.

;iii< Pe%ae a net"o# +iagam of a// events an+ a&tivities so as to

s%e&if! seB*entia/ an+ %aa//e/ events.

;iv<S&e+*/e te "o# as %e te eB*iements of te *se.

;v< Pe%ae a 4*+get fo te %oe&t.

Poe&t Conto/

;i< 9et a fee+4a&# of te a&t*a/ %efoman&e of te %oe&t "it es%e&t to

time &ost an+ "o# of te %oe&t an+ &om%ae it "it s&e+*/es 4*+gets

an+ te&ni&a/ %/ans.

;ii< Ta#e &oe&tive a&tion "ee eB*ie+ so as to maintain &onto/.

11.,.' Invo/ve te Use

S!stem +esignes m*st infom te *ses ega+ing te ne" infomation s!stem

4eing +eve/o%e+ an+ gain tei s*%%ot an+ a&&e%tan&e. In tis %ase *ses ae

ass*e+ tat &anges "i// 4enefit tem o tat te! "i// not 4e at +isa+vantage

4e&a*se of te ne" s!stem. It is a/so im%otant to ta#e *ses in &onfi+en&e so as

to o4tain infomation fo te +esign of te s!stem. Tis "i// a/so e/% managing

esistan&e to &ange an+ "o*/+ ens*e s*&&essf*/ im%/ementation of te s!stem.

11.,.$ Detai/e+ S*4S!stem Definition

In +etai/e+ s!stem +esign eve! s!stem nee+s to 4e 4o#en +o"n to as&etain a//

a&tivities eB*ie+ an+ tei es%e&tive in%*ts an+ o*t%*ts. In some of te &asess*4s!stems ae 4oa+/! +efine+ in te &on&e%t*a/ +esign %ase 4*t at tis stage

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te! ae s%e&ifi&a//! +efine+ to "o# o*t eve! +etai/ &on&ening te s*4

s!stem. De&om%osition of te s!stem to o%eationa/ a&tivities in genea/ is &aie+

o*t as fo//o"s.

? S!stem

S*4s!stemF*n&tiona/ Com%onent

Tas#

S*4tas#

O%eation e/ement

?eeve nee+e+ integation of a&tivities into a s*4^s!stem ma! 4e +one on te

4asis of an! one o moe of te fo//o"ing &ommon feat*es.

;i< Common f*n&tions

;ii< Common te&niB*es o %o&e+*es

;iii< Logi&a/ f/o" e/ationsi%s

;iv<Common o*t%*ts o in%*ts

11.,.) O*t%*tIn%*t Design

aving +efine+ te s*4s!stems "e// 4! "a! of f/o" +iagams an+ a too*g

+is&*ssion "it te *ses of te MIS te s!stem +esignes no" +efine te

s%e&ifi&ations of o*t%*ts an+ in%*ts fo ea& s*4s!stem in moe +etai/. Tese

s%e&ifi&ations "i// /ate 4e *se+ 4! %ogammes to +eve/o% %ogams to a&t*a//!

%o+*&e te o*t%*tin%*t. As te main %*%ose of an MIS is to %ovi+e

infomation to ai+ +e&isionma#ing to te *se o*t%*tin%*t is one of te most

im%otant &aa&teisti&s of te infomation s!stem. As +e&isions ae 4ase+ on

te o*t%*t fom te s!stem an+ in%*t to te s!stem s!stem +esignes m*st give

tis %ase te attention it +eseves. Te fo//o"ing %aaga%s "i// ig/igt te

#e! %oints to 4e &onsi+ee+ "i/e %e%aing o*t%*t an+ in%*t +esign.

O*t%*t Design

Te tem o*t%*t im%/ies an! infomation %inte+ o +is%/a!e+ %o+*&e+ 4! an

MIS. At tis stage te fo//o"ing a&tivities ta#e %/a&e.

;i< S%e&ifi& o*t%*ts "i& ae eB*ie+ to meet te infomation nee+s ae

i+entifie+.

;ii< Meto+s fo %esenting infomation ae se/e&te+ an+

;iii< Re%ots fomats o ote +o&*ments tat a&t as &aie of infomation %o+*&e+ 4! an MIS ae +esigne+.

O*6ectives of Out#ut Design

An o*t%*t fom an MIS so*/+ meet one o moe of te fo//o"ing o4e&tives.

;i< It so*/+ %ovi+e infomation a4o*t te %ast %esent o f*t*e events.

O*t%*ts at tem o%eationa/ &onto/ /eve/ %ovi+e infomation of te %ast

an+ te %esent events "eeas o*t%*ts "i& ae eB*ie+ at te

stategi& %/anning /eve/ in&/*+e infomation on f*t*e %oe&tions.

;ii< It so*/+ signa/ im%otant events o%%ot*nities an+ %o4/ems. Fo

exam%/e ex&e%tiona/ e%ots in+i&ate s*& a%%enings.

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;iii< It so*/+ tigge an a&tion in es%onse to some event. A set of */es

is %e+efine+ fo s*& a tigge. Fo exam%/e an o+e is %e%ae+ "en

invento! ea&es a &etain /eve/.

;iv<It so*/+ &onfim an a&tion as a es*/t of some tansa&tion. Fo exam%/e

%inting a e&ei%t *%on e&eiving te te/e%one 4i//.

Main Points for Out#ut Design

Te fo//o"ing B*estions nee+ to 4e ans"ee+ fo +esigning goo+ o*t%*t.

;i< ?e "i// e&eive te o*t%*t@ Te ans"e to tis B*estion "i// e/%

+etemine te /eve/ of te *se an+ a/so te *se of te infomation i.e.

intena/ o extena/ to te oganisation.

;ii< Te &ontent fomat an+ me+ia nee+s of te o*t%*t ma! 4e +esigne+

a&&o+ing/!. Fo exam%/e vi&e %esi+ent of an oganisation ma! eB*ie

e%ots on/! of ex&e%tions an+ in s*mma! fom s*%%/emente+ 4!

ga%i& +is%/a!s "eeas &*stomes ma! /i#e on/ine B*e! fa&i/ities.

;iii< ?en an+ 4o" often is te o*t%*t nee+e+@ Tis +etemines te

timing an+ feB*en&! of o*t%*t geneation. Some o*t%*ts ae geneate+eg*/a/! "eeas some ae geneate+ on/! "en &etain &on+itions aise

eg. Invento! o+es ae geneate+ "en invento! fa//s to a &etain /eve/.

;iv<?at is its %/anne+ *se@ Te *sage of te o*t%*t +etemines its &ontent

fom an+ me+ia. Fo exam%/e te Content /a!o*t an+ me+ia "i// 4e

+iffeent fo te o*t%*t if it is *se+ to &onve! infomation ;sa/es e%ot< to

as# a B*estion ;B*eies 4! te &*stome< ot tigge an a&tion ;geneation

of an o+e<.

;v< o" m*& +etai/s ae nee+e+@ Tis B*estion s%e&ifi&a//! ans"es a4o*t

te +etai/s eB*ie+ fom an o*t%*t "i& "i// affe&t te o*t%*t +esign

Presentation of Out#ut

Even aig B*a/it! &ontent ma! go *nnoti&e+ if %esente+ %oo/!. Teefoe

%esentation of o*t%*t is ega+e+ an im%otant feat*e of o*t%*t +esign. Te

%esentation ma! 4e eite ta4*/a o ga%i&a/ o 4ot. Te ta4*/a fomat in

genea/ so*/+ 4e %efee+ "en

;i< +etai/s +ominate te &ontents

;ii< &ontents ae &/assifie+ in go*%s

;iii< tota/ ae to 4e +a"n an+ &om%aisons ae to 4e ma+e.

In te +etai/e+ e%ots a ta4*/a fomat is %efee+. o"eve ga%i&s ae *se+

to im%ove te effe&tiveness of o*t%*t es%e&ia//! in +ete&ting %attens in +ataan+ ten+s o &anges in ten+s.

Some *ses /i#e to see infomation in ga%i& fom ate tan in o"s an+

&o/*mns. Fig*e 11.- exi4its ta4*/a an+ ga%i& foms of o*t%*t. Ta4*/a an+

ga%i&a/ fomats ma! 4e &om4ine+ togete to enan&e te %esentation of

o*t%*t.

O*t%*t Design S%e&ifi&ations

Te main %oints "i& so*/+ 4e &onsi+ee+ in te o*t%*t +esign s%e&ifi&ations

ae given 4e/o".

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;i< Pa%e SiHe: Te +esigne m*st s%e&if! te siHe of te %a%e to 4e *se+ fo

te o*t%*t e.g. A) siHe A$ siHe et&. o -.( Y 11 in&es 11 Y 1).2, in&es

o , Y1).2, in&es et&.

;ii< S%e&ia/ Foms: O*t%*ts &an 4e +esigne+ on te %e^%inte+ fom "ee

stan+a+ %int ea+ingstit/es et&. ae eB*ie+. Fo exam%/e te %e

%inte+ fom ma! ave te name an+ /ogo of te oganisation %inte+ atte to%. Tis enan&es %esentation an+ gives a %ofessiona/ /oo# to te

o*t%*t +o&*ment. Some of te *nivesities *se tis t!%e of fom fo te

&etifi&ates+egees to 4e a"a+e+ to te st*+ents. Rai/"a!s ae a/so *sing

simi/a foms fo esevation ti&#ets.

Fig. 11.- ;a< Ta4*/a Fomat of O*t%*tG ;4< 9a%i&a/ Fomat of O*t%*t

;iii< M*/ti%/e Co%ies of O*t%*t: ?en moe tan one &o%! is eB*ie+

fom te s!stem m*/ti%/e &o%ies ae to 4e %o+*&e+. Tis &an 4e a&ieve+

4! *sing m*/ti%at foms. M*/ti%/e %a%e is avai/a4/e in &a4on an+

&a4on/ess foms

;iv<T*nao*n+ Do&*ments: Te o*t%*t ma! 4e +esigne+ as a t*nao*n+

+o&*ment if te oganisation *ses o%ti&a/ s&annes fo ea+ing +ata fom

te foms. T*s in a t*nao*n+ +o&*ment te o*t%*t /ate &omes 4a&#

as an in%*t +o&*ment.

;v< O*t%*t La!o*t: Te aangement of items on te o*t%*t me+i*m is

#no"n as an o*t%*t /a!o*t. Te /a!o*t +esign a&ts as a 4/*e%int tat

g*i+es te %ogamme in te +eve/o%mentof &o+es. Te o*t%*t /a!o*t

so*/+ ave te fo//o"ing.

;a< ea+ings an+ +ate

;4< Data an+ +etai/s

;&< S*mmaies an+ tota/s

;+< Page tit/e n*m4e an+ +ate

;e< Notes an+ &omments

;f< Co/*mn ea+ings an+ +ata t!%e. Designes *s*a//! *se N fo n*mei& +ata

t!%e an+ fo a/%a +ata t!%es%e&ifies te "i+t of te &o/*mn.

Fig*e 11.10 +e%i&ts o*t%*t /a!o*t.

Fig. 11.10 O*t%*t La!o*t

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Fo +esigning s&eens s!stem +esigne ma! +esign m*/ti%/e s&eens o s%e&ia/

"in+o"ing &a%a4i/ities s*& as %o%*% "in+o"s. S*& +esigns "i// enan&e

ea+a4i/it! fo te vis*a/ +is%/a!s.

In%*t Design

9enea//! o*t%*t fom a s!stem is ega+e+ as te main +eteminant of te

s!stem=s %efoman&e !et as a/ea+! mentione+ o*t%*ts fom te s!stem ae

affe&te+ 4! te in%*ts to te s!stem. Teefoe in%*t +esign is eB*a//! im%otant

fo te s!stem +esigne.

O4e&tives of In%*t Design

Te main o4e&tives "i& g*i+e te in%*t +esign ae 4ief/! +is&*sse+ as 4e/o":

;i< Conto/ te vo/*me of in%*t +ata. T! to e+*&e +ata eB*iements an+

avoi+ &a%t*ing *nne&essa! +ata. Constant an+ s!stem&om%*ta4/e +ata

so*/+ not 4e &a%t*e+.

;ii< Avoi+ %o&essing +e/a!s +*ing +ata ent!. A*tomating +ata &a%t*ingma! e+*&e tis +e/a!.

;iii< Avoi+ +ata ent! eos. Ce&#s in te +ata ent! %ogams "i&

ae &a//e+ in%*t va/i+ation te&niB*es ma! e/%.

;iv<7ee% te %o&ess sim%/e. Te s!stem so*/+ 4e #e%t as sim%/e an+ eas! to

*se as %ossi4/e.

In%*t L*!o*t

Te in%*t /a!o*t so*/+ &ontain te fo//o"ing.

;i< ea+ing an+ +ate of +ata ent!.

;ii< Data ea+ing an+ va/*e.

;iii< Data t!%e an+ "i+t of te &o/*mn.

;iv<Initia/s of +ata ent! o%eato.

Fig*e 11.11 i//*states an in%*t /a!o*t +esign.

Fig. 11.11 In%*t La!o*t Design

11.,.( Fee+4a&# fom te Use

aving s%e&ifi&a//! +efine+ s*4s!stems o*t%*t an+ in%*ts te +esignes on&e

again invo/ve te *se to get fee+4a&#. Tis ste% "i// in&ease te a&&e%tan&e of

te MIS 4eing +esigne+. Te s!stem ana/!st so*/+ +emonstate te %o%ose+

MIS to te *ses of te s!stem s*4s!stem. Tis ste% "i// a/so eass*e te to%

management of te *se oganisation tat te +etai/e+ +esign %oe&t is

%ogessing as %e %/ans.

11.,.6 Data4ase Design

A +ata4ase is an o+e/! aangement of a// te e&o+s e/ate+ to ea& ote. It

seves as a +ata eso*&e fo te MIS of an oganisation. To ave o%tim*m%efoman&e stoage an+ fast etieva/ of +ata +ata4ase +esign is an im%otant

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%ase in te +etai/e+ +esign of a s!stem. Fo +esigning a +ata4ase te +esigne

so*/+ #ee% te fo//o"ing %oints in min+.

;i< I+entif! a// +ata ta4/es an+ e&o+ t!%es.

;ii< I+entif! fie/+s fo ea& ta4/e te #e! fie/+s fo ea& ta4/e an+ e/ations

4et"een vaio*s ta4/es.

;iii< Detemine te +ata t!%e an+ "i+t fo ea& fie/+ of te ta4/es.;iv<Noma/ise te +ata ta4/es.

;v< Po%e/! +o&*ment +ata +i&tiona!.

11.,.2 Po&e+*e Design

Po&e+*es ae te */es stan+a+s o meto+s +esigne+ to in&ease te

effe&tiveness of te infomation s!stem. Te %o&e+*es +etai/ a4o*t te tas#s to

4e %efome+ in *sing te s!stem. Te! seve as ea+! e&#ones fo te

+esignes as "e// as fo te *ses. Sometimes te! %efom te tas# of a

s*%eviso ove o%eatos. Tee is a "i+e vaiet! of %o&e+*es "i& in&/*+e:

;i< Dam Ent! Po&e+*es: Tese ae te meto+s +esigne+ fo +ata ent!e.g. +ata ent! seB*en&e.

;ii< R*ntime Po&e+*es: Te a&tions to 4e ta#en 4! te *ses to a&ieve te

inten+e+ es*/ts e.g. a %o&e+*e ma! inst*&t te *se to /oa+ %inte

"it a s%e&ifi& siHe of %a%e.

;iii< Eoan+/ing Po&e+*es: Tese %o&e+*es e/% te *se in

+ete&ting an+ &oe&ting eos.

;iv<Se&*it! an+ 3a&#*% Po&e+*es: To*g tese %o&e+*es infomation

is %ovi+e+ ega+ing a&tions eB*ie+ to 4e ta#en to %ote&t te s!stem

against +amage.

;v< Soft"ae Do&*menting Po&e+*es: Te %ogammes get inst*&tions on

o" to +o&*ment te %ogams.

In +esigning %o&e+*es +esignes so*/+:

;i< *n+estan+ te %*%ose an+ B*a/it! stan+a+ of ea& %o&e+*e

;ii< +eve/o% a ste%4!ste% +ie&tion fo ea& %o&e+*e an+

;iii< +o&*ment a// te %o&e+*es.

11.,., Design Do&*mentation

Detai/e+ +esign stats "it te %efoman&e s%e&ifi&ations given 4! te

&on&e%t*a/ +esign an+ en+s "it a set of +esign s%e&ifi&ations fo te

&onst*&tion of MIS. Te o*t%*ts fom te +etai/e+ +esign i.e. +esigns%e&ifi&ations ae an+e+ ove to te %ogammes fo "iting &o+es to tans/ate

s!stem s%e&ifi&ations into a %!si&a/ MIS. Teefoe te s!stem ana/!st so*/+

ve! &aef*//! +o&*ment te +etai/e+ +esign. In fa&t +esign +o&*ments so*/+

&onsist of &om%eensive +etai/s of a// te +esign %ases. Design +o&*mentation

of +etai/e+ +esign e%ot genea//! &onsists of

;i< S!stem o4e&tives

;ii< Design &onstaints

;iii< In%*tso*t%*ts

;iv<Data fi/es

;v< Po&e+*es ;man*a/<;vi<Po%ose+ s!stem ;a s*mma! an+ +etai/e+ f/o" &ats<

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;vii< In%*to*t%*t s%e&ifi&ations

;viii< Pogam s%e&ifi&ations

;ix<Data4ase s%e&ifi&ations

;x< Cost of insta//ation an+ im%/ementation an+

;xi<S!stem test &on+itions.

Do&*mentation of te s!stem so*/+ a/so in&/*+e a *seman*a/ an+ o%eato

man*a/. A *se man*a/ is %e%ae+ to g*i+e te *se in *n+estan+ing an+ *sing

te s!stem. T*s it so*/+ 4e sim%/e eas! to *n+estan+ an+ "ito*t an!

te&ni&a/ agon. ?eeas an o%eato man*a/ is "itten fo te &om%*te

o%eatos. O%eato`man*a/ so*/+ in&/*+e an o%eatos vie" of te s!stem

s%e&if!ing stat sto% an+ estat seB*en&es. It so*/+ a/so &ontain vaio*s

%o&e+*es "i& ma! g*i+e te o%eato ega+ing se&*it! %iva&! an+

integit! of +ata.

SUMMAR

S!stem ana/!sis is a +etai/e+ st*+! of a// im%otant 4*siness as%e&ts of a f*t*es!stem as "e// as te existing s!stem. T*s te st*+! 4e&omes a 4asis fo a

%o%ose+ s!stem. In tis %o&ess of s!stem ana/!sis em%asis is %/a&e+ on

_AT m*st 4e +one to so/ve te %o4/em=. Te fina/ %o+*&t of s!stem

ana/!sis is a set of s!stem eB*iements of a %o%ose+ infomation s!stem.

ReB*iement +etemination "i& is an im%otant a&tivit! in s!stem ana/!sis is

a means of tans/ating te i+eas given 4! te *ses into a foma/ +o&*ment.

S!stem ana/!sis ens*es tat te s!stem ana/!st *n+estan+s te *ses=

eB*iements in a &/ea "a! an+ t*s e+*&es te &omm*ni&ation ga% 4et"een

te *se an+ te +eve/o%e. It e+*&es te +eve/o%ment &ost 4! ove&oming eos

an+ mis*n+estan+ings ea/! in te +eve/o%ment an+ 4e&omes a 4asis fo

efeen&e fo va/i+ation of te fina/ %o+*&t.

In o+e to st*+! te existing s!stem an+ to +etemine infomation eB*iements

tee ae sevea/ stategies "i& &o*/+ 4e *se+ fo te %*%ose. Tese stategies

ma! in&/*+e intevie"s B*estionnaies e&o+ evie"s an+ o4sevation. As an!

one a%%oa& ma! not 4e s*ffi&ient fo e/i&iting infomation eB*iements of te

s!stem te ana/!sts *s*a//! *se a &om4ination of a// tese stategies.

S!stem ana/!sis is &aie+ o*t "it te e/% of &etain too/s *s*a//! #no"n as

st*&t*e+ ana/!sis too/s. Te main too/s "i& ae *se+ fo ana/!sing an+

+o&*menting te s!stem s%e&ifi&ations ae +ata f/o" +iagam +ata +i&tiona!st*&t*e+ Eng/is +e&ision tees an+ +e&ision ta4/es.

Te main o4e&tive of te s!stem +esign is to %o+*&e s!stem s%e&ifi&ations

"i& &an ten 4e &onvete+ into an infomation s!stem fo *se in te

oganisation. o"eve te s!stem +esign is a &eative a&tivit! an+ is &onsi+ee+

to evo/ve to*g t"o +iffeent /eve/s of +esign i.e. &on&e%t*a/ +esign an+

+etai/e+ +esign. Te &on&e%t*a/ +esign "i& is a/so &a//e+ feasi4i/it! +esign sets

te +ie&tion fo te MIS %oe&t an+ %ovi+es %efoman&e eB*iements. Te

o*t%*t of te &on&e%t*a/ +esign i.e. %efoman&e s%e&ifi&ations ae ta#en as an

in%*t to te +etai/e+ +esign to %o+*&e s!stem s%e&ifi&ations. Te s!stem

s%e&ifi&ations t*s geneate+ ae an+e+ ove to te &om%*te %ogamme fotans/ating into a %!si&a/ infomation s!stem.

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Te s!stem s%e&ifi&ations &a//e+ te +etai/e+ s!stem +esign o /ogi&a/ s!stem

+esign %ovi+e a// +etai/s of in%*ts o*t%*ts fi/es +ata 4ase &onto/s an+

%o&e+*es. Fo ens*ing an effe&tive effi&ient an+ s*&&essf*/ MIS te s!stem

ana/!st m*st not *s to*g tis %ase ate ea& an+ eve! ste% m*st 4e

*n+eta#en ve! &aef*//! to %e%ae a meti&*/o*s s!stem +esign.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

1. ?at is meant 4! s!stem ana/!sis@ Dis&*ss its main o4e&tives.

'. Dis&*ss an+ i//*state te main stategies fo e/i&iting infomation a4o*t

te *se>s eB*iements. ?i& = stateg! "o*/+ !o* /i#e to se/e&t@ ?!@

$. ?at is st*&t*e+ ana/!sis@ 3ief/! +is&*ss te too/s *se+ in st*&t*e+

ana/!sis.

). Des&i4e "it te e/% of a s*ita4/e exam%/e te &on&e%t an+ %o&e+*e

*se+ in &onst*&ting DFDs

(. E/a4oate te s!m4o/s *se+ in &onst*&ting DFDs. 9ive 4asi& */es fo

&onst*&ting a DFD.6. Dis&*ss a +e&ision tee an+ a +e&ision ta4/e. Ae +e&ision tees an+ +ata

f/o" +iagams e/ate+@ Dis&*ss.

2. ?at is meant 4! &on&e%t*a/ +esign of MIS@ Dis&*ss vaio*s ste%s

invo/ve+ in te &on&e%t*a/ +esign of a s!stem.

,. Do !o* tin# a &on&e%t*a/ +esign is a %eeB*isite to +etai/e+ +esign@ If

!es "!@

-. E/a4oate te &on&e%t an+ o/e of &on&e%t*a/ MIS +esign.

10. ?! is te tem goss +esign often *se+ to +esignate &on&e%t*a/ +esign@

?i& tem +o !o* tin# is moe a%%o%iate@ ?!@

11. So*/+ +etai/e+ +esign "o# eve ove/a% te +eve/o%ment of te

&on&e%t*a/ +esign@ 9ive %o4/ems an+ a+vantages if an!.

1'. Disting*is 4et"een &on&e%t*a/ +esign an+ +etai/e+ +esign. ?i& is moe

im%otant@

1$. ?at o4e&tives g*i+e te +esign of o*t%*t an+ in%*t s%e&ifi&ations@

1). ?at is meant 4! +esign s%e&ifi&ations@ Dis&*ss vaio*s %ases invo/ve+

in %e%aing +esign s%e&ifi&ations@

1(. Do !o* tin# *ses so*/+ 4e invo/ve+ in %e%aing +esign s%e&ifi&ations@

?!@

ASSI9NMENTS

1. Tin# a4o*t an! +is&o*nt %o/i&! 4eing *se+ 4! an oganisation. Deve/o% a+e&ision tee an+ a +e&ision ta4/e fo te same.

'. Ass*me M S*+es is *nning a sma// &onfe&tiona! so%. e ma#es a//

te %*&ases fom a +e/ive! van on &as 4asis an+ se//s te items to is

&*stomes on/! on &as i.e. no &e+it is a//o"e+ to is &*stomes.

Sin&e te so% is a sma// 4*siness it is a oneman so" an+ M S*+es

+oes not eB*ie to fi/e an! in&ome tax et*ns.

On te 4asis of te a4ove infomation +a" a DFD fo is infomation

s!stem.

$. Deve/o% a B*estionnaie to e/i&it infomation ega+ing st*+! of an

existing s!stem in a man*fa&t*ing oganisation.

). Citi&a//! examine te +esign of te fo//o"ing fomats:;i< !o* eno/ment fom

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;ii< !o* %efoman&e e%ot

;iii< ann*a/ e%ot of !o* instit*te.

;iv<S*%%ose !o* Pofesso as as#e+ !o* to %e%ae +esign

s%e&ifi&ations fo Li4a! Infomation S!stem of !o* instit*tion. o"

"o*/+ !o* %o&ee+ in te given assignment@

;v< A&t*a//! %e%ae &on&e%t*a/ +esign an+ +etai/e+ +esign fo teLi4a! infomation S!stem of !o* instit*te.

REFERENCES

Davis S!stems Ana/!sis an+ Design: A St*&t*e+ A%%oa& A++ison?es/e!

P*4/ising Rea+ing Mass 1-,$.

9ane Cis an+ Sason Tis St*&t*e+ S!stems Ana/!sis: Too/s an+

Te&niB*es Penti&ea// Eng/e"oo+ C/iffs N 1-2-.

9ane Cis an+ T. Sason St*&t*e+ S!stems Ana/!sis Too/s an+

Te&niB*es Penti&ea// Eng/e"oo+ C/iffs Ne" ese! 1-2-.

L*&as en! . Te Ana/!sis Design an+ Im%/ementation of Infomation

S!stem M&9a"i// 3oo# Com%an! Ne" o# 1-,(.Matin Me/e R Management Re%ots= o*na/ of S!stems Management

*ne 1-,'.

M*+i&# Ro4et 9. MIS Deve/o%ment Po&e+*es= o*na/ of S!stem

Management De&em4e 1-20.

>8 M*+i&# Ro4et 9. an+ et a/. Infomation S!stems fo Mo+en

Management $+ E+ition Penti&ea// of In+ia Pvt. Lt+. Ne" De/i. 1-,,.

Pessman Roge S. Soft"ae EngineeingA Pa&titiones A%%oa& )t

e+ition M&9a"i// 3oo# Com%an! N.. 1--2.

Senn ames A. Ana/!sis an+ Design of Infomation S!stems M&9a"i//

Ne" o# 1-,).

Ana/!sis an+ Design of Infomation S!stems 'n+ e+ition M&9a"i//

Intenationa/ e+ition Ne" o# 1-,-.

?ete4e ames C. S!stems Ana/!sis an+ Design: Ta+itiona/ St*&t*e+

an+ A+van&e+ Con&e%ts an+ Te&niB*es ?est P*4/ising St. Pa*/ Minn. 1-,).

o*+an E+"a+ Managing te St*&t*e+ Te&niB*es 'n+ E+ition

Penti&ea// Eng/e"oo+ C/iffs N

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CASE STUD '

MIS at 3an#

4an# "as esta4/ise+ in te !ea 1-06 "it its ea+B*ates at a

meto%o/itan &it! of In+ia ;name of te 4an# an+ its /o&ation ave 4een +isg*ise+

to etain anon!mit!<. Afte in+e%en+en&e in 1-21 govenment of In+ia +e&i+e+

to iationa/ise it an+ t*s it "as 4o*gt *n+e te &onto/ of Reseve 3an# of

In+ia ;R3I<. To+a! te 4an# is one of te /ea+ing nationa/ise+ 4an#s in In+ia

an+ is govene+ 4! 3an#ing Com%anies Reg*/ation A&t. Te 4an# is a %ofit

eaning oganisation "i& em%/o!s moe tan sixt! to*san+ em%/o!ees as

got +e%osits of a4o*t Rs $000 4i//ion an+ its a+van&es ae to te t*ne of Rs 12(0

4i//ion.

Te 4an# fo its smoot f*n&tioning is oganise+ into &i&/es egiona/ offi&es

+ivisiona/ offi&es an+ 4an& offi&es. Fig*e 1 exi4its te

Fig. 1 ieae! of 3an#

sim%/e s&emati& +iagam of te ieae! ofte 4an#.

Te 4an# as te fo//o"ing +e%atments.

;i< P/anning an+ Deve/o%ment

;ii< Intenationa/ 3an#ing Division

;iii< Me&ant 3an#ing

;iv< R*a/ Deve/o%ment

;v< Ins%e&tion an+ Conto/

;vi< Loans an+ A+van&es

;vii< A&&o*nts De%atment.

A 3RANC OF 3AN7

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One of its 4an& offi&es "as esta4/ise+ in a 4ig &it! in In+ia in te !ea

1-,(. It e%ots to its +ivisiona/ offi&e tat is sit*ate+ at a +istan&e of a4o*t ,0

#m. Te Divisiona/ Manage in t*n sen+s is e%ots to te egiona/ offi&e. Te

oganisationa/ &at of te 4an& is given in Fig. '. Te im%otant statisti&s of

tis 4an& ae:

Em%/o!ees : '(

De%osits : Rs 10.(0 &oe

A+van&es : Rs '.00 &oe

Te 4an& offi&e sen+s a "ee#/! e%ot to te +ivisiona/ offi&e. Te +ivisiona/

offi&e +i&tates to te 4an& offi&e te %o/i&! an+ amo*nt of +e%osits an+

a+van&es te 4an& &an *n+eta#e.

?o# an+ &on+*&t et&. ae assesse+ t"i&e a !ea 4! te 3an& Manage an+ a

e%ot is sent to te +ivisiona/ offi&e.

PRO3LEMS OF A 3RANC MANA9ER

D*e to a s*4stantia/ in&ease in te n*m4e of a&&o*nts an+ a geate nee+ fo

infomation tee as 4een a &onsi+ea4/e in&ease in "o# /oa+. Te offi&es

ae not fin+ing it eas! to a&&ess an+ *%+ate e&o+s in te existing s!stem.

Fo a sing/e tansa&tion a n*m4e of 4oo#s &onsisting of te entie infomation

s!stem aveto 4e *%+ate+.

Te 4an& manage is a/so fa&ing se&*it!%o4/ems e/ating to infomation

&ontaine+ in 4oo#s an+ fi/es. 3esi+es te a4ove %o4/ems te &*stome as to

move fom &o*nte to &o*nte an+ as to "ait fo a &onsi+ea4/e time. Te 4an#

+oes not en&as tave//e=s &eB*es iss*e+ 4! an! %*4/i& se&to 4an#.

?it a vie" to ove&ome te a4ove^mentione+ %o4/ems te 4an& manage of

3an# +e&i+e+ to invite a &ons*/tant fom a /ea+ing 4*siness s&oo/ in In+ia

to st*+! te %esent s!stem an+ to %o%ose an+ +esign a ne" infomation s!stem.

Te &ons*/tant %o&ee+e+ in te fo//o"ing "a! to st*+! an+ %o%ose a ne"

nfomation s!stem at te 4an& offi&e of 3an#.

Fig. ' Oganisationa/ Cat of te 3an&

SSTEM ANALSIS

It is te most im%otant %ase of an! s!stem +eve/o%ment %oe&t. Te ana/!sis

stage invo/ves st*+!ing te s!stem eB*iements an+ +ivi+ing te "o/e s!stem

o &on&e%t into managea4/e %ats an+ tei inte/in#s. Te ana/!sis "as

%efome+ "it te fo//o"ing main o4e&tives in min+.

O4ie&tives

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;i< To st*+! te "o/e aea &on&ening te a&&o*nting %o&e+*e of te

4an&.

;ii< To st*+! te %o4/ems in te existing s!stem an+ its +a"4a&#s.

;iii< To st*+! te eB*iements of te ne" s!stem an+ +esign te ne" s!stem

on te 4asis of te so*&es of infomation an+ te /in#s of te infomation.

Pro*lem Definition

;i< In&ease+ "o# /oa+

;ii< Re+*&e+ effi&ien&!

;iii< D*%/i&ation of +ata

;iv< Se&*it! of +ata.

Methodology

Unst*&/*e+ Intevie"s

Te infomation s!stem "as man*a/ an+ #no"/e+ge of manages a4o*t

&om%*tes "as minim*m. An *nst*&t*e+ intevie"ing te&niB*e "as a+o%te+to e/i&it infomation fom te managesem%/o!ees.

Re&o+ Seaeing

St*+! of +o&*ments foms egistes an+ /e+ges "as *n+eta#en fom te

e&o+s of te 4an#. St*+! in Paa//e/ Oganisation St*+! of te o%eations of

anote 4an& of anote 4an# in te &it! "ose o%eations ae a/most f*//!

&om%*teise+ to give an insigt into te "o#ing of a &om%*teise+ s!stem "as

*n+eta#en.

Existing S!stem

F*n&tions of 3*n#

2. 3oo"ing

A 4an# 4oo"s mone! in fom of +e%osits fom te %*4/i&. Te vaio*s +e%osit

s&emes ae as *n+e.

;i< Saving A&&o*nts: Te! ae most &ommon foms of +e%osits. Te n*m4e

of "it+a"a/s is /imite+ an+ sim%/e inteest is %ai+. Te %o&e+*e fo o%ening a

saving a&&o*nt as 4een so"n in Fig. $.

;ii< C*ent A&&o*nts: No inteest is %ai+. Tese a&&o*nts ae %ovi+e+ "it

ove +aft fa&i/it! an+ ae s*ita4/e fo 4*siness oganisations not in+ivi+*a/s

;iii< Tem De%osits: Tese ma! 4e of ' t!%es:

;a< 7ama+en* De%osit ;4< Fixe+ De%osit

;a< 7am*+en* De%osits: Te mone! is +e%osite+ fo a fixe+ time%eio+ an+

&om%o*n+ inteest is &e+ite+ eve!

$ monts. Te inteest an+ te %in&i%a/ &an 4e "it+a"n on/! afte te

&om%/etion of te +e%osit%eio+.

;4< Fixe+ De%osits: In tis &ase %eio+i&a/ +e%osit et*ns ae %ai+. S*& a

s&eme is s*ita4/e fo tose "o eB*ie+ a fixe+ amo*nt at eg*/a inteva/s.

;iv< Re&*ing De%osits: Tese ae main/! fo sa/aie+ %eo%/e. Te! aea//o"e+ to %a! a fixe+ s*m into tei a&&o*nt eve! mont o eve! ' monts

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et&. +e%en+ing *%on te eB*iement. Te amo*nt &an on/! 4e "it+a"n afte a

fixe+ %eio+ of time.

Fig. $ DFD of te Po&e+*e fo A&&o*nt O%ening

;v< Nit!ani+i De%osits: Tis s&eme is meant fo +ai/!in&ome %aties s*&

as

so%#ee%es. Dai/! "o#es an+ atisans. Fo tis %*%ose te 4an# em%/o!s

te sevi&es of an agent "o visits te a&&o*nt o/+e=s %/a&e of "o# an+ &o//e&ts

tei +e%osits giving tem a e&ei%t. On/! a sma// ate of sim%/e inteest is

%a!a4/e.

;vi< Foeign C*en&! De%osits: Tis s&eme is in its infan&! at %esent. Tis

is fo tose in+ivi+*a/s an+ oganisations "o "o*/+ +e%osit mone! in tisa&&o*nt 4!

means of foeign &*en&!.

'. A+v*n&es

Te an# gants &e+it to te %*4/i& in te fo//o"ing foms.

;i< O%en CHHs/v Ce+it A&&o*nt: Te 4an# a//o&ates a &etain amo*nt of

&e+it to

te &*stome. Te &*stome +a"s te mone! as an+ "en e nee+s it an+ te

inteest is &age+ on te a&t*a/ amo*nt *ti/ise+ 4! im.

;ii< A&&o*nt: Tis fa&i/it! is given to o/+es of &*ent a&&o*nt. Te o/+es

ae a//o"e+ to "it+a" 4e!on+ te 4a/an&e in tei a&&o*nts *% to a&etain

s%e&ifie+ /imit an+ inteest is &age+ on tis ove+a"n a&&o*nt. It is a sot

%eio+ aangement an+ te a&&o*nt m*st so" a &e+it 4a/an&e again A "itin a

fe" +a!s. C

;iii< Loan Against !%ot/ae&atioH of 8ei&/es: C Loans ae gante+ fo

%*&ase of ; vei&/es. Te vei&/e itse/f is te se&*it! C of te /oan.

;iv< o*sing Loan to Em%/o!ees an+ otes: Loans ae given to em%/o!ees

an+ otes fo %*&ase of o*ses o fo &onst*&tion of o*se. Te /an+ o teo*se is te O: se&*it! in tis &ase.

;v<8t1/*t14/e Se&*it! Loans: Loans ae gante+ to in+ivi+*a/s o

oganisations at te %evai/ing ate of inteest against an asset "i& is te

se&*it!.

Ote Sevi&es

Te 4an# a/so %ovi+es its &*stomes "it fa&i/ities s*& as mai/ tansfe

+eman+ +aft 6 sto&# investment et&. Fig*e ) +e%i&ts a DFD fo vaio*s

f*n&tions of te 4an#.

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$ 9ENERAL OUTLINE OF INFORMATION

1. A 4an& maintains an *%to&/ate oo# of inst*&tions&i&*/as iss*e+ 4!

te ea+ offi&e.

'. It maintains a +ai/! +ia! fo e&o+ing +*e +ates of 4i//s +e%osits

ins*an&e %o/i&ies et& ene"a/ of &e+it /imits an+ +o&*ments e/ating to

a+van&es stan+ing inst*&tions an+ ote items eB*iing %eio+i&a/ attention.Enties ae ma+e "eneve fes tansa&tions inst*&tions e/ating to te a4ove

items ta#e %/a&e.

$. Ea& +a! a mem4e of te 4an& goes to te &/eaing o*se as te

e%esentative of te 4an& to &/ea +afts an+ &eB*es e&eive+ fom ote

4an#s.

). Te ea+ offi&e an+ egiona/ offi&e get an *%+ate+ /ist of a// %eio+i&a/

et*ns. Co%ies of te et*ns ae maintaine+ 4! te 4an&.

REMITTANCE AND COLLECTIONS

A &*stome ma! "it+a" o get et*ns on is +e%osits in te fom of

&eB*es o ma! get te &o//e&te+ amo*nt +e%osite+ in is a&&o*nt. Co//e&tionsma! 4e in fom of &eB*es+afts&as.

Te 4an# e&o+s tese tansa&tions in some fom in vaio*s 4oo#s. Tis

infomation is given 4e/o".

A &*stome ma! 4e an in+ivi+*a/ an oganisation o anote 4an& of a 4an#.

;i< C*s2 O+e: Te! ae *se+ fo /o&a/ &as "it+a"a/s i.e. te &*stome is '1

esi+ent of te 4an& aea

Fig. ) DFD fo F*n&tioning of te 3an#

;ii< TmnsfePa!O+e: Tese ae *se+ fo giving &as to an! %at! on 4eing

infome+ 4! an! ote 4an& of te same 4an#.

;iii< Deman+ Daft: Tese ae *se+ 4! an! o*tsi+e agen&! ote tan te t"o

/iste+ a4ove.

3oo#s in Ro*tine Use

3oo#

It is *se+ fo e&o+ing +ai/! +e%osits an+ "it+a"a/s an+ /ies "it te &asie.Tansa&tions ae e&o+e+ in tis as an+ "en te! o&&*.

Da! 3oo#

It is *%+ate+ +ai/! at te en+ of te +a!. It #ee%s e&o+s of te tota/ +e%osits an+

"it+a"a/s.Data fo tis is ta#en fom te &as 4oo#.

Le+ge

It is *se+ fo &e+iting an+ +e4iting a&&o*nts. en&e it as t"o main enties:

De4it an+ &e+it 4ot aving te fo//o"ing s*4ea+ings.

;i< Cas

;ii< Tansfes;iii< C/eaing A&&o*nt

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Tese oo#s ae maintaine+ a&&o+ing to +iffeent %o&e+*es mentione+ as

fo//o"s.

O%ening of Saving 3*n# A&

Regisfes ReB*ie+

1. Savings 3an# Le+ge Seet'. Savings 3an# Pass 3oo#

$. Savings 3an# 3in+e

). S%e&imen Signat*e 3in+e

(. A&&o*nt O%ene+C/ose+ Registe .

6. A/%a4eti& In+ex Registe. X

Foms ReB*ie+

/. Cas Pa!ins/i% I

'. CeB*e Pa!ins/i%

$. A&&o*nt O%ening Fom.

O%ening of C*ent A&

Registes ReB*ie+ A

1. C*ent A&&o*nt Le+ge Seet

'. C*ent 3in+e

$. S%e&imen Signat*e 3in+e

). CeB*e A*toit! Registe

(. Statement of A&&o*nt

6. Pass 3oo#

2. C*ent A&&o*nt O%ene+ an+ C/ose+ Registe.

Foms ReB*ie+

1. Cas Pa!ins/i%

'. A&&o*nt O%ening Fom

$. S%e&imen Signat*e Fom.

Foms ReB*ie+

1. CeB*e Ret*ning Memo

'. Sto% Pa!ment Lette of A&#no"/e+gement

$. Sto% Pa!ment S/i%

). ?it+a"a/ Fom.

Iss*e of Fixe+ De%osit Re&ei%t

3oo#s ReB*ie+

1. Fixe+ De%osit Le+ge

'. Fixe+ De%osit Inteest Pa!a4/e Registe

$. Fixe+ De%osit D*e Date Registe

). Tansfe o*na/

(. Fixe+ De%osit Re&ei%t 3oo#

6. A&&o*nt O%ene+ an+ C/ose+ Registe.

Foms ReB*ie+1. A&&o*nt O%ening Fom

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'. A%%/i&ation fo Iss*e of FDR.

Maintenan&e of C*stme=s A&&o*nt

1. Posting in Le+ge

;i< Ce+it Posting

;ii< De4it Posting'. Tansfe of A&&o*nts

$. C/osing of

Iss*e of CeB*e 3oo#s

Registe ReB*ie+

1. CeB*e 3oo# Iss*e Registe.

Po!ment of D*ttsT*nsfe P*!ment O+e

3oo#s ReB*ie+

1. Daft Pa!a4/e Le+ge

'. Daft Pai+ ?ito*t A+vi&e Le+ge$. Cas O+e Iss*e Registe

). T.P.O. Pa!a4/e Registe.

Iss*e of D*ttsTansfe P*!ment O+e 3oo#s ReB*ie+

1. Daft Leaves Cons*me+ Registe

'. Deman+ Daft Iss*e Registe

$. Deman+ Daft 3oo#

). T.P.O. Iss*e Registe

(. T.P.O. 3oo#.

Fom ReB*ie+

1. DaftT.P.O. A%%/i&ation Fom.

Po!ment of Fixe+ De%osit Re&ei%tInteest 3oo#s ReB*ie+

1. Fixe+ De%osit Le+ge

'. F.D. D*e Date Registe

$. ED. Inteest Pa!a4/e Registe

). Ove+*e Fixe+ De%osit Le+ge.

Foms ReB*ie+

1. De4itCe+it ;Tansfe< 8o*&e

'. De4it Cas 8o*&e.

St*n+ing Inst*&tions *n+ Sto% Po!ments

Registes ReB*ie+

1. Stan+ing Inst*&tions Registe

'. Sto% Pa!ment

Foms ReB*ie+

1. Sto% Pa!ment Le+ge of A&#no"/e+gement

'. Sto% Pa!ment S/i%

$. CeB*e Ret*ning Memo.

?EE7L STATEMENT

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A "ee#/! e%ot is sent ea& Fi+a! to te +ivisiona/ offi&e an+ te ea+ offi&e. It

s*ms *% te stat*s of assets an+ /ia4i/ities. Fig*e ( so"s DFD fo te "ee#/!

statement.

+iagam

Fig. ( DFD of ?ee#/! Statement

FUNCTIONAL AREAS COMPUTERISED A&&o*nting s!stem of te 4an& is

to 4e f*//! &om%*teise+. It so*/+ 4e +one in te same %atten as ote 4an&es

at its &i&/e offi&es so tat it is ea+i/! &om%ati4/e "it te s!stem +eve/o%e+ 4!

te ea+ 5*ates.

COMPUTER PERSONNELA &om%/ete/! *sefien+/! %a&#age is 4eing +eve/o%e+ so tee is no nee+ fo

s%e&ia/ise+ %esonne/. Existing staff "i// ave to 4e taine+ in an+/ing te

%a&#age.

SECURIT

Se&*it! so*/+ 4e ta#en &ae of "it te *se of s%e&ia/ %ass"o+s %ovi+e+ to

se/e&te+ em%/o!ees.

PROPOSED SSTEM

Te 3an# as 4een f*n&tioning fo a%%oximate/! -0 !eas. Ove te !eas it as

steam/ine+ an+ im%ove+ te "o#ing of vaio*s 4an&es. It im%ats

s%e&ia/ise+ taining to its em%/o!ees. Te o4s %efome+ 4! its em%/o!ees ae

not ve! +iffi&*/t no +o te! eB*ie +e&isionma#ing invo/ving a ig +egee of

is#. en&e &om%*tes &an easi/! 4e *se+ to %efom man*a/ te+io*s an+ time

&ons*ming a&tivities.

Te aim is to ma#e a &om%*te %a&#age "i& is so sefien+/! tat te %esent

staff is a4/e to o%eate it. No s%e&ia/ise+ staff is to 4e em%/o!e+ to &ate to te

nee+ of te ne" &om%*teise+ s!stem. Te genea/ "o#ing of te 4an& "i// 4e

te same "it ve! /itt/e o no &ange in its +ata in%*t foms. Instea+ of *sing

/age /e+ges te same staff "i// *se &om%*tes.

Te existing staff "i// &ate to te nee+s of an in&ease+ n*m4e of &*stomes

an+ moe vo/*me of "o#. It "i// a/so 4e&ome easie to veif! va/i+ate ta&e an+

&oe&t.

Te mao 4enefits of &om%*tes "i// 4e ea/ise+ "en a/most a// a&tivities of te

4an& ae &om%*teise+ an+ atta&e+ to a &ommon net"o#. Ten a sing/e

ent! "i& fin+s its "a! into man! 4oo#s "i// 4e entee+ on&e an+ it "i//

a*tomati&a//! 4e %oste+ to vaio*s fi/es.

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o"even &om%/ete &om%*teisation "i// entai/ vast amo*nts of mone! "i& "i//

not 4e e&onomi&a//! feasi4/e fo a sma// 4an&. Some of te %o&e+*es in%*t

fomats et&. "i// a/so

nee+ to 4e &ange+. It "i// a/so 4e +iffi&*/t to test*n s*& a s!stem.

So afte ma#ing an e/a4oate st*+! of te existing s!stem an+ fin+ing f/a"s in te%esent one a ne" s!stem is to 4e o%ose+. Teinto+*&tion of &om%*tes in

%ases is e&ommen+e+ in te 4an&.

FEASI3ILIT STUD

O%eationa/ Feasi4i/it!

Te ea&tion of te *se "i// not 4e *nfavo*a4/e. Man! 4an&es of te 4an#

ave &om%*teise+. No /a!offs ave 4een s*ggeste+. Moeove te "o# /oa+ "i//

4e e+*&e+ an+ monotono*s tas#s "i// 4e %efome+ 4! te &om%*te. Te

em%/o!ees "o*/+ vie" te into+*&tion of &om%*tes as an im%ovement in tei

"o# envionment.

Te&ni&a/ Feasi4i/it!

It is te&ni&a//! feasi4/e as insta//ing t"o PC Penti*m &om%*tes is not a 4ig

+ea/. S*& &om%*tes ae ate &ommon an+ &ea% tese +a!s. Te a+"ae

maintenan&e s*%%ot "i// 4e %ovi+e+ 4! te ven+o an+ te *sefien+/!

soft"ae 4eing insta//e+ "o*/+ eB*ie no te&ni&a/ s#i// on te %at of te *se.

E&onomi& Feasi4i/it!

Costs asso&iate+ "it te a+"ae an+ soft"ae ae ve! sma// as &om%ae+ to

te 4enefits. Te a++itiona/ &osts in&*e+ "i// 4e &om%ensate+ 4! not in&easing

te "o#fo&e as a es*/t of te in&ease in te "o# /oa+. Te same n*m4e of

em%/o!ees "i// 4e a4/e to an+/e moe "o#.

a+"ae ReB*iements

T"o PC Penti*ms "it $' M3 RAM ' M3 &a&e memo! , 93 a+ +is# an+

one +ot matix %inte.

Soft"ae ReB*iements

It so*/+ ave DOS o%eating s!stem. ?in+o"s MS Offi&e an+ A&&ess o

Oa&/e et&. a/ong"it te a%%/i&ation soft"ae.

PASE 3 PASE COMPUTERISATION OF FUNCTIONS OF TE

3RANC

Pase I

Com%*teisation of +e%osit a&&o*nts in te fo//o"ing o+e.

;i< Saving a&&o*nts

;ii< C*ent a&&o*nts

;iii< Re&*ing a&&o*nts

;iv< Tem +e%osit a&&o*nts.

Pase IICom%*teisation of a+van&es a&&o*nts in te fo//o"ing o+e.

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;i< O%en &as &e+it a&&o*nts

;ii< Loan against !%ote&ation of vei&/es a&&o*nts

;iii< o*sing /oans to em%/o!ees an+ %*4/i& a&&o*nts

;iv< 8a/*a4/e se&*it! a&&o*nts.

Pase IIICom%*teisation of e/ate+ f*n&tions s*& as mai/ tansfes +eman+ +aft

&eB*e &/eaing a&tivities et&. Pa!o// %o&essing an+ e/ate+ a&tivities an+

+e&ision s*%%ot s!stem fo te manage &an a/so 4e a++e+ to tis %ase if so

eB*ie+.

Tis e%ot "i// on/! &ove a %otion of Pase I of te %o%ose+ s!stem.

8ARIOUS PROCEDURES IN8OL8ED IN MAINTAININ9 A SA8IN9S

ACCOUNT

1. De4it at A&&o*nt

;i< CeB*es

;ii< Cas ?it+a"a/s;iii< Sevi&e Cages

;iv< Stan+ing Inst*&tions.

'. Ce+it of A&&o*nt

;i< CeB*es

;ii< Cas De%osits

;iii< Dafts

;iv< Tansfes

Te %o&ess of +e4iting an+ &e+iting an a&&o*nt as 4een so"n in Fig. 6.

$. M*inten*n&e of A&&o*nt

;i< Inteest Ce+iting

;ii< Coe&tion Enties.

Fig*e 2 so"s te maintenan&e of saving a&&o*nt.

Fig. 2 DFD fo Maintaining a Saving A&&o*nt

). C*stome Sevi&e

;i< Pass 3oo# Infomation;ii< CeB*e 3oo# Infomation.

Fig*e , +e%i&ts te %o&ess of &*stome sevi&e.

(. O%ening *n+ C/osing of A&&o*nt

Te 4enefits of s*& a %ase4!%ase &om%*teisation ae manifo/+. Some of

4enefits ae:

;i< No a++itiona/ e&*itment of s%e&ia/ise+ staff

;ii< Less esistan&e to &om%*tes 4! em%/o!ees

;iii< No /a!offs

;iv< S*& a s!stem is e&onomi&a//! feasi4/e

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;v< Limitations an+ fa*/ts in one %ase "i// seve as a 4en&ma1X/\ fo te next

%ase

;vi< A++itiona/ &om%*teisation &an e +etai/e+ an+ te %a&e &an 4e in&ease+

s*ita4/e

;vii< It is eas! to &&e&t im%ove an+ im%/ement ea& %ase.

o"eve it so*/+ 4e note+ tat &etain +ea+/ines so*/+ e set fo te 4a/an&e

%ases as &om%*teisation of a sma// %otion of te "o# sa! savings a&&o*nt

"i// %ove ve! ex%ensive Tis is 4e&a*se &etain fixe+ &osts "i// ave to

4e in&*e+ "en te fist %ase is im%/emente+. Fo exam%/e investment in ai

&on+itiones UPS s%e&ia/ "o# aeas et&. ae a onetime ex%ense. It so*/+ a/so

e note+ tat ea& %ase so*/+ 4e +esigne+ #ee%ing in vie" te "o/e s!stem

Fig. - O%ening an+ C/osing of

an+ not *st te %ase *n+e st*+! to fa&i/itate smoot integation of ea& %ase.

DATA3ASE DESI9N

In tis %at of te %oe&t a +ata4ase fo te s!stem is eB*ie+ to 4e +eve/o%e+.

Te %*%ose of te +ata4ase is manifo/+it emoves e+*n+an&! in&onsisten&!

et&. Te eos it emoves ae ex%/aine+ 4e/o".

;i< Se&*it!: Not a// *ses ave a&&ess to a// te +ata. On/! se/e&te+ %eo%/e ma! 4e

given a&&ess to &etain +ata "i/e some +ata is avai/a4/e to a//.

;ii< Re+Hm+im&!: Sin&e a// +ata is &enta/ise+ e+*n+an&! is e+*&e+. A//

e+*n+an&! so*/+ not ne&essai/! 4e e/iminate+ 4*t so*/+ 4e &onto//e+.

;iii< /&imsiste&!s ?en +ata o&&*s at moe tan one %/a&e tee ma! 4e

some o&&asions on "i& te! +o not agee.

S*& in&onsisten&ies &an 4e emove+ e+*&e+ 4! e+*&ing e+*n+an&!.

;iv< Integit!: Te %o4/em of integit! is te %o4/em of ens*ing tat te +ata

in te +ata4ase is a&&*ate. Ineonsisten&! 4et"een t"o enties e%esenting te

same fa&t= is an exam%/e of /a&# of integit!.

Data4ase +esign as 4een given in Exi4it 1

ENTITRELATIONSIP

Entit!e/ationsi% mo+e/ of +ata is an infoma/ +ata mo+e/. Tis mo+e/ is not a+ata mo+e/ tat as 4een *se+ in +efinition /ang*ages a/to*g it is &/ose/!

e/ate+ to some of tese mo+e/s. Te e/ationsi% mo+e/ +oes an a+eB*ate 4*t

im%efe&t o4 of mo+e//ing ea/ "o/+ sit*ations "ee +ata4ase s!stems ae

/i#e/! to 4e *se+.

An entit! is an! ting tat exists an+ is +isting*isa4/e i.e "e &an +isting*is one

entit! fom anote. A go*% of simi/a entities foms an entit! set. Entities ave

%o%eties &a//e+ atti4*tes "i& asso&iate a va/*e fom a +omain of va/*es fo

tat atti4*te in an entit! set. An atti4*te "ose va/*es niB*e/! i+entif! ea&

entit! in an entit! set is &a//e+ a #e! fo tat entit! set.

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Pati&*/as CAR ;'0<

3an# Name CAR ;$0<

Amo*nt NUMERIC ;10<

EMPLOEE

NUMERIC ;2<Designation CAR ;'0<

Sa/a! NUMERIC ;(<

5*a/ifi&ation CAR ;'0<

NOMINEE

Name CAR ;'0<

A++ess CAR ;)0<

Re/ationsi% CAR ;'0<

Date of 3it DATE ;MMDD<

?itness Name CAR ;'0<

?itness A++ess CAR ;'0<

CUSTOMER ACCOUNT LED9ER

Le+ge Fo/io N0. NUMERIC ;6<

Date DATE ;MMDD<

Pati&*/as CAR ;'0<

De4it NUMERIC ;10<

Ce+it NUMERIC ;10<

3a/an&e NUMERIC ;10<

No. of Monts NUMERIC ;1'<

Po+*&t NUMERIC ;2<

Inteest NUMERIC ;I0<

CAS 3OO7

Date DATE ;MMDD<

8o*&e No. NUMERIC ;2<

Pati&*/as CAR ;2<

De4it NUMERIC ;10<

Ce+it NUMERIC ;10<

3a/an&e NUMERIC ;10<

ACCOUNT CLOSEDate DATE ;MMDD<

A&&o*nt No. NUMERIC ;(<

Reasons fo C/osing CAR ;(0<

Mo+e of Pa!ment CAR ;10<

RELATIONSIPS

O%ens

Oneone e/ationsi% 4et"een CUSTOMER an+ ACCOUNT OPEN. It in+i&ates

"at a&&o*nt n*m4e is assigne+ to a &*stome.

Entee+ In

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Oneone e/ationsi% fom &*stome an+ ACCOUNT OPEN to CUSTOMER

ACCOUNT LED9ER. It in+i&ates "at /e+gefo/io n*m4e is assigne+ to te

a&&o*nt n*m4e of a &*stome.

Iss*e Oneone e/ationsi% fom CE5UE 3OO7 to ACCOUNT OPEN. It

in+i&ates te seia/ of te &eB*e 4oo# assigne+ to a&&o*nt. Is Of Oneone

e/ationsi% 4et"een ACCOUNT OPEN an+ ACCOUNT TPE. Te t!%e of a&&o*nt is in+i&ate+.

Nomin*tion

Man!one 4et"een NOMINEE an+ ACCOUNT OPEN s*&&esso is nominate+ 4!

&*stome fo is +e%osit in te a&&o*nt.

T*ns*&tion

3et"een CUSTOMER CAS 3OO7 an+ CUSTOMER ACCOUNT LED9ER.

It so"s te tansa&tions 4eing %efome+ 4! a &*stome on is a&&o*nt. Te

ent! is ma+e in 4ot CUSTOMER ACCOUNT LED9ER an+ CAS 3OO7.

3! Cas

Oneone fom CAS 3OO7 to CAS SCROLL Te &as tansa&tions fo a +a!

ae se/e&te+ fom CAS 3OO7 an+ e&o+e+ in CAS SCROLL.

3! T&msfe

Oneone fom CAS 3OO7 to TRANSFER SCROLL. Te tansa&tions !

+aft fo te +a! ae se/e&te&/ fom CAS 3OO7 an+ e&o+e+ in TRANSFER

SCROLL.

3! C/e*ing

Oneone fom CAS 3OO7 to CLEARIN9 SCROLL. Te tansa&tions 4!

&eB*e fo te +a! ae se/e&te+ fom CAS 3OO7 an+ e&o+e+ in CLEARIN9

SCROLL.

C/oses

Oneone fom CUSTOMER ACCOPEN USTACCLED9ER to ACC

CLOSE. Te &*stome +etai/s ae emaining 4a/an&e ae e/ate+. Te &/osing of

a&&o*nt ent! is ma+e ACC^CLOSE egiste. Entit! Re/ationsi% Diagam as

4een so"n in Fig.


1. I+entif! te /imitations of te st*+!.

'. Comment on te meto+o/og! a+o%te+ 4! te &ons*/tant fo st*+!ing an+

+esigning te s!stem.

$. Design a B*estionnaie to e/i&it infomation eB*iements fom te *se. Do

!o* a%%ove of te *nst*&t*e+ intevie"ing te&niB*e a+o%te+ 4! te

&ons*/tant in tis &ase@ If not "!@

). S*ggest net"o#ing te&no/og! eB*ie+ fo /in#ing te an& *n+e st*+!

"it ote 4an&esoffi&es of te 4an#.

(. If !o* ae to +esign te +ata4ase fo te s!stem *sing ote +ata4ase

%a&#agessoft"aes o" +iffeent/! "i// !o* %o&ee+@ 9ive +ata4ase st*&t*efo ea& of te %a&#age ;sa! Fox%o Oa&/e et&.<.

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CASE STUD $

Sigma In+*sties Limite+ ;SIL<: A Case St*+!

Sigma In+*sties Limite+ ;SIL< is a +ivesifie+ &om%an! &onsisting of tefo//o"ing +ivisions.

1. Pa%e Division: Po+*&ing %a%e an+ &oating %/ants.

'. Cemi&a/ Division: Invo/ve+ in te %o+*&tion of &a*sti& so+a &/oine

%os%oi& a&i+ 4omine et&.

$. E+i4/e Oi/s Division: Engage+ in exta&tion of e+i4/e oi/s.

). Si%%ing Division: Povi+ing seatans%ot.

(. 9/ass Division: Invo/ve+ in g/ass &ontaine %oe&t.

6. 3*i/+ing Mateia/s Division: Invo/ve+ in a*to &/ave&/ aeate+ &on&ete

%oe&t.

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Its *nits ae sit*ate+ at sevea/ %/a&es to*go*t te &o*nt! name/! at

M*m4ai Cennai 9oa Patia/a an+ Pon+i&e! ;te name an+ ote

infomation of te a&t*a/ oganisation ave 4een &ange+<.

Te ea+ offi&e of SIL is sit*ate+ at De/i an+ its egiona/ offi&es o%eate

fom 3anga/oe M*m4ai Ca/&*tta an+ Cennai.A// stategi& %/anning is +one at te ea+offi&e "i& o*ses te managing

+ie&to 4oa+ of +ie&tos vi&e %esi+ent of vaio*s +ivisions.

Management &onto/ an+ o%eationa/ /eve/ &onto/ is &aie+ o*t at te *nit

/eve/.

UNIT RA SREE

Unit Ra See is one of te o/+est %a%e %o+*&ing *nits in In+ia. Tis *nit

initia//! state+ %o+*&ing %/ain %a%e an+ ga+*a//! +ivesifie+ into %o+*&tion

of s%e&ia/it! %a%e &a*sti& so+a&/oine e+i4/e oi/s et&.

Tis *nit as its o"n eseae an+ +eve/o%ment fa&i/ities te effots of "i&

ave /e+ to te &eation of ne" va/*ea++e+ %a%es a/ong"it im%ovement in

te B*a/it! of te existing %o+*&ts. Te %o+*&tion of s*4stit*tes fo im%ote+

%a%e saves foeign ex&ange fo te &o*nt!.

Te &om%an! as a/"a!s 4een maeing aea+ on te %at of ex&e//en&e an+

go"t. Te &om%an! as vent*e+ into ex%ots of its %o+*&t ange e.g.

s%e&ia/it! %a%e. Te &om%an! as gaine+ an e+ge ove intenationa/ &om%etitos

to*g sti&t B*a/it! &onto/.

OR9ANISATION CART OF TE UNIT

Oganisation &at of te Unit Ra See as 4een +e%i&te+ in Fig. 1.

O3ECTI8ES OF PERSONNEL MANA9EMENT

Oganisation s*&&ess s*viva/ an+ stengt evo/ve ao*n+ te effe&tive

management of %esonne/ at a// manageia/ /eve/s. Te o4e&tives ae:

;i< Effe&tive +eve/o%ment an+ *ti/isation of te *man %otentia/ "itin te

oganisation.

;ii< Esta4/ising m*t*a//! satisf!ing "o#ing e/ationsi%s among a//

mem4es of te oganisation.

OR9ANISATION CART OF TE PERSONNEL DEPARTMENT

Fig*e ' exi4its te oganisation &at of te %esonne/ +e%atment.

Fig. ' Oganisation Cat of te Pesonne/ De%atment

PERSONNEL STREN9T OF TE UNIT

Te %esonne/ stengt of Uni Ra See is as fo//o"s. 2

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INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS: MANA9EMENT IERARE

Te ieae! of te mHmagement staff in tis s*4s!stem of te %esonne/

+e%atment is so"n in Fig. $.

LA3OUR SOCIAL ?ELFARE COUNSELLIN9: INFORMATION FLO?

Fig*e ) +e%i&ts &e infomation f/o" fo /a4o* so&ia/ "e/fae &o*nse//ing.

Fig. ) Infomation F/o" fo La4o* So&ia/ ?e/fae Co*nse//ing

COMPUTERISATION OF PERSONNEL DEPARTMENT

Tee exists a &om%*teise+ tansa&tion %o&essing s!stem fo %a!o//

e&o+s of %esona/ fi/es me+i&a/ eim4*sement /e+ge et&. At te same time

%aa//e/ to te &om%*teise+ +ata4ase of %esona/ fi/es man*a/ e&o+s of

%esona/ fi/es

ae a/so #e%t At %esent %esonne/ +ata4ase &onsists main/! of finan&ia/ +ata

/i#e vaio*s a//o"an&es an em%/o!ee is entit/e+ to %ovi+ent f*n+ a&&*m*/ationan+ "ite/ta"a/ in&ome tax assessment ee

Te manages at te oganisation ave to as# fo infomation s*& as

B*a/ifi&ations ex%eien&e &ategoies an+ ga+es of %osting %/a&esof tansfe

ex%eien&e gaine+ ne" B*a/ifi&etions a&B*ie+ taining *n+eta#en

+is&i%/ina! a&tion meit e"a+s an+ %efoman&e a%%ai sa/s et&. to ai+

tem in +e&isiomma#ing S*& infomation is eite s*%%/ie+ to*g te

man*a/ s!stem o fom te existing &om%*teise+ +ata4ase in te oganisation.

ASSI9NMENTS

1. on te 4asis of infomt*ion fom te ease st*+! +esign an MIS fo te

%esonne/ +e%atment of te oganisation.

' I+entif! te "ea#nesses ofte exising %esonne/ infomation s!stem.

S*ggest meas*es to ove&ome ese "ea#nesses.

CASE STUD )

P*&ase O+e S!stem: A%%/i&ation Case

St*+!

A %oe&t to +eve/o% a %*&ase o+e s!stem in ORACLE 2.0 envionment

"as assigne+ to a team of six st*+ents at a e%*te+ te&no/og! instit*te in In+ia.

Te main o4e&tive of te %oe&t "as to ex%ose te st*+ents to te entie

meto+o/og! of +eve/o%ment *n+e te RD3MS envionment. Te %oe&t "as

&aie+ o*t as +is&*sse+ 4e/o".

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At te fist stage te man*a/ s!stem "as ana/!se+. In te DESI9N stage

ea& entit! an+ a// its &oes%on+ing atti4*tes "ee i+entifie+. 3ase+ on tei

inte+e%en+en&ies e/ations noma/iHe+ *% to te ti+ noma/ fom "ee

+eive+. 3esi+es te +esign of tese e/ations ta4/es te +esign of te entie

a%%/i&ation "as %/anne+. Te a%%/i&ation "as to &onsist of in+ent %o&essingenB*i! geneation B*otation %o&essing geneating &om%aative statements

an+ a%%oving B*otations o+e %/a&ement an+ s*%%/ie se/e&tion. A// tese tas#s

"ee +ivi+e+ amongst te six %esons "it t"o %esons "o#ing on one o%tion at

a time an+ ea& %ai ta#ing *% t"o o%tions. Te +esign "as &om%/ete+ in one

mont.

aving +e&i+e+ *%on te a%%/i&ation +esign te a&t*a/ &o+ing "as +one

*sing S5L FORMS S5L MENU S5L REPORT ?RITER an+ PL S5L. Some

a++itiona/ feat*es of ORACLE 2.0 name/! +ata4ase tigges an+ s%e&if!ing

integit! &onstaints at te +efinition /eve/ "ee *se+. Tis tas# of &o+ing "as

a/so a&&om%/ise+ *sing te same stateg! of six %esons "o#ing in %ais "itea& %ai ta#ing *% t"o o tee o%tions.

Te mo+*/es +eve/o%e+ in+ivi+*a//! "ee ten inte/in#e+. Test +ata "as

%e%ae+ an+ te entie s!stem "as teste+. Co+ing an+ testing "as &om%/ete+ in

a time s%an of one an+ a/f monts.

Te "o/e s!stem "as +eve/o%e+ in nea/! tee an+ a/t monts i.e. it

eB*ie+ ao*n+ t"ent! one %eson monts to &om%/ete te s!stem.

INTRODUCTION

A %*&ase o+e s!stem t!%i&a//! &onsists of te fo//o"ing &om%onents.

;i< Raising in+ents

;ii< Se/e&ting s*%%/ies

;iii< Sen+ing enB*iies

;iv< Po&essing B*otations

;v< 9eneating &oin%aeitive smtenents

;vi< P/a&ing o+es

;vii< A"a+ing ate &onta&t%o%ieta! item.

FUNCTIONALIT DESCRIPTION

Te %*&ase o+e s!stem +esigne+ &ontains t"o main maste fi/es.;i< S*%%/ie Maste

;ii< Item Maste.

Te s*%%/ie maste as a// te +etai/s of te s*%%/ies. Te %ima! #e! fo

tis ta4/e is te s*%%/ie&o+e= "i& is a *niB*e &o+e given 4! te s!stem to

ea& s*%%/ie of te %*&ase o+e s!stem.

Te item maste as a// te +etai/s of te items. Tis ta4/e as t"o in+i&atos.

One in+i&ates "ete te goo+s ae &a%ita/ goo+s an+ te ote in+i&ates if tee

is a ate &onta&t va/i+ fo tis item.

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Tese t"o maste ta4/es ae /in#e+ "it ea& ote to*g a e/ation Item

S*%%/ie= "i& /in#s a %ati&*/a s*%%/ie to te items e s*%%/ies an+ vi&e

vesa.

As in+ents ae geneate+ te! ae stoe+ in t"o ta4/es.

;i< in+ent Maste

;ii< In+ent Item.

In+ent maste is a maste ta4/e fo a// te in+ents geneate+. It &ontains te

in+ent /eve/ +etai/s of a// te in+ents e&eive+. Te %ima! #e! fo tis ta4/e is

te &on&atenation of In+ent De%atment Co+e> In+ent ea= In+ent Seia/

N*m4e=.

Te item/eve/ +etai/s of te in+ents ae stoe+ in in+ent item. Te %ima!

#e! fo tis ta4/e is te &on&atenation of te %ima! #e! of in+ent maste tem

go*% &o+e= an+ Item &o+e=. Tis ta4/e gives te +etai/s ofte +iffeent items in

an in+ent /i#e te eB*ie+ B*antit! an+ te state *% to "i& te in+ent of a

%ati&*/a item as ea&e+ ;stat*s<.

It a/so as a fie/+ "i& in+i&ates "ete tis %ati&*/a in+ent item "as

%*&ase+ in &as. If te &as %*&ase in+i&ato is set ten an ent! in Cas

P*&ase= ta4/e is ma+e. Tis ta4/e gives te +etai/ of te &as %*&ase.

/f te item in te in+ent is a &a%ita/ goo+ ten an ent! in te Ca%ita/

San&tion= ta4/e is ma+e. Tis ta4/e as te +ate an+ +es&i%tion of te &a%ita/

san&tion.

Te item/eve/ +etai/s of te enB*i! B*otation o+e ae %/a&e+ in nB*i!

Item=. Tis ta4/e as an in+i&ato fo te a%%ove+ B*otation fom "i& one &an

#no" if a %ati&*/a B*otation "as a%%ove+. Li#e enB*i! maste tis ta4/e a/so

as a &ange in+i&ato=.

Te enB*i! an+ in+ents ae /in#e+ "it ea& ote to*g a e/ation

EnB*i! In+ent Item=. If tee is a ate &onta&t fo an item "it a s*%%/ie ten

s*& +etai/s /i#e te in+ent an+ enB*i! ae +ivi+e+ into t"o %ats an+ stoe+ in

Rate Conta&t Maste= an+ te Rate Conta&t Item=. Te Rate Conta&t /tem=

a/so a&ts as a /in# 4et"een te item an+ te s*%%/ie "it "i& te ate &onta&t

is exe&*te+.

Te o+e +e/ive! +etai/s ae stoe+ in O+e Item= ta4/e. Tis ta4/e gives

te +etai/s a4o*t te insta//ments an+ te B*antit! e&eive+ fo tat %ati&*/a

item o+e.

Te enB*i! *st /i#e te in+ent is +ivi+e+ into t"o %ats. E1B*i! Maste=

&ontains a// te enB*i!/eve/ +etai/s. Te enB*i! item/eve/ +etai/s ae stoe+ in

a se%aate ta4/e &a//e+ EnB*i! Item=. Ai enB*i! is geneate+ fo a 4at& of

in+ents an+ is *niB*e fo ea& an+ eve! s*%%/ie. Ea& enB*i! is given a *niB*e

&o+e geneate+ 4! te s!stem. Tis EnB*i! Co+e= is te %ima! #e! fo

EnB*i! Maste=. EnB*i! Maste= as a &ange in+i&ato= "i& is set to so"

if tee is a &ange in te enB*i! o B*otation o o+e.

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If a &ange o&&*s ten an ent! is %*t in t/1e &ange ta4/e.

SCEMA DESI9N

Te fo//o"ing $NF ta4/es ae &eate+ an+ *se+ in te s!stem.

CREATE TA3LE SUPILMASTER CONSTRAINT %#]s*%%]mas

SUPP]CODE

SUPP]PROC]DATE

SUPP]ADDRESS

SUPP]PINCODE

SUPP]OUT]STATE]IND

SUPP]MF9]IND

SUPIINAME

SUPP]PONE]STD

SUPP]PONE]NO

SUPP]TELESUPI5TELE9RAM

SUPILFANUM3ER

SUPP]TA]RE9NO

SUPP]M9MT]RATIN9

SUPP]TOT]RATIN9

SUPP]8AI.]LIMIT

SUPP]STATUS

SUPP]RE9ISTER]IND

SUPP]RE9ISTER]DATE

SUPP]CLASS]IND

SUPP]STAT]CADATE

CREATE TA3LE InDENT]MASTER

CONSTRAINT %#]in+]mas

INDENT]DEPARTMENT]CODE

INDENT]EAR

INDENT]SERIAL]NUM3ER

INDENT]DATE

INDENTROCESSCDATE

INDENT]TPE

INDENT]RECEI8ED]DATE

CREATE TA3LE INDENT]ITEMCONSTRAINT %#]in+]it&m

CONSTRAINT f#]in&/ix]in+

CONSTRAINT #)in+i]i&m

1NDENT]DEPARTMENT]CODE

INDENT]EAR

PRIMAR 7E ;s*%%]&o+e<

NUM3ER ;6<

DATE?_RCAR' ;1'0<

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CAR ;6<

CAR ;1<

CAR ;1<

8AREAR';)0<

NUM3ER ;,<

8AREAR' ;1(<8AREAR' ;1$<

8AREAR' ;1'<

8AREAR' ;1'<

8AREAR' ;$0<

NUM3ER ;1<

NUM3ER ;1<

NUM3ER ;10<

CAR;1<

CARM<.

DATE

CAR;1<DATE

PRIMAR 7E ;in+sn]+&%atm&m]&o+e in+ent]!ea

in+ent]seiaI]n*m4&<

NUM3ER ;$<

NUM3ER ;'<

NUM3ER ;)<

DATE

DATE DEFAULT SSDATE

8AREAR' ;1<

DATE<

PRIMAR 7E ;in+ent]+e%atment]&o+e

in+&nt]!ea i11+en]seia/]n*m4e

in+e*]i&m]go*%]&*+e in+em]it&m]&o+e<

FOREI9N 7E ;in+en]+e%atonent]&o+e

in+&ng!ea in+&nt]s&ia/]**m4e<

REFERENCES in+en]mase

;in+en]+e%ame*]&o+e in+en]!&a

i*+em]seiaI]n*m4&<

FOREI9N 7E ;in+&nt]item]go*%]&o+ein+ent]item]&o+e<

REFERENCES item]mase

;i&m]go*%]&o+e iem]&o+e<

NUM3ER ;'<

NUM3ER ;'<

INDENT]SERIAL]N/IM3ER

INDENT]ITEM]9ROUP]CODE

1NDENT]ITEM]CODE

INDENT]ITEM]DESCRIPTIONUNIT]OF]MEASUREMENT

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INDENT]RE5UIREDbITEM]5UANTIT

IND1iNT]ESTI1_JATED8ALUE

INDENT]RE5UIRED]DELI8ER]DATE

INDENT]REASON]CODE

INDENT]ITEM]MA7E]DE(CRIPTION

INDENT]MMD]INITIALINDENT]CO1]STAT]NUM3ER

INDENT]COMP]STAT]DATE

INDENT]ITEM]STATUS

INDENT]STATUS]DATE

CASILPURC1iASE]INDENTICATOR

CREATE TA3LE RCAMASTER

CONSTRAINT %#]&]1*ast&

SUPI=]CODE

RC]DATE

R]P]IND

RC]PROCESS]DATERC]8AL]DATE

RC]TENDER]DATE

RC]TENDER]REF]NO

APPRO8AL]REF

APPR]DATE

ED]PA]CODE

ED]AMT

ADD]ED]PA CODE

ADD]ED]AMT

CST]PA]COD1j

CST]AMT

SST]PA]CODE

SST]AMT

ADD]S(T]PA]CODE

ADD](ST]AMT

OCTROI]PA]CODE

OCTRO1]AMT

PF]FA]CODE

PF]AMT

FRT]PA]CODE

FRT]AMTMISC]PA]CODE

MISC]AMT

DEL8]CODE

DEL8]DEST

AD8]PA]PC

NUM3ER ;)<

CAR;$<

CAR ;6<

8AREAR' ;')0< NOT NULL

8AREAR' ;6<NUM3ER ;6 '< NOT NULL

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NUM3ER ;, '< NOT NULL

DATE

8AREAR' ;'<

8AREAR' ;10<

8AREAR' ;$<

NUM3ER ;(<DATE

CAR ;1<

DATE

8AREAR' ;1<

PRIMAR 7E ;s*%%]&o+e<

NUM3ER ;6<

REFERENCES s*%%]maste ;s*%%]&o+e<

DATE

CAR ;1<

DATE

DATEDATE

CAR ;6<

CAR ;,<

DATE

CAR ;1<

NUM3ER ;( '<

CAR ;1<

NUM3ER ;( '<

CAR ;1<

NUM3ER ;( '<

CAR ;1<

NUM3ER ;( '<

CAR ;1<

NUM3ER ;( '<

CAR ;1<

NUM3ER ;( '<

CAR ;1<

NUM3ER ;( '<

CAR ;1<

NUM3ER ;( '<

CAR ;1<NUM3ER ;( '<

CAR ;1<

8AREAR' ;'0<

NUM3ER ;$<

AD8]PA]DUE]DATE

ON3ILL]PA]PC

ON3ILL PA DUE DATE

9OODS]RCD]PC

9OOD(]RCD]DUE]DATE

CREATE TA3LE RC]ITEMCONSTRAINT %#]&]it&m

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CONSTRAINT f#]&]itg%

SUI=PLIER]CODE

ITEM]9RP]CODE

ITEM]CODE

ITEM]MA7E]DESC

RC]5T]ORDRC]5T]CONT

RC]8AL]CONT

RC]8AL]ORD

RC]UNIT]RATE

SALES]TA]CODE

SALES]TA]PC]CODE

SALES]TA]AMT

ED]CODE

ED]PC]CODE

ED]AMT

DISCOUNT]PC]CODEDISCOUNT]AMT

CREATE TA3LE 1TEM]SUI=P

CONSTRAINT %#]&om]s*%%

CONSTRAINT f#]it&ms*%%]item

CONSTRAINT f#]it&ms*%%]s*%%

ITEM]9RP]CODE

ITEM]CODE

SUPP]CODE

CREATE TA3LE 9RP]SU>PP

CONSTRAINT %#]g%]s*%%

CONSTRAINT f#]g%s*%%]g%

CONSTRAINT f#]g%s*%%]s*%%

9RP]CODE

SUPP]CODE

DATE

NUM3ER ;$<

DATE

NUM3ER ;$<

DATE<

\PRIMAR 7E ;it&m]g%]&o+e s*%%]&o+e

item]&o+e<

FOREI9N 7E ;it&m]g%]&o+e it&m]&o+e<

REFERENCES itsm]mast&

;go*%]&o+& iem]&o+s<

NUM3ER ;6< REFERENCES &]mas ;s*%%]&o+e<

NUM3ER ;$< NOT NULL

NUM3ER ;6< NOT NULL

8AREAR' ;10<

NUM3ER ;10 '<

NUM3ER ;10 '<NUM3ER ;10 '<

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NUM3ER ;10 '<

NUM3ER ;, '<

CAR ;1<

CAR ;1<

NUM3ER ;('<

CAR ;1<CAR ;1<

NUM3ER ;('<

CAR ;1<

NUM3ER ;)'<<

;

PRIMAR 7E ;it&m]g%]&o+e iem]&o+e

s*%%]&o+e<

FOREI9N 7E ;item]g%]&o+e iem]&o+e<

REFERENCES iem]mase

;Iem]go*%]&o+e i&m]&o+e<

FOREI9N 7E ;s*%%]&o+e<REFERENCES s*%%]mas& ;s*%%]&o+e<

NUM3ER ;$<

NUM3ER ;6<

NUM3ER ;6<<

;

PRIMAR 7E ;g%]&o+e s*%%]&o+e<

FOREI9N 7E ;g%]&o+e<

REFERENCES g%]a4Ie ;g%]&o+e<

FOREI9N 7E ;s*%%]&o+e<

REFERENCES s*%%]mas& ;s*%%]&o+e<

NUM3ER ;$<

NUM3ER ;6<<

CREATE TA3LE 9RP]TA3LE

CONSTAINT %#]g%]a4Ie

9RILCODE

9RP]DESC

PROCESS]DATE

ADM]LEAD]TIME

MANU]LEAD]TIME

TRANSP]LEAD]TIMECREATE TA3LE CAPITAL]SANC

CONTRAINT %/]san&

CONSTRAINT f#]&a%]san&]in+

CONSTRAINT f#]&a%]san&]it

INDENT]DEPARTMENT]CODE

INDENT]EAR

INDENT]SERIAL]NUM3ER

1NDENT]ITEM]9ROUP]CODE

INDENT]ITEM]CODE

CAPITAL](ANC

CAPITAL]SANC]DATECREATE TA3LE CAS]PURCASE

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CONSTRAINT %#]&a%

CONSTRAINT f#]&a%]san&]i*+

CONSTRAINT f#]&a%]san&]i

InDENT]DEPARTMENT]CODE

INDENT]EAR

INDENT]SERIAI.]NUM3ER INDENT]ITEM]9ROUP]CODE

NDENT]ITEM]CODE

CAS]PURCASE]DR

CASILPURCIIASE]CR

PRIMAR 7E ;g%]&o+e<

NUM3ER ;$<

CAR ;'(< NOT NULL

DATE

CAR ;10<

CAR ;10<

CAR ;10<<PRIMAR 7E ;in+&nt]+&%atmet]&o+e

in+eng!sa in+&ngs&ia/in*m4&

item]g%]&o+e iem]&o+e<

FOREI9N 7E ;in+sn]+&%atm&nt]&o+e

in+&nt]!&a in+ent]ssia/]n*m4&<

REFERENCES in+engmase

;in+ent]+e%atmem]&o+e in+ent]!&a

in+&nt]se:i/]n*m4e<

FOREI9N 7E ;in+ent]item]go*%]&o+e

in+&m]i&m]&o+e<

REFERENCES it&m]maste

;i&m]go*%]&o+e it&m]&o+e<

NUM3ER ;$<

NUM3ER ;'<

NUM3ER ;)<

NUM3ER ;$<

NUM3ER ;6<

8AREAR' ;1(<

DATE<

PRIMAR 7E ;in+&nt]+e%atm&m]&o+ein+&nt]!ea in+&nt]s&iaI]n*m4&

iem]g%]&o+e iem]&o+e<

FOREI9N 7E ;in+ent]+&%atmen]&o+e

in+ent]!ea in+ent]seiaI]n*m4e<

REFERENCES in+&nt]maste

;in+en]+&%am&n]&o+e in+&m]!&a

in+en]s&iaI]n*m4e<

FOREI9N 7E ;in+ent]]it&m]go*%]&o+s

in+&m]iem]&o+e<

REFERENCES i&m]mast&

;iem]go*%]&o+& it&m]&o+s<NUM3ER ;$<

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NUM3ER ;'<

NUM3ER ;)<

NUM3ER ;$<

NUM3ER ;6<

NUM3ER ;( '<

NUM3ER ;( '<

CAS]PURCASE]AMT

C.I]66$1]66$']IND

CREATE TA3LE ITEM]INEO

CONSTRAINT %#]item]info

CONSTRAINT f#]item]info

ITEM]9RI=]CODE

ITEM]CODE

NO]OF]INDENT

NO]OF]EN5UIRNO]OFb5UOTATION

NO]OFvORDER

CREATE TA3LE LAST]$]ORDER

CONSTRAINT %#]/ast]$]o+e

CONSTRAINT f#]/ast]$]o+e

ITEM]9RP ;TODE

1TEM]CODE

LAST]ORDER

SECOND]LA(T]ORDER

TIIIRD]LAST]ORDER

DETAILED MODULE DESI9N

Te fo//o"ing o%eations ae %efome+ on in+ents.

;i< Fes Doo Ent! of In+enfs Fom *se+: INDENT]A

Ta4/es *se+: INDENT]MASTER

INDENT]/TEM ITENLMASTER

CAS]PUR CAP]SANC

Data ent! of te in+ent is +one to*g fom InDENT]A. An in+ent is

aise+ 4! te +e%atment. Tee &an 4e sevea/ items in an in+ent. It &an 4e of

t!%e Noma/ Rate Conta&t Po%ieta! o Re%eat. Fo ea& in+ent tee is anin+ent &o+e "i& &onsists of +e%atment &o+e in+ent !ea an+ in+ent seia/

n*m4e.

NUM3ER ;( '<

NUM3ER ;1<<

PRIMAR 7E ;item]g%]&o+e it&mi&o+e<

FOREI9N 7E ;item]g%]&o+e item]&o+e<

REFERENCES itemimastet

;Itemo*%go+e item]&o+e<

NUM3ER ;$<

NUM3ER ;6<NUM3ER ;$<

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NUM3ER ;$<

NUM3ER ;$<

NUM3ER ;$<<

;

PRIMAR 7E ;item]gt%]&o+e item]&o&/e<

FOREI9N 7E ;item]g%]&o+e item]&o+e<REFERENCES iten1]maste

;item]gon%]&o+e item]&o+e<

NUM3ER ;$<

NUM3ER ;6<.

NUM3ER ;,<

NUM3ER ;,<

NUM3ER ;,<

Te t!%e of te in+ent an+ te item t!%e so*/+ e &om%ati4/e i.e. if te

in+ent is of te noma/ t!%e ten te items in tat in+ent &an 4e noma/ e%eat

ate &onta&t o %o%ieta!.3*t if te in+ent is ate &onta&t ten a// te items in tis in+ent so*/+ 4e of

te t!%e ate &onta&t ;tee so*/+ exist a ate &onta&t "it s*%%/ies fo te

es%e&tive items<.

Ea& item as a go*% &o+e an+ item &o+e. In+ent fo a ne" item &an a/so 4e

aise+ 4*t te s*%%/ie fo te go*% of te ne" item so*/+ exist. Te s*%%/ie

to tis item is /in#e+ to*g te s*%%/ie item /in#age o%tion efoe te enB*i!

is sent.

Te item +es&i%tion an+ *nits &an 4e &ange+ fo tat in+ent. If te item is

%*&ase+ in &as ten te &as %*&ase +etai/s ae eB*ie+. If te item is

&a%ita/ san&tion ten te &a%ita/ san&tion +etai/s ae eB*ie+.

Te +ata fom tis fom is insete+ into ta4/es INDENT]MASTER

INDENT]ITEM ;item +etai/s< CASII]PUR ;&as %*&ase +etai/s<

CAP]SANC ;&a%ita/ san&tion +etai/s< an+ in ITEM]MASTER if te item is

ne". Te item stat*s is set to T= in te INDENT]/TEM.

;ii< Insetion of em in on In+enf

Fom *se+G INDENT]I

Ta4/e *se+: INDENT]MASTER

INDENT]ITEM iTEM]MASTER

CAS]PUR CAILSANC

Moe items &an 4e insete+ in %evio*s/! aise+ in+ents. Te in+ent &o+e is to

4e entee+ 4! te *se an+ if te enB*i! fo tat in+ent as not 4een sent ten

te in+ent +etai/s ae a*tomati&a//! +is%/a!e+ on te s&een Data ent! ofte

insete+ items ae teate+ *st as fes +ata ent!.

;iii< Mo+ifi&ation of Item in on In+enf Fom *se+: INDENT]MTa4/e *se+: InDENT]MASTER

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INDENT]/TEM ITEM]MASTER

CAS]PUR CAP]SANC

Te in+ent &o+e is to 4e entee+ 4! te *se an+ if te enB*i! fo tat in+ent

as not 4een sent ten te in+ent +etai/s ae a*tomati&a//! +is%/a!e+ on te

s&een. Te item &o+e an+ go*% &o+e ae entee+ an+ te item +etai/s ae+is%/a!e+ on te s&een. An! fie/+ s*& as ate B*antit! et&. &an 4e mo+ifie+ 4!

te *se.

Te mo+ifie+ +ata fom tis fom is *%+ate+ into ta4/es INDENT]/TEM

CAS]PUR an+ CAP]SANC.

;iv< DeIefion of Item fom an in+ent Fom *se+: InDENT]D

Ta4/es *se+: INDENT8IASTER

INDENT]ITEM ITEM]MASTER ]CAPvSANC 1

A &om%/ete in+ent o a %ati&*/a item fom G te in+ent &an 4e +e/ete+ To

+e/ete te "o/e in+ent ente te in+ent in &o+e. Te in+ent "o*/+ 4e +e/ete+ if te enB*i! 11 as not 4een sent. To +e/ete items fom te in+ent ente te

in+ent &o+e go*% &o+e an+ item &o+e.

T/1e t*%/e &oes%on+ing to tat in+ent &o+e an+ item &o+e is +e/ete+ fom

INDENT]ITEM CAS]PUR CAI5SANC ta4/es in &ase an item is +e/ete+. If

te "o/e in+ent is +e/ete+ te t*%/e &oes%on+ing to tat in+ent &o+e is

+e/ete+. E+it Tis o%tion %ints e%ot of a// in+ents aise+ to*g t/1e fist

o%tion. EnB*i!

;i< S*%%/ie Se/e&tionEnB*i! 9eneation

Fom *se+: REMAR7S

Po&e+*e *se+: EN5

Ta4/es *se+: INDENT]MASTER

InDENT]ITEM ITEM]MASTER

ITEM]SUPP SUPILMASTER

EN5]MASTER EN5]IND]/TEM

EN5]/TEM REMAR7S

Te fom is *se+ to a&&e%t te +*e +ate an+ ema#s fo enB*iies "i&

ave to 4e sent &*ent/!. 3ot te tings ae stoe+ in te ta4/e REMAR7S=.

Te %o&e+*e se/e&ts IO s*%%/ies fom ITEM]SUPP fo ea& itemse%aate/! fo "i& item stat*s in INDENTTEM is I=. 3*t fo tese items te

in+ent t!%e in INDENT]MASTER m*st 4e N= ;noma/<. Te stat*s of ea&

se/e&te+ s*%%/ie m*st not 4e 3= ;4/a&#/iste+< o D= ;+e/ete+<. Tis %o&e+*e

a/so se/e&ts ote +etai/s e/ate+ to te se/e&te+ s*%%/ies. It ea+s te maxim*m

enB*i! n*m4e fom N5]MASTER. If te fist fo* +igits of te enB*i!

n*m4e ;enB*i! !ea< ae te same as te &*ent !ea ten te ne" enB*i!

n*m4e "i// 4e one %/*s te %evio*s ote"ise te ne" n*m4e "i// 4e te

&*ent !ea fo//o"e+ 4! six Heoes.

No" fo ea& *niB*e enB*i! n*m4es ae geneate+ a&&o+ing to te a4ove

mentione+ */e an+ a// te e/ate+ +etai/s ae stoe+ in EN5AMASTER

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EN5]IND]ITEM an+ EN5]ITEM ta4/es. Item stat*s in INDENT]ITEM "i// 4e

*%+ate+ to E=.

;ii< Pinting of EnB*iies

Tis o%tion %ints +iffeent e%ots e/ate+ to te geneate+ enB*iies. Tese

e%ots ae:

1. PF1: Tis e%ot %ints te +etai/ of enB*iies geneate+ fo ea& se/e&te+

s*%%/ie on %e%inte+ stationa!.

'. PF': Tis e%ot %ints a s*%%/ie"ise /ist of enB*iies f/oate+ as on te

+ate "it +etai/s /i#e te in+ent n*m4e ;+e%atment &o+e !ea seia/ n*m4e<

item &o+e go*% &o+e +es&i%tion B*antit! *nit s*%%/ie an+ enB*i! n*m4es.

$. PF$: Tis e%ot %ints an item"ise /ist of enB*iies f/oate+ as on te +ate

"it +etai/s /i#e in+ent n*m4e item &o+e item +es&i%tion *nit B*antit!

s*%%/ie an+ enB*i! n*m4es.

). PF): Tis e%ot %ints a s*mma! to enB*iies aise+ in te /ot "it

+etai/s /i#e %o&ess +ate in+ent n*m4e an+ enB*i! n*m4e.(. PF(: Tis e%ot %ints an item"ise /ist of enB*iies f/oate+ as on te +ate

"it +etai/s /i#e in+ent n*m4e item &o+e item +es&i%tion *nit B*antit!

s*%%/ie an+ enB*i! n*m4es.

6. PF6: Tis e%ot %ints a /ist of s*%%/ies "it a++esses to "om te

enB*iies ae sent.

5*ot*tions

5*otation Data Ent!

5*otations sent 4! te s*%%/ies ae %o&esse+ in tis o%tion te main

o%eations ae:

;I< Fes Doo Ent! of 5*otations Fom *se+: 5UOT item is to 4e insete+.

Ote +etai/s of te B*otation ae +is%/a!e+ a*tomati&a//! Te item +etai/s

entee+ ae insete+ into te ta4/e EN5]/TEM.

'. DELETION

;a< 5UOTATION DELETION:

Fom *se+: 5UOT]DEL

Ta4/e *se+: EN5]MASTER

EN5]ITEM EN5]IND]ITEM

SUI=P]MASTER INDENTTEM

Re%ot 9eneate+: 5UOT]REP

Tis fom is *se+ fo B*otation +e/etion. Te *se &an +e/ete a B*otation

"i& as not 4een a%%ove+. Te *se as to ente te enB*i! n*m4e

&oes%on+ing to te B*otation to 4e +e/ete+. A// ote +etai/s ae +is%/a!e+

a*tomati&a//! on te s&een. Te fo//o"ing %om%t is +is%/a!e+ an+ te ans"e to

it is a&&e%te+: Do !o* "ant to +e/ete tis B*otation@ If = is %esse+ te

B*otation is +e/ete+ fom te ta4/e EN5]MASTER a/ong "it its item +etai/s in

ta4/e EN5]ITEM.

;4< ITEM DELETION:

Fom *se+: 5UOT]/TEM]DEL

Ta4/e *se+: EN5]MASTEREN5]/TEM EN5]InD]ITEM

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SUPP]MASTER INDENT]/TEM


Tis fom is *se+ fo te +e/etion of some items fom a B*otation. Te *se

&an +e/ete an item fom a B*otation "i& as not 4een a%%ove+. Te *se as

to ente te enB*i! n*m4e &oes%on+ing to te B*otation fom "i& te itemis to 4e +e/ete+. Next te *se entes te item go*% &o+e an+ item &o+e of te

item to 4e +e/ete+. A// ote +etai/s of tis item ae a*tomati&a//! +is%/a!e+ on

te s&een. Te fo//o"ing %om%t is +is%/a!e+ an+ te ans"e to it is a&&e%te+.

Do !o* "ant to +e/ete tis item@= /f = is %esse+ tis item is +e/ete+ fom te

ta4/e EN5]/TEM. item is to 4e insete+. Ote +etai/s of te B*otation ae

+is%/a!e+ a*tomati&a//! Te item +etai/s entee+ ae insete+ into te ta4/e

EN5]/TEM.

'. DELETION

;a< 5UOTATION DELETION:

Fom *se+: 5UOT]DELTa4/e *se+: EN5]MASTER

EN5]ITEM EN5]IND]ITEM

SUI=P]MASTER INDENTTEM


Tis fom is *se+ fo B*otation +e/etion. Te *se &an +e/ete a B*otation

"i& as not 4een a%%ove+. Te *se as to ente te enB*i! n*m4e

&oes%on+ing to te B*otation to 4e +e/ete+. A// ote +etai/s ae +is%/a!e+

a*tomati&a//! on te s&een. Te fo//o"ing %om%t is +is%/a!e+ an+ te ans"e to

it is a&&e%te+: Do !o* "ant to +e/ete tis B*otation@ If = is %esse+ te

B*otation is +e/ete+ fom te ta4/e EN5]MASTER a/ong "it its item +etai/s in

ta4/e EN5]ITEM.

;4< ITEM DELETION:

Fom *se+: 5UOT]/TEM]DEL

Ta4/e *se+: EN5]MASTER

EN5]/TEM EN5]InD]ITEM

SUPP]MASTER INDENT]/TEM


Tis fom is *se+ fo te +e/etion of some items fom a B*otation. Te *se&an +e/ete an item fom a B*otation "i& as not 4een a%%ove+. Te *se as

to ente te enB*i! n*m4e &oes%on+ing to te B*otation fom "i& te item

is to 4e +e/ete+. Next te *se entes te item go*% &o+e an+ item &o+e of te

item to 4e +e/ete+. A// ote +etai/s of tis item ae a*tomati&a//! +is%/a!e+ on

te s&een. Te fo//o"ing %om%t is +is%/a!e+ an+ te ans"e to it is a&&e%te+.

Do !o* "ant to +e/ete tis item@= /f = is %esse+ tis item is +e/ete+ fom te

ta4/e EN5]/TEM.

$. UPDATION

Fom *se+: 5UOT]UPDT

Ta4/e *se+: EN5]MASTER EN5]ITEMEN5]IND]ITEM SUPI5MASTER

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INDENT]ITEM


Tis fom is *se+ to mo+if! te B*otation "i& is a/ea+! %esent. Te *se

&annot mo+if! te B*otation "i& as 4een a%%ove+. Te *se as to ente te

enB*i! n*m4e oes%on+ing to te. B*otation to 4e mo+ifie+. A// +etai/s of :tis fom ae +is%/a!e+ a*tomati&a//! on te s&een. Te *se &an mo+if! an!

fie/+ an+ te &anges go to te ta4/es EN5]MASTER an+ EN5]ITEM.

E+it

A e%ot is geneate+ in te o%tion "ee it %ints a// te B*otations "i&

ae entee+ fo tat %ati&*/a +a!.

Com%aative Statement

Re%ot 9eneate+: COMP]STMT

Ta4/es *se+: InDENT]/TEM

LAST]$]ORDER EN5]MASTERSUPP]MASTER ITEM]MASTER EN5]ITEM

Te &om%aative statement is geneate+ afte te +ata ent! of te e&eive+

B*otations. Te &om%aative statement n*m4e is geneate+ 4! in&ementing te

%evio*s &om%aative statement n*m4e 4! 1. Tis is a&&om%/ise+ 4! *sing a

seB*en&e=.

Te &om%aative statement &onsists of an item]"ise /ist of a// %aties B*ote+.

Te &om%aative statement is a s*mma! of a// te B*otations. Even if a

B*otation is not e&eive+ fom a s*%%/ie to "om an enB*i! "as sent o if it is

egette+ te same a%%eas in te &om%aative statement. Te &om%aative

statement +is%/a!s te in+ent an+ item i+entifi&ation. It ten &onsists of sevea/

/ast o+e +etai/s of tis item in te in+ent.

Te /ast o+e +etai/s in&/*+e te o+e n*m4e B*antit! +ate s*%%/ie

name an+ *nit ate of te /ast o+e. F*te it &onsists of +etai/s fom a//

B*otations sent 4! te s*%%/ies. Tese +etai/s in&/*+e te B*antit! *nit ate

s*%%/ie name ex&ise +*t! s%e&ifi&ations sa/es tax an+ is&o*nt s%e&ifi&ations

feigt s%e&ifi&ations te +e/ive! &o+e an+ %/a&e tems of a+van&eon 4i//on

veifi&ation %a!ment et&.

A%%ove+ 5*otationDato Ent! of A%%ove+ 5*otation

Fom *se+: 5UOT]AI=P

Ta4/e *se+: EN5]MASTER EN5TEM

INDENT]ITEM

Re%ot geneate+: 5UOT]REP

Tis fom is *se+ fo te +ata ent! of an a%%ove+ B*otation. /t &onsists of

tee fie/+s: enB*i! n*m4e item &o+e an+ item go*% &o+e. In fa&t te items

ae st*+ie+ man*a//! an+ a%%ove+ man*a//!. A// items "i& ae a%%ove+ 4!

te &om%an! ae entee+ *n+e tis o%tion. e/% is %ovi+e+ 4! so"ing te /ist

of va/*es in a// tese tee fie/+s. Te fie/+ a%%ove+ in+i&ato of te item "i&

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as 4een a%%ove+ is se to A=. Te item stat*s fie/+ in te ta4/e INDENT]/TEM

is set to A.

E+it

A e%ot is geneate+ "i& gives +etai/e+ infomation of a// B*otations

"i& ave 4een a%%ove+.

S*%%/ies

S*%%/ie U%+otion

Fom *se+: SUPP]UPDATE

Ta4/es *se+: SUPP]MASTER 9RP]SUPP

Tis fom is *se+ to a++ ne" s*%%/ies to te SUPP]MASTER ta4/e o to

*%+ate a/ea+! e ising s*%%/ies. In &ase of a++ition s*%%/ie &o+e is a&&e%te+

an+ tat so*/+ not 4e 4/an# o Heo. Name a++ess %in &o+e stat*s m*st e

entee+. A// ote +etai/s ae o%tiona/ *t if entee+ te! m*st 4e va/i+. Tis ne"s*%%/ie &an 4e in#e+ to moe tan one go*%. 9o*% &o+es ae a&&e%te+ an+

tese go*% &o+es m*st exist in 9RP]TA3LE. Tese go*% &o+es an+ s*%%/ie

&o+es ae a++e+ to 9RP]SUPP. In &ase of +e/etion te s*%%/ie stat*s is ma+e

D= ;no %!si&a/ +e/etion is %efome+<.

S*%%/ie Lin#age to Item U%+&Hfion

Fom *se+: SUPP]LIN7

Ta4/es *se+: ITENLMASTER

SUPP]MASTER ITEM]SUPP

Tis fom is *se+ to *%+ate i.e. to a++ a++itiona/ s*%%/ies to an item o

+e/ete a s*%%/ie /in# to an item. Te item m*st exist in /TEM]i_IASTER.

3/a&#/iste+ o +e/ete+ s*%%/ies ae not &onsi+ee+ i.e. s*%%/ies fo "i&

s*%%/ie stat*s is >3> o >D> ae not /in#e+ "it an item. In &ase of +e/etion

s*%%/ie &o+es ae ma+e Heo. Tese ae a++e+ in te ta4/e ITENLSUPP.

SCREEN LAOUTS


1. Do !o* tin# te team fo//o"e+ te igt meto+o/og! in +eve/o%ing te

%*&ase o+e s!stem@ I+entif! te "ea#nesses of te s!stem.'. If !o* "ee te team /ea+e o" +iffeent/! "o*/+ !o* ave "o#e+ on te

s!stem +eve/o%ment@

$. 3ase+ on tis &ase st*+! %e%ae a 4ief e%ot on te fo//o"ing as%e&ts.

;i< ?at infomation is missing in tis &ase@ an+

;ii< ?at infomation is not eB*ie+ in tis &ase@

). Da" +ata f/o" +iagams eB*ie+ to ana/!se an+ +esign te s!stem.

(. To ma#et te s!stem "at %i&e "o*/+ !o* /i#e to fix fo te s!stem@ 9ive

te ationa/e fo fixing te %i&e.

6. ?o# o*t te fomat an+ &ontents of te fo//o"ing sam%/e e%ots.

;i< In+ent Raise+

;ii< Com%aative Statement;iii< A%%ove+ 5*otations

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;iv< 5*otation Data Ent!.

1'

Im%/ementation Maintenan&e Eva/*ation

Leaning O4e&tives


• /ean im%/ementation %o&e+*e to 4e fo//o"e+ fo im%/ementing a ne"/!

+eve/o%e+ MIS in !o* oganisationG

• +es&i4e te &onvesion a%%oa&es fo a ne"I! +eve/o%e+ MIS in a ne"oganisation an+ in an existing oganisationG

• *n+estan+ te &on&e%t an+ t!%es of s!stem maintenan&eG

• +es&i4e eva/*ation a%%oa&es an+ eva/*ation &/asses fo assessing an

MISG

• +is&*ss an+ im%/ement %o+*&t 4ase+ an+ &ost4enefit 4ase+ eva/*ation of

MISG

• *n+estan+ te &on&e%t of IS Se&*it! an+ IS &onto/s.

On&e te +eve/o%ment of MIS is &om%/ete it is ea+! fo im%/ementation.Im%/ementation is a %o&ess of insta//ing a ne"/!+eve/o%e+ MIS at te *sei`=s

%emises an+ &ontin*o*s/! getting te o*t%*t it "as +esigne+ to geneate. In

ote "o+s it is te %o&ess of &onveting fom an o/+ s!stem to a ne" s!stem.

Te ne" s!stem ma! 4e a e%/a&ement of a man*a/ s!stem o a mao

mo+ifi&ation to an a/ea+! existing &om%*te4ase+ infomation s!stem. T*s in

4ief im%/ementation means %*tting te ne" s!stem into o%eation.

1'.1 IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS

Im%/ementation of MIS is a %o&ess in itse/f an+ invo/ves vaio*s ste%s. It is

*n+estoo+ ee tat te mao ste%s ae 4ase+ on te +esign s%e&ifi&ations. A//

eB*iements of te s!stem s*& as in%*t %o&essing o*t%*t eB*i%ment%esonne/ et&. ae %ovi+e+ 4! te +esign s%e&ifi&ations.

o"eve te ste%s ae not seB*entia//! ex&/*sive some of te ste%s ove/a%. Te

vaio*s ste%s ae as fo//o"s.

1'.1.1 P/anning te Im%/ementation

It is o4vio*s tat te fist ste% in te im%/ementation of an MIS is to %/an it. Fo

%o%e im%/ementation te %/an is a %eeB*isite an+ is #no"n as %e

im%/ementation a&tivit!. It is in tis ste% tat vaio*s a&tivities "i& ae

eB*ie+ fo im%/ementing a s!stem ae i+entifie+ an+ tei seB*en&e an+

e/ation to ea& ote is +e&i+e+. In tis ste% vaio*s ote estimates /i#e timeeB*ie+ fo ea& a&tivit! an+ &ost estimates ae a/so o4taine+. To 4ette +es&i4e

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te %/an an+ im%/ementation s&e+*/e a s!stem ana/!st so*/+ ma#e *se of

vaio*s too/s /i#e 9antt Cats Net"o# Diagams et&. Es%e&ia//! in /age

%oe&ts "ee man! &on&*ent an+ seB*entia/ a&tivities ae intee/ate+ s*&

+iagams ae va/*a4/e in %ovi+ing a &/ea %i&t*e of te tota/ %/an. An exam%/e

of a 9antt Cat an+ a Net"o# Diagam is given 4e/o" in Figs 1'.1 an+ 1'.'

es%e&tive/!.

Fig. 1'.1 9antt Cat An Exam%/e

1'.1.' A&B*isition to Fa&i/ities an+ S%a&e P/anning

Te infomation s!stem to 4e im%/emente+ ma! 4e fo a ne" oganisation "ee

no o/+ s!stem is in existen&e o fo an existing oganisation "ee teinfomation s!stem as 4een mo+ifie+ to a geat extent o a/togete a ne" one

as 4een +eve/o%e+. Tis eB*ies a&B*isition of fa&i/ities /i#e offi&e &om%*te

oom &om%*te /i4a! et&.

Fo %o%e im%/ementation of te s!stem te MIS manage is eB*ie+ to

%e%ae estimates of f/oo s%a&e eB*iements an+ a/so o*g /a!o*ts. S%a&e

%/anning so*/+ ta#e into a&&o*nt te s%a&e o&&*%ie+ 4! &om%*tes temina/s

%intes et&. as a/so 4! %eo%/e an+ tei movement.

Te n*m4e an+ t!%es of exits stoage aeas ai&on+itioning /o&ation of

*ti/ities safet! an+ se&*it! fa&tos a/so affe&t te /a!o*t an+ /o&ation of te

&om%*te oom.

1'.1.$ MIS Oganisation an+ Po&e+*e Deve/o%ment

It is a/so im%otant tat a manage ;ma! 4e fom te finan&ea&&o*nts&om%*te

&ente< 4e given te es%onsi4i/it! of g*i+ing te tas# of im%/ementation. Te so

a%%ointe+ MIS manage m*st ma#e te o/e of /ine manages*ses &/ea an+

ens*e tei invo/vement in te s!stem to te maxim*m extent %ossi4/e. In ote

"o+s te *ses so*/+ +eve/o% a fee/ing as if te s!stem is tei o"n

Fig. 1'.' Net"o# Diagam An Exam%/e

s!stem. It "i// e/% manage *ses= esistan&e to &ange an+ in&ease tei

a&&e%tan&e. It is te igt time ee tat te MIS manage stats

e&*itingiing ote eB*ie+ %esonne/. 8aio*s t!%es of oganisations fo

MIS ave 4een +is&*sse+ in Ca%te 1'. *st /i#e %o%e oganisation of MIS

+eve/o%ment of %o&e+*es fo vaio*s a&tivities is a/so an im%otant ste%. Te

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vaio*s a&tivities ma! in&/*+e eva/*ating an+ se/e&ting a+"ae 4*!ing o

+eve/o%ing soft"ae im%/ementation stategies testing of te s!stem et&.

1'.1.) Use Taining

A+eB*ate *se taining is ve! im%otant fo s*&&essf*//! im%/ementing an

infomation s!stem. Te *ses ma! 4e i+entifie+ an+ &/assifie+ +iffeent/! on te4asis of te o%eationsf*n&tions %efome+ 4! tem. Fo exam%/e &/ei&a/ o

manageia/ feB*ent *ses ves*s o&&asiona/ *ses Tese &/asses ae not

ne&essai/! ex&/*sive as te! B*ite often ove/a%. Te MIS manage m*st +esign

taining %ogammes as %e te nee+s of tese *ses C/ei&a/ *ses m*st 4e

taine+ in te %o&essing of tansa&tions an+ manages m*st 4e infome+ as to

te fomat an+ &ontent of e%ots an+ temina/ +is%/a!s as "e// as o" to ma#e

on/ine inB*iies. Po%e *se taining is an im%otant fa&to in %omoting te

eB*ie+ &*/t*e an+ t*s ens*ing te a&&e%tan&e of te ne" s!stem "i& is

ne&essa! fo s*&&essf*/ im%/ementation.

1'.1.( A&B*isition of +"e on+ Soft"aeTe %o&ess of a&B*iing te ne&essa! a+"ae an+ soft"ae so*/+ in fa&t

stat imme+iate/! afte te +esign s%e&ifi&ations of te s!stem ae ove. As

se/e&ting a+"ae an+ soft"ae ma! 4e B*ite &om%/ex an+ time&ons*ming

;efe to a+"ae an+ soft"ae se/e&tion +is&*sse+ in te /ate %at of tis

&a%te<.

It so*/+ 4e ens*e+ tat te fa&i/ities "i& ae eB*ie+ fo insta//ing te

a+"ae s*& as site %e%aation "o# &om%*te oom /a!o*t ai

&on+itioning e/e&ti& &onne&tions &omm*ni&ation /ines et&. so*/+ 4e &om%/ete

to avoi+ /oss of time in ma#ing te s!stem o%eationa/.

At tis stage &ons*ma4/es /i#e i44ons %a%e f/o%%ies ta%es &om%a&t +is#s

et&. so*/+ a/so 4e a&B*ie+ o o+es %/a&e+ as eB*ie+.

1'.1.6 Ceation of Foms an+ D*io4ose

Foms ae ve! im%otant fo tansmitting +ata. Te! ae a/so eB*ie+ fo in%*t

to te s!stem an+ o*t%*t fom te s!stem. Fo im%/ementation of MIS teeB*ie+ foms so*/+ 4e geneate+ 4*t &ae m*st 4e ta#en tat tese ae

geneate+ in te &ontext of te entie MIS. Moeove foms 4eing te #e! *se

intefa&es 4e&ome a// te moe im%otant in te genea/ a&&e%tan&e of te

s!stem.

Simi/a/! in te im%/ementation stage te a&t*a/ +ata so*/+ 4e o4taine+ an+

te +ata4ase &eate+ "i& is *se+ in te fist instan&e fo te initia/ testing

an+ ten fo te a&t*a/ o%eation of te infomation s!stem.

1'.1.2 Testing

Tests so*/+ 4e %efome+ in a&&o+an&e "it te test s%e&ifi&ations at ea& an+eve! %ase. o"eve it is moe im%otant at im%/ementation 4e&a*se testing at

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tis stage is +one *n+e ea/ o%eating &on+itions "it fa&t*a/ +ata. Testing &an

4e +one "it on/! a sma// e%esentative +ata 4*t it so*/+ 4e +one at vaio*s

/eve/s stating fom e/ements to s*4s!stems an+ fina//! to te s!stem as a "o/e.

Te e/ements ma! in&/*+e eB*i%ment foms %ogams "o# %o&e+*es an+

fomats et&. an+ ma! 4e teste+ e/ative/! in+e%en+ent/! of te s!stem to "i&

te! 4e/ong. Tese tests ae %efome+ main/! fo a&&*a&! ange of in%*tsfeB*en&! of in%*ts o%eating &on+itions an+ e/ia4i/it! et&.

Testing of infomation s!stems no"a+a!s &an 4e *n+eta#en "it te e/% of

Com%imH Ai+e+ Soft"ae Engineeing ;CASE< too/s. Tese too/s %ovi+e fo

on/ine +e4*gging fo &oe&ting %ogam an+ +ata eos.

On te 4asis of te tests %efome+ a n*m4e of +iffi&*/ties ma! aise. Tese

ma! /ea+ to &anges in te +esign of te e/ementss*4s!stems o even in te

s!stem.

1'.1., C*ngeoveCang&ove is te event of s"it&`ove fom te o/+ s!stem to te ne" s!stem

"i& ta#es %/a&e afte te s!stem is teste+ an+ fo*n+ e/ia4/e. Te existing

s!stem is e%/a&e+ 4! te ne" s!stem in tis %ase. Convesion fom te o/+

s!stem to te ne" s!stem ma! e a&&om%/ise+ 4! se/e&ting one o a &om4ination

of vaio*s &onvesion a%%oa&es. A 4ief +es&i%tion of &onvesion a%%oa&es

is given 4e/o".

Fo Ne" OganisationO%eation

If te oganisation is a ne" one o "en te o/+ s!stem +oes not exist tee is

on/! one meto+ fo im%/ementing te ne"/! +eve/o%e+ s!stem i.e. insta// te

s!stem.

Te ne"/! +eve/o%e+ s!stem is im%/emente+ as tee is no o/+ s!stem in

o%eation an+ t*s no B*estion of e%/a&ement of te o/+ o existing s!stem

aises.

Fo Existing OganisationO%eation

?en te o/+ s!stem is in existen&e tee ma! 4e fo* +iffeent stategies

name/!:

;i< Die&t

;ii< Paa//e/;iii< Mo+*/a

;iv< Pasein

Die&t A%%oa&

A +ie&t im%/ementation is te insta//ation of te ne" s!stem an+ te imme+iate

+is&ontin*ation of te o/+ s!stem sometimes &a//e+ &*toff. Tis is te Co/+

T*n7e!= a%%oa&. Tis a%%oa& %o+*&es a time ga% "en no s!stem is

"o#ing. T*s tis a%%oa& is meaningf*/ "en

;a< te s!stem is not e%/a&ing an! ote s!stem

;4< te o/+ s!stem is *+ge+ a4so/*te/! "ot/ess

;&< te ne" s!stem is eite ve! sma// o sim%/e an+

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;+< te +esign of te ne" s!stem is +asti&a//! +iffeent fom tat of te o/+

s!stem an+ &om%aisons 4et"een s!stems "o*/+ 4e meaning/ess.

o"eve tis a%%oa& ma! 4e *se+ in oganisations aving seasona/ o%eations

/i#e s*gaeane %o&essing o +*ing te s*t+o"n of a %/ant. Te main

a+vantage of tis a%%oa& is tat it is e/ative/! inex%ensive. On te ote an+te +isa+vantage of tis a%%oa& is tat it invo/ves a ig is# of fai/*e. Fig*e

1'.$ is a ga%i& e%esentation of tis a%%oa&.

O/+ S!stem Ne" S!stem

Fig. 1'.$ Die&t A%%oa& to Im%/ementation

Paa//e/ A%%oa&

In tis a%%oa& te ne" s!stem is insta//e+ an+ o%eate+ in %aa//e/ "it te

&*ent s!stem *nti/ it as 4een teste+ too*g/!G ten te &*ent s!stem is

&*to*t. Tis is te o%%osite of te +ie&t im%/ementation a%%oa&. In a %aa//e/

im%/ementation a%%oa& te o*t%*ts fom ea& s!stem ae &om%ae+ an++iffeen&es e&on&i/e+. Tis meto+ is ex%ensive 4e&a*se of +*%/i&ating fa&i/ities

an+ %esonne/ to maintain te +*a/ s!stems. o"eve it is eB*ie+ in &etain

essentia/ s!stems s*& as %a!o//. examination an+ +efen&e s!stems. Its main

a+vantage is tat te a&&*a&! of te s!stem is %o%e/! &e&#e+ 4efoe it is

a&&e%te+ as an infomation s!stem ofte oganisation. In tis a%%oa& a taget

+ate so*/+ e set to in+i&ate "en %aa//e/ o%eation "i// &ease an+ tene"

s!stem "i// o%eate on its o"n. If %ossi4/e te taget +ate so*/+ 4e set at te

en+ of te /ongest %o&essing &!&/e ;e.g. at te en+ of te fis&a/ %eio+ an+ afte

!eaen+ &/osings<. A ga%i& e%esentation of tis a%%oa& as 4een +e%i&te+

in Fig. 1'.).

Fig. 1'.) Paa//e/ A%%oa& to Im%/ementation

Mo+*o A%%oa&

Mo+*/a a%%oa& sometimes teme+ te %i/ot a%%oa&= efes to te

im%/ementation of a s!stem in te oganisation on a mo+*/e ;%ie&emea/< 4asis.

Fo exam%/e an invento! s!stem migt 4e im%/emente+ "it on/! a se/e&te+%o+*&t go*%ing o "it a// %o+*&ts in one /o&ation of a m*/ti%/e/o&ation

oganisation. Tis a%%oa& as te fo//o"ing a+vantages.

;a< Te is# of a s!st&m=s fai/*e is /o&a/ise+.

;4< Te %o4/ems i+entifie+ in te s!stem &an 4e &oe&te+ 4efoe f*te

im%/ementation.

;&< Ote o%eating %esonne/ &an 4e taine+ in a /ive= envionment 4efoe te

s!stem is im%/emente+ at tei /o&ation. Tis a%%oa& as 4een i//*state+ in

Fig. 1'.(.

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Fig. 1'.( Mo+*/a A%%oa& to Im%/ementation

P&sein im%/ementation

Tis meto+ is a/so efee+ to as &*t ove 4! segments= a%%oa& "i& is

simi/a to te mo+*/a a%%oa&. o"eve it +iffes in tat te s!stem itse/f is

segmente+ an+ not te oganisation. Fo exam%/e te ne" +ata &o//e&tiona&tivities ae im%/emente+ an+ an intefa&e me&anism "it te o/+ s!stem is

+eve/o%e+. Tis intefa&e a//o"s te o/+ s!stem to o%eate "it te ne" in%*t

+ata.

Late te ne" +ata4ase a&&ess stoage an+ etieva/ a&tivities ae im%/emente+.

On&e again an intefa&e me&anism "it te o/+ s!stem is +eve/o%e+. Anote

segment of te ne" s!stem is insta//e+ *nti/ te entie s!stem is im%/emente+.

Te a+vantages of tis a%%oa& ae tat te ate of &ange in a given

oganisation &an 4e minimise+ an+ +ata %o&essing eso*&es &an 4e a&B*ie+

ga+*a//! ove an exten+e+ %eio+ of time. Tis meto+ is mosts*ie+ fo

s!stems "i& eB*ie on/! *%ga+ation of te o/+ s!stems. Te +isa+vantages totis a%%oa& in&/*+e te /m%/ementotion Mointenon&e Evo/*otion on+

Se&*it! of S $12 &osts in&*e+ to +eve/o% tem%oa! intefa&es "it o/+

s!stems /imite+ a%%/i&a4i/it! an+ a fee/ing of %en+en&!= in te oganisation.

Tis a%%oa& s*ggests tat s*4s!stems ae s*4stit*te+ fo te o/+ s!stem

o"eve ne" s!stems most of te times ae not s*4stit*ta4/e %ie&e 4! %ie&e fo

te o/+ s!stems. Tis a%%oa& is e%esente+ in Fig. 1'.6.

Fig. 1'.6 Pasein Im%/ementation

No +o*4t 4efoe &angeove is affe&te+ &aef*/ testing at ea& an+ eve! %ase

as "e// as at te im%/ementation stage is *n+eta#en sti// tee ae &an&es of

eos in te s!stem "en it 4e&omes f*//! o%eationa/. S*& eos ma! o&&*

4e&a*se of te fai/*e to anti&i%ate te vo/*me an+ vaia4i/it! of +ata an+

*nfoeseen &on+itions *n+e "i& te s!stem a&t*a//! o%eates. Te %o&ess of

ove&oming s*& eos ;+e4*gging< asso&iate+ "it te &angeove to te ne"

s!stem ma! &ontin*e fo sevea/ +a!s to sevea/ monts +e%en+ing *%on te siHe

an+ &om%/exit! of te s!stem.

Afte te s!stem 4e&omes o%eationa/ te s!stem ana/!st so*/+ not fee/ tat

ise o4 is oveG ate te s!stem as to 4e maintaine+ "itin &ost &onstaints

at an effi&ient an+ effe&tive /eve/. Po%e fee+4a&# is eB*ie+ to 4e e&eive+

&ontin*o*s/! fo +oing &oe&tive a+a%tive an+ %efe&tive maintenan&e.

Eva/*ation of te ne"/!+eve/o%e+ an+ im%/emente+ s!stem is eB*ie+ to 4e

ma+e to #no" te B*a/it! of te s!stem +eve/o%e+ an+ to get a &ontin*o*s

fee+4a&# on te %efoman&e of te infomation s!stem.

1'.' ARD?ARE AND SOFT?ARE SELECTION

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Se/e&ting a+"ae an+ soft"ae fo im%/ementing infomation s!stems in an

oganisation is a seio*s an+ time&ons*ming %o&ess tat %asses to*g sevea/

%ases. Te main ste%s of te se/e&tion %o&ess ae /iste+ 4e/o".

;i< ReB*iement ana/!sis

;ii< Pe%aation of ten+e s%e&ifi&ations

;iii< Inviting ten+es;iv< Te&ni&a/ s&*tin! an+ sot/isting

;v< Detai/e+ eva/*ation of sot/iste+ ven+os

;vi< Negotiations an+ %o&*ement +e&ision

;vii< De/ive! an+ insta//ation

;viii<Postinsta//ation evie"

1'.'.1 ReB*iements An*/!sis

S!stem &onfig*ation eB*iements ae &/ea/! i+entifie+ an+ a +e&ision to

a&B*ie te s!stem is ta#en in tis ste%.

1'.'.' Pe%aation of Ten+e S%e&ifi&ationsAfte st*+!ing te feasi4i/it! an+ +e&i+ing *%on te &onfig*ation ten+e

+o&*ments ae %e%ae+ fo te 4enefit of ven+os to &/aif! te +etai/s of

vaio*s s%e&ifi&ations as /iste+ 4e/o".

;i< P*&ase %o&e+*e an+ s&e+*/e: It in&/*+es

;a< Date of ten+e s*4mission

;4< Eva/*ation &iteia

;&< S&o%e fo negotiations if an! an+

;+< Ex%e&te+ *sage envionment an+ /oa+ %atten.

;ii< EB*i%ment s%e&ifi&ation:

;a< Detai/e+ te&ni&a/ s%e&ifi&ations of ea& item eB*ie+ fo 4ot man+ato!

an+ o%tiona/ items. Some exam%/es ae given 4e/o".

1. A +*a/ 4*s s!stem *sing a $'4it CPU "it in4*i/t o a++on f/oating %oint

%o&esso. IO 4*s 4an+"i+t minim*m $$M3s. $' M3 RAM ex%an+a4/e to '(6

M3 et&. ;F*t*e *%ga+e eB*iements so*/+ 4e &/ea/! mentione+<.

'. O%eating s!stem eB*ie+ ;o%en stan+a+s /i#e UNI o not<.

$. Ote soft"ae ;s!stems an+ a%%/i&ation<.

;iii< 5*otation Fomat

;a< Fomat fo stating te&ni&a/ +etai/s an+ B*oting %i&es

;4< ?ete +eviations fom s%e&ifi&ations so*/+ 4e s%e&ifi&a//! /iste+

;&< Pi&es an+ /evies ;+*ties taxes et&.< &o*/+ 4e B*ote+ as /*m%s*m o

eB*ie+ se%aate/!;+< ReB*ie+ va/i+it! of te B*otation

;e< Eanest mone! +e%osit eB*ie+ if an!.

;iv< Po%ose+ tems of &onta&t

;a< Ex%e&te+ +e/ive! s&e+*/e

;4< U%time "aanties eB*ie+

;&< Pena/t! &/a*ses if an!

;+< Pa!ment tems

;"ete a+van&e %a!ment a&&e%ta4/e<

;e< A4itation &/a*ses

;f< Taining nee+s

;g< Post"aant! maintenan&e tems ex%e&te+.;v< An! a++itiona/ infomation eB*ie+.

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1'.'.$ Inviting Ten+es

Afte te %e%aation of ten+e s%e&ifi&ations ten+es ae invite+. Invitation of

ten+es ma! +e%en+ *%on te magnit*+e of %*&ase ;estimate+ eB*i%ment

&ost<. It ma! 4e to*g

;i< O%en ten+e;to*g ne"s%a%e a+vetisement<

;ii< Limite+ ten+e

;B*eies sent to a fe" se/e&te+ ven+os<

;iii< Po%iet! %*&ase

;a%%/ies most/! to *%ga+e eB*iements<

;iv< Die&t %*&ase fom ma#et

;a%%/ies most/! to &ons*ma4/es<.

Diffeent oganisations ma! fo//o" +iffeent %o&e+*es fo %*&ase of

&om%*te s!stemssoft"ae et&. In a t!%i&a/ oganisation te fo//o"ing noms

ae a+o%te+.;i< 8a/*e &ei/ing a%%/i&ation

;e.g. o%en ten+e fo va/*e of eB*i%ment ex&ee+ing Rs 100000 et&.<

;ii< P*&ase &ommittees

;iii< A%%o%iate san&tions at ea& stage.

1'.'.) Te&ni&a/ S&*tin! n+ S&//is/ing

Tis ste% invo/ves te fo//o"ing a&tivities.

;i< A// ten+ee+ 4i+s ae o%ene+ on a %e+efine+ +ate an+ time.

;ii< Deviations fom te s%e&ifi&ations if an! in ea& 4i+ ae note+.

;iii< A &om%aative s*mma! is %e%ae+ against te /ist of ten+ee+ te&ni&a/

feat*es.

In /age ten+e eva/*ations ma#s o %oints ae assigne+ 4ase+ on seveit!

of +iffeen&es fom s%e&ifi&ations fo exam%/e

;a< IO 4*s 4an+"i+t is 1' M3s instea+ of $$ M3s.

;4< Maxim*m memo! ex%ansion is 6) M3 instea+ of te eB*ie+ '(6 M3.

;&< Line %inte as a s%ee+ of ,00 LPM instea+ of te +esie+ 1'00 LPM.

A++itiona/ fa&tos to 4e &onsi+ee+ ae:

;i< Finan&ia/ ea/t of te ven+o

;fom te 4a/an&e seets<

;ii< Nat*e an+ extent of s*%%ot;fom infomation %ovi+e+ on n*m4e of s*%%ot staff %e insta//e+ site an+

&oss&e&# "it se/e&te+ &*stomes<

;iii< Engineeing B*a/it! of %o+*&ts

;fa&to! ins%e&tion of %o+*&tion fa&i/ities 5A %o&e+*es an+ R,&D<.

Eite B*antitative ma#s o O#a!not O#a! +e&isions ae given 4! te

&ommittee on ea& of te iss*es. Te fa&t tat tese fa&tos "i// 4e &onsi+ee+

so*/+ 4e state+ in te ten+e +o&*ments.

Te sot/isting +e&ision a/so in&/*+es te&ni&a/ %esentations 4! ven+os to

%ovi+e &/aifi&ations.

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3ase+ on te te&ni&a/ &om%aison a sot/ist of offes is %e%ae+. I+ea//!

s%ea#ing tee so*/+ 4e tee o fo* ven+os in te /ist. Cae m*st 4e ta#en

tat ea& of te sot/iste+ offes m*st 4e te&ni&a//! a&&e%ta4/e fo fina/

%o&*ement.

1'.'.( Detai/e+ Ev*/**ti&nTis ste% %imai/! invo/ves getting an! fine te&ni&a/ &/aifi&ations. 8isits to

&*stome sites an+ fa&to! ins%e&tions ma! 4e %/anne+.

If an! s%e&ifi& %efoman&e eB*iement is sti%*/ate+ te offee+ %o+*&t is to

4e examine+ at tis stage to*g s*ita4/e 4en&ma# tests. Fo 4en&ma#

tests stan+a+ 4en&ma#s ma! 4e *se+ as a+eB*ate %efoman&e in+i&atos.

1'.'.6 Negotiations &m+ Po&*ement De&ision

3e&a*se of te extensive &om%etition &om%*te s!stem ven+os ma! offe

signifi&ant &on&essions. Negotiations ae e/+ to maximise tese &on&essions.

o"eve %i&e negotiations ae often not %emitte+ 4! some oganisations.

Fo s*& oganisations te fo//o"ing %o&e+*e is s*ggeste+.

;i< Te ven+o is to B*ote fo a// ten+ee+ items in+ivi+*a//! in&/*+ing o%tiona/

items ;e.g. a++itiona/ +is# RAM et&.<.

;ii< Te sot/iste+ ven+os "i// atten+ a meeting in "i& te %*&ase

&ommittee "i// give te Fina/ Config*ation &osen ;in&/*+ing o%tiona/ items<.

;iii< Ea& ven+o "i// offe is Fina/ an+ 3est %i&e fo tis &onfig*ation in a

sea/e+ enve/o%e.

;iv< A// fina/ %i&es ae o%ene+ an+ &om%ae+ to se/e&t te /o"est ;sot/iste+<

4i+.

?en %i&e negotiations ae %emitte+ te &ommittee mem4es so*/+ ave

a goo+ #no"/e+ge of te %evai/ing ma#et %i&es &*ent ten+s an+ a/so te

+*t!tax st*&t*e.

So*&es of infomation &an 4e:

;i< Com%*te magaHines

;ii< 8en+o +ie&toies

;iii< Conta&t "it ote *ses

;iv< Past %esona/ ex%eien&es.

A L&tte of Intent= is *s*a//! given imme+iate/! *%on tis +e&ision 4einga%%ove+ 4! te . san&tioning a*toit!. Fina//! te negotiate+ &onta&t as to 4e

signe+ 4! 4ot %aties an+ ten te foma/ %*&ase o+e is e/ease+.

1'.'.2 De/ive! an+ Insta//ation

In tis ste% te ven+o +e/ives te a+"aesoft"ae to te 4*!e=s

oganisation "ee it is mat&e+ "it te s%e&ifi&ations mentione+ in te

%*&ase o+e. If it &onfoms to tese s%e&ifi&ations te ven+o insta//s te

s!stem in te %emises of te oganisation.

1'.'., PostInsta//ation Revie"

Afte te s!stem is insta//e+ a s!stem eva/*ation is ma+e to +etemine o"&/ose/! te ne" s!stem &onfoms to te %/an. A %ostinsta//ation evie" in

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"i& s!stem s%e&ifi&ations an+ *se eB*iements ae a*+ite+ is ma+e. Te

fee+4a&# o4taine+ in tis ste% e/%s in ta#ing &oe&tive a&tion.

1'.$ SSTEM MAINTENANCE

Te es*/ts o4taine+ fom te eva/*ation %o&ess e/% te oganisation to

+etemine "ete its infomation s!stems ae effe&tive an+ effi&ient oote"ise. As te oganisations ae existing in +!nami& an+ &om%etitive

envionments eva/*ation is a &ontin*ing a&tivit!. On te 4asis of te fee+4a&#

%ovi+e+ 4! te eva/*ation %o&ess te oganisation in o+e to #ee% its MIS at

te igest /eve/s of effe&tiveness an+ effi&ien&! of &o*se "itin &ost

&onstaints m*st es%on+ 4! ta#ing &oe&tive a&tions. Coe&tive a&tion ma!

in&/*+e emoving eos "i& ma! 4e +*e to +esign +*e to envionmenta/

&anges o +*e to oganisationa/ &anges o +*e to &anges "i/e enan&ing te

existing s!stem. Tis %o&ess of monitoing eva/*ating an+ mo+if!ing of existing

infomation s!stems to ma#e eB*ie+ o +esia4/e im%ovements ma! 4e teme+

as S!stem Maintenan&e.

S!stem maintenan&e is an ongoing a&tivit! "i& &oves a "i+e vaiet! of

a&tivities in&/*+ing emoving %ogam an+ +esign eos *%+ating

+o&*mentation an+ test +ata an+ *%+ating *se s*%%ot. Fo te %*%ose of

&onvenien&e maintenan&e ma! 4e &ategoise+ into tee &/asses name/!G

;i< Coe&tive

;ii< A+a%tive an+

;iii< Pefe&tive.

1'.$.1 Coe&tive Maintenan&e

Tis t!%e of maintenan&e im%/ies emoving eos in a %ogam "i& migt

ave &e%t in te s!stem +*e to fa*/t! +esign o "ong ass*m%tions. T*s in

&oe&tive maintenan&e %o&essing o %efoman&e fai/*es ae e%aie+.

1'.$.' A+a%tive Maintenan&e

In a+a%tive maintenan&e %ogam f*n&tions ae &ange+ to ena4/e te

infomation s!stem to satisf! te infomation nee+s of te *ses. Tis t!%e of

maintenan&e ma! 4e&ome ne&essa! 4e&a*se of oganisationa/ &anges "i&

ma! in&/*+eG

;i< &ange in te oganisationa/ %o&e+*es

;ii< &ange in oganisationa/ o4e&tives goa/s %o/i&ies et&.

;iii< &ange in foms;iv< &ange in infomation nee+s of manages

;v< &ange in s!stem &onto/s an+ se&*it! nee+s et&.

1'.$.$ Pefe&tive Maintenan&e

Pefe&tive maintenan&e means a++ing ne" %ogams o mo+if!ing te existing

%ogams to enan&e te %efoman&e of te infomation s!stem. Tis t!%e of

maintenan&e is *n+eta#en to es%on+ to te *se=s a++itiona/ nee+s "i& ma!

4e +*e to te &anges "itin o o*tsi+e of te oganisation.

O*tsi+e &anges ae %imai/! envionmenta/ &anges "i& ma! in te a4sen&e

of s!stem maintenan&e en+e te infomation s!stem ineffe&tive an+ ineffi&ient.Tese envionmenta/ &anges in&/*+e:

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;i< &anges in govenmenta/ %o/i&ies /a"s et&.

;ii< e&onomi& an+ &om%etitive &on+itions an+

;iii< ne" te&no/og!.

No +o*4t maintenan&e is ega+e+ as a ne&essa! evi/ 4*t it so*/+ not 4e

+e/egate+ to *nio %ogammesG no so*/+ it 4e %efome+ on a a%aHa+ oinfoma/ 4asisG ate maintenan&e m*st 4e given its +*e stat*s in te

oganisation an+ so*/+ 4e as fa as %ossi4/e %o%e/! %/anne+ an+ te

maintenan&e es%onsi4i/it! so*/+ 4e ent*ste+ to a B*a/ifie+ s*%eviso an+

team of MIS ex%ets.

1'.) E8ALUATION OF MIS

Eva/*ation of MIS is an intega/ %at of te management &onto/ %o&ess in

"i& te oganiHations +etemine o a%%aise te B*a/it! o "ot of tei

infomation s!stems. In ote "o+s eva/*ation of MIS is a %o&ess of meas*ing

%efoman&e of oganisationa/ infomation s!stems. Te fee+4a&# so o4taine+

e/%s +etemine te ne&essa! a+*stments to 4e ma+e in tei infomations!stems.

1'.).1 Eva/*ation A%%oa&es

Tee ae +iffeent a%%oa&es to eva/*ate MIS in an oganisation. Te MIS

eva/*ation a%%oa&es %ovi+e +iffeent means to meas*e a&&om%/isments of

s!stem o4e&tives. IIIami/tons= s*ve! ;1-,0< in+i&ates tat te fo//o"ing

a%%oa&es on MIS eva/*ation ae feB*ent/! em%/o!e+ in oganisations.

Te s&o%e of ea& eva/*ation a%%oa& as 4een s*mmaise+ as fo//o"s ;I

Iami/ton et a/. 1-,1<.

;i< 5*a/it! Ass*an&e Revie"

5*a/it! ass*an&e evie"s o te&ni&a/ evie"s fo&*s on assessing te

infomation s!stem=s te&ni&a/ B*a/it! e.g. &om%aison to stan+a+s an+

o%eations a&&e%tan&e %o&e+*es. Te&ni&a/ eva/*ation in&/*+es vaia4/es /i#e

+ata tansmission ate mainse&on+a! stoage CPU &a%a&it! et&. Te&ni&a/

evie"s ae %efome+ 4! MIS +eve/o%mento%eations %esonne/ o a se%aate

B*a/it! ass*an&e go*% "itin te MIS f*n&tion.

;ii< Com%/ian&e A*+its

Com /ian&e a*+its o a /i&ation &onto/ evie"s assess te a+e *a& an+ &om

/eteness of &onto/s fo te s!stem in%*ts o*t%*ts %o&essing se&*it! an+a&&ess. Com%/ian&e a*+its ae t!%i&a//! %efome+ 4! an a*tonomo*s intena/

a*+it f*n&tion.

;iii< 3*+get Pefoman&e Revie"

Eva/*ation of MIS 4*+get %efoman&e &on&entates on &om%/ian&e "it a

%e+etemine+ 4*+get ex%en+it*e /eve/ fo te MIS +eve/o%ment o o%eations

%o&ess. Eva/*ation of *se 4*+get %efoman&e as its fo&*s on MIS eso*&e

&ons*m%tion 4! te *se. 3ot ma! 4e s*%%ote+ 4! a &age4a&# me&anism.

;iv< MIS Pesonne/ Po+*&tivit! Meas*ement

Te &a a4i/it of MIS esonne/ is t i&a// +etemine+ in tems of o+*&tivit .Exam%/es of %o+*&tivit! meas*es in&/*+e /ines of &o+e %e *nit time fo te

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%ogamming ;+eve/o%ment< %esonne/ an+ #e!sto#es %e *nit time fo te +ata

ent! ;o%eations< %esonne/.

;v< Com%*te Pefoman&e Eva/*ation

Te o+*&tion &a a4i/it of te &om *te a+"ae is t i&a// eva/*ate+ in tems of

etfoman&e effi&ien&ies an+ 4ott/ene&#s tat /imit %o+*&tion. Fo exam%/e&om%*te %efoman&e eva/*ation meas*ements ae ma+e on %e &ent *%time

a&t*a/ to*g%*t an+ IO &anne/ *ti/isation.

;vi< Sevi&e Leve/ Monitoing

Sevi&e /eve/ monitoing fo&*sses on assessing te infomation an+ s*%%ot

%ovi+e+ to te *se 4ase+ on te tems esta4/ise+ 4et"een te MI( an+ te

*se %esonne/. Assessment of te infomation %ovi+e+ in&/*+e t*nao*n+

time es%onse time an+ eo ates. Assessment of te s*%%ot %ovi+e+ in&/*+e

te time eB*ie+ to es%on+ to te *se=s %o4/ems an+ eB*ests fo &anges.

;vii< Use Attit*+e S*ve!Use attit*+e s*ve! meto+ is *se+ in o%eationa/ eva/*ation. O%eationa/

&onsi+eations efe to "ete te in%*t +ata is a+eB*ate/! %ovi+e+ an+ te

o*t%*t is *sa4/e. Tis t!%e of attit*+e s*ve!s ae &on+*&te+ to*g

B*estionnaies an+o intevie"s to a%%aise te *se=s %e&e%tions of te

infomation an+ s*%%ot given 4! te MIS f*n&tion. Use attit*+e s*ve!s

t!%i&a//! assess s*& as%e&ts as te B*a/it! an+ time/iness of e%ots B*a/it! of

sevi&e an+ MIS^*se &omm*ni&ation.

;viii< PostInsta//ation Revie"

Te fo&*s of a PostInsta//ation Revie" ;PIR< is often on estimating "ete te

s!stem meets te eB*iement +efinition i.e. Does te s!stem +o "at it is

+esigne+ to +o=@ o"eve te s&o%e of te PIR ma! in&/*+e a %osto& evie"

of te +eve/o%ment an+ o%eation %o&esses an examination of te infomation

an+ s*%%ot %ovi+e+ an ana/!sis of te a&t*a/ *se %o&ess an+ &ost4enefit

ana/!sis of te s!stem an+ its effe&ts on te *se %efoman&e.

;ix< Cost3enefit Ana/!sis

Cost3enefit ana/!sis is a/so #no"n as e&onomi& eva/*ation. Te ana/!sis

B*antifies te s!stem=s effe&t on oganisationa/ %efoman&e in tems of +o//as

e.g. +ie&t &ost savings o tangi4/e finan&ia/ 4enefits. Cost4enefit ana/!sis is often

*se+ in &a%ita/ 4*+geting to ga*ge te et*n on investment.

1'.).' Eva/*ation C/asses

Eva/*ation of %efoman&e meas*ement &onsist of t"o mao &/asses ;Davis an+

O/son 1-,(< as given 4e/o".

Effe&tiveness

Tis efes to te B*a/it! of te o*t%*ts fom te s!stem. Effe&tiveness means

+oing te igt= ting in te igt manne so tat +esie+ es*/t ma! 4e

a&ieve+. Infomation S!stem is sai+ to 4e effe&tive if its %o+*&t ;i.e. o*t%*t< is

of B*a/it! an+ te %o&ess of %o+*&ing o*t%*t is igt ;effe&tive<.

Effi&ien&!

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It is a meas*e of te amo*nt of eso*&es eB*ie+ to a&ieve te o*t%*t i.e. te

*se of s!stem eso*&es to get es*/ts. 3eing effi&ient im%/ies te s!stem is

o%eating te igt= "a!.

Te e/ationsi% 4et"een effe&tiveness an+ effi&ien&! is tat effe&tiveness is a

meas*e of goo+ness= of o*t%*t "i/e effi&ien&! is a meas*e of te eso*&eseB*ie+ to a&ieve te o*t%*t. Tis e/ationsi% as a/so 4een so"n in Fig.

1'.2.

Tee ae vaio*s +imensions of infomation s!stems tat so*/+ 4e eva/*ate+.

Tese ma! in&/*+e te +eve/o%ment %o&ess "i& &on&ens "ete te s!stem

"as +eve/o%e+ fo//o"ing set stan+a+sG infomation 4eing %ovi+e+ an+ te

s!stem=s %efoman&e. De%en+ing *%on te +imensions of te infomation

s!stem to 4e eva/*ate+ an a%%o%iate eva/*ation a%%oa& ma! 4e a+o%te+. To

*n+estan+ te &on&e%t of MIS eva/*ation t"o t!%es of eva/*ation ave 4een

+is&*sse+ in tis se&tion. Tese ae %o+*&t4ase+ eva/*ation an+ e&onomi&

eva/*ationG "ee one t!%e of eva/*ation ;e&onomi&< fo&*sses on te&osts4enefits of MIS te ote t!%e fo&*sses on te %o+*&t i.e. infomation

s*%%ot fom te MIS.

Fig. 1'.2 Re/ationsi% 4et"een Effi&ien&! an+ Effe&tiveness

1'.).$ Po+*&t3*se+ MIS Eva/*ation

Sin&e te fo&*s of te %o+*&t4ase+ eva/*ation is on te %o+*&t ;infomation

s*%%ot< o te o*t%*t fom te s!stem te eva/*ation ma! 4e teme+ as

effe&tiveness eva/*ation. Fo assessing te effe&tiveness of o*t%*t fom MIS te

fo//o"ing mo+e/ ma! 4e *se+.

Mo+e/ St*&t*e

Te infomation atti4*tes ma! 4e i+entifie+ as &om%onents of a genea/ mo+e/

fo eva/*ation of MIS effe&tiveness in an oganisation ;see Ca%te $<. Some of

tese atti4*tes ae /iste+ 4e/o".

;i< Time/iness

;ii< Re/evan&e;iii< A&&*a&!

;iv< Com%/eteness

;v< A+eB*a&!

;vi< Ex%/i&itness

;vii< Ex&e%tion4ase+.

Mo+e/ Im%/ementation

8aio*s t!%es of o*t%*tse%ots 4eing geneate+ 4! MIS of te oganisation &an

4e eva/*ate+ fo tei effe&tiveness in tems of te atti4*tes of te management

infomation. Te atti4*tes of infomation ave 4een /iste+ in te st*&t*e of

te mo+e/ as mentione+ a4ove. To em%/o! tis mo+e/ manages at +iffeent

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/eve/s of management of te oganisation ma! 4e as#e+ to ate te

o*t%*tse%ots on ea& of te infomation atti4*tes.

To get es%onses a five%oint s&a/e ma! 4e *se+ on "i& te es%on+ents ;*ses

of infomation s!stems< ma! 4e as#e+ to ate te effe&tiveness of MIS in tems of

tese infomation atti4*tes. Te ating is 4ase+ on te n*m4e of tee%otso*t%*ts "i& o4seve te infomation atti4*tes. Fo exam%/e a five

%oint s&a/e ma! 4e %e%ae+ to get an eva/*ation of te n*m4e of e%ots

e&eive+ 4! te manages in tems of Time/iness= as given 4e/o".

Te s&a/e t*s %e%ae+ is to 4e a+ministee+ eite to*g a mai/e+

B*estionnaie o to*g a %esona/ intevie" an+ te s&oing ma! 4e +one 4!

assigning a n*mei&a/ va/*e of 0 to te /east favo*a4/e /o&ation on te s&a/e 1 to

te next favo*a4/e an+ so on

Te fo//o"ing fom*/a ma! 4e a%%/ie+ to &om%*te effe&tiveness s&oe fo ea& of

te atti4*tes.

On te "o/e te effe&tiveness s&oe fo a// te n infomation &aa&teisti&s of

MIS &an 4e &om%*te+ as fo//o"sG

Effe&tiveness Nom

No" i+ea//! s%ea#ing ESMIS so*/+ 4e eB*a/ to ). o"eve o"ing to te ig

&ost invo/ve+ in s*& a s!stem an+ *n&etain envionment s*& a sit*ation is not

%a&ti&a/. Teefoe a to/ean&e /imit is to 4e %es&i4e+ "i& seves as a

stan+a+ o effe&tiveness nom against "i& te oganisation ma! &om%ae te

effe&tiveness of te existing MIS to +etemine +eviations if an!. It is on te 4asis

of tis &om%aison tat an MIS ma! 4e teme+ as eite effe&tive o ote"ise.

Te to/ean&e /imit fo +efe&tive e%ots ma! 4e +e&i+e+ 4! te oganisations

&on&ene+G it ma! va! fom ( to '0 an+ a&&o+ing/! te stan+a+s fo an

effe&tive MIS ma! 4e &om%*te+ in tems of its ESMIS as fo//o"s.

On te five%oint s&a/e te tota/ s&a/e is +ivi+e+ into fo* %ats. Ta#ing te tota/

s&a/e eB*a/ to 100 ea& %at on te s&a/e is eB*a/ to te va/*e of '(. T*s on tis

s&a/e 100 2( (0 '( an+ 0 of te e%ots ae e%esente+ 4! a s&oe

of ) $ ' 1 an+ 0 es%e&tive/!. A&&o+ing to tis &onvesion */e 1 of te

e%ots "o*/+ 4e e%esente+ 4! /'(t ;0.0)< %at on te s&a/e. Fo -0 of te

e%ots te s&oe ma! 4e &a/&*/ate+ as 4e/o".

If 1 of te o*t%*ts ae e%esente+ 4! a s&oe of 0.0) %at on te s&a/e

-0 of te o*t%*ts ae e%esente+ 4! a s&oe of 0.0) Y -0 V $.6 on te s&a/e.

Teefoe -0 of te o*t%*ts "i// 4e e%esente+ on te s&a/e 4! an effe&tiveness

s&oe of $.6. Fom te a4ove it ma! 4e sai+ tat ESM ( fo ( 10 an+ 1(

+efe&tive e%ots so*/+ 4e eB*a/ to $., $.6 an+ $.) es%e&tive/!.

1'.).) Cost3enefit3*se+ Eva/*ation

In &ost4enefit eva/*ation a too*g st*+! of vaio*s ex%e&te+ &osts te

4enefits to 4e ex%e&te+ fom te s!stem an+ ex%e&te+ savings if an! is +one. It isan e&onomi& eva/*ation of te s!stem in "i& &osts to 4e in&*e+ fo

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+eve/o%ing im%/ementing an+ o%eating a s!stem ae to 4e *stifie+ against te

ex%e&te+ 4enefits fom te s!stem. In ote "o+s &ost4enefit ana/!sis

+etemines te &osteffe&tiveness of te s!stem.

Fo *n+eta#ing &os+4enefit eva/*ation vaio*s estimates of &osts as "e// as

4enefits ex%e&te+ fom te s!stem ae to 4e ma+e. In +eve/o%ing &ost estimatesfo a s!stem sevea/ &ost e/ements ae &onsi+ee+. Among tem ae initia/

+eve/o%ment &osts &a%ita/ &osts o%eating &osts et&. Simi/a/! ex%e&te+ 4enefits

fom te s!stem ae &onsi+ee+. Te 4enefits ma! 4e in tems of e+*&e+ &ost

4ette %efoman&e+e&isions et&. Te vaio*s &ategoies of &osts an+ 4enefits

ae meas*e+ an+ in&/*+e+ in &ost4enefit ana/!sis. A 4ief +es&i%tion of a//

tese &ost e/ements an+ 4enefits is given 4e/o".

Initia/ Deve/o%ment Cost

Initia/ +eve/o%ment &ost is te &ost in&*e+ in +eve/o%ing an infomation s!stem.

8aio*s e/ements of +eve/o%ment &ost in&/*+e %oe&t %/anning &ost feasi4i/it!

st*+! &ost +esign &ost &onvesion &ost im%/ementation &ost ;in&/*+ing *setaining &ost testing &osts et&.<. In ote "o+s tota/ +eve/o%ment &ost is

&onsi+ee+ onetime &ost an+ is teme+ as initia/ +eve/o%ment &ost.

Ca%ita/ Cost .

Ca%ita/ &ost is a/so onetime &ost. It is te &ost in&*e+ in fa&i/ities an+ in

%o&*ing vaio*s eB*i%ment in&/*+ing a+"ae et&. eB*ie+ fo te

o%eation of te s!stem. Fa&i/it! &osts ae ex%enses in&*e+ in te %e%aation of

te %!si&a/ site "ee te s!stem "i// 4e im%/emente+. It in&/*+es "iing

f/ooing /igting a&o*sti&s an+ ai&on+itioning &ost. Te &ost on s%a&e eB*ie+

fo offi&e stoage an+ &om%*te oom if not ie+ is a/so in&/*+e+ in te fa&i/it!

&ost. a+"ae an+ eB*i%ment &ost e/ates to te a&t*a/ %*&ase o /ease of te

&om%*te an+ %ei%ea/s.

Ann*a/ O%eating Cost

Ann*a/ o%eating &ost is te &ost in&*e+ in o%eating te s!stem. It in&/*+es

&om%*te an+ eB*i%ment maintenan&e &ost %esonne/ &ost oveea+s an+

s*%%/ies &ost. Com%*tes an+ eB*i%ment ae to e maintaine+ an+ t*s some

&ost is in&*e+ #no"n as Ann*a/ Maintenan&e Cost ;AMC<.

Simi/a/! %esonne/ ae eB*ie+ to o%eate te s!stem. Pesonne/ &ost in&/*+es

EDP staff sa/aies an+ ote 4enefits ;%ovi+ent f*n+ ea/t ins*an&e va&ationtime %ensiona! 4enefits et&.<. Oveea+ &osts in&/*+e a// &osts asso&iate+ "it

te +a!to+a! o%eation of te s!stemG te amo*nt +e%en+s on te n*m4e of

sifts te nat*e of te a%%/i&ations an+ &a%a4i/ities of te o%eating staff.

S*%%/! &osts ae vaia4/e &osts tat in&ease "it in&ease+ *se of %a%eG

i44ons +is#s et&. *st as te &ost e/ements in &ost4enefit eva/*ation vaio*s

ex%e&te+ 4enefits fom te s!stem ae a/so st*+ie+. Te fist tas# is to i+entif!

ea& 4enefit an+ ten assign a moneta! va/*e to it.

3enefits ma! 4e tangi4/e o intangi4/e +ie&t o in+ie&t.

Tee ae t"o mao 4enefits name/! im%oving %efoman&e an+ minimising

te &ost of %o&essing. Te %efoman&e %at s*ggests im%ovement in tea&&*a&! time/iness non+*%/i&ation a+eB*a&! *sef*Iness in infomation an+

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easie a&&ess to te s!stem 4! a*toise+ *sesG "i& in t*n /ea+s to 4ette

+e&isions an+ a//o"s moe time to manages fo %/anning %*%oses et&.

Minimising &osts to*g an effi&ient s!stem s*& as eo &onto/ e+*&e+

sa/a! an+ /a4o* &ost an+ e+*&e+ invento! &ost is a 4enefit tat is to 4e

meas*e+ fo eva/*ating &osteffe&tiveness of a s!stem. Fo i+entifi&ation an+

&ategoisation of vaio*s &osts an+ 4enefits te fo//o"ing &on&e%ts aeim%otant.

Dentifi&ation of Costs an+ 3enefits

Cetain &osts an+ 4enefits ae moe easi/! i+entifia4/e tan otes. Fo exam%/e

+ie&t &osts s*& as te %i&e of a %esona/ &om%*te i44on et&. ae easi/!

i+entifie+ fom invoi&es o fom oganisationa/ e&o+s. Simi/a/! +ie&t 4enefits

/i#e e+*&tion in staff 4e&a*se of te ne" s!stem o fast %o&essing of

tansa&tions ma! 4e i+entifie+. Ote +ie&t &osts an+ 4enefits o"eve ma!

not 4e "e//+efine+ sin&e te! e%esent estimate+ COSt o 4enefits tat ae not

ve! &etain o "e//+efine+. An exam%/e of s*& a &ost is a eseve fo 4a+ +e4t.

C/assifi&ation of Costs an+ 3enefits

Te vaio*s &ategoies of &osts an+ 4enefits ae im%otant to ma#e a &os+4enefit

ana/!sis. Tese &ategoies ma! 4e tangi4/e o intangi4/e +ie&t o in+ie&t fixe+

o vaia4/e.

Tangi4i/it!

Tangi4i/it! efes to te ease "it "i& &osts an+ 4enefits &an 4e i+entifie+ an+

meas*e+. Cost in&*e+ o to 4e in&*e+ on a s%e&ifi& item o a&tivit! is teme+

as a tangi4/e &ost. Fo exam%/e &om%*te &ost &ons*/tan&! fee %ai+ to a

&ons*/tant em%/o!ee sa/a! ae tangi4/e &osts. ?eeas intangi4/e &osts ae tose

&osts tat ae #no"n to exist 4*t "ose moneta! va/*e &annot 4e a&&*ate/!

meas*e+ Fo exam%/e /o"ee+ em%/o!ee moa/e 4e&a*se of a ne" s!stem is an

intangi4/e &ost.

Li#e &osts 4enefits ma! a/so 4e &ategoise+ as tangi4/e o intangi4/e.

Tangi4/e 4enefits s*& as e+*&e+ sa/aies %o+*&ing e%ots "it no eos ae

B*antifia4/e. Intangi4/e 4enefits s*& as ig moa/e among em%/o!ees

im%ove+ oganisationa/ image ae not easi/! B*antifie+.

Costs ae a/so &ategoise+ as +ie&t o in+ie&t &osts. Die&t &osts ae tose "it

"i& an amo*nt in *%ees &an 4e +ie&t/! asso&iate+ to an! of te items o

o%eations of te s!stem. Fo exam%/e te %*&ase of a &om%*te i44on fo Rs'00 is a +ie&t &ost. Die&t 4enefits a/so &an 4e i+entifie+ "i& &o*/+ 4e

atti4*te+ to te ne" s!stem. Fo exam%/e a ( %e &ent e+*&tion in sa/a!

ex%en+it*e 4e&a*se of te ne" s!stem &an 4e &/assifie+ as a +ie&t 4enefit.

In+ie&t &osts ae te es*/ts of o%eations tat ae not +ie&t/! asso&iate+ "it

te s!stem o a&tivit!. Te! ae teme+ as oveea+s. Fo exam%/e safet! o

se&*it! of &om%*te oom e/e&ti&it! ai &on+itioning an+ maintenan&e et&.

ae in&/*+e+ in in+ie&t &osts.

Simi/a/! in+ie&t 4enefits ae ea/ise+ as a 4!%o+*&t of some ote a&tivit! o

s!stem. Fo exam%/e ne"/! &om%*teise+ sa/a! s!stem %ovi+es infomation on

te tota/ amo*nt eB*ie+ fo +is4*sements an+ tota/ +e+*&tions to 4e ma+e*n+e vaio*s ea+s /i#e ins*an&e %ovi+ent f*n+ e&ove! fom /oan

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a+van&es et&. Infomation a4o*t te amo*nt e&ovee+ fom /oan a+van&es

4e&omes an in+ie&t 4enefit of te sa/a! s!stem as te management "o*/+ 4e

a4/e to %o%e/! *ti/ise te amo*nt an+ t*s &an ean maxim*m et*ns.

Fixe+ &osts ae &onstant &osts an+ +o not &ange ega+/ess of o" "e// a s!stem

is *se+. Te! ae on/! onetime &osts /i#e +eve/o%ment &ost &a%ita/ an+ ins*an&e&ost et&. "eeas vaia4/e &osts ae in&*e+ on a eg*/a 4asis. Te! ae

*s*a//! %o%otiona/ to "o# vo/*me an+ &ontin*e as /ong as te s!stem is in

o%eation. Fo exam%/e te &ost of s*%%/ies +e%en+s *%on te siHe an+ vo/*me of

e%ots%o&essing "o#. Fixe+ 4enefits ae a/so &onstant an+ +o not &ange. Fo

exam%/e 10 %e &ent e+*&tion in staff as a es*/t of te ne" s!stem is a fixe+

4enefit. 8aia4/e 4enefits on te ote an+ ae ea/ise+ on a eg*/a 4asis. Fo

exam%/e te amo*nt of +ai/! time save+ of a manage vaies "it te n*m4e

an+ t!%es of +e&isions ta#en.

On&e te vaia4/e of inteest an+ tei es%e&tive fig*es ae i+entifie+ a ta4/e

#no"n as MIS eva/*ation ta4/e ma! 4e %e%ae+ as so"n in Ta4/e 1'.1.

Te MIS eva/*ation ta4/e s*mmaises te 4enefits to 4e ex%e&te+ fom te

s!stem te ex%e&te+ &osts an+ ex%e&te+ savings if an! fo te MIS *se. Te

ann*a/ savings an+ ate of et*n ae &om%*te+ 4! *sing an! o a &om4ination of

eva/*ation meto+s "i& ave 4een mentione+ 4e/o". EB*i%ment /ife as

ten+e+ to 4e e/ative/! sot 4e&a*se of te&no/ogi&a/ o4so/es&en&e. Fo me+i*m

to/age s&a/e eB*i%ment it is estimate+ to 4e five !easG fo mi&o&om%*tes

o"ing to faste ] o4so/es&en&e it is &onsi+ee+ to 4e tee !eas.

Evo/*ofion Mo+e/s

aving i+entifie+ an+ &ategoise+ vaio*s &osts an+ 4enefits moneta! va/*e of

ea& an+ eve! &ost as "e// as 4enefit is estimate+. A s!stem ana/!st*se

manage ma! eva/*ate te &osts an+ 4enefits so estimate+. Fo eva/*ation tee

ae sevea/ mo+e/s "i& ae avai/a4/e name/!:

;i< Net 4enefit ana/!sis

;ii< Pesent va/*e ana/!sis

;iii< Net %esent va/*e

;iv< Pa!4a&# meto+

;v< Casf/o" ana/!sis

;vi< 3ea#even ana/!sis et&

Ea& meto+ as got its o"n a+vantages an+ +isa+vantages. An! one o a&om4ination of sevea/ meto+s ma! 4e *se+ to eva/*ate te estimate+ fig*es of

&osts an+ 4enefits. No +o*4t &ost4enefit ana/!sis is a ve! im%otant too/ *se+ in

e&onomi& eva/*ation of te s!stem o"eve te +iffi&*/t! in B*antif!ing

intangi4/e an+ in+ie&t &osts an+ 4enefits 4e&omes its mao /imitation.

1'.( IS SECURIT

To+a! oganisations ae in&easing/! 4e&oming +e%en+ent on infomation

s!stemste&no/og!.o"eve tese s!stems ae v*Inea4/e to a /age n*m4e of

%otentia/ aHa+s es%e&ia//! +*e to net"o#e+ &om%*ting. Teefoe IS &onto/

an+ se&*it! is an im%otant iss*e of &on&en fo te management. Some of te

mao teats to te infomation s!stems ae as fo//o"s:` Eos in an+/ing enteing %o&essing tansfeing o %ogamming +ata

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` EB*i%ment ma/f*n&tions

` A&&i+enta/ o ma/i&io*s +amage to &om%*te eso*&es

` Dest*&tion fom vi*s

` Teft of eB*i%ment an+ o %ogams

` Ina%%o%iate *se of +ata /i#e mani%*/ating in%*ts

` Loss teft o &anges of +ata` Fie o an! ote nat*a/ &a/amit!.

Ta4/e 1'.1

MIS Eva/*ation Fom

Name of te oganisation Date

A++ess ] Ref. No

;A< Estimate+ Initia/ Deve/o%ment Cost1. Poe&t P/anning Rs

'. Feasi4i/it! St*+! Rs

$. Design Rs

). Convesion RG

8 (. Im%/ementation Rs

6. Mis&e//aneo*s Rs

Tota/ ;A< Rs

;3< Estimate+ Ca%ita/ Cost

1. Com%*te Room EB*i%ment an+ I`I? Rs

'. Fa&i/ities Rs

Tota/ ;3< RS

;C< Estimate+ O%eating Cost

1. Pesonne/ Rs

'. Com%*teEB*i%ment Rent Rs

$. Oveea+ an+ S*%%/ies Rs

Tota/ ;C< Rs

;D< Estimate+ 3enefits

I. Re+*&e+ Sa/a! an+ La4o* Cost Rs'. Re+*&e+ Invento! Cost Rs

$. 3ette De&isions Rs

) An! Ote Intangi4/e 3enefit Rs

Tota/ ;D< Rs

;E< Ann*a/ savings D C

;F< Rate of Ret*n ;ate at "i& %esent va/*e of savings eB*a/s %esent

va/*e of onetime &osts<

Te a+van&es in te/e&omm*ni&ations an+ &om%*te soft"ae ave f*tein&ease+ te %otentia/ of &om%*te teats. Te/e&omm*ni&ations net"o# ae

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ig/! v*Inea4/e to nat*a/ fai/*es of a+"ae an+ soft"ae an+ to mis*se 4!

&om%*te %ofessiona/s an+ ote en+ *ses. It is %ossi4/e to ta% &omm*ni&ations

/ines an+ i//ega//! inte&e%t +ata. S*& offen&es &an a/so 4e %efome+ 4! an

o*tsi+e &a//e+ a&Hen "o %enetates a &om%*te s!stem. Com%*te &imina/s

*se vaio*s innovative meto+s fo atta&#ing te infomation s!stems.

IS se&*it! efes to te %o/i&ies %o&e+*es an+ te&ni&a/ meas*es *se+ to

%event %otentia/ teats to IS eso*&es.

Meto+s of Atta&#

Te fo//o"ing a%%oa&es ae *se+ in +e/i4eate atta&#s on &om%*te s!stems:

;a< Data Tam%eingG an+

;4< Pogamming Te&niB*es

;a< Data Tam%eing is a/so &a//e+ as +ata +i++/ing= "i& is te most

&ommon a%%oa& an+ is often *se+ 4! insi+es.

It invo/ves enteing fa/se fa4i&ate+ o fa*+*/ent +ata into te &om%*te o

&anging o +e/eting existing +ata. Fo exam%/e o%eato ma! tansfe someamo*nt to is o"n a&&o*nt an+ to &ove *% te tansfe "it some ta#e+e4it an+

&e+it+e4it an+ +e4it an+ &e+it tansa&tions.

;4< Pogamming Te&niB*es is anote a%%oa& *se+ 4! &om%*te

&imina/s to mo+if! a &om%*te %ogam. Tee ae man! t!%es of %ogamming

fa*+ s&emes "i& ae #no"n 4! +iffeent names. Te moe #no"ing atta&#

meto+ is te *se of a vi*s ; T*4an et. a/ '001<.

Ta4/e 1'.'

Some of te most notoio*s vi*ses ae intenationa/= s*& as Mi&e/ange/o

Pa#istani 3ain an+ e*sa/em.

?en a vi*s is atta&e+ to a /egitimate soft"ae %ogam te %ogam 4e&omes

infe&te+ "i& is not #no"n to te *se. ?en te soft"ae is *se+ te vi*s

s%ea+s &a*sing +amage to tat > %ogam an+ %ossi4/! to otes. T*s te

/egitimate soft"ae is a&ting as a Toan ose.

I'.6 PROTECTIN9 INFORMATION SSTEM

aving #no"n te mao %otentia/ teats to infomation s!stems it is &iti&a/ to

*n+estan+ te "a!s to +efen+ IS against tese teats. Defen+ing infomations!stems is a +iffi&*/t as "e// as an ex%ensive tas# 4e&a*se of te fo//o"ing

easons:

` A /age n*m4e of %otentia/ teats exist.

` Infomation assets ae &onto//e+ 4! man! %esons.

` Com%*te net"o#s &an 4e o*tsi+e te oganisation an+ +iffi&*/t to %ote&t.

` A+van&es in te&no/og! &an ma#e some &onto/s o4so/ete imme+iate/! afte

te! ae insta//e+.

` Man! &om%*te &imes ae *n+ete&te+ fo a /ong %eio+ of time so it is

+iffi&*/t to /ean fom ex%eien&e=.

` Man! a times %o&e+*es ae in&onvenient an+ t*s %eo%/e ten+ to vio/ate

se&*it! %o&e+*es.

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` Man! &om%*te &imina/s "o ae &a*gt go *n%*nise+ so tee is no

+eteent effe&t.

` Te amo*nt of &om%*te #no"/e+ge ne&essa! to &ommit &om%*te &imes

is *s*a//! minima/.

a&#ing too/s ae avai/a4/e fo fee on te Intenet.

` Te &ost of %eventing aHa+s &an 4e ve! ig. Teefoe mostoganisations sim%/! &annot affo+ to %ote&t against a// %ossi4/e aHa+s.

` It is +iffi&*/t to &on+*&t a &ost^4enefit *stifi&ation fo &onto/s 4efoe an

atta&# o&&*s sin&e it is +iffi&*/t to assess te va/*e of a !%oteti&a/ atta&#.

T*s managing IT teats is one of te &a//enging tas# fo an! IS manage.

Tis &an 4e +one 4! aving +efense stategies an+ &onto/s "i& ae inten+e+

to %event a&&i+enta/ aHa+s +ete intenationa/ a&ts +ete&t %o4/ems as ea/!

as %ossi4/e enan&e +amage e&ove! an+ &oe&t %o4/ems. Conto/s &an 4e

integate+ into a+"ae an+ soft"ae +*ing te s!stem +eve/o%ment %ase as

"e// as &an 4e im%/emente+ in o%eationa/ %ase o +*ing te maintenan&e.

Let *s +is&*ss some of te main +efense stategies an+ &onto/s:

Defense Stategies1. Conto/s fo %evention an+ +eteen&e: Po%e/! +esigne+ &onto/s "o*/+

e/% %event eos fom o&&*ing +ete &imina/s fom atta&#ing te s!stem

an+ +en! a&&ess to *na*toiHe+ %eo%/e.

'. Dete&tion: It ma! not 4e e&onomi&a//! feasi4/e to %event a// aHa+s an+

&/eteing meas*es ma! not "o#. Teefoe *n%ote&te+ s!stems ae

v*Inea4/e to atta&#. In man! &ases s%e&ia/ +iagnosti& soft"ae &an 4e *se+ fo

+ete&tion.

$. Limitation: It efes to minimise /osses on&e a ma/f*n&tion as o&&*e+.

Uses "ant tei s!stems 4a&# in o%eation as ea/! as %ossi4/e. Tis &an 4e

a&&om%/ise+ 4! in&/*+ing a fa*/to/eant s!stem tat %emits o%eation in a

+ega+e+ mo+e *nti/ f*// e&ove! is ma+e. If a fa*/t to/eant s!stem +oes not

exist a B*i&# e&ove! m*st ta#e %/a&e.

). Re&ove!: A e&ove! %/an ex%/ains o" to fix a +amage+ infomation

s!stem as B*i&#/! as %ossi4/e. Re%/a&ing ate tan e%aiing &om%onents is one

o*te to fast e&ove!.

(. Coe&tion: Coe&ting +amage+ s!stem &an %event te %o4/em fom

o&&*ing again.

I'.2 IS CONTROLS

Infomation S!stem ;IS< Conto/s &an 4e go*%e+ *n+e t"o &ategoies as

given 4e/o"G;a< 9enea/ Conto/s

;4< A%%/i&ation Conto/s

;a< 9enea/ Conto/s

Tese t!%es of &onto/s ae esta4/ise+ to %ote&t te s!stem ega+/ess of te

s%e&ifi& a%%/i&ation fo exam%/e %ote&ting a+"ae a&&ess &onto/ et&. Te

mao &ategoies of genea/ &onto/s ae %!si&a/ &onto/s a&&ess &onto/s +ata

se&*it! &onto/s &omm*ni&ations ;net"o#s< &onto/s an+ a+ministative

&onto/s. A 4ief +es&i%tion of tese &onto/s is given as 4e/o":

P!si&a/ Conto/s

P!si&a/ se&*it! efes to te %ote&tion of &om%*te fa&i/ities an+ eso*&es.Tis in&/*+es %ote&ting &om%*tes +ata &entes Soft"ae man*a/s an+

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net"o#s. A%%o%iate %!si&a/ se&*it! ma! in&/*+e sevea/ &onto/s s*& as te

fo//o"ing:

1. Design of te &om%*te &ente fo exam%/e te site so*/+ 4e non

&om4*sti4/e an+ "ate%oof.

'. 9oo+ fie %evention +ete&tion an+ exting*ising s!stems in&/*+ing

s%in#/e s!stem "ate %*m%s an+ a+eB*ate +ainage fa&i/ities.$. Emegen&! %o"e s*toff an+ 4a&#*% 4atteies m*st 4e maintaine+ in

o%eationa/ &on+ition.

). Po%e/! +esigne+ maintaine+ an+ o%eate+ ai&on+itioning s!stems.

A&&ess Conto/s

Tese efe to te esti&tion of *na*toise+ *se a&&ess to te s!stem. In ote

"o+ a *se in o+e to gain a&&ess m*st 4e a*toise+ an+ 4efoe e is given

an a&&ess m*st 4e a*tenti&ate+.

A&&ess &onto/ soft"ae is &omme&ia//! avai/a4/e fo a// t!%es of infomation

s!stems. Use i+entifi&ation is a&&om%/ise+ "it a *niB*e *se i+entifie ;UID</i#e te %ass"o+G a smat &a+G +igita/ signat*e voi&e finge%int o etina/

;e!e< s&an. It is im%/emente+ via 4iomete &onto/s "i& efe to an a*tomate+

meto+ of veif!ing te i+entit! of a %eson 4ase+ on %!sio/ogi&a/ o

4eavio*a/ &aa&teisti&s.

Data Se&*it! Conto/s

Tese &onto/s ae &on&ene+ "it %ote&te+ +ata fom a&&i+enta/ o intentiona/

+is&/os*e to *na*toise+ %eson o fom *na*toise+ &anges o +est*&tion.

Tese &onto/s &an 4e a&&om%/ise+ to*g o%eating s!stems +ata4ase

se&*it! a&&ess &onto/ %ogammes 4a&#*% an+ e&ove! %o&e+*es et&.

Comm*ni&ation Conto/s

Tese efe to net"o# %ote&tions "i& ave 4e&ome &iti&a/ "it an in&ease+

*se of te Intenet intanet an+ e/e&toni& &omme&e. Fo exam%/e A&&ess

&onto/G En&!%tionG Fie"a//s ae te most &ommon &omm*ni&ation &onto/s.

A+ministative Conto/s

3esi+es te te&ni&a/ &onto/s a+ministative &onto/s ae a/so im%otant in

%ote&ting IS. Tese &onto/s efe to &/ea g*i+e/ines %o/i&ies of te

oganisations "it ega+s to te *se an+ +e%/o!ment of IT in te oganisation.

Fo exam%/e imme+iate/! evo#ing a&&ess %ivi/eges of +ismisse+ esigne+ otansfee+ em%/o!eesG +eve/o%ing %ogamming an+ +o&*mentation stan+a+s

et&.

Ote Conto/s

Tee ae sti// ote t!%es of &onto/s "i& ae *n+estoo+ *n+e genea/

&onto/s. Tese &onto/s ae a/so im%/emente+ so as to ens*e tat IS is %ote&te+

fom vaio*s %otentia/ teats. Fo exam%/e s!stem +eve/o%ment &onto/s /i#e

4*+geting s&e+*/e B*a/it! et&. ae meant to ens*e tat a s!stem is +eve/o%e+

as %e te %e+efine+ %o/i&ies %o&e+*es an+ ote stan+a+s.

;4< A%%/i&*t/on Conto/s

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3esi+es te genea/ &onto/ tee ae man! a%%/i&ation &onto/s "i& ae

genea//! 4*i/t into te a%%/i&ations an+ ae *s*a//! "itten as va/i+ation */es.

Te a%%/i&ation &onto/s ma! 4e #no"n as in%*t &onto/s %o&essing &onto/s an+

o*t%*t &onto/s.

SUMMARIm%/ementation is a %o&ess of insta//ing a ne"/!+eve/o%e+ MIS at te *ses=

%emises an+ &ontin*o*s/! getting meaningf*/ o*t%*t fom it. In ote "o+s

im%/ementation means %*tting te +eve/o%e+ MIS into o%eation. Fo te ne"

oganisation o o%eation MIS is insta//e+ +ie&t/! as tee is no o/+existing

s!stem to 4e e%/a&e+. o"eve fo te oganisations o o%eations "i& ae

a/ea+! in existen&e fo* +iffeent stategies &o*/+ 4e a+o%te+ fo im%/ementing

te +eve/o%e+

MIS. Tese stategies ma! 4e +ie&t %aa//e/ mo+*/a o %asein stateg!.

Im%/ementation %o&e+*e is a ste%4!ste% meto+ fo im%/ementing te ne"/!

+eve/o%e+ infomation s!stem. Te vaio*s ste%s ae:

P/anning te im%/ementationG A&B*isition of fa&i/ities an+ s%a&e %/anningG MIS

oganisation an+ %o&e+*e +eve/o%mentG Use tainingG A&B*isition of

a+"ae an+ soft"aeG Ceation of foms an+ +ata4aseG an+ Testing an+

&angeove.

o"eve tese ste%s ae not ne&essai/! seB*entia/. Sometimes some of te ste%s

ma! ove/a%. Iee it ma! 4e note+ tat afte te s!stem 4e&omes o%eationa/

te s!stem ana/!st so*/+ not +isso&iate imse/fese/f fom te s!stemG ate

te s!stem as to 4e maintaine+ fo "i& &ontin*o*s fee+4a&# so*/+ 4e

e&eive+ 4! "a! of eva/*ating te s!stem. Eva/*ation of MIS a/so e/%s an

oganisation to #no" "ete te s!stem is %efoming as %e te ex%e&tations of

te *se.

Tee ae vaio*s a%%oa&es fo &on+*&ting eva/*ation of an MISG /i#e 5*a/it!

ass*an&e evie"G &om%/ian&e a*+itsG 3*+get %efoman&e evie"G MIS

Pesonne/ %o+*&tivit! meas*ementG Com%*te %efoman&e eva/*ationG

Sevi&e /eve/ monitoingG Use attit*+e s*ve!G Post insa//ation evie"G an+ Cost

4enefit ana/!sis et&. De%en+ing *%on te nee+ an+ &onvenien&e eva/*ation of

MIS ma! 4e +one 4! *sing an! one o a &om4ination of vaio*s a%%oa&es.

Pefoman&e eva/*ation ma! 4e &ategoise+ into t"o &/asses name/!

effe&tiveness an+ effi&ien&!. Effe&tiveness is %o+*&t4ase+ eva/*ation "eeas

effi&ien&! fo&*sses on te *se of in%*ts to %o+*&e o*t%*ts i.e. te *se of s!stem

eso*&es to a&ieve es*/ts. In ote "o+s effi&ien&! is a meas*e of te

eso*&es eB*ie+ to a&ieve te o*t%*t. O%eationa/ eva/*ation +one fom te

s!stem=s %oint is an exam%/e of eva/*ation "i& meas*es effi&ien&! o

%efoman&e of te s!stem.

Te es*/ts o4taine+ fom te eva/*ation e/% +etemine te ea/t of an

infomation s!stem in te oganisation. As te oganisations ae o%eating in a

+!nami& an+ &om%etitive envionment te oganisations #ee% on &anging. Tis&ange ma! 4e "itin o o*tsi+e te oganisation "i& ne&essitates &anges in

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te infomation s!stem. T*s s!stem maintenan&e 4e&omes an ongoing a&tivit!

an+ in&/*+es a "i+e vaiet! of a&tivities /i#e &oe&tion of eos in te %ogams

*%+ation of +o&*ments *%+ation o enan&ement of *se s*%%ot et&.

A&&o+ing/! s!stem maintenan&e ma! 4e &ategoise+ as &oe&tive a+a%tive an+

%efe&tive. To*g s!stem maintenan&e stats imme+iate/! afte an infomation

s!stem is im%/emente+ maintenan&e &ost &an 4e e+*&e+ to a geat extent if it is%o%e/! %/anne+ fo an+ te *se is invo/ve+ at ea& stage of te MIS

+eve/o%ment.

IS Se&*it! an+ Conto/ is anote im%otant iss*e of &on&en fo te

management an+ te! m*st #no" o" to %ote&t tei IS. Tee ae vaio*s

t!%es of IS &onto/s "i& &an %ote&t te infomation s!stems in oganisations.

IS &onto/ an+ se&*it! is an im%otant iss*e "i& nee+s a geat attention of te

management. Eos in an+/ing enteing %o&essing tansfeing o

%ogamming +ataG eB*i%ment ma/f*n&tionsG a&&i+enta/ o ma/i&io*s +amage to

&om%*te eso*&esG +est*&tion fom vi*sG teft of eB*i%ment an+o%ogamsG ina%%o%iate *se of +ata /i#e mani%*/ating in%*tsG /oss teft o

&anges of +ataG an+ fie o an! ote nat*a/ &a/amit! ae some of te mao

teats to IS se&*it!.

IS se&*it! efes to te %o/i&ies %o&e+*es an+ te&ni&a/ meas*es *se+ to

%event %otentia/ teats to IS eso*&es. Te fo//o"ing a%%oa&es ae *se+ in

+e/i4eate atta&#s on &om%*te s!stems:

;a< Data tam%eingG an+

;4< Pogamming te&niB*es

In vie" of tis it is &iti&a/ to *n+estan+ te "a!s to +efen+ IS aganist tese

teats. Defen+ing infomation s!stems is +iffi&*/t as "e// as ex%ensive tas#. T*s

managing IT teats is one of te &a//enging tas# fo an! IS manage. Tis &an

4e +one 4! aving +efense stategies an+ &onto/s "i& ae inten+e+ to %event

a&&i+enta/ aHa+s +ete intenationa/ a&ts +ete&t %o4/ems as ea/! as %ossi4/e

enan&e +amage e&ove! an+ &oe&t %o4/ems. Conto/s &an 4e integate+ into

a+"ae an+ soft"ae +*ing te s!stem +eve/o%ment %ase as "e// as &an 4e

im%/emente+ on&e te s!stem> is in o%eation o +*ing te maintenan&e.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

/. ?at is meant 4! s!stem im%/ementation@ Dis&*ss vaio*s im%/ementationstategies fo a ne"/!+eve/o%e+ MIS in !o* oganisation.

'. Dis&*ss te ste%s invo/ve+ in te im%/ementation %o&e+*e. Do !o* tin#

tese ste%s ae seB*entia/ in nat*e@ E/a4oate.

$. ?! is eva/*ation of MIS im%otant@ Des&i4e in +etai/ vaio*s

a%%oa&es fo eva/*ating an MIS.

). o" "o*/+ !o* &ategoise %efoman&e eva/*ation@ Dis&*ss t"o mao

&/asses of %efoman&e meas*ement.

(. ?at is %o+*&t4ase+ eva/*ation@ Dis&*ss in +etai/ te mo+e/ "i& ma!

4e em%/o!e+ fo %o+*&t 4ase+ MIS eva/*ation.

6. Pe%ae a &ost4enefit eva/*ation ta4/e. E/a4oate its vaio*s &om%onents.

o" is &ost4enefit eva/*ation &aie+ ove@

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2. ?! is s!stem maintenan&e ne&essa!@ Dis&*ss te t!%es of s!stem

maintenan&e.

,. Dis&*ss te &on&e%t of IS Se&*it! an+ Conto/.

ASSI9NMENTS

1. I+entif! vaio*s tas#s fo im%/ementing an MIS in !o* oganisation an++a" a net"o# +iagam in+i&ating a// te i+entifie+ tas#s.

'. Ass*me !o* ae to im%/ement a ne"/!+eve/o%e+ MIS in !o* oganisation

"i& meto+ "o*/+ !o* e&ommen+ fo its im%/ementation@ 9ive easons.

$. S*%%ose !o* "ant to eva/*ate an MIS of !o* +e%atment. Pe%ae a

B*estionnaie to 4e a+ministee+ to te *ses of MIS.

). Deve/o% a +efen&e stateg! fo %ote&ting !o* Infomation S!stems.

REFERENCES


S!stems: Con&e%t*a/ Fo*n+ations St*&t*e an+ Deve/o%ment M&9a"i//

3oo# Com%an! Singa%oe 1-,).9i/&ist 3*&e Te&no/ogi&a/ Limitations on MIS Im%/ementatioif Pa%e

%esente+ ORSAT IMS Confeen&e Co/oa+o S%ings Novem4e 1-,0.

9o!a/ D.P. Management Infomation S!stems: Con&e%t an+ A%%/i&ations

Dee% S& Dee% P*4/i&ations Ne" De/i 1--).

9ims4eg Mi&ae/ Ste%s To"a+ Moe Effe&tive Im%/ementation of MS

an+ MIS= Intefa&es Ma! 1-2,.

g ami/ton S&ott an+ Noman L. Cevan! Eva/*ating Infomation

S!stems Effe&tiveness PatI: Com%aing Eva/*ation A%%oa&es= MIS

5*ate/! 8o/. ( N*m4e $ Se%tem4e 1-,1 %%. ((6-.

Les/ie 7ing on an+ E+"a+ L. S&ems Cost 3enet Ana/!sis of

Infomation S!stem Deve/o%ment an+ O%eation ACM Com%*ting S*ve!s

Mae 1-2,.

S&oe+e ?i//iam E&onomi& Eva/*ation of Com%*tes 4! Sma//e

Com%anies Data Management O&to4e 1-2-.

T*4an Efaim M&/ean E%aim an+ ?ete4e ames Infomation

Te&no/og! fo Management on ?i/e! S& Sons In&. Ne" o# '001.

1$

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Infomation S!stem P/anning

Leaning O4e&tives


• *n+estan+ te nee+ im%otan&e an+ e/ate+ temino/og! of IS %/anningG

• i+entif! te stage;s< of IS %/anning in an oganisationG

• ex%/ain te fo*s1age mo+e/ of /S %/anningG

• +is&*ss +iffeent meto+o/ogies fo &on+*&ting stategi& infomation

s!stem %/anning.

1$.1 INFORMATION SSTEM PLANNIN9Tee is no nee+ to em%asise te im%otan&e of %/anning s*ffi&e it to sa! tat

%/anning is vita/ to *&&ess. Oganisations tat %/an tei infomation s!stems

ten+ to a&ieve 4ette es*/ts tan ganisations tat +o not !et st*+ies evea/

tat man! oganisations eite +o not %/an o +o it ns!stemati&a//!. Te 4*siness

oganisations to+a! ae B*ite +!nami& an+ exist in an evein&easing

om%etition. A&&o+ing/! te! ave to +eve/o% an+ *%+ate tei infomation

s!stems in a s!stemati& a!. Tis eB*ies an ovea// %/an fo te infomation

s!stem in te oganisation. Te IS %/an is a om%eensive one "i& is +eive+

fom te oganisationa/ stategi& %/an. Te infomation s!stem /an genea//!

in&/*+es te goa/s o4e&tives an+ st*&t*e of infomation s!stems te avai/a4/e

nfomation s!stem eso*&es an+ f*t*e +eve/o%ments "i& ma! affe&t te %/an.Tee ae a "i+e aiet! of meto+o/ogies fo infomation s!stem %/anning. Tese

meto+o/ogies ave 4een +is&*sse+ n te /ate %at of tis &a%te. A %/an "i&

is a es*/t of te %/anning %o&ess ati&*/ates te &tions tat oganisations fee/

ae ne&essa! to a&ieve tei goa/s. T*s a %/an a&ts as a 4asis fo &tion. 3efoe

"e st*+! IS %/anning /et *s 4ief/! ta#e a /oo# at te %/anning temino/og!.

1$.' PLANNIN9 TERMINOLO9

1$.'.1 Mission

It states te 4asi& %*%ose fo "i& an oganisation exists In ote "o+s te

mission statement s a 4oa+ en+*ing statement giving te oganisatioifs eason

fo 4eing=. It ans"es te 4asi& *estions _8at is o* 4*siness@ an+ +isting*ises

one oganisation fom ote simi/a oganisations.

Fo exam%/e te mission of an oi/ oganisation is state+ as fo//o"s.

To stim*/ate &min*& an+ a&&e/eate effots to +eve/o% an+ maximise te

&onti4*tion of te neg! s&&m to te e&onom! of te COUEI<.

Sixni/a/! te 9&*&a/ E/&&i& Co%oation of te Unite+ States +e&/ae+ a4o*t

t"o +e&a+es go. ?e ae in eneg! 4*si*&Ss= +es%ite te fa&t tat te &om%an!s

main a&tivit! "as man*fa&t*ing n+ se//ing e/e&ti&a/ goo+s. Tis &x%/ains &a

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te &om%an! in +efining its 4*siness #ee%s f*t*e in ie" an+ His gives a 4oa+

smt&m&m of its mission.

1$.'.' O4ie&iives

O4e&tives ae te +esie+ f*t*e %ositions an+ +estinations te oganisation

inten+s to ea& in +e to f*/fi/ its mission. Fo exam%/e to mis& te aveageROI to '0 %e &ent %& ann*m ma! 4e ne of te o4e&tives of an oganisation.

Sometimes te tems o4e&tiv&s> an+ goa/s= ae iffeentiate+ 4! ex%ets on te

4asis of genea/it! an+ s%e&ifi&it!. T*s "ee o4e&tives ae n+estoo+ in

genei& tems goa/s ae ega+e+ as s%e&ifi& time4ase+ %oints of meas*ement

tat e oganisation inten+s &o meet in %*s*it of its 4oa+ o4e&tives. 9oa/s ae

state+ to te maxim*m ossi4/e extent in B*antitative tems. Te em%asis is on

m&as*&me*t of %ogess to"a+s te ttainment of o4e&tives. Fo exam%/e if a

fim as '0 %e &ent ROI as its o4e&tive it migt sta4/is a s&e+*/e in+i&ating

eanings an+ investment %ositions ne&essa! to attain i&s o4e&tive.

o"eve o4e&tives an+ goa/s ave ove/a%%ing &onnotation 4e&a*se of "i&tese t"o tems ae se+ inte&angea4/!.

1$.'.$ Stategies

A stateg! is a genea/ +ie&tion in "i& an o4e&tive is to 4e so*gt. Fo

exam%/e if an o4e&tive s to in&ease eanings %e sae i &an & attaine+

to*g a&tion in man! +ie&tions ne" o+*&ts. a&B*iing sma// &om%anies

se//ing moe in existing o ne" ma#ets an+ even +isinvesment f /osing

%o%ositions. Ea& of tese ten "i// e teme+ as a stateg!.

1$.'.) Po/i&ies

A %o/i&! is a genea/ g*i+e/ine tat +ie&ts an+ &onstains +e&isio"ma#ing "itin

an oganisation. ote "o+s a %o/i&! is Ha statement of inten+e+ 4eavio* fo

te oganisation. Po/i&! /imits te &o%e of a/tenatives to 4& &onsi+ee+ in

+e&isonma#ing in te im%/ementation of :1 stateg!. Fo exam%/e if te

stateg! &a//s fo +o%%ing a %o+*&t/ine te %o/i&! s%e//s o*t te &iteia *n+e

"i& te %o+*&:/ine 4e&omes :1 &an+i+ate fo +is%osition. Po/i&ies ae

im%/emente+ 4! */es an+ %o&e+*es "i& ae moe s%e&ifi& statements tat

+ie&t &/e&isiomma#ing.

Infomation s!stem %/anning essentia//! invo/ves

;i< i+entifi&ation of te sv:age;s< of IS in te oganisation;ii< i+entifi&ation of te a%%/i&ations of oganisationa/ ISS

;iii< eva/*ation of ea& of tese a%%/i&ations 4ase+ on esta4/ise+ eva/*ation

&iteia

;iv< esta4/ising a %ioit! an#ing fo tese a%%/i&ations an+

;v< +etemining te \[%tim*m= aeite&t*e of IS fo seving te to%

%ioi! a%%/i&ations. No/an stage mo+e/ e/%s i+entifi&ation of te sag&;s< of te

IS in te oganisation "eeas IS %/anning meto+o/ogies %ovi+e assistan&e in

ote a&tivities of te IS %/anning %o&ess.

I$.$ TE NOLAN STA9E MODEL

Ri&a+ No/an ;1-2)< as +is&*sse+ a fame"o# fo IS %/anning %o%*/a/!#no"n an No/an stage mo+e/. Te 4asi& %emise to te mo+e/ is tat an!

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oganisation "i// move to*g stages of mat*it! "it es%e&t to te *s& an+

management of IS. ?i/e %ogessing an oganisation m*st o to* ea& sta e

of o"t 4efoe it &an move to te next sta e. In fa&t No/an sta e mo+e/ is a

&ontingen&! mo+e/ "i& e/%s manages +iagnose te stage;s< of IS in te

oganisation an+ t*s ovi+es a set of /imits to /annin Te mo+e/ as 4een &a//e+

&ontin en&v mo+e/ 4e&a*se it states:

IF tese feat*es exist TEN te infomation s!stem is in tis stage.

Te No/an stage mo+e/ as i+entifie+ fo* stages of infomation s!stem go"t.

A 4ief +es&i%tion of tese stages is given 4e/o":

Stage I

Te fist go"t stage is #no"n as initiation stage. In tis stage te te&no/og! is

%/a&e+ in te oganisation. A fe" a%%/i&ations in te oganisation ae

&om%*teise+. Tee ae on/! a sma// n*m4e of *ses. Tis stage is

&aa&teise+ 4! minim*m %/anning.

Stage '

Tis go"t stage is &a//e+ ex%ansion o &onmgion stage. D*ing tis stage a%i+

an+ *n&onto//e+ go"t in te n*m4e an+ vaiet! of IT a%%/i&ations ta#es

%/a&e. Man! *ses a+o%t &om%*tes in so/ving tei ITe/ate+ %o4/ems.

Sf*ge $

Tis stage is #no"n as fonH*/isation o &onto/ stage 4e&a*se in tis stage

oganisations gain &onto/ ove te te&no/og!=s eso*&es 4! im%/ementing

foma/ &onto/ %o&esses an+ stan+a+s. T*s oganisations ae a4/e to a%%/!

&osteffe&tiveness &iteia. IIo"eve &onto/s sometimes 4e&ome 4aies in

attaining %otentia/ 4enefits.

Stage )

No/an as +es&i4e+ tis go"t stage as nmt*it! o integation stage as 4! tis

stage oganiHations gain s*ffi&ient ex%eien&e an+ mat*it! in ISIT a%%/i&ations.

In tis stage a%%/i&ations ae integate+ &onto/s ae a+*ste+. P/anning is "e//

esta4/ise+. Tat is "! tis go"t stage sometimes is a/so &a//e+ te stage of

%efe&tion.

Te sa%e of te IS go"t &*ve is simi/a to sigmoi+ o S &*ve. Te S &*ve

"i& +es&i4es te go"t %enomenon in oganisations an+ oganisationa/a&tivities is "i+e/! a%%/ie+ to te ma#eting of %o+*&ts. Fig*e 1$.1 %ota!s

te fo* stages of infomation s!stem go"t.

No/an in te !ea 1-2- enan&e+ is ea/ie mo+e/ to six stages ;see Fig. 1$.'<. In

te enan&e+ mo+e/ te fist tee stages emain te same an+ te mat*it!

stage of te fo*stage mo+e/ as 4een s*4+ivi+e+ into tee moe s%e&ifi& stages

"i& ave 4een ename+ as stage ) stage ( an+ stage 6 es%e&tive/!. Tese

stages ae +is&*sse+ one 4! one.

Diagam

Stage 6

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Tis is te stage of +am n+ministmtioiH. In tis stage &onto/s ae f*te

/o"ee+ to en&o*age +eve/o%ment of s!stems "i& &onti4*te to stategi&

a+vantage of te oganisation.

Stage 2

In te enan&e+ go"t mo+e/ tis stage is teme+ as te mat*it! stage. Tisstage in+i&ates tat te a%%/i&ation %otfo/io is &om%/ete an+ mat&es te

o4e&tives of te oganisation. T*s %/anning an+ +eve/o%ment of IS in te

oganisation is em4e++e+ into te 4*siness +eve/o%ment. Fig*e /$.$ %ota!s te

sixstage go"t mo+e/.

Fig. 1$.$ Six Stages of No/an=s Enan&e+ Mo+e/

In tis sixstage mo+e/ te IS go"t &*ve ta#es te sa%e of a +o*4/e S="i& in+i&ates tat te investment "i// ise sa%/! in te fist t"o stages an+

"o*/+ sta4/ise 4! te en+ of te ti+ stage. Again te investments "i// in&ease

in te fo*t stage on/! to ta#e a stea+! sa%e at te /ast stage of te go"t

&*ve i.e. mat*it! stage.

No/an a/so %o%ose+ an a/tenative mo+e/ "ito*t Hi mat*it! stage. e

s*ggeste+ tat mao &anges in te&no/og! /ea+ to e%etition of te stages of

go"t. In s*& &ases oganiHations ex%eien&e a e%eat of te &aa&teisti& S

&*ve as i//*state+ in Fig. 1$.). T*s te mao &anges in te te&no/og!

e/iminate te mat*it! stage. Ne" te&no/og! /ea+s te oganisation to stat on a

ne" go"t &*ve. It ma! 4e note+ tat te stat %oint is not Heo 4*t no is it a

smoot &ontin*o*s %ogession.

No/an=s mo+e/ is 4ase+ on &etain ass*m%tions. Tese ass*m%tions ae as fo//o"s.

;ii Oganisationa/ /eaning %emits te movement to*g stages. Te

ex%eimentation of stage 1 /ea+s to te go"t stage '. It is te go"t tat

t&a&es= te nee+ fo &onto/ in stage $.

;ii< Stages &annot 4e s#i%%e+= 4e&a*se eve! ex%eien&e is ne&essa! 4efoe te

oganisation is ea+! fo te next stage. So if tee is no ex%eimentation in stage

1 tee "o*/+ 4e no ea/! *ses to %omote &ontagion i.e. stage ' an+ so on.

Fig. 1$.) Stages of 9o"t Mo+e/ Re%eating Stages

;iii< A/to*g tee is ii nat*a/= %ogession te tansitions &an 4e %/anne+

&oo+inate+ an+ manage+ a//o" %ain/ess movement No +o*4t infomation

te&no/og! as *n+egone temen+o*s Canges sin&e N0/an>s mm/&/ g*t

a&&&%&an&&. 3*t it fin+s its va/i+it! in man! a%%/i&ations in IS %/anning &v&nto+a!. Ea& 0i`ganisai\[n im%/&m&ning IS as m mov& to*g tese stages.

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o" /ong ea& stage "o*/+ /ast +e%en+s *%on te /eaning %o&ess of te

ente%ise as tee ma! e 4ot s/o" an+ fast /eanes anmng te 4*siness

oganisations. Even "itin te oganisation a// a%%/i&ation s*4s!stems ma! no:

go" at te same s%ee+ an+ t*s te oganisation ma! ave +iffeent

a%%/i&ations in +iffeent stages. Fo exam%/e a&&o*nting ma! 4e in s&ag& $ "i/e

ma#eting ma! sti// 4e in stage '.Te mo+e/ &an 4e a%%/ie+ 4ot in +iagnosing te &*ent stage of go"t te

oganisation is in an+ in %/anning &anges to move in a &onto//e+ "a! to te

next stage. In ote "o+s tis mo+e/ e/%s manages to 4e %oa&tive. Se&on+

te mo+e/ e/%s minimising te is#s asso&iate+ "it IS %/anning as it is

im%otant as "e// ne&essa! tat eve! ne" te&no/og! nee+s to 4e a4s*4&+ in

te oganisation 4efoe it &an offe its 4enefits no te *ses. Mee

im%/ementation of ne" IT is no so/*tion to te %o4/ems *f an! oganisation. It

ma! &v&n aggavate te %o4/em f*te. Te %o&ess of a4so%tion of IT is

evo/*tiona! an+ not evo/*tiona!.

1$.) TE FOURSTA9E MODEL OF IS PLANNIN9A "i+e vaiet! of te&niB*es ae 4eing a%%/ie+ fo IS %/anning. *"&veiG

oganisations se/e&t tese te&niB*es 4ase+ on te %es*asive %o"e of IS

+eve/o%es ate tan on a so*n+ /ogi&. Te main eason of se/e&ting "ong

te&niB*es is atti4*te+ to te i+e*tifi&ation of &e stage te infomation s!stem

of te oganisation is in. A fo*nstag& mo+e/ of IS %/anning "i& is an

enan&ement of &e teesnags mo+e/ +eve/o%e+ 4! 3o"man & a/. ;1-,$< as

4een +e%i&te+ in Fig. 1$.(. Tis mo+e/ +es&i4es te fo* genei& %/anning

a&tivities name/! stategi& %/anning

Fig. 1$.( Fo*stage Mo+e/ of IS P/anning

Te fo*nstage IS %/anning mo+e/ 4esi+es %ovi+ing insigt into te %/anning

%o&ess e+*&es &onf*sion a4o*t te se/e&tion of &om%eting %/anning

meto+o/ogies. Ta4/e 1$.1 +es&i4es te fo* stages of IS %/anning mo+e/. Te

fo* stages of te mo+e/ ae +is&*sse+ in+ivi+*a//! in te fo//o"ing %aaga%s.

Ta4/e 1$.1

Stategi& P/anning Mat&ing te ovea// oganisationa/ %/an "it te IS P/an.

Infomation ReB*iement i+entif!ing 4oa+ oganisationa/ infomation

eB*iements.

Ana/!sis

Reso*&e A//o&ation A//o&ating eso*&es fo IS +eve/o%ment an+ o%eation.

Poe&t P/anning Fom*/ating a %/an giving eso*&e eB*iements fo s%e&ifi& IS%oe&ts an+ s&e+*/es.

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1$.).1 Stategi& P/*nningAs te name in+i&ates in te I( stategi& %/anning stage o4e&tives goa/s an+

stategies of infomation s!stems ae a/igne+ "it te o4e&tives goa/s an+

stategies of te oganisation. Te fo//o"ing te&niB*es ae *se+ in tis stage.

;i< Deivation fom te oganisationa/ %/an

;ii< Te stategi& infomation s!stem gi+

;iii< Stategi& fit "it oganisationa/ &*/t*e an+

;iv< Stateg! set tansfomation.

Deivoti&n fom te Oganisationa/ P/an

In tis te&niB*e I( o4e&tives goa/s an+ stategies ae +eive+ fom te

o4e&tives goa/s an+ stategies of te oganisation. An ana/!sis is ma+e of ea&o4e&tive goa/ an+ stateg! in te %/an to fin+ o*t te eB*ie+ infomation

s!stem s*%%ot "i& 4e&omes a 4asis fo te IS o4e&tive goa/ an+ stateg!.

Fo exam%/e te o4e&tive of an oganisation ma! 4e to %a! sa/aies to a// te

em%/o!ees 4! te sevent +a! of eve! mont. Te +eive+ IS %/an ma! 4e to

%ovi+e infomation s*%%ot fo %o&essing %a!o// of a// te em%/o!ees 4efoe

te +*e +ate.

Stategi& Infomation S!stem 9i+

Tis te&niB*e #no"n as M&Fa/anM&7enne! stategi& gi+ %ovi+es fo*

t!%es of /S %/anning sit*ations aange+ in te fom of a gi+. Te stategi& gi+

+efines te stategi& im%otan&e of te existing infomation s!stem a%%/i&ations

to te 4*siness an+ te stategi& im%otan&e of te IS a%%/i&ations to 4e %/anne+

fo +eve/o%ment. Te fo* &e//s of te gi+ e%esent te %osition of te IS

a&tivit! e/ative to te 4*siness oganisation Te stategi& im%otan&e gi+ as

4een %ota!e+ in Fig. 1$.6.

Fig. 1$.6 Te Stategi& Im%otan&e 9i+

Te stategi& &e// of te gi+ in+i&ates te &iti&a/ o/e of te infomation s!stems

in te existing &om%etitive stateg! an+ in te f*t*e stategi& +ie&tions of te

oganisation. Infomation s!stems ae %at of ne" stategi& +ie&tions. Te

fa&to! &e// in+i&ates te vita/ %osition of te existing infomation s!stems.

o"eve te! ae not &onsi+ee+ %at of te f*t*e stategi& +ie&tions. Te

s*%%ot &e// %oints o*t tat IS a%%/i&ations ae *sef*/ in s*%%oting te

oganisationa/ a&tivities. In tis stage IS a%%/i&ations ae not ega+e+ as vita/ o

&iti&a/ ate te! ae oiente+ to"a+s te ta+itiona/ +ata %o&essing s!stems.

Dmtao*n+ is *n+estoo+ as a state of tansition fom s*%%ot= to stategi&=stage Tis &e// in+i&ates tat te oganisation as a+ on/! s*%%ot a%%/i&ations

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4*t is no" %/anning fo IS a%%/i&ations vita/ to stategi& s*&&ess of te

oganisation. Te stategi& gi+ e/%s in ana/!sing te &*ent an+ f*t*e IS

a%%/i&ations an+ t*s a&ts as a +iagnosti& too/. Te gi+ is +iagnosti& 4e&a*se it

e/%s *n+estan+ te o/e of IS in te oganisation. Te %osition in te gi+

ex%/ains te nee+e+ /eve/ of to% management invo/vement. o"eve te gi+

ex%/ains "at is a%%ening ate tan "at so*/+ a%%en.

Stategi& Fit "it Oganisationa/ C*/t*e

In tis te&niB*e te oganisationa/ &*/t*e is *n+estoo+ an+ te infomation

s!stems ae +eve/o%e+ in s*& a "a! so tat tese fit "it te oganisationa/

&*/t*e. Tis e/%s to avoi+ te is# of IS fai/*es 4e&a*se of esistan&e fom te

em%/o!ees. In o+e to *n+estan+ te &*/t*e %/annes ma! &o//e&t e/evant

&*es fom to%ananagement 4eavio* in&i+ents in te oganisations s*4e&ts

an+ o+e of agen+a it*a/s et&.

Stateg! Set Tansfomation

Tis a%%toa&/i as 4een %o%ose+ 4! ?i//iam R. 7ing in "i& te ovea//oganisationa/ stateg! is vie"e+ as an IS set &onsisting of o4e&tives goa/s an+

stategies. Stategi& IS %/anning is te%o&ess of &onveting te oganisationa/

stateg! set into an IS stateg! set.

1$.).' Infomation ReB*iement Ana/!sis

Afte te stategi& %/anning stage in "i& goa/s o4e&tives an+ stategies fo IS

ae fom*/ate+ is ove te se&on+ %ase of te IS %/anning mo+e/ stats an+ is

#no"n as infomation eB*iement ana/!sis stage. Tis stage +oes not +ea/ "it

te +etai/e+ infomation eB*iement ana/!sisG ate &*ent an+ f*t*e nee+s

fo IS to s*%%ot +e&isionma#ing an+ o%eations of te oganisation ae

assesse+. Tis stage of te mo+e/ ens*es tat vaio*s ISs an+ +ata4ases ae

integate+ an+ maste %/an fo IS +eve/o%ment is fom*/ate+ To *n+eta#e

infomation eB*iement ana/!sis te fo//o"ing ste%s ae fo//o"e+.

;i< Define *n+e/!ing oganisationa/ eB*iements

;ii< Deve/o% s*4s!stem matix.

;iii< Define an+ eva/*ate infomation eB*iements fo oganisationa/ s*4

s!stems.

Te fo//o"ing %aaga%s give a 4ief +es&i%tion of tese ste%s.

Define Un+e/!ing Oganisationa/ S*4s!stems In te fist ste% *n+e/!ing

oganisationa/ s*4s!stems ae +efine+. Tis is +one to s*4+ivi+e eB*iement+etemination 4! maio oganisationa/ a&tivit!. Tese s*4s!stems ae i+entifie+

4! aving +is&*ssions "it te manages of te oganisation "i& is an

iteative a&tivit!. As ne" a&tivities ae &onsi+ee+ te! ae eite in&/*+e+ in te

a/ea+! +efine+ &atego! o i+entifie+ as a ne" &atego!. Fo exam%/e te mao

%o&esses fo a &om%*te taining instit*te ma! in&/*+e:

. ;i< A+vetising

;ii< A&&o*nts Re&eiva4/e

;iii< Taining S&e+*/e

;iv< A+ministation

;v< Com%*te Maintenan&e.

;vi< A%%aisa/;vii< Ce+it

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;viii<A*+it

;ix< Co*se Mateia/ Invento!

;x< Lega/ A&tivities et&.

Deve/o% S*4s!stem Matix

Te se&on+ %ase of te oganisationa/ infomation eB*iement ana/!sis is toe/ate s%e&ifi& manages to oganisationa/ s*4s!stems. Te matix t*s %e%ae+

is #no"n as mmmge 4! %o&ess o manage s*4s!stem matix ;Fig. 1$.2<. Te

s*4s!stems in te /eft &o/*mn ofte matix ae te same as tose +eve/o%e+ in

ste% 1.

Te matix is +eve/o%e+ 4! evie"ing te mao +e&ision es%onsi4i/ities of ea&

mi++/e to to% manage an+ e/ating tem to s%e&ifi& s*4s!stems. Tis ste% e/%s

&/aif! es%onsi4i/ities of ea& manage es%onsi4/e fo ea& s*4s!stem.

Define an+ Eva/*ate infomation ReB*iements fo Oganisationa/ S*4S!stems

In tis %ase infomation eB*iements of ea& s*4s!stem ae o4taine+. Fo

o4taining infomation eB*iements manages "it mao +e&isionma#inges%onsi4i/ities fo ea& s*4s!stem ae

Fig. 1$.2 Manage 4! S*4s!stem Matix

Intevie"e+ in go*%s. As it ma! 4& +iffi&*/t fo te manages to +efine tei

infomation eB*iements on as#ing 4! intevie"es 4e&a*se of te /imitations on

*mans as infomation %o&essos. It teefoe 4e&omes ne&essa! to %ovi+e

some e/% in te %o&ess of te manages> e&a// of is infomation eB*iements.

Common/! *se+ a%%oa&es name/! 3*siness S!stem P/anning ;3SP< Citi&a/

S*&&ess

Fa&tos ;CSF< an+ En+sMeans Ana/!sis ae *se+ fo faming B*estions to 4e

as#e+ fom te manages fo getting tei infomation eB*iements. Te

B*estions "i& ae +eive+ fom tese tee a%%oa&es in+i&ate tee +iffeent

"a!s of tin#ing a4o*t eB*iements. Te tee sets of B*estions ae given 4e/o".

;i< ?at +e&isions +o !o* ta#e an+ "at infomation +o !o* nee+ fo !o*+e&isionma#ing@

;3*siness S!stems P/anning a%%oa&<

;ii< State te fa&tos "i& ae &iti&a/ to te s*&&ess of !o* aea of a&tivit!.

?at infomation +o !o* nee+ to get s*&&ess in tese fa&tos@ ;Citi&a/ S*&&ess

Fa&to a%%oa&<

;iii< ?at ae te o*t%*ts ;en+s< fom !o* s*4s!stem an+ "at infomation

+o !o* eB*ie to meas*e effe&tiveness in a&ieving te o*t%*ts@ ;En+sMeans

Ana/!sis<

1$.).$ Reso*&e A//o&ation

aving i+entifie+ te nee+ fo infomation s!stem a%%/i&ations fo te entieoganisation te next %ase of IS %/anning mo+e/ is te a//o&ation of eso*&es.

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As IS eso*&es ae /imite+ an+ not a// a%%/i&ations &an 4e +eve/o%e+ at on&e it

4e&omes im%otant to i+entif! "i& a%%/i&ations ae to 4e +eve/o%e+ an+ in

"at o+e. Tis stage %ovi+es te fame"o# fo %esonne/ %/anning

te&no/og! %o&*ement an+ 4*+geting to %ovi+e sevi&es to *ses. Tee ave

4een a n*m4e of meto+s fo a//o&ating s&aee eso*&es. Some of te genea//!

*se+ meto+s ae 4ief/! +is&*sse+ 4e/o".

Ret*n on Investment ;ROI<

Tis is a &ost4enefit ana/!sis te&niB*e "i& is *se+ in a vaiet! of

%/anning a%%/i&ations. Tis te&niB*e is *se+ in IS %oe&ts as ea& IS %oe&t

ma! 4e &onsi+ee+ as aving B*antifia4/e e&onomi& &osts an+ B*antifia4/e

e&onomi& 4enefits on te 4asis of "i& et*n on te investment &an 4e

&a/&*/ate+. A +e&ision */e 4ase+ on ROI is to se/e&t %oe&ts tat ave te

igest ROI. o"eve te &osts an+ 4enefits of IS %oe&ts ae vaia4/e

&om%/ex intee/ate+ an+ +iffi&*/t to estimate "i& ma#es te ROI te&niB*e

/ess %o%*/a fo IS %/anning ;a/so see Ca%te 1'.<.

Cage O*t

It is an a&&o*nting %o&e+*e fo &aging te &osts of I( eso*&es to its *ses.

Te *ses ma! 4e &age+ in t"o "a!s. In one of te meto+s a stan+a+ &ost is

a//o&ate+ to +iffeent *ses of te oganisation fo te IS sevi&es en+ee+. In

tis te *se as no &onto/ ove te &osts as te &osts ae +ie&t/! a//o&ate+ 4!

te IS +e%atment to a// te s*4s!stems of te oganisation. Tis meto+

%imai/! is *se+ to ai+ in intena/ %/anning an+ &onto/ of IS &osts. In te

se&on+ meto+ *ses ae &age+ fo infomation sevi&es 4*t to te extent

infomation sevi&e ae en+ee+. T*s in tis meto+ *ses &an &onto/ &osts

4! e+*&ing sevi&es o 4! &oosing a/tenative meto+s o s*%%/ies. Tis

meto+ to*g %ovi+es signifi&ant a+vantages 4*t it s*ffes fom a /imitation

i.e. it %omotes /o&a/ ationa/it! tan *stifi&ation fo te entie oganisation.

Potfo/io A%%oa&

Tis a%%oa& "o#s on te %emise tat IS %oe&ts so*/+ 4e eva/*ate+ not

on/! in+ivi+*a//! 4*t as %at of a %otfo/io of %oe&ts tat ave an ovea// im%a&t

on te oganisation. T*s te IS a%%/i&ation %otfo/io so*/+ ave a 4a/an&e+

a%%oa& in tems of %oe&t is# s*%%ot fo stategi& +ie&tions an+

a%%o%iate a%%/i&ations as %e te stages of go"t ofte vaio*s oganiHationa/

s*4s!stems.

Steeing Committees

An a/tenative to sing/eexe&*tive +e&isions ;s*& as an IS exe&*tive< is a steeing

&ommittee "i& ma! ave exe&*tives fom mao f*n&tions in te oganisation.

Te &ommittee "o*/+ +e&i+e a4o*t te a//o&ation of IS eso*&es #ee%ing in

vie" te inteest of te entie oganisation. S*& a &ommittee fa&i/itates

&oa/itions an+ 4*i/+s s*%%ot fo te a//o&ations an+ te es*/ting %/an. o"eve

tis te&niB*e of eso*&e a//o&ation ma! 4e time&ons*ming an+ ma! ove/oo#

an IS nee+!= 4*t /ess %o"ef*/ go*%.

1$.).) Poe&t P/anning

Te /ast stage of te fo*stage mo+e/ of MIS %/anning is %oe&t %/anning "i&%ovi+es an ovea// fame"o# fo s!stem +eve/o%ment %/anning s&e+*/ing an+

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&onto//ing. A "i+e vaiet! of too/s of %oe&t management ae avai/a4/e "i&

in&/*+e mi/estonesG &iti&a/ %at meto+ ;CPM<G an+ 9antt &ats.

Mi/estones

In mi/estone %/anning te&niB*es a// %oe&t eB*iements an+ %o4/ems ae not

anti&i%ate+ in a+van&eG ate tese te&niB*es a//o" %oe&ts to evo/ve as te!ae +eve/o%e+. Mi/estones o &e&#%oints ae esta4/ise+ to a//o" %eio+i&

evie"s of %ogess so tat te management ma! assess if a %oe&t nee+s moe

eso*&es eB*ies a+*stments o if it so*/+ 4e a4an+one+.

Citi&a/ Pot Meto+ ;CPM<

In tis meto+ &ommon/! #no"n as net"o# ana/!sis vaio*s tas#s eB*ie+ to

&om%/ete a %oe&t ae e%esente+ in te fom of a net"o# &at. Te meto+

esta4/ises seB*entia/ +e%en+en&ies an+ e/ationsi%s among te tas#s. In tis

meto+ te /ongest %at in tems of time +etemines te tota/ time eB*ie+ to

&om%/ete te %oe&t an+ tis /ongest %at is teme+ as te &iti&a/ %at. An!

+e/a! of tas#s in te &iti&a/ %at "o*/+ es*/t in a &oes%on+ing +e/a! in teovea// %oe&t ;see Fig. 1$.,<.

Fig. 1$., A Net"o# So"ing Citi&a/ Pat

9onf/ C&f

Tis is a/so anote %/anning te&/miB*e /i#e CPM "i& %ovi+es +efinitions of

tas#s to 4e %efome+ an+ s%e&ifies "en te! ae to stat an+ finis. o"eve

/i#e a CPM &at a 9antt Cat +oes not esta4/is seB*entia/ +e%en+en&ies.

Fig*& 1$.- i//*states a sim%/e 9antt Cat. A&tivities Ma/ *ne */! A*g Se%t

1$.( SELECTIN9 A METODOLO9

Te fo*stage %/anning mo+e/ %ovi+es an insigt into te IS %/anning iss*es. To

+etemine IS %/anning te oganisation so*/+ +etemine te extent to "i&

ea& stage of IS %/anning as 4een a&&om%/ise+. Tis &an 4e +one 4! ana/!singmao a&tivities an+ o*t%*ts as %e te fo*stage %/anning mo+e/. It is on/! afte

IS %/anning nee+s ae +etemine+ tat a%%o%iate meto+o/ogies so*/+ 4e

se/e&te+. Fig*e 1$.10 i//*states ea& of te meto+o/ogies tat ave 4een

+is&*sse+ e/ating to %ati&*/a stages of te IS %/anning %o&ess. Fo//o"ing te

mo+e/ avoi+s &onf*sion a4o*t &om%eting %/anning meto+o/ogies "i&

ote"ise ma! 4e o%eating in te ogHmisation.

Fo exam%/e an oganisation ma! vie" its IS f*n&tion as ma#ing minima/

&*nti4*timis to stategi& oganisationa/ o4e&tives. To fin+ a so/*tion to tis

%o4/em te oganisation ma! stat a &age o*t s!stem ;eso*&e a//o&ation

%/anning< "eeas some ote oganisation "it simi/a %o4/em ma! &on+*&t Hi4*siness s!stem %/anning st*+! ;infomation eB*iement ana/!sis a&tivit!<.

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Tese a&tivities ma! es*/t in im%ove+ IS sevi&es. 4*t te %/anning mo+e/

s*ggests tat 4ot te oganisations ae not fo//o"ing te a%%o%iate

meto+o/ogies fo eso/ving tis %o4/em. An oganisation tat fo//o"s te

%/anning mo+e/ "i// not *se eso*&e a//o&ation meto+o/og! o infomation

eB*iement ana/!sis a&tivit! meto+o/og!G ate it ma! a+o%t stategi&

%/anning meto+o/og! "i& ma! 4e moe a%%o%iate in tis sit*ation.

Fig. 1$.10 Fo*Stage Mo+e/ "it A/tenative IS P/anning Meto+o/ogies

1$.6 INFORMATION RESOURCE MANA9EMENT ;IRM<

No"a+a!s infomation is vie"e+ as Hi eso*&e of te oganisation an+ DOE as

a 4!%o+*&t of tansa&tion %o&essing. infomation is a/so seen as a eso*&e of

te entie oganisation not of *st te +e%atment tat geneates o e&eives it.S*& a tin#ing as given 4it to at ne" &on&e%t "i& is #no"n as Infomation

Reso*&e Management JIRM<

IRM is a &on&e%t tat fo&*ses on te infomation is avai/a4i/it! an+ its *sage.

Te em%asis of IRM is on te effi&ient management of infomation. Te

oganisations "i& a+o%t IRM &on&e%t. vie" infomation as a #e! eso*&e an+

invest in infomation te&no/og! to gain '1 &om%etitive a+vantage. In tis

a%%oa& oganisations ens*e te avai/a4i/it! of te eB*ie+ infomation to a//

te *ses. T*s. te IRM is a %es%e&tiveG it is a/so an a%%oa& t* oganising

an+ integating te +ivese e/ements of an infomation s!stem. In ote "o+s

IRM=s fo&*s is on management of tese e/ements an+ te infomation of te

oganisation in a &oo+inate+ manne. In managing infomation IRM ta#es te

%es%e&tive tat infomation as a eso*&e of te entie oganisation as va/*e

an+ so*/+ e manage+ in m*& te same "a! in "i& ote eso*&es ae

manage+. IRM a+vo&ates a%%/!ing noma/ eso*&e management te&niB*es to

infomation.

Infomation "en &om%ae+ "it ote eso*&es ofte oganisation /i#e mone!

men ma&ine an+ mateia/s so"s te fo//o"ing simi/aities.

;i< It as a &ost.

;ii< It as a et*n on investment.;iii< It eB*ies oganisation fo its effi&ient *se.

;iv< It as an o%%ot*nit! &ost.

o"eve infomation is +iffeent fom ote eso*&es in te fo//o"ing tems.

;i< /t &an 4e e*se+.

;ii< It is intangi4/e.

;iii< Te magina/ &ost %e a++itiona/ *sage is /o".

Man! oganisations no" ave an infomation &ente. 3e&a*se tis is a ne" t!%e

of infomation a&tivit! tee is as !et /itt/e ageement a4o*t its a&tivities an+

%*%oses. A// infomation eso*&es of an oganisation so*/+ 4e *n+e te

ovea// *m4e//a of IRM. Tese so*/+ in&/*+e te fo//o"ing.;i< 3*siness +ata %o&essing

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;ii< Infomation S!stem +eve/o%ment

;iii< Data management

;iv< Net"o#ing

;v< Offi&e a*tomation an+ "o+ %o&essing

;vi< En+ *se &om%*ting

;vii< Infomation &ente management.o"eve most of te infomation &entes to+a! ae &eate+ %imai/! to assist

en+ *ses a&B*ie an+ +eve/o% tei o"n &om%*ting s!stems.

Te tas# of te IRM f*n&tion is to integate an+ &oo+inate te a4oveanention&+

a&tivities. In ote "o+s IRM is an a//en&om%assing infomationfo&*se+

&on&e%t tat invo/ves no /ess tan oganising a// as%e&ts of te infomation

a&tivities an+ f/o"s. No"a+a!s man! oganisations aving ea/ise+ te

signifi&an&e of IRM ave state+ a&&o+ing a ige %osition to te &ief

infomation offi&e "o e%ots +ie&t/! to te &ief exe&*tive offi&e of te

oganisation.

1$.2 OR9ANISATION STRUCTURE AND LOCATION OF MIS

Lo&ation of MIS in te oganisation st*&t*e is anote aea "i& is B*ite often

ove/oo#e+ 4*t it is an im%otant iss*e tat +eseves te attention of te

management. Fo %o%e +is&age of its f*n&tions MIS m*st 4e s*ita4/! /o&ate+

in te ovea// st*&t*e of te oganisation. Tis eB*ies %o%e %/anning at te

oganisationa/ /eve/.

Te exa&t /o&ation in te oganisation an+ te a*toit! gante+ to te MIS

f*n&tion is of &o*se a f*n&tion of te t!%e of 4*siness te fim is in an+ o"

im%otant te infomation eso*&e is to its o%eation. In 4an#ing

tans%otation an+ man! ote in+*sties +ata %o&essing an+ MIS %eva+e a//

aeas of te 4*siness. A/tenative assignments of te MIS f*n&tion ae +is&*sse+

4e/o".

;a< As Pat of Finan&ia/ De%atment

In tis fom of MI( oganisation MIS manage is %/a&e+ *n+e te &age of te

Finan&ia/ Conto//e o Cief A&&o*nts Offi&e of te oganisation. Tis is

4e&a*se istoi&a//! finan&ia/ a%%/i&ations "ee te fist to 4e &om%*teise+ an+

to 4e s!stetnatise+. Tis fom of oganisation st*&t*e is so"n in Fig. /$./1.

Fig. 1$.11 Oganisation St*&t*e an+ Lo&ation of MIS

;a< Not Re&ommen+e+ at An! Time

;4< Re&ommen+e+ fo Ea/! Stages of Deve/o%ment

k Re&ommen+e+ fo Event*a/ Pemanent Oganisation

;4< MIS Un+e te Die&t Conto/ of te CaimanCief Exe&*tive

In tis t!%e of oganisation MIS is %* *n+e te +ie&t s*%evision of te

Caiman of te oganisation. It is +one in vie" to a&&o+ moe im%otan&e to

tis f*n&tion an+ t*s to get a&&e%tan&e fom ote f*n&tiona/ aeas "itin te

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oganisation. Te oganisation st*&t*e e%esenting MIS f*n&tion *n+e te

+ie&t &onto/ of te &aiman as 4een given in Fig. 1$.11 ;4<.

;&< MIS os Distin&t F*n&tion

In tis t!%e of MIS oganisation MI( is given eB*a/ stat*s as eno!e+ 4! ote

ta+itiona/ f*n&tiona/ aeas in an oganisation Tis t!%e of oganisationst*&t*e as 4een so"n in Fig. 1$.11;&<.

SUMMAR

An infomation %/an to+a! is e&ognise+ as a vita/ &om%onent of goo+ IS

management. In te %ast IS %/anning fo//o"e+ on/! a %ie&emea/ a%%oa& "i&

ove te !eas as evo/ve+ to a moe st*&t*e+ a%%oa&. Tee ae a "i+e

vaiet! of a%%oa&es to oganise fo %/anning. An im%otant %in&i%/e fo IS

%/an is tat it so*/+ meet oganisationa/ nee+s an+ m*st ave management

s*%%ot.

No/an stage mo+e/ "i& is a &ontingen&! mo+e/ +es&i4es te +ie&tion of &ange as oganiHations a+o%t IT an+ +eve/o% %o/i&ies an+ %o&e+*es to 4enefit

fom it. Te fo*stage mo+e/ of IS %/anning %ovi+es a goo+ fame"o# to

i+entif! te stages of %/anning an+ te o/e of IS meto+o/ogies in vaio*s stages

name/! stategi& %/anning infomation eB*iement ana/!sis eso*&e a//o&ation

an+ %oe&t %/anning.

In te stategi& %/anning stage "i& in&/*+es +eivations fom te

oganisationa/ %/an infomation gi+ stategi& fit an+ stateg! set

tansfomation an! one o a &om4ination of meto+o/ogies ma! 4e *se+. Te

se&on+ stage of te mo+e/ s*ggests IS %/anning meto+o/ogies /i#e 3*siness

S!stem P/anning Citi&a/ S*&&ess Fa&to an+ En+sMeans Ana/!sis. ?eeas in

te eso*&e a//o&ation stage ROI Cage O*t Potfo/io A%%oa& o steeing

&ommittees ma! 4e *se+. In te /ast stage i.e. %oe&t %/anning stage

meto+o/ogies /i#e Mi/estones CPM an+ 9antt Cats ae *sef*/.

RE8IE? 5UESTIONS

1. 3ief/! +is&*ss te &on&e%t of mission o4e&tives goa/s stateg! an+ %o/i&!.

'. Define an+ +is&*ss te fo*stage mo+e/ of IS %/anning

$. >No/an=s stage mo+e/ is a +iagnosti& an+ monitoing too/.= Do !o* agee

"it te statement@ *stif!.

). 3ief/! +is&*ss No/an=s stage mo+e/. 9ive its a%%/i&ations.(. I+entif! te meto+s *se+ fo stategi& IS %/anning an+ eso*&e a//o&ation

stage.

6. I+entif! an+ +is&*ss infomation eB*iement ana/!sis meto+s. Un+e

"at sit*ations migt !o* se/e&t one ove te ote@

2. ?ite a 4ief note on:

;i< Poe&t %/anning

;ii< Stategi& fit

;iii< Stategi& infomation s!stem gi+

;iv< Mat*it! stage of No/ans evise+ mo+e/.

ASSI9NMENTS

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1. 8isit an oganisation /o&ate+ in !o* &it!. I+entif! te IS %/anning stage of

te oganisation an+ %/anning meto+o/ogies 4eing *se+.

'. Do !o* tin# te oganisation is *sing te igt meto+o/ogies@ *stif! an+

give !o* s*ggestions "it easons.

REFERENCES3o"man 3. 9.3. Davis an+ .C. ?ete4e />ee Stage Mo+e/ of MIS

/anning=. Infomation an+ MamHg&meHt 6:1 Fe4*a! 1-,$ %%. 11'(.

3a/as*4amaniam ai MIS is an Oganism> Com%*tes To+a! Ma!

1--) %%. 16061.

Davis S.M. F*t*e Pefe&t A++ison?es/e! Rea+ing MA 1-,2

7ing ?.R. Stategi& P/anning fo Management Infomation S!stems= MIS

5*ate/! 8o/ ' no. 1 Mae 1-2, %%. '2$2.

M&/ia/an E?R Potfo/io A%%oa& to Infomation S!stems= ava+

3*siness Revie" Se%tem4eO&to4e 1-,1 %%. 1)'SO

No/an Ri&a+ L. Managing Infomation S!stems 4! Committee> ava+

3*siness Revie" */!A*g*st 1-2).No/an R.I Managing te Com%*te Reso*&e: A Stage !%otesis

Comm*ni&ations of te ACM 8o/. 16 no. $ Mae 1-2$ %%. $--)0(.

S&ott 9eoge M. Pin&i%/es ofMan&1g&`m&nt Infomation S!stems

M&9a"i// In&. USA 1-,6.

?ete4e .C. Fo*stage Mo+e/ of MIS P/anning Con&e%ts Te&niB*es

an+ Im%/ementtion= in Stategi&

Infonmiion Te&no/og! Management: Pes%e&tives 011 Ognnisatiom/

9o"t an+ Com%etitive A+vantage

R. 3an#e R. 7a*fman an+ M. Mamoo+ ;e+s< I+ea 9o*% P*4/ising

ais4*g PA 1--$.

9/osso!A&&*a&!: Degee to "i& +ata &onve! "at te! ae s*%%ose+ to &onve!.

A&B*isition an+ Insta//ation of a+"ae: Ste% in an infomation s!stem

im%/ementation invo/ve+ "it a&B*iing a+"ae eB*ie+ fo te ne"/!

+eve/o%e+ Infomation S!stem.

Ana/og Data: Data en&o+e+ in a sa%e tat is simi/a to te sa%e of te

oigina/ signa/. Ana/og Signa/s: Data signa/s tat va! &ontin*o*s/! in a "ave

%atten mimi&#ing te sa%e of te oigina/ +ata.

A%%/i&ation Soft"ae: Soft"ae tat %o&esses +ata to st*&t*e an+ fa&i/itates%e&ifi& 4*siness %o&esses.

Aeite&t*e: Defines o" a &*ent o %o%ose+ s!stem o%eates

me&ani&a//!. Aeite&t*e is +es&i4e+ 4! s*mmaising its &om%onents te "a!

te &om%onents ae /in#e+ an+ te "a! te &om%onents o%eate togete.

3en&ma#ing: Setting stan+a+s fo an infomation s!stem ana/!sis of

simi/a s!stems in ote fims to %ovi+e 4ot %es%e&tive an+ ne" i+eas a4o*t

te sit*ation 4eing ana/!se+ 3ott/ene&/H: An!ting tat a&ts as a /imiting fa&to.

An essentia/ "o# ste% "ee i/ tem%oa! o /ongtem &a%a&it! sotage +e/a!s

most ofte items 4eing %o&esse+ tee4! +e/a!ing %o&ess &om%/etion.

3o*n+a! ofa S!stem: Defines a s!stem a 4o+e 4et"een "at is insi+e te

s!stem an+ "at is o*tsi+e of it ;envionment<.

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3*siness Envionment: Te o*tsi+e envionment of te fim tat affe&ts its

"o#ing in&/*+ing &om%etitos s*%%/ies &*stomes eg*/ato! agen&ies an+

+emoga%i& so&ia/ an+ e&onomi& &on+itions.

3*siness Po&ess: A e/ate+ go*% of ste%s o a&tivities tat *se %eo%/e

infomation an+ ote eso*&es to &eate va/*e fo intena/ o extena/

&*stomes. Te ste%s ae e/ate+ "it es%e&t to time an+ %/a&eG ave a 4eginningan+ en+G an+ ave in%*ts an+ o*t%*ts.

3*siness Po&ess Reengineeing: Te est*&t*ing o e+esigning of a

4*siness %o&ess%o&esses *sing infomation te&no/og!.

Ca%t*ing Data: 9ateing +ata in a fom in "i& it &an 4e tansmitte+ o

stoe+.

Centa/ Po&essing Unit ;CPU<: Com%onent of a &om%*te tat exe&*tes

ma&ine /ang*age inst*&tions.

Coi&e: Ti+ %ase of Simon=s Mo+e/ of +e&isiomma#ing: te se/e&tion of

te %efee+ a/tenative.

Com%etitive A+vantage: A+vantage of one %o+*&t ves*s anote %o+*&t

;&om%eting %o+*&t< in tems of &ost feat*es o ote &aa&teisti&s.Com%/eteness of Data: Extent to "i& avai/a4/e +ata is a+eB*ate fo te

a&tivit! o a tas#.

8 Com%*te Ai+e+ Design ;CAD<: Use of a &om%*te to s*%%ot a +esign

%o&ess.

Com%*te Ai+e+ Soft"ae Engineeing ;CASE<: Use of &om%*teise+ s!stems

to im%ove te %o&ess of ana/!sing +esigning +eve/o%ing an+ maintaining

infomation s!stems.

Com%*te Pogam: Set of inst*&tions in a %ogamming /ang*age a/ong

"it +ata st*&t*e an+ +o&*mentation.

Com%*te S!stem: S!stem &onsisting of &om%*tes an+ %ei%ea/s eB*ie+

to &onto/ te &om%*te +evi&es an+ %o&ess +ata 4! exe&*ting %ogams.

Consisten&!: A%%/!ing te same te&niB*es in te same "a! to o4tain te

same +esie+ es*/ts fom a 4*siness %o&ess.

Convesion: Po&ess of &onveting fom a %evio*s s!stem to te ne" s!stem.

Cost: ?ateve te intena/ o extena/ &*stome m*st %a! to o4tain *se an+

maintain te %o+*&t of a 4*siness %o&ess.

Cost3enefit Ana/!sis: Assessment of a %o%ose+ %oe&t 4! &om%aing its

%oe&te+ &osts "it its %oe&te+ 4enefits ove time.

Citi&a/ Mass: aving eno*g *ses of a s!stem to attain te +esie+ 4enefits.

C*stomisations: Ceation o mo+ifi&ation of %o+*&t 4ase+ on a s%e&ifi&

&*stome=s nee+s.Data: Ra" fa&ts fig*es s!m4o/s et&. tat ma! o ma! not 4e *sef*/ fo a

%ati&*/a tas#.

Data Di&tiona!: Stoes +ata a4o*t +ata a &enta/ e%osito! of infomation

a4o*t te +ata4ase in a +ata4ase management s!stem.

Data F/o" Diagam ;DFD<: Diagam tat +e%i&ts /ogi&a/ f/o" of +ata *sing

fo* stan+a+iHe+ s!m4o/s to e%esent f/o"s of +ata 4et"een %o&esses an+

s*4%o&esses in a 4*siness.

Data Loss: Loss of +ata +*ing tansmission "i& ma! 4e 4e&a*se of te

%!si&a/ %o%eties of te +ata &anne/ o +istotion fom ote signa/s.

Data Mo+e/: A +etai/e+ +es&i%tion of te st*&t*e of +ata.

Data Mo+e/ing: Po&ess of i+entif!ing te t!%es of entities in a sit*atione/ationsi%s 4et"een tose entities an+ te e/evant atti4*tes of tose entities.

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Data Re+*n+an&!: Sim*/taneo*s *se an+ mo+ifi&ation of t"o o moe &o%ies

of te same +ata.

Data4ase: Co//e&tion of e/ate+ fi/es stoe+ in a %ati&*/a fomat an+

a&&esse+ to*g +ata4ase soft"ae.

Data4ase A+ministation: Po&ess of managing a +ata4ase.

Data4ase Management S!stem ;D3MS<: Integate+ set of %ogams *se+ to+efine *%+ate an+ &onto/ +ata4ases 4a&#*% an+ e&ove!.

De4*gging: Po&ess of fin+ing an+ &oe&ting eos ;4*gs< in te soft"ae.

De&ision S*%%ot S!stem ;DSSK: Intea&tive infomation s!stem %ovi+ing

infomation too/s o mo+e/s to e/% manages o %ofessiona/s ma#e +e&isions in

semist*&t*e+ o *nst*&t*e+ sit*ations.

De&o+ing: Po&ess of &onveting &o+e+ +ata *se+ fo tansmission 4a&# into

te *sea4/e fom.

Design: Se&on+ %ase of +e&isionma#ing: te s!stemati& st*+! ofte

%o4/em &eation of a/tenatives an+ eva/*ation of o*t&omes a/so &om%*te

ai+e+ +esign.

Deve/o%ment Pase: A %ase in te infomation s!stem %oe&t: tetansfomation of s!stem eB*iements into a+"ae an+ soft"ae tat

a&&om%/is te eB*ie+ f*n&tions.

Do&*mentation: Foma/ "itten ex%/anation of o" a s!stem o%eates

infomation so*&e fo ana/!sing s!stems.

Do"nsiHing: Re+*&tion in 4ot tota/ staffing an+ /a!es of management in an

oganisation.

Effe&tiveness: Extent to "i& a s!stem a&&om%/ises te igt goa/s.

Effe&tiveness efes to +oing te igt tings in te igt "a!.

Ef&ien&!: Ratio 4et"een o*t%*ts an+ in%*ts fo Hi %ati&*/a tas# ega+/ess

of "ete te tas# itse/f is te igt tas# to %efom.

E/e&toni& Data Inte&ange ;EDI<: Tansmission of 4*siness +ata fom one

fim=s &om%*te to anote fim=s &om%*te.

E/e&toni& F*n+s Tansfe ;EFT<: Use of &om%*teise+ s!stems to tansfe

f*n+s fom one %eson o oganisation to anote.

E/e&toni& Mai/ ;Enai/<: Sen+ing an+ e&eiving messages to*g e/e&toni&

mo+e.

En+Use Com%*ting ;EUC<: Die&t an+s on *se of &om%*te s!stems 4!

en+*ses "ose o4s go 4e!on+ enteing +ata into a &om%*te o %o&essing

tansa&tions.

En+Use Deve/o%nent: Deve/o%ment of infomation s!stems 4! en+*ses

ate tan 4! IS %ofessiona/s.Enan&ement: Im%ovement in an existing infomation s!stem=s f*n&tion

"ito*t &anging its f*n+amenta/ &on&e%ts o o%eation.

Entit!: A s%e&ifi& ting a4o*t "i& an infomation s!stem &o//e&ts

infomation.

Entit! T!%es: Te #in+s of tings an infomation s!stem &o//e&ts infomation

a4o*t.

Entit!Re/ation Diagam: Diagam i+entif!ing te mao entities e%esente+

in a s!stem an+ e/ationsi%s 4et"een tose entities.

Feasi4i/it! St*+!: Ana/!sing te via4i/it! of te %o%ose+ %oe&t.

Fi/e Seve: Com%*te tat o%eates as a seve fo o4taining +ata to*g a

net"o#.

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F/exi4i/it!: Te ease "it "i& a 4*siness %o&ess &an 4e a+*ste+ to meet

imme+iate &*stome nee+s an+ a+a%te+ ove te /ong tem as 4*siness &on+itions

&ange.

F/o"&at: Diagammati& e%esentation of te seB*en&e an+ /ogi& of

%o&e+*es *sing stan+a+iHe+ s!m4o/s to e%esent +iffeent t!%es of in%*t

o*t%*t %o&essing an+ +ata stoage.Fomat: Te "a! infomation is oganise+ an+ ex%esse+ fo %esentation to

a *se.

Fo*t 9eneation Lang*age ;)9Ls<: A go*% of %ogamming /ang*ages

an+ s!stems tat ma#e %ogamming /ess %o&e+*a/ tan ti+ geneation

/ang*ages.

FeB*en&!: N*m4e of times te "ave %atten e%eats %e se&on+.

Fonten+ Po&esso: A &om%*te no+e tat an+/es net"o# &omm*ni&ation

fo anote &om%*te tat %o&esses te +ata.

F*n&tiona/ Aeas of 3*siness: Lage s*4s!stems of a fim e/ate+ to s%e&ifi&

4*siness +is&i%/ines s*& as %o+*&tion sa/es *man eso*&es an+ finan&e.

F*n&tiona/ Ca%a4i/ities: Ovevie" of a 4*siness %o4/em a++esse+ 4! a%o%ose+ s!stem te "a! 4*siness %o&esses "i// &ange an+ te %oe&t=s

4enefits &osts an+ is#s.

F*HH! Logi&: A fom of easoning tat ma#es it %ossi4/e to &om4ine

&on+itions state+ in an im%e&ise fom simi/a to te "a! %eo%/e /in# a4o*t man!

tings.

9antt Cat: 8is*a/ e%esentation of a s&e+*/e in te fom of a 4a &at

+is%/a!ing tas#s a/ong "it tei %/an an+ a&t*a/ stat an+ &om%/etion times an+

eso*&e eB*iements.

9o*% De&ision S*%%ot S!stem ;9DSS<: S%e&ia//! o*tfitte+ &onfeen&e oom

&ontaining a+"ae an+ soft"ae tat fa&i/itate meetings an+ tee*%on

+e&isionma#ing.

a&#es: Peo%/e "o mani%*/ate "it &om%*tes an+ ma! a/so &ommit

&om%*te &ime fo te inte//e&t*a/ &a//enge of 4ea#ing into a &om%*te.

a+"ae: P!si&a/ +evi&es in a &om%*te s!stem.

a+"ae A&B*isition an+ Insta//ation: D*ing te +eve/o%ment %ase of an

infomation s!stem te %o&ess of a&B*iing an+ insta//ing "ateve eB*ie+

a+"ae is not %evio*s/! in %/a&e.

!%etext: A%%oa& to +ata management an+ a&&ess 4! stoing +ata in a

net"o# of no+es &onne&te+ 4! /in#s an+ a&&esse+ to*g an intea&tive

4o"sing s!stem.

IFTEN R*/e: Ex%et s!stem */e state+ in te fom IF &etain &on+itionsae t*e TEN &etain &on&/*sions so*/+ 4e +a"n.

In%/enentation Pase: Te /ast %ase of 4*i/+ing o a&B*iing s!stems: te

%o&ess of ma#ing a s!stem o%eationa/ in te oganisation.

Im%/ementation: Fo*t %ase of +e&ision`ma#ing in Simon=s Mo+e/ of

De&isionma#ingG te %o&ess of %*tting te +e&ision into effe&t.

Im%/ementation P/anning: Stating te im%/ementation %ase of an

infomation s!stem te &eation of a taining %/an &onvesion %/an an+

a&&e%tan&etesting %/an.

Infoma/ Infomation: Infomation fom %esona/ &omm*ni&ation o

o4sevation at is DI offi&ia/.

Infomation: Po&esse+ +ata tat is %esente+ in a fom "i& assists+e&isionma#es.

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Infomation Ove/oa+: Ovea4*n+an&e of +ata some of "i& ma! 4e

*nso/i&ite+ o ie/evant.

Infomation 5*a/it!: Refes to te goo+ness of infomation 4ase+ on its

a&&*a&! %e&ision &om%/eteness time/iness an+ so*&e.

Infomation S!stem: A &o//e&tion of e/ements tat &a%t*e +ata an+ &onvet it

in infomation an+ +isseminate to te +e&isionma#es in an oganisation.Infomation S!stems P/anning: Pat of 4*siness %/anning &on&ene+ "it

+e%/o!ing te fim=s infomation s!stems eso*&es in&/*+ing %eo%/e a+"ae

an+ soft"ae.

Infomation Te&no/og!: a+"ae an+ soft"ae tat %efom +ata

%o&essing tas#s s*& as &a%t*ing tansmitting stoing etieving

mani%*/ating o +is%/a!ing +ata.

Integate+ S!stems: Sevea/ s!stems "ose intena/ o%eation is &/ose/!

&om%*te integate+ man*fa&t*ing.

Intena/ 9oa/s: 9oa/s e/ate+ to te intena/ %efoman&e of a 4*siness

%o&ess.

Intena/ Rate of Ret*n ;IRRK: Inteest ate one "o*/+ ave to e&eive on a%oe&ts &ost steam to %o+*&e te same */timate et*n as te %oe&t.

Lo&a/ Aea Net"o# ;LANK: Net"o# &onne&ting %esona/ &om%*tes an+

ote eB*i%ment "itin a /o&a/ aea to e/% %eo%/e sae eB*i%ment +ata an+

soft"ae.

Mo+e/: Re%esentation of ea/ "o/+ in "i& insignifi&ant vaia4/es ae

ignoe+ an+ on/! te signifi&ant vaia4/es ae &onsi+ee+.

Mo+*/ait!: Se%aation of a s!stem o +evi&e into a set of s*4s!stems ea& of

"i& &an 4e +eve/o%e+ teste+ an+ *n+estoo+ in+e%en+ent/!.

Mo+*/e: S*4%at of a /age %ogam.

Net Pesent 8a/*e ;NP8<: Te estimate+ amo*nt of mone! te %oe&t is

&onsi+ee+ "ot of te oganisation "it ega+ to time an+ ote eso*&es.

Noma/isation: Te&niB*e fo e/iminating e+*n+an&ies fom te ta4/es in a

e/ationa/ +ata4ase an+ %aing tem +o"n to tei sim%/est fom.

O4e&tOiente+ Pogamming: St!/e of %ogamming 4ase+ on &on&e%ts of

o4e&t &/asses ineitan&e meto+s message %assing an+ %o/!mo%ism tat

teats +ata an+ %ogams as if te! ae tigt/! intet"ine+.

O%en S!stem: Te s!stem tat +oes intea&t "it its envionment an+

ex&anges infomation.

O%eations Man*a/: Do&*ment s%e&if!ing "en an+ o" +ata %o&essing

o4s so*/+ 4e +one in a &om%*te s!stem.

O*tso*&ing: A&B*iing a s!stem o sevi&es fom o*tsi+e te oganisation.Pefoman&e: Refes to o" "e// a s!stem o its &om%onents o%eate.

P/anning: Po&ess of +e&i+ing "at is to 4e &/one "en it is to 4e &/one o"

it is to 4e +one an+ "at o*t%*ts ae to 4e %o+*&e+.

PostIm%/ementation A*+it: Assessing te s!stem afte it as 4een

im%/emente+ to /ean fom te s!stem +eve/o%ment %o&ess.

Pima! StoageG Main stoage of te &om%*te *se+ fo inst*&tions an+

+ata.

Piva&!: Rigt of an in+ivi+*a/ to %ati&i%ate in +e&isions ega+ing te

&o//e&tion *se an+ +is&/os*e of infomation %esona//! i+entifia4/e to tat

in+ivi+*a/.

Po4/em So/vingG Po&ess of *sing infomation #no"/e+ge an+ int*itionves*s %o4/em fin+ing.

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Po&ess Mo+e/ing: Naming 4*siness %o&esses s*4+ivi+ing tem into tei

4asi& e/ements an+ +efining tei intena/ /in#ages so te! &an 4e st*+ie+ an+

im%ove+.

Poe&t 9oa/: O*t&ome tat so*/+ o&&* if te %oe&t is &aie+ o*t

s*&&essf*//!.

Poe&t P/an: S*mma! of te %oe&t tat +es&i4es vaio*s %ats of te%oe&t in&/*+ing stat an+ &om%/etion +ates inte+e%en+en&e of "o# ste%s an+

eso*&es to 4e +e%/o!e+.

Poto&o/: Define+ */es &o+es an+ %o&e+*es fo /in#ing +evi&es o

tansmitting +ata 4et"een +evi&es.

5*a/it!: Refes to te satisfa&tion of te *se in tems of is eB*iements

an+ ex%e&tations fom te s!stem.

5*e! Lang*ages: S%e&ia/ %*%ose /ang*ages *se+ to %ovi+e imme+iate

on/ine ans"es to B*estions invo/ving +ata in +ata4ases.

Ran+om A&&ess Memo! ;RAM<: Semi&on+*&t0 &om%onents of &om%*tes

tat tem%oai/! stoe inst*&tions an+ +ata &*ent/! 4eing *se+.

Rea+ On/! Memo! ;ROMK: Semi&on+*&to &om%onents of &om%*tes tat&annot 4e &ange+ 4! te *se=s %ogams 4e&a*se it stoes %ogams &onto//ing

te o%eation of te &om%*te

Re&o+: Set of e/ate+ fie/+s in +ata4ase ieae!.

Soft"ae: A set of %ogams +ata st*&t*e an+ +o&*mentation.

Stategi& P/anning Leve/: Te to% /eve/ in te management ieae! "i&

is es%onsi4/e fo fom*/ating stategies 4*+get an+ o4e&tives fo te entie

oganisation.

St*&t*e+ Ana/!sis: ?e//+efine+ g*i+e/ines an+ ga%i&a/ too/s fo

+es&i4ing existing an+ %o%ose+ s!stems fo *ses manages an+ &om%*te

%ofessiona/s.

eSt*&t*e+ Design: ?e//+efine+ to%+o"n a%%oa& of +ivi+ing a

&om%*teise+ s!stem into mo+*/es an+ s*4mo+*/es *nti/ te es*/ting mo+*/es

ae sma// an+ eas! to *n+estan+

St*&t*e+ Eng/is: A sim%/ifie+ fom of Eng/is *se+ to s%e&if! te %e&ise

/ogi& tat "i// 4e &o+e+ as a &om%*te %ogam.

St*&t*e+ 5*e! Lang*agti ;S5L<: An in+*st! stan+a+ %ogamming

/ang*age fo ex%essing +ata a&&ess an+ mani%*/ation in e/ationa/ +ata4ases.

S!stem: Set of intea&ting &om%onents tat o%eate togete to a&&om%/is a

&ommon %*%ose.

Te/e&omm*ni&ations: Te tansmission of +ata images so*n+ signa/s

4et"een +iffeent +evi&es in +iffeent /o&ations.Ta+itiona/ S!stem Life C!&/e: 3*i/+ing a s!stem 4! +ivi+ing te %oe&t into

a seies of ste%s ea& of "i& as a stan+a+ set of +e/ivea4/es.

Unst*&t*e&/ Tas#: Te tas# tat is not "e// st*&t*e+.

Use Invo/vement: Degee to "i& *ses ae invo/ve+ in te +esign an+

im%/ementation of an infomation s!stem.

8a/*e A++e+: Te amo*nt of va/*e a 4*siness %o&ess &eates fo its intena/

o extena/ &*stomes ;4e!on+ te va/*e of te in%*ts to te %o&ess<.

8a/*e Cain: Refes to te set of %o&esses an oganisation *ses to &eate

va/*e fo its &*stomes.

8a/*e A++e+ Net*Ho/a ;8AN<: P*4/i& +ata net"o# tat a++s va/*e= 4!

tansmitting +ata an+ %ovi+ing a&&ess to &omme&ia/ +ata4ases an+ soft"ae.

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