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ENVS 4446 Protected Areas Term Paper
The Impacts and Management of Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
To: Paul Wilkinson
By: Megan Finlay
April 17th 2014
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The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) in Australia is the world’s largest coral reef ecosystem. It
supports many different types of species ranging from fish to corals. As one of the Seven Natural
Wonders of the World, the reef was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981. The Great Barrier
Reef is managed and protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA).
The reef is located in the Coral Sea, occupying two thirds of the east coast of Queensland,
Australia. The Reef, with its high biodiversity and productivity, prospering warm, clear waters,
has become a popular tourist destination (Gossling, et al., 2008). Providing people with activities
such as fishing, diving, snorkelling, swimming, and other sought after activities, the tourism
significantly impacts the environment and the economy. The Reef also has social implications to
tourists and locals. The Great Barrier Reef is worth approximately $5.1 billion to the Australian
economy, the majority of which is derived from the tourism industry (Baird, 2011). Since the
industry is so large, tourism provides many career and job opportunities. With this significant
contribution to the economy, environmental impacts from tourism are often overlooked. Some of
these impacts include pollution and degradation, boat-induced and human-induced damage to
reef and animals, and wildlife interactions (Harriott, 2002). It is acknowledged that tourist
activities in the Great Barrier Reef can impact the environment’s ecological integrity. These
threats are being addressed by the GBRMPA. This paper discusses the economic and social
impacts with a focus on environmental impacts that tourism on the Great Barrier Reef has and
how the management strategies of the GBRMPA protect the Reef from the tourism industry in an
ecotourism way.
The Great Barrier Reef
The reef has a distance of 2300 km along two thirds of the east coast of Queensland.
Almost all of the marine ecosystem is now included in the park and is approximately 344
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400km2 (Australian Government, 2009). The reef represents 10% of the world’s total coral reef
(Australian Government, 2009).
Coral reefs have high biodiversity and productivity, prospering in warm, clear waters
(Gossling, et al., 2008). In the Reef’s 2900 reefs and 300 coral cays, 1500 species of fish, 400
species of coral, and 6 species of sea turtles are only some examples of the large amount of
species the Reef supports (Baird, 2011). Coral reefs recycle nutrients, provide food, serve as
breeding grounds, protect coastline, and is a habitat to many marine species (Gossling, et al.,
2008). Coral Reefs across the world are susceptible to local and global change.
The park is used for commercial marine tourism, fishing, ports and shipping, recreation,
scientific research, and indigenous traditional use (Australian Government, 2009). Many
activities in the park require a permit, such as tourism, building and operation of structures,
repairs, anchoring or mooring, waste discharge, research, educational programs, and hunting.
There are many activities prohibited in the park. These activities include oil drilling and logging
in the Wet Tropics, the wet tropical forest located in the World Heritage Site on the mainland of
Queensland (Driml, 1996). Other legislation requires control over other conservation of the
natural environment such as fishing laws.
Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef
The Reef was placed on the World Heritage List in 1981 because of its outstanding
natural significance. Established in late 1975, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act addressed
conservation and sustainable development to create multiple management strategies. The Act, as
well as the establishment of the park, attempts to manage human activity and stress on the
ecosystem. The management areas in the Marine Park include air space above to a height of
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1000m, subsoil beneath the sea bed to a depth of 1000m, commonwealth owned islands, and all
waters below mean water level mark (Baird, 2011).
Winter season is the most popular time to visit the Reef. Vessels that visit for day trips
can carry anywhere from 10 to 400 passengers. In the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, 85 % of
tourism is focussed on accessible reef areas off Cairns and in the Whitesunday Island region
(Harriott, 2002). Figure 1 demonstrates visitors, in terms of nights and days, and the main
purpose of travel in the GBR catchment. Demonstrated by the figures, we can see that the most
popular purpose of visit is categorized as holiday/leisure, proving how popular the tourism
experience is. GBR tourism industry involves structure based tourism operations, vessel based
tourism operations, extended vessel based tourism operations, bareboat charter, cruise ships,
aircraft based operations, and resort and shore based operations (Harriott, 2002). Figure 2
demonstrates where, in the GBRMP, the number of visitors a day per year visit. Figure 3
demonstrates the distribution of the activities that visitors participate in during the years 2003,
2007, 2008. Figure 4 demonstrates the types of activities that occur in the park. The most popular
activities are swimming, fishing, and motorized boating.
Management for the GBR has been in place since 1975. Tourism is a critical issue
concerning the sustainability of the reef and has been addressed by management systems and
control of touristic activities to minimize their environmental impact. Although extending
throughout the GBR, commercial marine tourism is concentrated in a few intensively managed
areas (Australian Government, 2009). Management works close with the tourism industry
because it contributes a significant amount of money to the economy and also has positive social
impacts. Environmental, economic, and social impacts will be discussed below.
Environmental Impacts of Tourism
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One of the biggest concerns about the reef is the impact that tourism has on the
environment. Since tourism is so popular at the GBR, management of the GBRMPA work
closely with the tourism industry. Research conducted by Shafer and Inglis (2000) found that
visitor satisfaction and enjoyment of the park was tied to the quality of corals and fish. This
creates motivation for the conservation and protection of the reefs and the involved species.
Tourism is a driving force that management struggles to regulate to avoid environmental impact.
No matter how small or large the impacts are, tourism can impact the environment in
many different ways. These ways can be directly and indirectly. The World Wildlife Federation
(WWF) list major environmental threats as unsustainable fishing, pollution, climate change,
coral bleaching and coastal development (WWF, 2002). These are large scale impacts. For
example, climate change is not only due to carbon emissions from touristic activities in Australia
but from carbon emissions from all over the globe. Other environmental issues that were listed
include declining inshore water quality, outbreak of crown of thorns starfish, effects of trawling
on reef benthos, effects of line fishing and threat of oil spills from shipping (Harriott, 2002). In
Harriott’s research paper on marine tourism impacts in the GBR, she states that marine tourism
impacts are coastal tourism development, tourism infrastructure (island and marine based), boat-
induced damage, water-based activities, and wildlife interactions (Harriott, 2002).
Tourism Development
The popularity of the GBR and the amount of visitors it receives each year require
infrastructure. The infrastructure includes accommodations such as hotels and lodges,
transportation, entertainment, accessible roads, and services such as electricity and sewage
(Harriott, 2002). Large scale tourism development could potentially affect the environment
through land degradation and destruction, and water through pollution from waste and runoff.
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The coastal development due to population pressures and the development of the tourism
industry should be reviewed and further monitored so that cumulative social and environmental
impacts are accounted for.
Infrastructure
There are 27 islands that support resorts for tourism in the GBR. The development of a
marina or harbour changes the shape of the coast and water level (Harriott, 2002). Digging and
depositing material for boats can damage and alter the natural state of the marine and land
structure. Other marine based infrastructure include pontoons, moorings, and fish feeding.
Generally, pontoons and other water vehicles are moored in areas with few coral cays, and other
pontoons and infrastructure. Pontoons are generally used for docking boats offshore and
conducting recreational activities such as diving. Pontoons are used to release the pressure that is
put on the coral reef by visitors and structure activity of the visitors. Due to the shade that the
pontoons create, benthic communities that reside under them are impacted (Nelson and
Mapstone, 1998). Pontoon operators are motivated to implement practices to protect the nearby
environment because there are limited areas where pontoons can be stationed and there are high
costs to move them if the reef were to be damaged (Harriott, 2002).
Water based Activities
Boating damage, similar to climate change, cannot be separated from damage by tourism.
Locals boating for recreational and business activity have the potential to cause damage and
pollution as well. Anchoring, although a local impact which does not affect the entire reef, can
cause significant damage (Harriott, 2002). Large numbers of anchoring damage corals and other
benthic organisms from not only dropping the anchor, but also from the movement of the chains
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(Wachenfeld et al, 1998). Boats can also release waste water and litter (Harriott, 2002). Boats or
marine crafts that move at high speed can injure, kill, or disturb wildlife such as dugongs and
turtles (Harriott, 2002)
Scuba diving is a popular tourist and local activity. It is popular for people seeking
interactions with marine animals in the wild. Diving is another water activity that has the
potential to cause significant damage, especially when it is concentrated in one area. Hawkins
and Roberts study, 1992, concluded that diving in a single site caused detectable changes. These
changes were observed in the coral communities and the aesthetics of the reef. Most damages
were to branching corals (Hawkins and Roberts, 1992). Inexperienced and unskilled divers were
the culprits of the damage. Snorkelling, although less studied than diving, appears less likely to
negatively impact the reef (Harriott, 2002). Tourist activities that involve swimming or diving
with free ranging cetacean species are not necessarily supported. For example, the Whale and
Dolphin Conservation Society (WDCS) does not support it for two reasons. The first reason is
that it is difficult to ensure that encounters with wild cetaceans take place on the cetacean’s
terms. The second reason is because the safety of the diver cannot be guaranteed (Curtain and
Garrod, 2008).
There are positive benefits of diving when it is in context with conservation. PADI
AWARE, Aquatic World Awareness, Responsibility and Education Foundation and the Reef
Environmental Education Foundation, have been established by divers who focus on marine
conservation. They use volunteers to collect information, education on marine ecology, and
issues in marine conservation (Townsend, 2008). Through close encounters, diving with
cetaceans can enhance tourist satisfaction and experience (Curtain and Garrod, 2008).
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Encounters with animals can cause excitement, tranquility, reduction of stress, feeling of inner
harmony,
Wildlife
It is popular for locals and tourists to interact with wildlife. Simple walking tours are
provided to access land wildlife. With marine wildlife, boating adventures are more common. A
popular activity is whale watching. Boats will take passengers to where whales feed, breed, and
migrate. Tours may do the same for fish and turtles. Other tourism opportunities include wildlife
diving. In some cases, participants are dropped off at a reef to explore or dropped off the boat
next to the mammal. Cetaceans, such as whales, can be impacted by large amounts of
concentrated diving (Hawkins and Roberts, 1992). Certain islands and beaches are closed to
visitors so that bird and turtle nesting are not disturbed.
Economic Impacts of Tourism
There are different types of economic costs to marine wildlife parks; direct, indirect, and
opportunity (Cater and Cater, 2008). Direct costs involve the costs of land, development,
maintenance of roads, facilities, or administration costs. Indirect costs reflect the costs that derive
from more negative aspects such as property damage or personal injury. Opportunity costs are
the value of the benefits from the operation of the location and the location’s resources. Coral
reefs not only have a significant environmental value but significant economic value as well. The
GBR contributes a significant amount of money to the Australian economy. This includes
industries such as commercial fishing and tourism. Tourism is the dominant economic activity.
Recorded in 2013, tourism contributes $6 410.6 million by direct expenditure but an added value
of $5 175.6 million of added value (Deloitte, 2013). Figure 5 demonstrates the economic
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contribution to Australia by visitor type. The figure shows us that almost 60% of economic
contribution comes from holiday and leisure activities.
Recreational tourist activities have a significant impact on the added value. Recreation
activities include fishing, boating, sailing, and island visits. These activities impact the economy
through trip related expenditure and equipment. Recreation economic contribution total value
added was approximately $244 million (Deloitte, 2013). This provided 2,758 full time equivalent
(FTE) jobs directly and indirectly (Deloitte, 2013).
Though this does not involve tourism necessarily, commercial fishing and aquaculture are
important industries in Queensland. In 2012, commercial fishing and aquaculture contributed
$160 million to Australia’s added value, 60% of the value generated by catchment (Deloitte,
2013). It also added 975 FTE jobs. The direct economic contribution was estimated to be $92.5
million (Deloitte, 2013). Commercial fishing, if not properly managed, has the potential to
negatively impact species population and indirectly affect the health of the GBR.
Overall, the tourism industry in the Great Barrier Reef creates 64,338 FTE positions,
which help operate the industry. In the Natural Resource Management regions of the Reef,
tourism has declined by 10% in the last five years. Holiday and leisure account for
approximately 50% of the reasons for travel in this area.
Social Impacts of Tourism
As discussed above, tourism in the GBR provides many different job opportunities for
locals. The tourism industry provides 64,338 FTE (Deloitte, 2012). There are other social
impacts that can benefit locals and tourists. For example, wildlife tourism, a touristic activity
with the purpose of observing, studying, or enjoying marine wildlife, can benefit its participants
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(Zeppel and Muloin, 2008). Benefits of marine wildlife tourism have psychological and socio
psychological outcomes and may influence beliefs for non-consumptive or non-destructive of
marine life and anti-whale killing. First-hand experience can create a connection between visitor
and environment.
Management of the Great Barrier Reef
There are many stakeholders that contribute to the protection of the GBR. Two of the main
and powerful stakeholders are the Queensland and Australian governments. Together, the two
governments jointly manage the protected marine area. They have the influence over statutory
instruments such as regulations, zoning plans, plans of management and permits, and non-
statutory instruments such as policies (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2014). They
also have partnerships with other management associations, education programs, and
communities. According to the Strategic Assessment report, the GBRMPA current management
goals are to ensure “The long term protection, ecologically sustainable use, understanding and
enjoyment of the Great Barrier Reef for all Australians and the international community through
the care and development of the Marine Park.” According to the Strategic Assessment Report,
the objective of management includes the following.
1. Ensure long term protection and conservation of environment and biodiversity of the Park
and ensure its sustainability to future generations.
2. Allow sustainable use of the reef as long as it supports or does not diminish the previous
goal.
(Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Strategic Assessment Report, 2014)
To achieve these extensive goals, the two governments have committed to the following.
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1. Prohibit activities that will result in the recovery of minerals or petroleum. These
activities include drilling and mining in the area.
2. Continue to follow management arrangements.
3. Halt and reverse watery quality decline.
4. Maximize ecosystem resilience
5. Address significant threats the health and biodiversity in the GBR ecosystem
6. Ensure Indigenous traditional cultural practices continue to be recognized
7. Periodically review the condition of the Reef
(Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Strategic Assessment Report, 2014)
Claiming to be one of the world’s best managed marine protected areas in the world, the
GBRMPA uses different tools to mitigate the impacts of tourism on the environment so that they
can “maintain the diversity, integrity, and productivity of the Reef.” (Colliers International, n.d).
Management of the park requires “fair and equitable access and use” between and within
industries (Colliers International, n.d). To manage tourism in the GBRMP, there is a mix of
many different instruments. These instruments include legislation, Zoning Plans, Plans of
Management, permits, best practice codes of conduct, and policies (Colliers International, n.d).
Although these are strong instruments, there is potential for even stronger integrated instruments
to better manage the park. Description of the instruments follow:
Management Plans
The increase in tourism in specific sites has created the need for management plans (Driml,
1996). Management plans provide more control between zoning plans and permits. Developed
for individual reefs or islands, management plans can identify the allowed number of visitors and
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particular activities or uses of certain sites (Driml, 1996). Management of the park is divided into
4 areas; Far Northern, Cairns and Cooktown, Townsville and Whitesundays, and Mackay and
Capricorn (Baird, 2011). Plans of management have been considered a weakness according to
the GBR Strategic Assessment Report. It is considered a weakness because of the inconsistency
across jurisdictions.
Zoning
Established under the Marine Park Act in 2003, the park is further broken into zoning
plans. Zoning plans define what activity can occur in specific locations (Colliers International,
n.d)(Australian Government, 2013). This has the potential to protect the environment and
separate activities and uses. Required by zoning plans, all tourism operators have a permit to
operate in the marine park (Colliers International, n.d).
Zoning plans have proven to be beneficial, in particular with coral trout. Coral trout has
been a popular target for line fishing and has sustained a fast recovery in numbers and physical
size (Dobbs, et al., 2010). This recovery pattern is reflected across the entire reef mostly because
of ‘no-take’ zones in the GBR. No-take areas cover 32% of the GRB (Dobbs, et al., 2010). Reef
sharks have also benefitted from ‘no-entry’ zones. Compared to traffic areas, reef sharks were 30
times more abundant in no entry zones. Figure 6 demonstrates the number of sharks per hectare
in different zoning planned areas. No take areas support and protect the ecological and, therefore,
economic significance. Crown of thorn starfish, a major threat to the health of the coral reef, is
3.75 times lower in no take zones (Dobbs, et al., 2010). Benefits of a zone may spread to all
zones due to ecological connectivity between these areas. This also applies for negative impacts.
Permits
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Permits are another principle tool for the management of the GBR (Harriott, 2002). All
tourist operators are required to have a permit. Permits control what activities can occur where,
how many visitors are allowed on a certain site, and the conditions under which the tourist
operator operates (Driml, 1996). Permits are also required for activities such as anchoring and
fishing and usually cost money to obtain. The increase of tourism operators and the demand for
permits have made permits a more complex issue (Colliers International, n.d.). According to the
GBR Strategic Assessment Report, permits are considered a weakness. Permits are evaluated
case by case and with a limited understanding of the collective use of permits. The Strategic
report discusses how operators with permits may still lack knowledge of zoning plans,
management plans, and codes of best practice (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2014).
Volunteer
Some marine management strategies are done through volunteer programs. High
Standard Tourism Operators operate with higher standards than required by legislation
(GBRMPA.gov, n.d). This certification comes from the ECO Certification Program. Reward for
this certification is an extension of tourism program permits. Eyes and Ears Incident Reporting
Program is another program that tourist operators or the general public can take part in. It is as
simple as filling out an incident report form so that the authority can follow up on the reported
incident. There are also volunteer codes of best practice and educational programs.
Recommendations Moving Forward
Despite the efforts and management strategies that the GBRMPA has made, the question
of sustainable tourism still stands. Can reef based nature tourism bring visitors into contact with
a living natural system without harming the environment? For sustainable tourism to occur,
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tourism and the conservation of the environment must be compatible and tourism must continue
to have a steady or increasing stream of economic benefits (Driml, 1996). Driml discusses in her
paper that the facilities and activities that are associated with tourism in the reef can damage the
reef in a variety of ways, many of which have already been discussed. In her paper, it is noted
that the impacts that are observed involve solutions such as investment in technology or
operational activities to avoid impact, such as prohibiting fish feeding.
Some of the environmental impacts from tourism are being addressed. For example,
moorings reduce anchor damage (Harriott, 2002). The GBRMPA provide public moorings and
require permits for private moorings in heavily used sites. The GBRMP also has designated ‘no
anchoring’ and ‘limited anchoring’ areas to limit anchoring away from coral and ‘at risk’ areas.
Zoning plans such that limit activity or anchoring have proven successful.
Social marketing may be a beneficial way to change tourist’s outlook and behavior in the
GBRMP. This type of marketing could potentially motivate ecological integrity while
maintaining tourist engagement and experience. Social marketing’s challenge is changing long-
term behaviour of tourists and even locals in the GBRMP. The GBRMPA uses social marketing
but might benefit more if they invested more time and effort into it. Some examples of social
marketing include codes of practice, education and interpretative programs, volunteer programs.
A way to reduce damaged coral from divers, the GBRMPA adopted ‘a code of practice’
(Harriott, 2002). This recommends different strategies to help prevent damage such as
establishing buoyancy over sandy areas. Snorkel trails that restrict impact of snorkelers to small
areas have also been proposed (Harriott, 2002).
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In Environmental Interpretation in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park; An Assessment
of Programme Effectiveness, Elizabeth Madin believes that interpretive programmes are a
significant strategy in achieving ecotourism conservation objectives. Interpretation involves
educational, illustrative activity that educates the visitor of the relationships and connections of
the systems and resources through first hand experiences. This creates a combination of
knowledge and first-hand experience which is aimed to influence tourist behaviours, attitudes,
and values (Madin, 2004). The aim of this education is to influence or change the participant’s
knowledge so that they would, ideally, change their behaviour in the area. The GBRMPA has
created some interpretative programs that educate the tourist on the relationships and systems of
the marine ecosystem.
In Driml’s paper, it is recommended that the tourism industry in the GBR stays localized.
This limits and controls the amount of activity and road use. A realistic approach to managing
the reef is to concentrate on avoiding negative impacts (Driml, 1996). This is possible through
the use of environmental impact assessment, adoption of avoidance techniques, and minimum
impact technologies (Driml, 1996).
Strategic Assessment Report recommends improvements to the Authority’s management.
The success of the GBRMPA management arrangements were evaluated using the International
Union for Conservation of Nature World Commission on Protected Areas framework (Great
Barrier Reef Marine Authority, 2014). Recommendations include improve recognition and
identification of the elements that are of significance to the natural environment, adapting
climate change, and supporting protection and restoration techniques to strengthen resilience
(Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2014). In regards to tourism, the report recognizes
the GBRMPA of its close, effective relationships between the tourism industry, the government,
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and the community, and recommends that the strong relationships continue. The report also
recommends that tourism management arrangements should become the same in all jurisdictions,
improve the tourism industry’s education and understanding of the Reef and its value, and
improve infrastructure, planning, and operation (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,
2014). The last recommendation the report makes in regards to tourism and recreation is to make
the benefits derived from tourism experience more clearly to participants in the industry.
Tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park has a significant impact on the social and
economic aspects of Australia and the Great Barrier Reef catchment. The Great Barrier Reef is
worth approximately $5.1 billion to the Australian economy, and the majority of the wealth
comes from the tourism industry (Baird, 2011). Since the industry is so large, tourism provides
many career and job opportunities as well as psychological and socio psychological experiences.
Although it creates many positive impacts in these sections, it creates negative impacts to the
environment. These negative impacts require special attention and management in order to
mitigate and eliminate them. The tourism industry impact pollution and degradation, boat-
induced and human –induced damage to reef and animals, and wildlife interactions. These
impacts are generally localised compared to the large magnitude of other environmental concerns
such as global warming. The increases and pressure from tourism development puts pressure on
the environment. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority works closely with the tourism
industry so that these negative impacts are minimal or eliminated so that the Reef can continue to
be enjoyed and utilized in a sustainable manner. Zoning plans, management plans, permits,
volunteer and education instruments are used to manage the Reef. These management tools have
encouraging results and many successful results. With these plans, there are also other solutions
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to help sustain the Great Barrier Reef. Social Marketing strategies such as education and
interpretative programs would benefit the tourist’s experience and tourist operator strategies.
This also encourages its participants to minimize their impacts for conservation. Localizing the
Reef will help localize any impact the tourism industry has on the environment. The Strategic
Assessment Report also highlights that management strategies should be the same in all
jurisdictions. It is important to Australia to manage sustainable tourism so that the Great Barrier
Reef remains healthy so that it can continue to support the Australian economy. It is also
important to keep healthy because it is one of the largest coral reef ecosystem in the world and
supports high levels of biodiversity.
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References
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Figures
Figure 1
Deloitte. (2013). “Economic Contribution of the Great Barrier Reef.” Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park Authority.. http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/a3ef2e3f-37fc-
4c6f-ab1b-3b54ffc3f449/files/gbr-economic-contribution.pdf
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Figure 2
Australian Government. (2009). Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report 2009. Published by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.
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Figure 3
Australian Government. (2009). Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report 2009. Published by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.
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Figure 4
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. (2012). Great Barrier Reef Region Strategic Assessment, Australia.
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Figure 5
Deloitte. (2013). “Economic Contribution of the Great Barrier Reef.” Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park Authority.. http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/a3ef2e3f-37fc-
4c6f-ab1b-3b54ffc3f449/files/gbr-economic-contribution.pdf
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Figure 6
Dobbs, K., Day, J., Skeat, H., Baldwin, J., Molloy, F., Mccook, L., . . . Kenchington, R. (2010).
Developing a long-term outlook for the Great Barrier Reef, Australia: A framework for
adaptive management reporting underpinning an ecosystem-based management
approach. Marine Policy, 233-240.