Upload
robyn-parrish
View
224
Download
2
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
4.3 Theoretical genetics: Objectives
1- Define genotype, phenotype, dominant allele, recessive allele, codominant alleles, locus, homozygous, heterozygous, carrier and test cross.
2- Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of a monohybrid cross using a Punnett grid.
3- State that some genes have more than two alleles (multiple alleles).
4- Describe ABO blood groups as an example of codominance and multiple alleles.
5- Explain how the sex chromosomes control gender by referring to the inheritance of X and Y chromosomes in humans.
6- State that some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from the shorter Y chromosome in humans.
7- Define sex linkage. 8- Describe the inheritance of color blindness and hemophilia as
examples of sex linkage. 9- State that a human female can be homozygous or
heterozygous with respect to sex-linked genes. 10- Explain that female carriers are heterozygous for X-linked
recessive alleles. 11- Predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of
monohybrid crosses involving any of the above patterns of inheritance.
12- Deduce the genotypes and phenotypes of individuals in pedigree charts.
Heredity SL.pptxHeredity Student version.pptxheredity.ppt
DefinitionsAllele: an alternative form of a gene, occupying a specific locus. Genotype: the genetic constitution of an organismPhenotype: the characteristics or appearance (structural, biochemical ..) of an organismDominant allele: is the allele that has the same effect on the phenotype whether it is present in the homozygous or heterozygous state. recessive allele: an allele that has an effect on the phenotype only when present in the homozygous state. codominant alleles: Pairs of allele that both affect phenotype when present in a heterozygous state. locus: particular position on the homologous chromosomes of a geneHomozygous: having two identical alleles of a gene heterozygous: having two different alleles of a gene.carrier: an individual that has one copy of a recessive allele that causes a genetic diseases in individuals that are homozygous. test cross: testing a suspected heterozygote by crossing it with a known homozygous recessive.
Flower color White
Axial
Purple
Flower position Terminal
YellowSeed color Green
RoundSeed shape Wrinkled
InflatedPod shape Constricted
GreenPod color Yellow
TallStem length Dwarf
Mendelain Genetics
Example of a monohybrid cross • Parental generation: purple flowers white flowers• F1 generation: all plants with purple flowers • F2 generation: of plants with purple flowers
of plants with white flowers Mendel needed to explain
• Why one trait seemed to disappear in the F1 generation• Why that trait reappeared in one quarter of the F2
offspring
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
P generation(true-breedingparents)
Purple flowers White flowers
F1 generation All plants havepurple flowers
F2 generation
Fertilizationamong F1 plants(F1 ´ F1)
of plantshave purple flowers
3–4 of plants
have white flowers
1–4
Mendel’s law of segregation describes the inheritance of a single character
Four Hypotheses 1. Genes are found in alternative versions called alleles; a
genotype is the listing of alleles an individual carries for a specific gene
2. For each characteristic, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent; the alleles can be the same or different
– A homozygous genotype has identical alleles – A heterozygous genotype has two different alleles
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mendel’s law of segregation describes the inheritance of a single character
Four Hypotheses 3. If the alleles differ, the dominant allele determines the
organism’s appearance, and the recessive allele has no noticeable effect
– The phenotype is the appearance or expression of a trait– The same phenotype may be determined by more than one
genotype
4. Law of segregation: Allele pairs separate (segregate) from each other during the production of gametes so that a sperm or egg carries only one allele for each gene
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
P plants
1–2
1–2
Genotypic ratio1 PP : 2 Pp : 1 pp
Phenotypic ratio3 purple : 1 white
F1 plants(hybrids)
Gametes
Genetic makeup (alleles)
All
All Pp
Sperm
Eggs
PP
p
ppPp
Pp
P
pP
pP
P
p
PP pp
All
Gametes
F2 plants
Homologous chromosomes show the alleles for each character
For a pair of homologous chromosomes, alleles of a gene locate at the same locus
• Homozygous individuals have the same allele on both homologues
• Heterozygous individuals have a different allele on each homologue
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Gene loci
Homozygousfor thedominant allele
Dominantallele
Homozygousfor therecessive allele
Heterozygous
Recessive allele
Genotype:
P Ba
P
PP
a
aa
b
Bb
Geneticists use the testcross to determine unknown genotypes
Testcross• Mating between an individual of unknown genotype and
a homozygous recessive individual• Will show whether the unknown genotype includes a
recessive allele• Used by Mendel to confirm true-breeding genotypes
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
B_
or
Two possibilities for the black dog:
Testcross:
Genotypes
Gametes
Offspring 1 black : 1 chocolateAll black
Bb
bb
BB
Bb bb
B
b
Bb
b
bB
Genetic traits in humans can be tracked through family pedigrees
A pedigree • Shows the inheritance of a trait in a family through
multiple generations• Demonstrates dominant or recessive inheritance• Can also be used to deduce genotypes of family members
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Freckles
Widow’s peak
Free earlobe
No freckles
Straight hairline
Attached earlobe
Dominant Traits Recessive Traits
Ff
Female MaleAffected
Unaffected
First generation(grandparents)
Second generation(parents, aunts,and uncles)
Third generation(two sisters)
Ff Ff
Ff
Ff Ff
Ff
ff
ff ff ff
ff
FF
FF
or
or
Many inherited disorders in humans are controlled by a single gene
Inherited human disorders show• Recessive inheritance
– Two recessive alleles are needed to show disease– Heterozygous parents are carriers of the disease-causing allele– Probability of inheritance increases with inbreeding, mating
between close relatives
• Dominant inheritance– One dominant allele is needed to show disease– Dominant lethal alleles are usually eliminated from the
population
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Parents NormalDd
Offspring
Sperm
Eggs
ddDeafd
DdNormal(carrier)
DDNormalD
D d
DdNormal(carrier)
NormalDd´
Incomplete (codominance) dominance results in intermediate phenotypes
Incomplete (codominance) dominance• Neither allele is dominant over the other• Expression of both alleles is observed as an intermediate
phenotype in the heterozygous individual• Phenotype ratio = genotype ratio= 1:2:1
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
P generation
1–2
1–2
1–2
1–2
1–2
1–2
F1 generation
F2 generation
RedRR
Gametes
Gametes
Eggs
Sperm
RR rR
Rr rr
R
r
R r
R r
PinkRr
R r
Whiterr
Many genes have more than two alleles in the population
Multiple alleles• More than two alleles are found in the population(to
control one trait)• A diploid individual can carry any two of these alleles• The ABO blood group has three alleles, leading to four
phenotypes: type A, type B, type AB, and type O blood
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Many genes have more than two alleles in the population
Codominance• Neither allele is dominant over the other• Expression of both alleles is observed as a distinct
phenotype in the heterozygous individual• Observed for type AB blood
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
BloodGroup(Phenotype) Genotypes
O
A
ii
IAIA
orIAi
Red Blood Cells
Carbohydrate A
AntibodiesPresent inBlood
Anti-AAnti-B
Reaction When Blood from Groups Below Is Mixedwith Antibodies from Groups at Left
Anti-B
O A B AB
BIBIB
orIBi
Carbohydrate B
AB IAIB —
Anti-A
BloodGroup(Phenotype) Genotypes
O
A
ii
IAIA
orIAi
Red Blood Cells
Carbohydrate A
BIBIB
orIBi
Carbohydrate B
AB IAIB
AntibodiesPresent inBlood
Anti-AAnti-B
Reaction When Blood from Groups Below Is Mixedwith Antibodies from Groups at Left
Anti-B
O A B AB
—
Anti-A
BloodGroup(Phenotype)
O
A
B
AB
Then he crossed F1 X F1F2 generation did conform the expected 3:1
ratio but there was a twist; the white eye trait showed up only in males. All the females had red eyes, whereas half of the males had white half of them had red.
Why were there no white eyed females??
Because all of the females took(inherit) at least one dominant allele from their father, so they had either XRXR or XRXr genotypes(all red phenotype). But for males, since they took their X chromosome only from mother, half of them had recessive half had dominant alleles(half white half red phenotype).
Then he made another experiment to prove his idea of eye color gene is carried on the X chromosome
Sex-linked genes are located on either of the sex chromosomes
• X-linked genes are passed from mother to son and mother to daughter
• X-linked genes are passed from father to daughter
• Y-linked genes are passed from father to son
Sex-linked genes exhibit a unique pattern of inheritance
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
HUMAN SEX LINKED TRAITS
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
In humans, as in drosophilas, the Y chromosome carries much less genetic information than the X chromosome.
1) One of the X linked inheritance is color blindness called Daltonism. They cannot distinguish red&green colors XRXR homozygote normal vision female
XRXr heterozygote normal vision female XrXr homozygote color blind female XRY normal vision male XrY color blind male
• Predict the ratio of offspring phenotypes for the following:
Female heterozygous for colorblindness colorblind male?
XBXb XbY ¼ XBXb, ¼ XbXb, ¼ XBY, ¼ XbY = ¼ females with full color vision + ¼ colorblind females + ¼ males with full color vision + ¼ colorblind males
2) Haemophilia is a disease in which blood clotting doesn’t occur.
Clotting is a complex series of reactions. Each step of it requires specific enzymes. One of them is controlled by a gene on the X chromosome called factor VIII(antihaemophilic globin)
XHXH normal femaleXHXh carrier femaleXhXh haemophilic femaleXHY normal maleXhY haemophilic male
QueenVictoria
Albert
Alice Louis
Alexandra CzarNicholas IIof Russia
Alexis
There is no prior history of hemophilia in Queen Victoria’s family, so it is thought that the allele arose by spontaneous mutation in the sex cells of one of her parents
10.2 Dihybrid crosses and gene linkage
• Calculate and predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of offspring of dihybrid crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes.
• Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes. • Explain how crossing over between non-sister
chromatids of a homologous pair in prophase I can result in an exchange of alleles.
• Define linkage• Explain an example of a cross between two linked genes. • Identify which of the offspring are recombinants in a
dihybrid cross involving linked genes.
The law of independent assortment is revealed by tracking two characters at once
Example of a dihybrid cross
• Parental generation: round yellow seeds wrinkled green seeds
• F1 generation: all plants with round yellow seeds • F2 generation: of plants with round yellow seeds
of plants with round green seeds of plants with wrinkled yellow seeds of plants with wrinkled green seeds
Mendel needed to explain• Why nonparental combinations were observed • Why a 9:3:3:1 ratio was observed among the F2 offspring
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
9/163/163/161/16
The law of independent assortment is revealed by tracking two characters at once
Law of independent assortment
• Each pair of alleles segregates independently of the other pairs of alleles during gamete formation
• For genotype RrYy, four gamete types are possible: RY, Ry, rY, and ry
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
P generation
1–2
Hypothesis: Dependent assortment Hypothesis: Independent assortment
1–2
1–2
1–2
1–4
1–4
1–4
1–4
1–4
1–4
1–4
1–4
9––16
3––16
3––16
1––16
RRYY
Gametes
Eggs
F1
generation
SpermSperm
F2
generation
Eggs
Gametes
rryy
RrYy
ryRY
ryRY
ry
RY
Hypothesized(not actually seen)
Actual results(support hypothesis)
RRYY rryy
RrYy
ryRY
RRYY
rryy
RrYy
ry
RY
RrYy
RrYy
RrYy
rrYYRrYY
RRYyRrYY
RRYy
rrYy
rrYy
Rryy
Rryy
RRyy
rY
Ry
ry
Yellowround
Greenround
Greenwrinkled
Yellowwrinkled
RY rY Ry
Genes on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together
Linked Genes• Are located close together on the same chromosome• Tend to be inherited together
Example studied by Bateson and Punnett• Parental generation: plants with purple flowers, long
pollen crossed to plants with red flowers, round pollen
• The F2 generation did not show a 9:3:3:1 ratio
• Most F2 individuals had purple flowers, long pollen or red flowers, round pollen
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Purple longPurple roundRed longRed round
Explanation: linked genes
Parentaldiploid cellPpLl
Experiment
Purple flower
PpLl Long pollenPpLl
Prediction(9:3:3:1)
ObservedoffspringPhenotypes
284212155
215717124
Mostgametes
Meiosis
PL
pl
PL
PL pl
pl
Fertilization
Sperm
Mostoffspring Eggs
3 purple long : 1 red roundNot accounted for: purple round and red long
PL PL
PL
PL
plPL
pl
pl
plpl
Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles
Linked alleles can be separated by crossing over• Recombinant chromosomes are formed• Thomas Hunt Morgan demonstrated this in early experiments• Geneticists measure genetic distance by recombination
frequencyOr• The probability that two genes will be seperated by crossing
over is proportional to the physical distance between them in the chromosome.
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
ExplanationG L
g l g l
g lGgLl
(female)ggll
(male)
G L g l g L
g l
g l
g l g l
g l
g l
G L
SpermEggs
Offspring
g L
G l
G l
Mutant phenotypes
Shortaristae
Blackbody(g)
Cinnabareyes(c)
Vestigialwings(l)
Browneyes
Long aristae(appendageson head)
Graybody(G)
Redeyes(C)
Normalwings(L)
Redeyes
Wild-type phenotypes
A single character may be influenced by many genes
Polygenic inheritance• Many genes influence one trait• Skin color is affected by at least three genes
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
P generation
1–8
F1 generation
F2 generation
Fra
ctio
n o
f p
op
ula
tio
n
Skin color
Eggs
Sperm1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
aabbcc(very light)
AABBCC(very dark)
AaBbCc AaBbCc
1––64
15––64
6––64
1––64
15––64
6––64
20––64
1––64
15––64
6––64
20––64
P generation
1–8
F1 generation
F2 generation
Eggs
Sperm1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
1–8
aabbcc(very light)
AABBCC(very dark)
AaBbCc AaBbCc
1––64
15––64
6––64
1––64
15––64
6––64
20––64