46
64 4. SIMULATION OF WAVE FILTERS USING A COMPUTER. A computer program was developed in this research to assist in the validation of experimental results. This program was required to meet the following specifications: 1. It had to run on the Digital Equipment Corporation System 10, (DEC-10), available at the University of Edinburgh, using FORTRAN. 2. It was required to be an interactive program, not a batch job system. 3. It was to ask for the minimum amount of information from the user and had therefore to cover all the filter design process. 4. It had to be able to design two types of wave filter. a. Those based on cascaded transmission line low - pass filters, for which the resulting wave structure would use cascaded two - port adaptors. b. Those based on lumped - element low, high or band - pass filters for which the resulting wave structure would use three - port adaptors. In this case the program also had to be capable of performing the Kuroda transforms required to give a wave structure which is easy to implement, see. Section 3.6.2. The matched port technique described in Section 3.6.1 was not used because of the adverse aspects of its implementation outlined therein. 5. After the wave filter was designed the program had to present its results to the operator who was then to have the opportunity of varying the

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6 4

4. SIMULATION OF WAVE FILTERS USING A COMPUTER.

A c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m was d e v e l o p e d i n t h i s r e s e a r c h t o

a s s i s t i n t h e v a l i d a t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s . T h i s

p r o g r a m was r e q u i r e d t o meet t h e f o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c a t i o n s :

1. I t had t o r u n on t h e D i g i t a l E q u i p m e n t

C o r p o r a t i o n S y s t e m 1 0 , (DEC-10), a v a i l a b l e a t t h e

U n i v e r s i t y o f E d i n b u r g h , u s i n g FORTRAN.

2 . I t was r e q u i r e d t o b e a n i n t e r a c t i v e p r o g r a m , n o t

a b a t c h j o b s y s t e m .

3 . I t was t o a s k f o r t h e minimum amount o f

i n f o r m a t i o n f rom t h e u s e r and had t h e r e f o r e t o

c o v e r a l l t h e f i l t e r d e s i g n p r o c e s s .

4 . I t had t o b e a b l e t o d e s i g n two t y p e s o f wave

f i l t e r .

a . T h o s e b a s e d on c a s c a d e d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e l o w- p a s s f i l t e r s , f o r w h i c h t h e r e s u l t i n g wave s t r u c t u r e would u s e c a s c a d e d t w o- p o r t a d a p t o r s .

b . T h o s e b a s e d on l u m p e d- e l e m e n t l o w , h i g h o r b a n d- p a s s f i l t e r s f o r w h i c h t h e r e s u l t i n g wave s t r u c t u r e would u s e t h r e e - p o r t a d a p t o r s . I n t h i s c a s e t h e p r o g r a m a l s o had t o b e c a p a b l e o f p e r f o r m i n g t h e Kuroda t r a n s f o r m s r e q u i r e d t o g i v e a wave s t r u c t u r e which is e a s y t o i m p l e m e n t , s e e . S e c t i o n 3 . 6 . 2 . The m a t c h e d p o r t t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 6 . 1 was n o t u s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e a d v e r s e a s p e c t s o f i t s i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o u t l i n e d t h e r e i n .

5 . A f t e r t h e wave f i l t e r was d e s i g n e d t h e p r o g r a m

had t o p r e s e n t i t s r e s u l t s t o t h e o p e r a t o r who

was t h e n t o h a v e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f v a r y i n g t h e

Page 2: 4. SIMULATION OF WAVE FILTERS USING A COMPUTER

*

6 5

c a l c u l a t e d c o e f f i c i e n t s .

6 . The s i m u l a t i o n was t h e n t o b e p e r f o r m e d and t h e

o u t p u t made a v a i l a b l e g r a p h i c a l l y i n o n e o f t h e

f o l l o w i n g t h r e e f o r m s .

a . The a m p l i t u d e t r a n s f e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e f i l t e r , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y p e r f e c t r e s p o n s e .

b . The p h a s e r e s p o n s e o f t h e c i r c u i t .

c . The g r o u p d e l a y r e s p o n s e o f t h e c i r c u i t .

7 . The p r o g r a m had t o b e c a p a b l e o f p e r m i t t i n g t h e

o p e r a t o r t o "zoom i n " on p o r t i o n s o f t h e g r a p h s

s e l e c t e d by a c u r s o r and o f r e t u r n i n g t h e

n u m e r i c a l c o - o r d i n a t e s o f p o i n t s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e

o p e r a t o r u s i n g t h e c u r s o r .

8 . I t was r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e c o m p l e t e s e t o f g r a p h s

c o u l d b e p l o t t e d on t h e DEC-10 p l o t t e r ,

d i s p l a y i n g a n y d e s i r e d s e c t i o n o f t h e f r e q u e n c y

a x i s o n a l l t h r e e .

9 . A l l i n p u t d a t a a n d o u t p u t r e s u l t s h a d t o b e

a v a i l a b l e i n n u m e r i c a l fo rm i n a n o u t p u t f i l e .

A c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m w h i c h m e t t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s was

w r i t t e n and is g i v e n i n Append ix 2 .

The p r o g r a m r e q u i r e s t h e f o l l o w i n g i n p u t s .

1. The f i l t e r o r d e r .

2 . The f i l t e r t y p e - c a s c a d e d u n i t e l e m e n t ; lumped

Page 3: 4. SIMULATION OF WAVE FILTERS USING A COMPUTER

6 6

e l e m e n t l o w , h i g h o r b a n d- p a s s .

3. The c u t o f f f r e q u e n c y ( s ) a s a p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e

c l o c k f r e q u e n c y .

4. W h e t h e r t h e f i l t e r i s t o b e a B u t t e r w o r t h o r a

C h e b y s h e v d e s i g n a n d , i f C h e b y s h e v , t h e p r o g r a m

r e q u i r e s e i t h e r t h e p a s s- b a n d r i p p l e , e p s i l o n o r

t h e VSWR o f t h e r e f e r e n c e f i l t e r .

The o p e r a t o r i s a l s o g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e n t e r h i s

o w n r e f e r e n c e f i l t e r , t o a l t e r c o e f f i c i e n t s and make o t h e r

m o d i f i c a t i o n s .

I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e , i n t h e c a s e o f a c a s c a d e d u n i t

e l e m e n t f i l t e r , t o c a l c u l a t e t h e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n f r o m a n y

o n e n o d e w i t h i n t h e c i r c u i t t o a n y o t h e r n o d e . T h i s i s

u s e f u l f o r c i r c u i t n o i s e a n a l y s i s o r f o r k e e p i n g a c h e c k on

s i g n a l a m p l i t u d e g r o w t h w i t h i n t h e f i l t e r .

A s t h e p r o g r a m was d e s i g n e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f

p o s s i b l e f i l t e r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s i n m i n d , t h e r e a r e a l s o

f a c i l i t i e s f o r v a r y i n g c e r t a i n s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s w i t h i n t h e

s t r u c t u r e a n d f o r s e t t i n g t h e g a i n o f a m p l i f i e r s w i t h i n t h e

c i r c u i t .

The p r o g r a m a l s o a l l o w s e x t r a t i m e d e l a y s t o b e e n t e r e d

i n t o t h e wave s t r u c t u r e t o p e r m i t s i m u l a t i o n s o f t h e t y p e o f

p s e u d o- b a n d- p a s s r e s p o n s e s d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 7 .

The e s s e n t i a l o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p r o g r a m i s a s f o l l o w s .

1. The f i l t e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e r e a d i n .

Page 4: 4. SIMULATION OF WAVE FILTERS USING A COMPUTER

6 7

2 . The r e f e r e n c e f i l t e r i s d e s i g n e d u s i n g good

a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r m u l a e f o r t h e e l e m e n t v a l u e s .

3. The o p e r a t o r is g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f a l t e r i n g

t h e r e f e r e n c e f i l t e r o r e n t e r i n g h i s own e l e m e n t

v a l u e s .

4 . The wave s t r u c t u r e i s d e s i g n e d .

5 . The o p e r a t o r is g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f a l t e r i n g

t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s w i t h i n t h e wave s t r u c t u r e .

6 . The i m p u l s e r e s p o n s e o f t h e wave f i l t e r i s f o u n d .

No s p e c i a l window f u n c t i o n i s u s e d on t h i s

i m p u l s e r e s p o n s e a s a v e r y l a r g e number o f p o i n t s

a r e u s e d and t h e r e s p o n s e h a s e s s e n t i a l l y d e c a y e d

t o z e r o b y t h e l a s t p o i n t .

7 . A d i s c r e t e F a s t F o u r i e r T r a n s f o r m , ( F F T ) , i s

p e r f o r m e d on t h e i m p u l s e r e s p o n s e a n d t h e

a m p l i t u d e and p h a s e r e s p o n s e s o f t h e c i r c u i t a r e

o b t a i n e d .

8 . The g r o u p d e l a y r e s p o n s e o f t h e c i r c u i t i s

o b t a i n e d b y d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e p h a s e r e s p o n s e .

T h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s a c h i e v e d b y f i n d i n g t h e

g r a d i e n t o f t h e l i n e c o n n e c t i n g e a c h o f t h e

c o n s e c u t i v e p a i r s o f p o i n t s t h a t make up t h e

g r a p h o f t h e p h a s e r e s p o n s e , a n d i s t h e r e f o r e a

p o i n t by p o i n t o p e r a t i o n . However , a s e a c h g r a p h

Page 5: 4. SIMULATION OF WAVE FILTERS USING A COMPUTER

68

is made up o f 256 p o i n t s a f i n e r e s o l u t i o n i s

s t i l l a v a i l a b l e .

9 . The o p e r a t o r i s p r e s e n t e d w i t h a c h o i c e o f

o u t p u t s a n d may p i c k t h e o n e h e w a n t s . The

d e s i r e d o u t p u t i s t h e n d i s p l a y e d g r a p h i c a l l y a n d

may h a v e i t s s c a l e a l t e r e d b y use o f t h e c u r s o r .

The o t h e r o u t p u t s a r e s t o r e d and may b e r e c a l l e d

a t w i l l .

No f u r t h e r a t t e m p t w i l l b e made i n t h i s t h e s i s t o f u l l y

e x p l a i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h i s c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m a s i t i s

n e c e s s a r i l y v e r y i n v o l v e d . Examples o f t h e o u t p u t o f t h e

p r o g r a m w i l l b e g i v e n t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e t h e s i s

t o i l l u s t r a t e v a r i o u s p o i n t s . p a r t i c u l a r f i g u r e s 5 . 7 , In

5 . 8 a n d 5 .9 g i v e e x a m p l e s o f a s i m u l a t i o n o f t h e a m p l i t u d e

r e s p o n s e , p h a s e r e s p o n s e and g r o u p d e l a y , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f a

s e v e n t h o r d e r f i l t e r w h i c h i s b a s e d on a c a s c a d e d

t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e r e f e r e n c e f i l t e r .

Page 6: 4. SIMULATION OF WAVE FILTERS USING A COMPUTER

6 9

5. IMPLEMENTATION OF TWO-PORT ADAPTOR FILTERS.

So f a r t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f wave f i l t e r s h a s n o t b e e n

c o n s i d e r e d . However two p o i n t s s h o u l d b y now b e c l e a r :

1. Wave f i l t e r s i n v o l v e a g r e a t d e a l o f c a l c u l a t i o n s

w h i c h m u s t b e c a r r i e d o u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i f a

h i g h s a m p l e r a t e i s d e s i r e d .

2 . Wave f i l t e r s a r e t o a f i r s t o r d e r i n s e n s i t i v e t o

v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i r c o e f f i c i e n t v a l u e s a s t h e y

a r e m o d e l l e d d i r e c t l y f r o m RLC l a d d e r f i l t e r s

w h i c h a r e i n s e n s i t i v e t o v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i r

e l e m e n t v a l u e s .

The l a r g e number o f c a l c u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e d make a

m o n o l i t h i c d i g i t a l v e r s i o n o f a wave f i l t e r o f e v e n m o d e r a t e

o r d e r u n r e a s o n a b l e u s i n g p r e s e n t t e c h n o l o g y a n d a t t h e

commencement o f t h i s r e s e a r c h no p u b l i s h e d e x p e r i m e n t a l

r e a l i s a t i o n s s u i t a b l e f o r i n t e g r a t i o n i n e i t h e r d i g i t a l o r

a n a l o g u e f o r m had b e e n r e p o r t e d . T h i s m i g h t seem t o i m p l y

t h a t w e a r e a l o n g way f r o m t h e " f i l t e r o n a c h i p " i d e a l .

However , no p a r t o f t h e t h e o r y t h u s f a r d i s c u s s e d s t a t e s

t h a t a wave f i l t e r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n m u s t b e p e r f o r m e d i n

q u a n t i s e d b i n a r y f o r m . N o r e f e r e n c e h a s b e e n made i n t h i s

t h e s i s t o t h e method by w h i c h t h e r e q u i r e d c a l c u l a t i o n s n e e d

t o b e c a r r i e d o u t , a l t h o u g h o r i g i n a l work [31] i m p l i e d a

d i g i t a l s o l u t i o n . I n t h i s r e s e a r c h a n e f f i c i e n t method

w h i c h c a n c a r r y o u t t h e c o m p u t a t i o n s i n v o l v e d , u s i n g o t h e r

t h a n d i g i t a l t e c h n o l o g y , was p u r s u e d . To t h i s e n d , l e t u s

Page 7: 4. SIMULATION OF WAVE FILTERS USING A COMPUTER

7 0

f i r s t l o o k a t t h e c a s c a d e d u n i t e l e m e n t t y p e o f f i l t e r which

u s e s o n l y t w o- p o r t a d a p t o r s i n i t s wave s t r u c t u r e , s e e

s e c t i o n 3 .5 .

T h i s a p p r o a c h h a s r e c e n t l y a l s o b e e n f o l l o w e d by o t h e r

w o r k e r s i n t h i s f i e l d [ 4 4 , 4 5 , 46] who h a v e u s e d a s t r u c t u r e

w h i c h i s d i f f e r e n t t o t h a t d e v e l o p e d i n t h i s work , t h e

v o l t a g e i n v e r t i n g s w i t c h ( V I S ) . The V I S a p p r o a c h h a s

r e s u l t e d i n u s e f u l f i l t e r s t h o u g h t h e r e s u l t i n g c i r c u i t s

t e n d t o s u f f e r f r o m t h e e f f e c t s o f s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e [ 4 7 ] .

The r e l a t i v e m e r i t s o f t h e VIS t e c h n i q u e a n d t h e t e c h n i q u e

t o b e d e s c r i b e d h e r e r e m a i n t o b e s e e n .

I n a wave f i l t e r b a s e d o n a c a s c a d e d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e

mode l t h e a d a p t o r s a r e r e q u i r e d t o s o l v e e q u a t i o n s o f t h e

f o r m

B1 = A 2 + ( A 2 - A1) )

B 2 = A l + ( A 2 - A1) ) ) ( 5 . 1 )

w h e r e = (R1 - R2) / (R1 + R 2 ) , s e e e q u a t i o n s ( 3 . 2 4 ) .

H e r e we m u s t c a r r y o u t t h e p r o c e s s e s o f a d d i t i o n ,

s u b t r a c t i o n and m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ( b y a v a l u e l e s s t h a n o n e ) .

F u n d a m e n t a l l y , t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s n e e d n o t b e c a r r i e d o u t

u s i n g d i g i t a l n u m b e r s , t h e y c a n b e p e r f o r m e d u s i n g v o l t a g e

and c h a r g e . T h e r e f o r e , i n s t e a d o f r e p r e s e n t i n g o u r wave

q u a n t i t i e s b y d i g i t a l n u m b e r s , l e t u s r e p r e s e n t them by t h e

v o l t a g e s o n , a n d t h e c h a r g e s i n , c a p a c i t o r s . W e a r e t h u s l e d

t o a n a n a l o g u e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e wave f i l t e r i n w h i c h

c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p e r f o r m e d i n te rms o f v o l t a g e a n d c h a r g e .

T h i s r e a l i s a t i o n o f a d a p t o r s i s u n i q u e t o t h i s r e s e a r c h a n d

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71

w i l l b e shown t o r e s u l t i n f i l t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a r e

s u p e r i o r t o i n t e g r a t e d d i g i t a l f o r m s a l r e a d y p u b l i s h e d . The I

a d a p t o r r e a l i s a t i o n u s e d i n t h e V I S t e c h n i q u e m e n t i o n e d

a b o v e is s i m i l a r t o t h e r e a l i s a t i o n r e p o r t e d h e r e , i n t h a t

a n a l o g u e- s a m p l e d- d a t a t e c h n i q u e s a r e u s e d , b u t t h e me thod

employed t o p e r f o r m t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y

d i f f e r e n t .

To add v a l u e s u s i n g a n a l o g u e m e t h o d s w e u s e t h e f o l l o w i n g

t e c h n i q u e . Two c a p a c i t o r s , C1 a n d C 2 , a r e c h a r g e d t o t h e

v o l t a g e s t h a t r e p r e s e n t t h e v a l u e s t o b e a d d e d . T h e s e

c a p a c i t o r s a r e t h e n c o n n e c t e d i n s e r i e s and t h e v o l t a g e

a c r o s s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e sum o f t h e two v a l u e s .

T h i s o p e r a t i o n i s shown i n c i r c u i t f o r m i n F i g . 5 . 1 ( a ) .

F i g u r e 5-1: The o p e r a t i o n s o f a d d i t i o n a n d s u b t r a c t i o n i n t h e c h a r g e and v o l t a g e d o m a i n s .

To s u b t r a c t v a l u e s u s i n g a n a l o g u e m e t h o d s w e c o n n e c t t h e

Page 9: 4. SIMULATION OF WAVE FILTERS USING A COMPUTER

7 2

e n d s o f a c a p a c i t o r , C , a c r o s s t h e v o l t a g e s w h i c h r e p r e s e n t

t h e v a l u e s t o b e s u b t r a c t e d , t h e n d i s c o n n e c t t h e c a p a c i t o r

a n d m e a s u r e t h e v o l t a g e a c r o s s i t . T h i s v o l t a g e r e p r e s e n t s

t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two i n p u t v a l u e s . T h i s o p e r a t i o n

is shown i n c i r c u i t form i n F i g . 5 . 1 ( b ) .

T o m u l t i p l y by a f i x e d number w h i c h i s l e s s t h a n o n e w e

p r o c e e d a s follows. D u r i n g c l o c k p h a s e o n e we c h a r g e a

c a p a c i t o r , C1, t o a v o l t a g e which r e p r e s e n t s t h e

m u l t i p l i c a n d , V i n , a s shown i n F i g . 5 . 2 .

F i g u r e 5- 2: The o p e r a t i o n o f m u l t i p l i c a t i o n b y a f a c t o r l e s s t h a n o n e i n t h e c h a r g e a n d voltage d o m a i n s .

A l s o d u r i n g c l o c k p h a s e o n e , w e d i s c h a r g e a c a p a c i t o r , C 2 .

D u r i n g c l o c k p h a s e two w e c o n n e c t C1 and C 2 i n p a r a l l e l and

c h a r g e s h a r i n g t a k e s p l a c e b e t w e e n them.

L e t t h e c h a r g e i n c a p a c i t o r s C1 and C2 b e Q1 and Q2

r e s p e c t i v e l y . D u r i n g c l o c k p h a s e o n e t h e t o t a l c h a r g e i n

t h e s y s t e m is

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7 3

The v o l t a g e a c r o s s t h e p a r a l l e l c o m b i n a t i o n o f C 1 and C 2

d u r i n g c l o c k p h a s e two may b e e v a l u a t e d a s f o l l o w s . The

combined c a p a c i t a n c e o f C 1 a n d C 2 i s C 1 + C 2 a n d t h e v o l t a g e

a c r o s s them b o t h i s Vo.

T h e r e f o r e t h e c h a r g e i n t h e s y s t e m d u r i n g c l o c k p h a s e two

i s

By t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c h a r g e c o n s e r v a t i o n t h e c h a r g e s i n t h e

s y s t e m d u r i n g c l o c k p h a s e s o n e and two m u s t b e e q u a l .

T h e r e f o r e , f r o m e q u a t i o n s ( 5 . 2 ) and ( 5 . 3 ) w e h a v e

w h i c h i m p l i e s t h a t

a n d w e h a v e m u l t i p l i e d V i n by

S u p p o s e C1 = C a n d C 2 = C

Then

and t h e a c t u a l v a l u e o f C i s

C1 / (Ci + C 2 )

( 5 . 5 )

( 5 .7 )

s e e n t o b e u n i m p o r t a n t . On ly

t h e r a t i o o f t h e two c a p a c i t o r s s e t s t h e m u l t i p l i e r .

I f w e w i s h t o m u l t i p l y by a f a c t o r , s a y , w e m u s t

h a v e T h e r e f o r e ( 5 . 8 )

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7 4

I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t i f w e w i s h t o m u l t i p l y b y a f a c t o r

a l l w e r e q u i r e a r e some s w i t c h e s a n d two c a p a c i t o r s w i t h a

r a t i o o f w h e r e is a s d e f i n e d i n e q u a t i o n ( 5 . 8 ) .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h i s method c a n o n l y b e u s e d

t o m u l t i p l y by f a c t o r s whose m o d u l u s is l e s s t h a n o n e . A l s o

t h e c h a r g i n g and d i s c h a r g i n g t i m e c o n s t a n t s m u s t b e much

less t h a n t h e s w i t c h i n g o r c l o c k i n g r a t e .

5.1 TWO-PORT ADAPTOR CIRCUIT.

We now h a v e a l l t h e e l e m e n t s r e q u i r e d t o s o l v e t h e two-

p o r t a d a p t o r e q u a t i o n s r e p r o d u c e d i n e q u a t i o n ( 5 . 1 ) . The

full c i r c u i t w h i c h s o l v e s t h e e q u a t i o n s i s g i v e n i n

F i g . 5 . 3 .

F i g u r e 5-3: The t w o- p o r t a d a p t o r c i r c u i t .

D u r i n g c l o c k p h a s e o n e c a p a c i t o r C1 c h a r g e s t o ( A 2 - A l ) ,

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7 5

C2 i s d i s c h a r g e d , CT1 i s c h a r g e d t o A l a n d CT2 i s c h a r g e d t o

A2.

D u r i n g c l o c k p h a s e two c h a r g e s h a r i n g b e t w e e n C 1 a n d C 2

t a k e s p l a c e a n d c a p a c i t o r s CT1 a n d CT2 a r e e a c h c o n n e c t e d i n

s e r i e s w i t h t h e p a r a l l e l c o m b i n a t i o n o f C 1 a n d C2. The

v o l t a g e w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s B 1 i s f o u n d b e t w e e n t h e end o f CT2

t h a t i s n o t c o n n e c t e d t o t h e p a r a l l e l C l , C 2 c o m b i n a t i o n , and

g r o u n d . T h i s v o l t a g e is b u f f e r e d by a u n i t y g a i n a m p l i f i e r

b e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e a d a p t o r . S i m i l a r l y t h e v o l t a g e which

r e p r e s e n t s B2 is t o b e f o u n d b e t w e e n t h e end o f CT1 t h a t i s

n o t c o n n e c t e d t o t h e p a r a l l e l C 1 , C 2 c o m b i n a t i o n , and g r o u n d ,

a n d i t i s b u f f e r e d b e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e a d a p t o r .

I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t t h i s c i r c u i t c a l c u l a t e s t h e a d a p t o r

e q u a t i o n s o f ( 5 . 1 ) i n a t ime o f T/2, a n d h a s t h e wave

s t r u c t u r e shown i n F i g . 5 . 4 .

F i g u r e 5- 4: The wave s t r u c t u r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e c i r c u i t o f F i g . 5 . 3 .

T h i s wave s t r u c t u r e i s e x a c t l y t h e same a s o n e o f t h e

s e c t i o n s shown i n t h e c a s c a d e d u n i t e l e m e n t wave f i l t e r o f

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7 6

F i g . 3 .10 .

I f w e c a s c a d e n+1 o f t h e c i r c u i t s shown i n F i g . 5 . 3 w e

w i l l h a v e a n o r d e r c a s c a d e d u n i t e l e m e n t f i l t e r .

5 .2 ANALYSIS OF ADAPTOR C I R C U I T INCLUDING STRAY

CAPACITANCES.

The a n a l y s i s g i v e n d o e s n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t a n y o f t h e

s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s t h a t w i l l i n e v i t a b l y b e p r e s e n t i n a n y

p r a c t i c a l c i r c u i t . A l l n o d e s i n t h e c i r c u i t h a v e t h e i r

a s s o c i a t e d s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s b u t some n o d e s a r e a l w a y s

v o l t a g e d r i v e n , w h i c h makes t h e p r a c t i c a l e f f e c t s o f t h e i r

a s s o c i a t e d s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s i n s i g n i f i c a n t . T h i s i s

b e c a u s e t h e l o w d r i v i n g s o u r c e i m p e d a n c e w i l l s e t t h e

c i r c u i t v o l t a g e s d i r e c t l y , and n o t b e i n f l u e n c e d by

c a p a c i t i v e d i v i d e r e f f e c t s . The a d a p t o r c i r c u i t i n c l u d i n g

t h e s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s t h a t w e r e i d e n t i f i e d a s b e i n g

s i g n i f i c a n t i s g i v e n i n F i g . 5 . 5 . The m o d i f i e d a n a l y s i s o f

t h e c i r c u i t , i n c l u d i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s

shown, i s a s f o l l o w s .

A f t e r t h e end o f c l o c k p h a s e o n e t h e v o l t a g e s on t h e

c a p a c i t o r s w i l l b e a s f o l l o w s .

Where C 2 ' is d e f i n e d a s C 2 ' = C 2 + C S 2 , b e c a u s e t h e

c a p a c i t o r CS2 i s a l w a y s i n p a r a l l e l w i t h C 2 .

On c l o s i n g t h e s w i t c h marked ( * ) i n F i g . 5 . 5 t h e v o l t a g e s

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7 7

F i g u r e 5-5: Two- por t a d a p t o r c i r c u i t i n w h i c h t h e i m p o r t a n t s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s a r e i n c l u d e d .

o n C1 w i l l become V , w h e r e

(5.10)

T h e r e i s o n l y o n e p h a s e two s w i t c h l e f t t o c l o s e and j u s t

b e f o r e i t d o e s t h e s i t u a t i o n i s a s shown i n F i g . 5 . 6 , i n

w h i c h t h e a d a p t o r c i r c u i t h a s b e e n r e a r r a n g e d . On c l o s i n g

t h e s w i t c h

T h e v a r i a t i o n i n c h a r g e on t h e s e r i e s c o m b i n a t i o n o f CT2 and

CTS2 i s

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Therefore

where X =

This gives

and h e n c e

( 5 . 1 3 )

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7 9

S i m i l a r l y

N o t e t h a t i f C S 1 = C S 2 = C T S 1 = C T S 2 = O t h e n

B 1 = A 2 + C1(A2 - A l ) / ( C 1 + C 2 ) and

B2 = A l + C1(A2 - A l ) / (C1 + C 2 )

a s e x p e c t e d .

L e t u s now a s s u m e t h a t t h e c i r c u i t is s y m m e t r i c a l , and

t h e r e f o r e

C T 1 = C T 2 = C T

a n d t h a t t h e s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s C S T 1

e q u a l , i . e .

C T S 1 = C T S 2 = C T S

and C S T 2 a r e a l s o

T h i s i s a v e r y r e a s o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n f o r a c i r c u i t

i m p l e m e n t e d i n m o n o l i t h i c f o r m . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h e

e q u a t i o n s (5 .13 ) and ( 5 . 1 4 ) r e d u c e t o t h e f o l l o w i n g .

w h e r e

L e t

( 5 . 1 5 )

(5.16)

( 5 . 1 7 )

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Then

8 0

( 5 . 1 8 )

a n d s i m i l a r l y

(5 .19 )

I f t h e c i r c u i t i s r e a r r a n g e d w i t h A l a n d A 2 i n t e r c h a n g e d t o

g i v e t h e e f f e c t o f b e i n g n e g a t i v e t h e n

and

( 5 . 2 0 )

(5.21)

When t h e v a l u e s o f CTS, C S 1 and C S 2 a r e known t h e v a l u e o f

C 2 c a n b e a d j u s t e d t o g i v e a v a l u e f o r t h a t i s a c t u a l l y

t h e d e s i r e d v a l u e f o r t h e m u l t i p l i e r . U s u a l l y , h o w e v e r , t h e

v a l u e s o f CTS, C S 1 and CS2 a r e n o t known e x a c t l y b u t c a n

o n l y b e e s t i m a t e d . I f t h e e s t i m a t e d v a l u e s a r e u s e d a n d t h e

v a l u e of  a d j u s t e d a s t h o u g h t h e y were e x a c t , t h i s w i l l

r e s u l t i n a n e r r o r i n t h e v a l u e . I t i s , h o w e v e r , o n e o f

t h e i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i s c l a s s o f f i l t e r t h a t t h e

f i l t e r r e s p o n s e is t o a f i r s t - o r d e r i n s e n s i t i v e t o

v a r i a t i o n s i n i t s c o e f f i c i e n t v a l u e s . T h e r e f o r e t h e

v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e m u l t i p l i e r v a l u e s t h a t w i l l r e s u l t f r o m

e s t i m a t e d v a l u e s o f t h e s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s b e i n g u s e d ,

r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r t r u e v a l u e s , a r e e x p e c t e d t o h a v e v e r y

l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e f i l t e r r e s p o n s e .

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81

I t w i l l b e s e e n f rom e x a m i n a t i o n o f e q u a t i o n s ( 5 . 1 8 ) t o

( 5 . 2 1 ) t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e a d a p t o r

m u l t i p l i e r v a l u e s i s n o t t h e o n l y p r o b l e m . The l a s t term i n

t h e e q u a t i o n s shows t h a t t h e r a t i o o f C S 1 t o C1 h a s a n

i m p o r t a n t p a r t t o p l a y w h i c h c a n n o t b e a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e

c o e f f i c i e n t . T h i s r e s u l t s i n a c r i t i c a l s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e

b e i n g p r e s e n t i n t h e c i r c u i t and u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s s t r a y

d o e s h a v e a n a p p r e c i a b l e e f f e c t on t h e f i l t e r r e s p o n s e .

T h i s e f f e c t h a s b e e n s i m u l a t e d and t h e r e s u l t s a r e g i v e n i n

s e c t i o n 5 . 4 .

5.3 SIMULATION OF A WAVE FILTER WITHOUT IMPERFECTIONS,

F i g . 5 .7 shows a c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n o f t h e a m p l i t u d e

r e s p o n s e o f a l o w- p a s s Chebyshev wave f i l t e r w h i c h h a s a

d e s i g n e d p a s s- b a n d r i p p l e o f 0.177dB. T h i s f i l t e r i s b a s e d

o n a s e v e n t h - o r d e r c a s c a d e d u n i t e l e m e n t mode l and i s

s i m u l a t e d u s i n g t h e p r o g r a m d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g t h i s r e s e a r c h

a n d d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n f o u r and a p p e n d i x two . T h i s wave

f i l t e r i s " p e r f e c t " i n t h a t no i m p e r f e c t i o n s o f t h e t y p e

t h a t w i l l b e p r e s e n t i n a p r a c t i c a l c i r c u i t h a v e b e e n

d e l i b e r a t e l y a d d e d . T h e r e a r e no s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s and t h e

b u f f e r a m p l i f i e r s r e q u i r e d i n t h e c i r c u i t h a v e a g a i n o f

e x a c t l y o n e . F i g . 5 .7 a c t u a l l y c o m p r i s e s o f t w o g r a p h s , t h e

s i m u l a t e d f i l t e r r e s p o n s e d rawn w i t h a s o l i d l i n e , and a

p l o t o f a p u r e Chebychev f u n c t i o n o f t h e t y p e shown i n

e q u a t i o n ( 3 . 3 0 ) d rawn w i t h a b r o k e n l i n e . I n t h i s c a s e t h e

two g r a p h s a r e c o m p l e t e l y c o i n c i d e n t a n d l o o k a s t h o u g h t h e y

a r e o n e . T h i s f i g u r e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e e x a c t n e s s o f t h e

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a 3

f i l t e r d e s i g n . The p h a s e r e s p o n s e and g r o u p d e l a y o f t h e

" p e r f e c t " f i l t e r a r e g i v e n i n F i g u r e s ( 5 . 8 ) and ( 5 . 9 )

r e s p e c t i v e l y . 5.4 SIMULATION OF THE EFFECTS OF STRAY CAPACITANCES.

E q u a t i o n s (5 .18 ) t o ( 5 . 2 1 ) show t h a t o n l y t h e r a t i o o f

t h e c a p a c i t o r s CS1 a n d C 1 is o f i m p o r t a n c e i n a f i l t e r

d e s i g n . The c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m n e e d s t o know t h e v a l u e o f

t h i s r a t i o i n o r d e r t o s i m u l a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e s t r a y

c a p a c i t a n c e i t r e p r e s e n t s . However, t h i s r a t i o i s n o t t h e

i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d t o t h e p r o g r a m . I n s t e a d i t i s

i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m t h a t t h e c a p a c i t o r C1

n a s a v a l u e o f 30 .037pF and t h a t t h e v a l u e o f CS1 w i l l b e

t h e i n f o r m a t i o n e n t e r e d . Though a n y v a l u e f o r C1 c o u l d h a v e

b e e n c h o s e n f o r u s e i n t h e p r o g r a m t h e v a l u e o f 30 .037pF was

u s e d a s i t i s e q u a l t o t h e v a l u e o f C1 i n t h e i n t e g r a t e d

c i r c u i t w h i c h was d e s i g n e d a s p a r t o f t h i s work a n d is

d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r s e v e n .

We w i l l f i r s t l y make C S 1 e q u a l t o a n o n- z e r o v a l u e i n t h e

s i m u l a t i o n by g i v i n g i t a v a l u e o f 0 . 0 5 p F . T h i s r e s u l t s i n

t h e r a t i o o f C1 t o CS1 b e i n g 6 0 0 t o 1. The f u l l a m p l i t u d e

r e s p o n s e o f t h e m o d i f i e d s e v e n t h - o r d e r f i l t e r i s g i v e n i n

F i g . 5 . 1 0 . I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t v e r y l i t t l e c h a n g e i n t h e

r e s p o n s e o f t h e f i l t e r t a k e s p l a c e . A m a g n i f i e d g r a p h o f t h e

p a s s- b a n d o f t h i s f i l t e r i s g i v e n i n F i g . 5.11. A s l i g h t

" p e a k i n g " o f t h e r e s p o n s e o f a b o u t 0.2dB c a n b e s e e n . T h i s

l e v e l o f p e a k i n g may be a c c e p t a b l e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r

a p p l i c a t i o n , i n d e e d i t may b e d e s i r a b l e , a s t h e r e i s a

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88

s i n x / x r o l l - o f f p r e s e n t i n t h e f i l t e r w h i c h i s n o t shown i n

t h e s e s i m u l a t i o n s . T h i s s i n x / x f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e , w h i c h is

p r e s e n t i n a l l s a m p l e d- d a t a s y s t e m s , c a u s e s a d r o o p i n t h e

a m p l i t u d e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e f i l t e r w h i c h m u s t b e

c o m p e n s a t e d f o r i n some way i n a r e a l , f u l l y e n g i n e e r e d ,

s y s t e m .

5.5 SIMULATION OF THE EFFECTS OF LOW BUFFER GAINS.

A n o t h e r p o s s i b l e i m p e r f e c t i o n i n a f i l t e r c i r c u i t

c o m p r i s e d o f c a s c a d e d t w o- p o r t a d a p t o r s is b u f f e r g a i n s t h a t

a r e l e s s t h a n u n i t y . T h i s e f f e c t c a n n o t b e seen i n t h e

a d a p t o r e q u a t i o n s o f ( 5 . 1 8 ) t o ( 5 . 2 1 ) s i n c e t h e s e d e s c r i b e

t h e s i t u a t i o n i n s i d e a n a d a p t o r , b u t d o n o t c o n s i d e r t h e

i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n o f a d a p t o r s by b u f f e r s .

F i g . 5 . 1 2 shows a s i m u l a t i o n o f t h e f u l l a m p l i t u d e

r e s p o n s e o f t h e same wave f i l t e r a s t h a t shown i n t h e

p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n b u t w i t h no s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s a n d a b u f f e r

g a i n o f 0 . 9 9 9 5 . L i t t l e e f f e c t c a n be seen b u t i f w e c o n s i d e r

F i g . 5.13 w h i c h s h o w s t h e g r e a t l y m a g n i f i e d p a s s- b a n d

r e s p o n s e o f t h e f i l t e r w e see t h a t l e s s t h a n u n i t y b u f f e r

g a i n s c a u s e a d r o o p i n t h e p a s s- b a n d r e s p o n s e .

I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t t h e f i l t e r is s e n s i t i v e t o v a r i a t i o n s

i n t h e b u f f e r g a i n s o f e v e n 0.05%, t h o u g h a t s u c h l o w l e v e l s

t h e o n l y r e s u l t is a p a s s- b a n d d r o o p o f 0 . l d B . I t i s ,

h o w e v e r , r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e t o p r o v i d e a m p l i f i e r s w i t h a

s t a b l e g a i n o f v e r y c l o s e t o o n e b y u s i n g a 1 0 0 % f e e d b a c k

( v o l t a g e f o l l o w e r ) t e c h n i q u e . An a m p l i f i e r w i t h s u c h

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f e e d b a c k i s i n i t s b e s t p o s s i b l e mode f o r h i g h s p e e d

o p e r a t i o n . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t s u c h wave f i l t e r s s h o u l d b e

c a p a b l e o f h i g h sample r a t e s , a s w e l l a s n o t f u n d a m e n t a l l y

r e q u i r i n g a d i f f e r e n t i a l i n p u t s t a g e .

5 .6 SIMULATION OF A FILTER WITH BOTH STRAY CAPACITANCES AND

LOW BUFFER G A I N S .

I t h a s b e e n shown i n t h e l a s t two s e c t i o n s t h a t t h e

e f f e c t o f s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s w i t h i n t h e a d a p t o r c i r c u i t i s

t o p r o d u c e a p e a k i n t h e p a s s- b a n d r e s p o n s e o f t h e f i l t e r .

I t h a s a l s o b e e n shown t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f b u f f e r s w i t h l e s s

t h a n u n i t y g a i n b e i n g u s e d b e t w e e n t h e a d a p t o r s i s t o

p r o d u c e a d r o o p i n t h e p a s s- b a n d r e s p o n s e . S i n c e i n a

p r a c t i c a l c i r c u i t t h e r e w i l l b e b o t h s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s and

l e s s t h a n u n i t y b u f f e r g a i n s l e t u s s i m u l a t e t h i s c o n d i t i o n ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e s e l f - c a n c e l l a t i o n o f t h e p e a k i n g and

d r o o p i n g e f f e c t s would b e h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e . To i l l u s t r a t e

q u a n t i t i v e l y t h e c o m p e n s a t i o n e f f e c t s , a l o w- p a s s f i l t e r o f

t h e same t y p e a s t h a t u s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s two s e c t i o n s h a s

b e e n s e l e c t e d a n d w i l l b e s i m u l a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t b u f f e r

g a i n s a n d s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s .

Shown i n F i g . 5 . 1 4 is a m a g n i f i e d v i e w o f t h e p a s s- b a n d

a m p l i t u d e r e s p o n s e o f a s e v e n t h - o r d e r f i l t e r i n w h i c h t h e

r a t i o o f C1 ' t o CS1 i s 100. Not ice t h e p e a k i n g i n t h e

r e s p o n s e d u e t o t h i s l e v e l o f s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e .

F i g . 5 .15 shows a m a g n i f i e d v i e w o f t h e a m p l i t u d e

r e s p o n s e w i t h i n t h e p a s s- b a n d o f t h e same f i l t e r when t h e

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b u f f e r s h a v e a g a i n o f 0 .9955 and t h e r e is no s t r a y

c a p a c i t a n c e . N o t i c e t h e d r o o p t h i s h a s c a u s e d i n t h e pass-

band o f t h e f i l t e r .

F i g . 5.16 shows a m a g n i f i e d v i e w o f t h e a m p l i t u d e

r e s p o n s e w i t h i n t h e p a s s- b a n d o f t h e f i l t e r when t h e r a t i o

o f C 1 t o CS1 is 1 0 0 and t h e b u f f e r g a i n s a r e 0 .9955 . N o t i c e

t h a t t h e two e f f e c t s h a v e a l l b u t c a n c e l l e d and t h a t t h e

p a s s- b a n d r i p p l e i s now a l m o s t e x a c t l y a s d e s i g n e d .

The c a n c e l l a t i o n t h a t t a k e s p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e two e f f e c t s

i s n o t a " m a t h e m a t i c a l " c a n c e l l a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e e f f e c t s

c o m p l e t e l y c a n c e l , b u t more a t e n d e n c y t o c a n c e l , w h i c h

h e l p s make t h i s c l a s s o f f i l t e r more e a s i l y r e a l i s a b l e .

5.7 DISCRETE COMPONENT TWO-PORT ADAPTOR WAVE FILTER.

I t was r e q u i r e d t o b u i l d wave f i l t e r s o f t h e t y p e

d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 5 .1 i n o r d e r t o d i s c o v e r w h e t h e r

p r a c t i c a l c i r c u i t s g a v e r e s u l t s w h i c h were i n a c c o r d w i t h

t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s a n d s i m u l a t i o n s . T h i s r e s e a r c h

would h e l p t o v a l i d a t e t h e a p p r o a c h a n d would p r o v i d e t h e

n e c e s s a r y c o n f i d e n c e r e q u i r e d t o p r o c e e d w i t h a f u l l y

m o n o l i t h i c f i l t e r d e s i g n .

The f i l t e r s were t o b e c o n s t r u c t e d o n a p r i n t e d c i r c u i t

b o a r d ( P C B ) and were t o be b a s e d on a r e f e r e n c e f i l t e r w h i c h

had a C h e b y s h e v r e s p o n s e w i t h a p a s s- b a n d VSWR o f 1.5:1. The

c u t o f f f r e q u e n c y o f t h e wave f i l t e r was t o b e o n e e i g h t h o f

t h e c l o c k i n g f r e q u e n c y .

An a s p e c t o f t h e c l a s s o f f i l t e r s t o b e c o n s t r u c t e d t h a t

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96

h a s n o t b e e n c o n s i d e r e d b e f o r e i s t h a t t h e a l p h a

c o e f f i c i e n t s a l t e r n a t e b e t w e e n n e g a t i v e and p o s i t i v e v a l u e s

a s t h e a d a p t o r number is i n c r e a s e d . T h i s p o i n t w i l l b e

f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 7 . 6 . The m o d u l a r s t r u c t u r e o f

t h e wave f i l t e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t a p r i n t e d c i r c u i t b o a r d

" c e l l " c o u l d b e d e s i g n e d w h i c h c o n t a i n s two a d a p t o r s : o n e

w i t h a n e g a t i v e m u l t i p l i e r and t h e o t h e r w i t h a p o s i t i v e

m u l t i p l i e r . T h i s " c e l l " c o u l d t h e n b e r e p e a t e d a s many times

a s r e q u i r e d t o b u i l d up t h e b o a r d . A h a l f c e l l would a l s o b e

r e q u i r e d i f t h e b o a r d was t o c o n t a i n a f i l t e r o f e v e n o r d e r

and t h e r e f o r e a odd number o f a d a p t o r s .

Such a c e l l was d e s i g n e d and p r i n t e d s i x t i m e s o n t o a

c i r c u i t b o a r d u s i n g t h e p h o t o g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e o f m u l t i p l e

e x p o s u r e . T h i s g a v e a c i r c u i t b o a r d o n w h i c h were t w e l v e

a d a p t o r s . T h e s e a d a p t o r s w e r e t h e n s p l i t i n t o two g r o u p s o f

s i z e s f o u r a n d e i g h t t o p e r m i t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a

s e v e n t h - a n d a t h i r d - o r d e r f i l t e r t o g e t h e r on t h e same

b o a r d . A p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e p r i n t e d c i r c u i t b o a r d i s g i v e n i n

F i g . 5 .17 .

Common f e a t u r e s o f t h e two f i l t e r s w e r e t h e b u f f e r s u s e d

and some o f t h e c a p a c i t o r s i z e s . The b u f f e r s u s e d b e t w e e n

t h e a d a p t o r s w e r e LF356 o p e r a t i o n a l a m p l i f i e r s i n v o l t a g e

f o l l o w e r mode a n d t h e s w i t c h e s u s e d w e r e q u a d CMOS s w i t c h e s ,

t y p e CD4066. R e f e r r i n g t o F i g . 5 . 3 , t h e c a p a c i t o r v a l u e s

u s e d were

C 1 = C T 1 = CT2 = 1 0 n F .

T h i s v a l u e was c h o s e n t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e c a p a c i t a n c e s

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9 8

d e s i g n e d i n t o t h e c i r c u i t were v e r y much l a r g e r t h a n t h e

s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s w h i c h would i n e v i t a b l y b e p r e s e n t i n a

P C B l a y o u t . The c a p a c i t o r s w h i c h were t o h a v e t h e p o s i t i o n

o f C1 i n t h e a d a p t o r s were c h o s e n t o h a v e a c c u r a t e v a l u e s o f

1 0 n F , w h i l e t h e o t h e r s were o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e r e q u i r e d

v a l u e , ( w i t h i n 1 0 % ) b e c a u s e , a s s t a t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f

t h e c h a p t e r , o n l y t h e r a t i o o f C 1 t o C2 s e t s t h e m u l t i p l i e r

v a l u e f o r t h e a d a p t o r . The v a l u e o f C2 was c h o s e n s u c h t h a t

t h e m u l t i p l i e r v a l u e was a c c u r a t e t o w i t h i n 1%. T h i s

r e q u i r e d t h e c a p a c i t o r s t o b e s e l e c t e d f r o m some a v a i l a b l e

2% t o l e r a n c e p o l y s t y r e n e c a p a c i t o r s .

T a b l e 5 .1 shows t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i m p e d a n c e o f e a c h

s e c t i o n o f t h e t h i r d - o r d e r c a s c a d e d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e

r e f e r e n c e f i l t e r on w h i c h t h e f i r s t wave f i l t e r was b a s e d

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r e s u l t i n g m u l t i p l i e r v a l u e s and c a p a c i t o r

r a t i o s .

T a b l e 5 . 2 g i v e s s i m i l a r i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e s e v e n t h - o r d e r

f i l t e r . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d f rom s t a n d a r d t a b l e s

[48].

5.8 CLOCKING SCHEME.

A t w o p h a s e n o n- o v e r l a p p i n g c l o c k i n g s c h e m e , Ø1 and Ø2,

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9 9

was u s e d t o d r i v e t h e CMOS s w i t c h e s . CMOS s w i t c h e s o f t h e

t y p e u s e d r e q u i r e a l o g i c '1' l e v e l o f v e r y c l o s e t o t h e i r

Vdd s u p p l y r a i l t o command them t o c l o s e . S u c h w a v e f o r m s a r e

m o s t e a s i l y o b t a i n e d f r o m CMOC l o g i c g a t e s . An e x t r a c l o c k

s i g n a l , Ø1', was a l s o g e n e r a t e d f o r u se Dy t h e s a m p l i n g

c i r c u i t s , a s w i l l b e e x p l a i n e d l a t e r . The c l o c k s had t h e

t i m i n g d i a g r a m s shown i n F i g . 5 . 1 8 ( a ) and were d e r i v e d f rom

t h e CMOS c i r c u i t shown i n F i g . 5 . 1 8 ( b ) .

5.9 MEASUREMENT OF THE AMPLITUDE CHARACTERISTIC.

The s y s t e m shown i n F i g . 5 . 1 9 was u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e

a m p l i t u d e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e s e f i l t e r s a n d e v e r y o t h e r

f i l t e r v a r i e n t d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s t e x t .

The c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e s y s t e m w e r e a s f o l l o w s

1. S p e c t r u m A n a l y s e r T e k t r o n i x 7 L 5 t o g e t h e r w i t h

t r a c k i n g g e n e r a t o r o p t i o n 2 5 . T h i s i n s t r u m e n t h a s

a b e s t r e s o l u t i o n o f 10Hz o v e r a r a n g e o f DC t o

2 k H z and o f 3 0 H z o v e r a r a n g e o f DC t o 2 0 k H z . The

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maximum i n p u t f r e q u e n c y o f t h i s s p e c t r u m a n a l y s e r

i s 5MHz, t h o u g h a t t h i s i n p u t f r e q u e n c y t h e b e s t

r e s o l u t i o n i s 1 k H z .

2 . K r o h n- H i t e model 3103 B a n d p a s s f i l t e r . T h i s i s a

s e v e n t h - o r d e r B u t t e r w o r t h f i l t e r w i t h u p p e r and

l o w e r c u t o f f f r e q u e n c i e s t h a t c a n b e v a r i e d o v e r

t h e r a n g e 10Hz t o 3MHZ.

3. R C S Type 701T D i g i t a l F r e q u e n c y Meter ( D F M ) ,

a c c u r a t e t o p l u s o r m i n u s 1Hz when s e t t o t h e

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102

a u d i o f r e q u e n c y r a n g e .

4 . K e i t h l y Type 1 7 7 f o u r a n d a h a l f d i g i t v o l t m e t e r .

A s p e c t r u m a n a l y s e r c a n b e t h o u g h t o f a s a b a n d- p a s s

f i l t e r o f v a r i a b l e b a n d w i d t h and c e n t r e f r e q u e n c y f o l l o w e d

b y a l o g a r i t h m i c d e t e c t o r . I n n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n t h e s p e c t r u m

a n a l y s e r s w e e p s i t s b a n d- p a s s f i l t e r c e n t r e f r e q u e n c y o v e r

t h e f r e q u e n c y band o f i n t e r e s t b u t i n t h i s c a s e , f o r

a c c u r a t e s p o t f r e q u e n c y m e a s u r e m e n t s , t h e m a n u a l s w e e p was

u s e d .

T h e r e i s a v a i l a b l e o n t h e s p e c t r u m a n a l y s e r a n o u t p u t

v o l t a g e w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e d o t on t h e

s c r e e n . I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e o u t p u t o f t h e l o g a r i t h m i c

d e t e c t o r i s a v a i l a b l e a s a v o l t a g e on t h e f r o n t p a n e l . T h i s

v o l t a g e c a n b e u s e d t o g i v e a more a c c u r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

o f t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e s i g n a l b e i n g i n p u t t o t h e

i n s t r u m e n t . I t f l u c t u a t e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e amount o f n o i s e

o n t h e s i g n a l b u t t h i s f l u c t u a t i o n c a n b e removed w i t h t h e

a i d o f a s i m p l e l o w- p a s s f i l t e r . The o u t p u t v o l t a g e i s t h e n

m e a s u r e d w i t h a v e r y h i g h i n p u t i m p e d a n c e d i g i t a l v o l t m e t e r

a n d c a n b e d i r e c t l y t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a n a c c u r a t e measu remen t

o f t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e i n p u t s i g n a l . T h i s me thod u s e s t h e

spect rum a n a l y s e r a s o n l y a n a c c u r a t e v a r i a b l e c e n t r e

f r e q u e n c y b a n d- p a s s f i l t e r f o l l o w e d b y a n RMS v o l t m e t e r ,

r a t h e r t h a n t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n s t r u m e n t i t is .

The t r a c k i n g g e n e r a t o r i s a h i g h q u a l i t y s i n e wave s i g n a l

g e n e r a t o r w i t h a n o u t p u t f r e q u e n c y s e t t o t h e c e n t r e o f t h e

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1 0 3

b a n d- p a s s f i l t e r o f t h e spect rum a n a l y s e r .

I t was f o u n d t h a t b r e a k t h r o u g h f r o m t h e f i l t e r c l o c k s

t e n d e d t o f e e d b a c k i n t o t h e t r a c k i n g g e n e r a t o r . T h i s

i m p l i e d t h a t i f t h e s i g n a l f r o m t h e t r a c k i n g g e n e r a t o r was

c o n n e c t e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e f r e q u e n c y c o u n t e r f a l s e r e a d i n g s

were o b t a i n e d because t h e f r e q u e n c y c o u n t e r c o u n t e d some o f

t h e c l o c k p u l s e s a s w e l l a s t h e d e s i r e d i n p u t . The Krohn-

H i t e b a n d- p a s s f i l t e r was c o n n e c t e d b e t w e e n t h e t r a c k i n g

g e n e r a t o r a n d t h e f r e q u e n c y c o u n t e r i n o r d e r t o remove t h e s e

e x t r a n e o u s p u l s e s .

A s c a n be s e e n f rom F i g . 5 .19 t h e o u t p u t o f t h e f i l t e r i s

s a m p l e d tw ice , o n c e u s i n g a c l o c k Ø1' and o n c e u s i n g t h e

c l o c k Ø 2 . The f i r s t s a m p l e- a n d- h o l d i s t r i g g e r e d b y Ø1', and

n o t Ø1, t o e n s u r e t h a t a s t e a d y s i g n a l f r o m t h e f i l t e r i s

s a m p l e d . T h i s i s r e q u i r e d b e c a u s e i m m e d i a t e l y o n t h e l e a d i n g

e d g e o f Ø1 t h e o u t p u t o f t h e f i l t e r i s s t i l l c o n v e r g i n g

t o w a r d s i t s f i n a l v a l u e a n d i t was d e s i r e d t o remove t h i s

e f f e c t f r o m t h e s a m p l e d s i g n a l . The s e c o n d s a m p l e- a n d- h o l d

i s r e q u i r e d t o e n s u r e a c l e a n " s t a i r - c a s e " waveform a t t h e

o u t p u t when t h e f i l t e r was b e i n g b y p a s s e d f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n

t o t h e s p e c t r u m a n a l y s e r .

I n F i g . 5 .19 i t c a n b e s e e n t h a t p r o v i s i o n h a s b e e n made

f o r b y p a s s i n g t h e f i l t e r u n d e r t e s t . I t was r e q u i r e d t o f i n d

t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e f i l t e r u n d e r t e s t , a n d t h a t f i l t e r o n l y .

T o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s r e a d i n g s were t a k e n f o r t h e s y s t e m w i t h

t h e f i l t e r u n d e r t e s t b o t h i n a n d o u t o f c i r c u i t . The

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r e s p o n s e o f t h e f i l t e r u n d e r t e s t was t h e n f o u n d f rom t h e

d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e r e a d i n g s . T h i s removed t h e s i n ( x ) / x

f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e d u e t o t h e z e r o - o r d e r - h o l d e f f e c t t h a t i s

p r e s e n t i n a n y s a m p l e d- d a t a s y s t e m and a l s o r e m o v e s t h e

e f f e c t o f a n y l o s s e s t h e r e may h a v e b e e n i n t h e s a m p l e- a n d-

h o l d c i r c u i t s o r e l s e w h e r e i n t h e s y s t e m .

5 .10 R E S P O N S E S OF THE T H I R D AND SEVENTH ORDER FILTERS.

The a m p l i t u d e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e " b r e a d- b o a r d e d "

t h i r d and s e v e n t h - o r d e r wave f i l t e r s c o n s t r u c t e d a r e shown

i n F i g s . 5 .20 t o 5 . 2 3 i n w h i c h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e s p o n s e i s

g i v e n a s a s o l i d l i n e and t h e m e a s u r e d r e s u l t s a r e g i v e n a s

s e p a r a t e p o i n t s .

I t c a n b e s e e n f rom F i g s . 5 . 2 0 and 5 . 2 1 t h a t t h e measu red

r e s p o n s e f o r t h e t h i r d o r d e r f i l t e r f o l l o w s i t s t h e o r e t i c a l

r e s p o n s e v e r y w e l l i n d e e d , b e i n g w i t h i n 0 .06dB o f t h e

t h e o r e t i c a l r e s p o n s e i n t h e p a s s- b a n d .

F i g s . 5 .22 a n d 5 .23 show t h e m e a s u r e d r e s p o n s e f o r t h e

s e v e n t h - o r d e r f i l t e r and i t t o o c a n b e s e e n t o f o l l o w t h e

t h e o r e t i c a l r e s p o n s e c l o s e l y , b e i n g w i t h i n 1dB o f t h e

t h e o r e t i c a l r e s p o n s e i n t h e p a s s- b a n d .

The m a t c h c a n b e made e v e n c l o s e r i f n o n- z e r o v a l u e s a r e

a s s i g n e d t o t h e s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e s p r e s e n t i n t h e c i r c u i t .

A s c a n b e s e e n f r o m F i g . 5 . 2 1 i f t h e s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e i n

t h e t h i r d - o r d e r PCB l a y o u t i s assumed t o b e 3 3 p F , t h e m a t c h

becomes b e t t e r t h a n 0 .002dB i n t h e p a s s- b a n d .

For t h e s e v e n t h - o r d e r f i l t e r t h e c i r c u i t s t r a y

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c a p a c i t a n c e m u s t b e a s s u m e d t o b e h i g h e r ; a v a l u e o f 67pF

g i v e s a m a t c h o f b e t t e r t h a n 0 . 1 d B i n t h e p a s s- b a n d a s c a n

b e s e e n f r o m F i g . 5 .23 . N a t u r a l l y t h e h i g h e r o r d e r f i l t e r i s

more s u s c e p t a b l e t o t h e e f f e c t s o f s t r a y c a p a c i t a n c e .

T h e s e e x c e l l e n t r e s u l t s p r o v i d e d t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n f i d e n c e

l e v e l t o p r o c e e d w i t h a n i n t e g r a t e d c i r c u i t f o r m o f wave

f i l t e r and t h e d e s i g n o f t h i s c i r c u i t i s t h e s u b j e c t o f

c h a p t e r s e v e n ,