39 Commas - academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu

38487 Fulwiler (PRHSS) ch39 oc/ac JC 7/26/99 p. 640

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39 Commas

The comma is the most frequently used mark of punctuation inEnglish. Commas shape the phrasing of written sentences in thesame way that brief pauses shape the phrasing of spoken sen-tences. Commas indicate how a sentence is divided into distinctbut connected grammatical parts. By showing which words are re-lated and which make up separate ideas, commas help readersunderstand a sentence’s meaning.

Consider, for example, how difficult it is to understand themeaning of the following sentence, from which all commas havebeen deleted:

A quarter of a century after the introduction of television intoAmerican society a period that has seen the medium become sodeeply ingrained in American life that in at least one state thetelevision set has attained the rank of a legal necessity safe fromrepossession in case of debt along with clothes cooking utensilsand the like television viewing has become an inevitable and ordi-nary part of daily life.

With its commas restored, however, this complex sentence is actu-ally quite clear:

A quarter of a century after the introduction of television intoAmerican society, a period that has seen the medium become sodeeply ingrained in American life that in at least one state thetelevision set has attained the rank of a legal necessity, safe fromrepossession in case of debt along with clothes, cooking utensils,and the like, television viewing has become an inevitable and ordi-nary part of daily life.

MARIE WINN, “TELEVISION: THE PLUG-IN DRUG”

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Using commas before coordinatingconjunctions joining independent clauses

An independent clause is a group of words that contains asubject and a predicate and that can stand alone as a completesentence. A compound sentence contains two or more indepen-dent clauses. If those clauses are joined with a coordinatingconjunction (and, or, but, for, nor, yet, so), use a comma before thecoordinating conjunction.

The cable broke, and frightened passengers screamed.

She wanted to participate, but no one knew when the game wouldstart.

When two independent clauses are very short, especiallywhen they are related in meaning or parallel in structure andthere is no chance of misreading, the comma between them maybe omitted.

The sun rose and the fog lifted.

To prevent misreading of a compound sentence when theindependent clauses contain internal commas, you may use asemicolon rather than a comma before the coordinating conjunc-tion that joins the independent clauses.

Do not use a comma without a coordinating conjunction tojoin independent clauses. If you do, the result is an error knownas a comma splice. (see Chapter 33.)

Do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction joiningtwo dependent clauses.

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Cruise passengers may disembark to shop, take a bus tour of

the island, or snorkel, or, if they wish, they may swim, view a

movie, or just relax on the ship.

;

His hobby is raising geese, he proudly displays the blue ribbons

he has won at the state fair.

and

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Also do not use commas between other compound elements,such as compound subjects and compound verbs. (See 39j2.)

EDITING I: PRACTICE

Edit the following sentences, using commas correctly with coordinating con-junctions joining independent clauses. Circle the number of any sentence thatis correct.

1. The highway department sets speed limits on state roads and highways,and it determines standards for intersecting roads.2. Every new business or residence along a highway needs an access roadbut first the highway department must approve its design and location.3. The developer of a new housing development or commercial centermust complete an application, and must submit it for the highway depart-ment’s review.4. The regulations very clearly describe the standards for sight distances andmarkings so a developer can tell whether a driveway is acceptable.5. The minimum sight distances vary with the speed limit and the grade ofthe road and the standards for dirveway construction vary with the expectedvolume of traffic.6. The highway department does not have to permit a driveway that doesnot meet its standards or that would require modifications to the roadway.

Using commas after introductory elements

An introductory element is a dependent clause, phrase. orword that precedes and introduces an independent clause. Inmost cases, a comma should separate the introductory elementfrom the independent clause.

Always use a comma after an introductory dependent clause(one beginning with a subordinating conjunction such as when,because if, and so on).

When Elizabeth I assumed the throne of England in 1558, thecountry was in turmoil.

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When the board meets, and when the vote is officially recorded,

the decision will be final.

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In most cases, an introductory phrase should be followed by acomma.

In every taste test, the subjects chose the newflavor over the old.

To do the job properly, they need more time.

Praised by all the critics, the movie was still not ahit.

Barking furiously, the little dog lunged at me.

His dream of glory destroyed, the boxer died anembittered man.

Some writers do not use a comma when the phrase is only two orthree words and there is no possibility of confusion. This isparticularly true with short prepositional phrases: In 1963 an as-sasin’s bullet shocked the world. However, a comma is always cor-rect in these situations and may be preferred by some instructors.

Do not use a comma after an introductory phrase when theword order of the sentence is inverted so that the verb precedes itssubject.

In this sentence, box is the subject and was is the verb.

Do not use a comma after an introductory phrase that func-tions as the subject of the sentence rather than as a modifier.

In this sentence, hearing that song is the subject.

Introductory words should generally be separated from an in-dependent clause by a comma.

Together, we are a great team.

Nervously, I waited for my name to be called.

However, taxes must be raised.

First, remove the plastic wrapper. Then, unfold thebag.

Yes, we need to improve our parks.INTERJECTION

TRANSITIONALEXPRESSION

CONJUNCTIVEADVERB

ADVERB

ADJECTIVE

ABSOLUTEPHRASE

PARTICIPIALPHRASES

INFINITIVEPHRASE

PREPOSITIONALPHRASE

In the back of the closet, was an old box.

Hearing that song, evokes warm memories.

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(Note that conjunctive adverbs, transitional expressions, andinterjections are set off no matter where they fall in a sentence;see 39d and 39e. See 23c2 and 33b2 for more examples of transi-tional expressions and conjunctive adverbs.)

EDITING 2: PRACTICE

Edit the following passage, using commas after introductory elements.

Despite his own admission that he had lived a life full of failings MickeyMantle died a hero to many Americans. During the 1950s and 1960s Mantlewas the most popular player on the New York Yankees. Because of that team’sunsurpassed success on the baseball diamond Mantle’s personal achievementstook on an even greater luster than they otherwise might have. However itwas not just his skills as a player that made him beloved. In fact Mantle’swarmth as a human being endeared him to fans and sportswriters more thandid any other trait. When Mantle died in 1995 his passing was felt deeply bymany who had seen him play. Although years separated them from their child-hood days at the ballpark many older Americans took time to cherish theirmemories of watching “the Mick” play. To many he was the symbol of a lesscynical and materialistic era.

Using commas to set off nonrestrictive elements

A modifier is restrictive if it provides information that readersmust have in order to understand the meaning of the word orwords modified. It “restricts” or limits the meaning from a generalgroup to a more specific one.

Students who are late will be prohibited from taking the exam.

The modifier who are late is restrictive because it limits the meaning ofthe word it modifies to a specific group of students: not all students willbe prohibited from taking the exam, only those who are late.

A modifier is nonrestrictive if it provides additional informa-tion but is not essential to the meaning of the word or words itmodifies.

Qualified doctors, who must be licensed, are in short supply.

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The modifier who must be licensed is nonrestrictive because it tells thereader more about doctors but does not limit the meaning to a specificgroup of doctors.

When something or someone is identified by name, its meaningcannot be further specified; therefore, any modifier is nonrestric-tive.

Ernesto Seguerra, who used to run a hardware business, is nowrunning for governor.

Use commas to set off nonrestrictive modifiers but not restric-tive ones. Often, the only clue to whether a modifier is restrictiveor nonrestrictive—and to the writer’s meaning— is how the sen-tence is punctuated.

Company employees who receive generous benefits should notcomplain.

Company employees, who receive generous benefits, should notcomplain.

The restrictive modifier in the first sentence limits the meaning to aspecific group of employees, implying that not all employees of thecompany receive generous benefits. The nonrestrictive modifier in thesecond sentence says something different: by not specifying a specificgroup, it implies that all employees receive generous benefits.

To determine whether a modifier is restrictive or nonrestric-tive, try omitting it. Omitting a nonrestrictive modifier usually willnot change the basic meaning of a sentence, but omitting a re-strictive one will.

RESTRICTIVE Athletes who take steroids want a shortcut.

Athletes want a shortcut.

These two sentences have very different meanings; the modifier is re-strictive.

NONRESTRICTIVE Olympic athletes, who all have trained intensely, areusually in top physical shape.

Olympic athletes are usually in top physical shape.

These two sentences mean about the same thing; the modifier is nonre-strictive.


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Another way to see whether a modifier is restrictive or nonrestric-tive is to ask a question about the identity of the subject. If theanswer requires the information contained in the modifier, themodifier is restrictive.

RESTRICTIVE A cat that neglects to groom itself will have matted fur.

What will have matted fur? A cat that neglects to groom itself.

NONRESTRICTIVE A cat, which is a nocturnal mammal, hunts smallrodents.

What hunts small rodents? A cat.

Adjective and adverb clauses

Adjective clauses—clauses that begin with that, where,which, who, whom, and whose—can be either restrictive or non-restrictive. That is used only in restrictive clauses. Which is usedfor nonrestrictive clauses, but it can be used for restrictive as well.(For more information on that and which, see 36d.) Rememberthat restrictive clauses are not set off by commas because they arenecessary to the meaning of the sentence; nonrestrictive clausesare set off by commas.

RESTRICTIVE The trophy will go to the team that scores the mostpoints.

Anyone who visits the National Air and Space Museumcan touch a piece of the moon.

Note that a clause modifying an indefinite pronoun, such as anyone, isusually restrictive.

NONRESTRICTIVE Soccer, which dates back two centuries, is the world’smost popular sport.

The festival will honor Spike Lee, who directed Malcolm X.

Note that a clause modifying a proper noun, such as Spike Lee, isalmost always nonrestrictive.

Adverb clauses—clauses beginning with subordinating con-junctions, such a because, when, and before—are most often

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restrictive. They may, however, be considered nonrestrictive whenthey indicate a contrast; such clauses begin with conjunctionssuch as although and even though. When an adverb clause intro-duces a sentence, it is set off with a comma (see 39b); otherwise itis not.

When I am well prepared, I always do well on tests.

Adverb clause first—use a comma.

I always do well on tests when I am well prepared.

Adverb clause last—no comma needed.

The clause may be set off with a comma because it indicates a contrast.

Phrases

Prepositional phrases are usually restrictive, although theyoccasionally serve to add nonrestrictive information. Participialphrases may be restrictive or nonrestrictive.

RESTRICTIVE An attitude of patience is required for the job.

A house destroyed by fire is a terrible sight.

NONRESTRICTIVE A “baby boom” began in 1946, after World War II.

The youngest “boomers,” born in 1964, are now in theirthirties.

Appositives

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that immediatelyfollows another noun and renames it. An appositive is restrictiveonly when it is more specific than the noun it renames. (See 36m.)

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The jury voted to convict, because the evidence was over-

whelming.

The jury voted for acquittal even though the evidence seemed

overwhelming.

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RESTRICTIVE Poet Gary Soto has written several novels for youngadults.

His poem “Oranges” is about having a crush on some-one.

Gary Soto is more specific than poet. “Oranges” specifies which ofmany poems.

NONRESTRICTIVE Gary Soto, a popular poet, writes novels for youngadults.

“Oranges,” my favorite of his poems, seems autobio-graphical.

A popular poet is less specific than Gary Soto. My favorite of his po-ems is not more specific than “Oranges.”

EDITING 3: PRACTICE

Edit the following passage, using commas correctly with restrictive and nonre-strictive modifiers and appositives.

Anger an emotion all of us experience at one time or another generallyarises, when we feel we can’t control a situation or we don’t get what wewant. Anger may be natural, but researchers say that people, who get angry of-ten, may be giving in to a learned response. Such uncontrolled fits of angerwhich can actually kill a person may be controlled if people, can learn to dealwith their anger, in a positive way. C. Mack Amick a counselor from North Car-olina advises people to ask themselves three questions when they get angry.The first question, recommended by Amick, is “Is this really important to me?”The answer well may be “no” which means it’s time to cool off. The secondquestion that he recommends is “Is this the right time to get angry?”The finalquestion designed specifically to help one gain control is “Do I have an effec-tive response?” Finding a response, that is assertive but not aggressive, is thekey to controlling one’s anger.

Using commas to set off parentheticalexpressions and elements of contrast

Parenthetical expressions are words and phrases that inter-rupt the flow of a sentence to offer a comment, a supplementalexplanation, or a transition. In many cases, transitional expres-

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sions and conjunctive adverbs (such as furthermore, for example,as a result, therefore, however, and meanwhile) serve as paren-thetical expressions and are set off with commas. Other conven-tional parenthetical expressions include in fact, of course, withouta doubt, by the way, and to be honest. Phrases that begin withaccording to, such as, and so forth are also parenthetical expres-sions.

Parenthetical expressions can often be moved within a sen-tence without affecting its meaning. No matter where they appearin a sentence, they are generally set of with commas.

One Saturday, for example, we had marshmallows for breakfast.

For example, one Saturday, we had marshmallows for breakfast.

The commissioner was not amused by the report, however.

The commissioner, however, was not amused by the report.

However, the commissioner was not amused by the report.

Note that if a conjunctive adverb is being used to join two in-dependent clauses, you must use a semicolon rather than acomma before it. Otherwise, you will create a comma splice. (SeeChapter 33 and 40a.) A conjunctive adverb at the beginning of asentence must be followed by a comma. (See 40a.)

Commas may also be used to set off elements of contrast—words, phrases, or clauses that emphasize a point by describingwhat it is not or by citing an opposite condition.

The experience was illuminating, but unnerving, for everyone.

The class started on Tuesday, not on Wednesday.

The article mentioned where he obtained his degree, but not whenhe received it.

EDITING 4: PRACTICE

Edit the following sentences, using commas correctly with parenthetical ex-pressions and elements of contrast. Circle the number of any sentence that iscorrect.

1. Soothing music it seems is effective for reducing stress.2. Many physicians in fact are recommending relaxing music not tranquilizersto patients with high levels of stress.


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3. One Boston doctor surprisingly enough has produced a recording of mu-sic that according to him uses the rhythms of a healthy heartbeat.4. He believes exposure to such rhythms can promote a slower and moreregular heartbeat in patients.5. Other physicians however suggest that patients should select their ownfavored music not a doctor’s prescription.6. A Phoenix psychologist for example advises patients to start with musicthat is the same as not calmer than their energy level; they can later switch tomusic of a lower intensity such as New Age or light jazz.

Using commas to set off tag sentences,direct address, and interjections

Use commas to set off nonessential elements such as tag sen-tences, direct address, and some interjections.

Tag sentences

Use a comma before tag sentences—short statements orquestions at the ends of sentences that express or elicit anopinion.

You received my application in time, I hope.

We are not so trusting of strangers these days, are we?

Direct address

Use a comma or commas to set off words of direct address—words that name the person or group to whom a sentence isdirected.

Lilith, I hope you are well.

That, my friends, is not the end of the story.

We appreciate your generous contribution, Dr. Collins.

Interjections

Use a comma or commas to set off mild interjections, expres-sions of emotion. (Set off a stronger interjection by treating it likea separate sentence: Hooray! I got an A on my exam!)

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Oh, what good times we had together.

The replacement players, alas, were doomed from the start.

Yes and no are treated similarly. When yes or no is not part ofthe flow of the sentence, it is followed by a comma.

Yes, I enjoyed the party, but no, my date didn’t.

A comma is not required before no in this sentence because the inter-ruption is so brief.

EDITING 5: PRACTICE

Edit the following sentences, using commas correctly to set off interjections, tagsentences, and words of direct address. Circle the number of any sentence thatis correct.

1. Oh the promises politicians make.2. They always begin with something like, “My fellow citizens it is my goal tofollow the will of the people.”3. Then they tell us, “You realize that my first concern is my constituents Ihope.”4. They can’t really expect us to believe their promises can they?5. Ah we’re just disillusioned with politicians these days my friends, sono wonder turnout on election day gets lower every year don’t you think?

Using commas between items in a seriesand between coordinate adjectives

Items in a series

A series consists of three or more words, phrases, or clausesthat are equal in grammatical form and in importance. A coordi-nating conjunction—and, or, but, nor, so, for, yet—usually pre-cedes the final item in the series. Use a comma after each item inthe series except the last.

He studied all of the notes, memos, letters, and reports.

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To accelerate smoothly, to stop without jerking, and to make com-plete turns can require many hours of driving practice.

He reported that some economists believe the recession is over,that some believe it continues, but that most agree a slow recov-ery is under way.

Sometimes, the serial comma, the one that would normallyprecede the coordinating conjunction, is omitted: Participants inthe peace talks included Israelis, Palestinians and Syrians. Thisstyle is common in newspapers. In academic writing, however, us-ing the final comma is generally preferred.

Unless a comma is required by another rule, do not use onebefore the first item or after the last item of a series.

When individual items of a series include commas, you canhelp readers avoid confusion by separating the elements withsemicolons instead of commas. (See 40b.)

Coordinate adjectives

Coordinate adjectives are two or more adjectives that modifythe same noun: warm, sunny day. Coordinate adjectives are inde-pendent of each other in meaning and in their relationship to thenoun. Use commas to separate coordinate adjectives.

To see whether adjectives are coordinate, try inserting andbetween them or reversing their order. If the resulting sentencestill makes sense, the adjectives are coordinate and require commas. If the adjectives are not coordinate, do not separate them with a comma. Such adjective combinations, called cumu-lative adjectives, build on one another and together modify anoun.

COORDINATE ADJECTIVES

YES He put on a clean, pressed shirt.

YES He put on a clean and pressed shirt.

YES He put on a pressed, clean shirt.

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The primary colors are, red, yellow, and blue.

They visited Nevada, Utah, and Arizona, on their trip west.

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CUMMULATIVE ADJECTIVES

YES I found five copper coins.

NO I found five and copper coins.

NO I found copper five coins.

Do not use a comma between the last adjective in a series andthe noun it modifies, whether the adjectives are coordinate adjec-tives or not.

See the ESL box in 27d2.

EDITING 6: PRACTICE

Edit the following sentences, using commas correctly between items in a seriesand between coordinate adjectives. Circle the number of any sentence that iscorrect.

1. Burlington International Airport, like any other airport, has a tower, aradar room and many safety devices.2. Inside the airport are a comfortable spacious lounge, three departuregates, and a restaurant.3. The airport leases the space to a number of customers, including airlinescar rental agencies food concessions and gift shops.4. The airport’s representative explained that the airport is run like largerairports that it leases out its buildings and that it takes a percentage of theprofits made by the independent businesses.5. The majority of air travel at the airport is between Boston Newark andChicago, although travel is by no means limited to these three, major cities6. Over the next ten years, the airport hopes to replace the few, remainingpre-1950s buildings with large modern facilities.

Using commas with quotations

Direct quotations are often accompanied by attributorywords, which identify the source of the quotation. In general, use

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They walked with delicate, deliberate, steps across the ice.

Twelve, diseased, olive, trees must be cut down.

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commas to set off attributory words, whether they appear before,after, or in the middle of the quotation. A comma before attribut-ory words goes inside the quotation marks.

In 1948 Jack Kerouac first declared, “We’re a beat generation.”

“I didn’t raise my boy to be a soldier,” begins a 1915 poem.

“Scratch a lover,” according to Dorothy Parker, “and find a foe.”

Note, however, that when an attributory phrase comes between twocomplete quoted sentences, it is followed by a period. Note alsothat when a quotation ends with a question mark or exclamationpoint, no comma is added before an attributory phrase.

Also do not use a comma before a partial quotation preceded bythat, or when there is no true attributory phrase.

In this example, the words within the quotation marks are also restric-tive and therefore must not be separated from the rest of the sentenceby commas. (See 39c3).

In general, do not use a comma before indirect quotations,which also should not be enclosed in quotation marks.

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.concluded‘‘Dead, did I say?’’ Chief Seattle ends his speech. There is no

death, only a change of worlds.’’

‘‘The news is terrific!.’’ shouted Sharonna.

Jones claimed, he had not yet begun to fight.

He closed by saying that, ‘‘time will prove us right.’’

According to one critic, the program is, ‘‘a sinkhole for public

dollars.’’

The slogan, ‘‘You deserve a break today,’’ was particularly suc-

cessful.

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According to Jones, he has not yet begun to fight.

(See Chapter 43 for more on punctuating quotations.)

EDITING 7: PRACTICE

Edit the following sentences, using commas correctly with quotations.

1. “Love looks not with the eyes” according to Shakespeare “but with themind.”2. ln her novel Jacques, George Sand writes “No human creature can giveorders to love.”3. How do I love Thee,” asked Elizabeth Barrett Browning? “Let me countthe ways.”4. “Man must evolve for all human conflict a method which rejects revenge,aggression, and retaliation” said Martin Luther King, “The foundation of such amethod is love.”5. Dr. King also said “I believe that unarmed truth and unconditional love willhave the final word in reality.”6. “Love is heaven” wrote Walter Scott “and heaven is love.”

Using commas with numbers, dates,names, places, and addresses

Various rules and conventions govern the use of commas withnumbers, dates, names, places, and addresses.

Numbers

For numbers of five digits or more, use a comma before everythree digits, counting from the right. In four-digit numbers, thecomma is optional.

2700 (or 2,700) 79,087 1,654,220

Do not use a comma in years or page numbers of four digits orwith numbers in addresses.

That example is found on page 1269.

In 1990 our address was 21001 South Street, Lodi, Ohio43042.

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Dates

Always use a comma between the words for the day andmonth and between the numbers for the date and year.

Friday, March 22 June 10, 1999

Also use a comma after the year when a date giving month, day,and year is part of a sentence.

Louis Armstrong was born on July 4, 1900, in New Orleans.

Don’t use commas when only the month and year are given in adate or when the month separates the date and year. (The day,month, year order is more common in British English than inAmerican English.)

The war broke out in August 1914 and ended on 11 November1918.

Tuchman’s title The Guns of August refers to August 1914, whenWorld War I began.

There are no commas around The Guns of August because it is a re-strictive element, specifying which book by Tuchman is meant. (See39c3.) The comma after 1914 introduces a nonrestrictive clause whenWorld War I began. (See 39c1.)

Names

Use commas to set off an abbreviation or title following aname.

Joyce B. Wong, M.D., supervised the CPR training session.

Renee Dafoe, vice president, welcomed the new members.

Edwin M. Green, Jr., was the first speaker.

Do not use commas to set off roman numerals following aname.

Frank T. Winters III

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Places and addresses

Use a comma before and after the state when naming a cityand state in a sentence.

She was born in Lexington, Kentucky, and raised in New York.

When a full address is given in a sentence, use a comma toseparate each element except for postal zip code, which shouldhave no comma before or after it.

My address is 169 Elm Street, Apartment 4, Boston, Massachusetts02116 through the end of June.

However, for an address in block form, as on the front of an enve-lope, do not use a comma at the end of each line.

EDITING 8: PRACTICE

Edit the following sentences, using commas correctly with numbers, dates,names, places, and addresses.

1. In the week before Christmas, the mail order company where I workedfilled 84567 orders.2. I started my job in February, 1998, and the last day I worked was January15 1999.3. During that time, I answered 3456 calls and sold merchandise worthmore than $200000.4. The worst customers are the ones with names like Jane Jones Ph.D. orJohn Johnson, III, who insist on having their titles appear on all their mail.5. You may write to my former employer at this address: National Mail Or-der Products, 19123 Fifth Avenue New York New York 10001.6. With $1500 in my savings account, I did not need to worry about gettinganother job until March 1999.

Using commas to prevent misreading

Commas may occasionally be used, even when they are notrequired by any specific rule, when they help to prevent mis-reading.

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We will all pitch in, in the event of a problem.

I believed, once I had seen the evidence.

Those of us who can, preserve the memories fondly.

They found that in 1990, 256 people were infected.

If a clause that begins with because follows the main clause butcould modify more than one element in the sentence, a commacan help clarify the meaning.


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GUIDELINES FOR USING COMMAS

As you edit use the following guidelines for placing commas inyour paper:

■ Before a coordinating conjunction that joins independent clauses.(See 39a.)

■ To set off an introductory element. (See 39b.)

■ To set off any nonrestrictive element. (See 39c.)

✔

[INDEPENDENT CLAUSE], [INDEPENDENT CLAUSE]

I had studied for hours, but I still found the

exam difficult.

[NONRESTRICTIVE ELEMENT]

Dr. Parke-Cookson, our chemistry professor, gives exams weekly.

[INTRODUCTORY ELEMENT], [MAIN CLAUSE]

Concentrating intensely, I completed the exam

in twenty minutes.

[MAIN CLAUSE], [NONRESTRICTIVE ELEMENT]

They toured the Balclutha, which is moored

near Fisherman’s Wharf.

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■ To set off parenthetical expressions and elements of contrast. (See39d.)

■ To set off interjections, tag sentences, and direct address. (See39e.)

■ Between items in a series. (See 39f1.)

■ Between coordinate adjectives. (See 39f2.)

■ Between quotations and attributory phrases. (See 39g.)

■ With numbers, dates, names, and addresses. (See 39h.)

■ To prevent misreading. (See 39i.)

[ITEM], [ITEM], [ITEM]

English, history, and philosophy are my favor-ite subjects.

[COORDINATE ADJECTIVE], [COORDINATE ADJECTIVE], [NOUN]

Well-written, well-researched papers receive the best grades.

We knew that she called her brother because her mother asked

her to do so.

We knew that she called her brother, because we saw the phone

bill.

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Usually a modifier modifies the closest suitable element. If that’s notthe case, the comma helps alert the reader.

EDITING 9: EXPLORATION

Try to make up two or three sentences that are awkward, confusing, or hu-morous without commas. Read them to your classmates to see if they are ableto understand them. Examples:

In the winter time seems to stand still.

I dressed and fed my cats.

Editing misused commas

Failing to include commas where they are conventionally ex-pected can confuse readers and undercut your authority as a

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660 Commas

COMMA TROUBLESHOOTING

When editing your papers for correct use of commas, pay spe-cial attention to the commas that help readers understand yourideas. (From a reader’s point of view, some commas are more impor-tant than others.)

■ As an editing strategy, put brackets around structures that needcommas so that you can easily identify where phrases or clauses be-gin and end.

■ Check for commas all adverb clauses (because, although, when,etc.) that begin sentences. Find the end of the clause and add acomma if necessary.

✔

My English teacher [who is new this year] just graduated from Stanford.,,

[If we consider the source of humor for this joke] we see that it de-

pends on something that is contrary to our expectations.

,

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writer. It can be equally distracting, however, to use commaswhere they are not required.

Misuses of commas already discussed in this chapter aresummarized in the box on page 664. This section covers severalother common misuses.

Avoid putting single commas between subjects andverbs, verbs and objects or complements, or objectsand complements.

Subject and Verb

Verb and object

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Because the library was closed I studied at home.,

■ When using that as a relative pronoun, make sure that you havenot set it off by commas. (See 39j3.)

■ If you have listed three or more items in a series, make sure thatyou have put a comma and the word and or another coordinatingconjunction before the last item. (See 39f.)

This writer argues persuasively, that the freedom to think is one of the

strengths of the American educational system.

We studied similies, metaphors analogies., and

A season of drought, worried the farmers.

The agreement entails, training for part-time staff.

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Verb and complement

Object and complement

However, a pair of commas, such as those used to set offnonessential elements, may separate subjects from verbs or verbsfrom objects.

David Hill, the chief researcher, developed the method.

The agreement entails, as I understand it, training for part-timestaff.


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662 Commas

CHECKING FOR COMMAS THAT OCCUR IN PAIRS

Always make sure to use a pair of commas to set off the follow-ing when they appear in the middle of a sentence: nonrestrictivemodifiers and appositives (39c); parenthetical elements andelements of contrast (39d); interjections and words of directaddress (39e); and years in full dates, titles, and abbreviationsafter names, and state names preceded by city names (39h).

■ Delete single commas that separate the subject from the verb, nomatter how many words make up the subject (unless it has phrasesor clauses after it that need commas). (See 39b and 39j1.)

✔

The city in the southern United States that I like the most, is New

Orleans.

It will be January 3, 2004 before I receive my degree.,

This book which he had read three times, was quite tattered.,

The instructors rather than the students, are being tested.,

We believe, yes the initiative should pass.,

The extra pay made him, quite happy.

The laid-off workers seem, surprisingly understanding.

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Avoid putting commas between two compound elements.

Compound subject

Compound verb

Compound object

Compound complement

Commas are used to separate the independent clauses of a com-pound sentence. (See 39a.)

Avoid putting commas following a relative pronoun orsubordinating conjunction.

A pair of commas, such as those used to set off parenthetical ele-ments, may separate these elements.

We found that, according to the latest data, the population haddoubled.

(See 39g for uses of commas with quotations.)

3

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The members of the senior class, and their parents were invited.

The rain finally stopped and then the sun came out.,

Sean put the books on the shelf, and the pens in the drawer.

Maria quickly turned off the lights, and locked the door.

He found the work easy to learn, but hard to continue.

Our legislators have no idea how to proceed because, we have

not come to a consensus.

The weather was unbearably hot, and much too humid.

The map that, we requested turned out to be incorrect.

Gina tried to save money, and to spend less.

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EDITING UNNEEDED COMMAS

Do not use a comma for the following:

■ To join independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction.(See 39a.)

■ After an introductory phrase when the verb precedes the subjectin a sentence or when the phrase is the subject of the sentence.(See 39b.)

■ To set off restrictive elements. (See 39c.)

■ Before the first element or after the last element of a series, un-less required by another rule. (See 39f1.)

■ Between adjectives that are not coordinate. (See 39f2.)

✔

We won the game, it was the first of many victories.;

Eating sensibly and exercising regularly, improved my health.

The materials, that you requested, have arrived.

A bird, with only one wing, has little chance of survival.

Singer and guitarist, John Hall, will appear at the benefit.

We contributed to, United Way, World Watch, and the Red Cross,

last year.

Rice, beans, and peppers, provide the basis for many local dishes.

There are three, different patterns of male baldness.

Along with every challenge, comes an opportunity for success.

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EDITING 10: EXPLORATION

Read the following excerpt from an essay by Isak Dinesen. What is the effectof the many commas in the opening paragraph? Are any of them unnecessary?Copy the paragraph, eliminating any unnecessary commas.Then read it aloud,comparing it to Dinesen’s version.Why, do you think, did Dinesen use commasthis way?

Just at the beginning of the long rains, in the last week of March, or thefirst week of April, I have heard the nightingale in the woods of Africa. Not thefull song: a few notes only,— the opening bars of the concerto, a rehearsal,suddenly stopped and again begun. It was as if, in the solitude of the drippingwoods, some one was, in a tree, tuning a small cello. It was, however, the samemelody and the same abundance and sweetness, as were soon to fill theforests of Europe, from Sicily to Elsinore.

ISAK DINESEN, “SOME AFRICAN BIRDS”

EDITING 11: PRACTICE

Edit the following passage by deleting any unnecessary commas.

More kids than ever before are playing video games, to fill up their leisuretime. One of the most popular, video games is Mortal Kombat.The game is sopopular that a movie based on it became a huge, financial success. Playing thegame, is thought by some to have a negative influence on behavior, though.Some, recent studies suggest that children, witnessing simulations of extremeviolence, are more likely, than others, to behave violently, themselves. On theother hand, many others argue that video games are a harmless way for peo-ple, to relieve stress, and aggression. In their view, human beings are naturallyprone to violence, and to claim that the elimination of a single, video gamewould make a difference, is sheer fantasy.

EDITING 12: PRACTICE

Edit the following passage, using commas correctly.

In two, recent scientific studies researchers have found what might becalled, an “excitability gene.”This genetic variation as it is called is found in peo-ple who crave, excitement, thrills and new experiences. They are also them-selves excitable, and prone to temper flare ups. If the discovery holds up afterfurther research it will represent the first link ever discovered between a geneand normal nonpathological behavior. “Success in mapping genes for a normalpersonality trait may signal a fruitful way to map genes for psychopathology”


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according to one of the researchers C. Robert Cloninger M.D. Cloninger whois on the staff of Washington University, proposed the hypothesis that, people’sneed for excitement is related to how dopamine a neural chemical isprocessed by the brain.This process is governed by a specific gene that in factoccurs in two variant ways, as a series of seven sequences or a series of four.What researchers discovered was that people, who could be called “novelty-seekers,” generally had the longer seven-sequence version of the gene. Thisdoes not mean however, that the behavioral trait is governed solely by this sin-gle gene and researchers caution that other factors such as personal experi-ence come into play.

EDITING 13: APPLICATION

Take a few moments to reflect on the difficulties you most commonly have inusing commas. Make a brief list that ranks your problems in order fromgreatest to least amount of difficulty. Now examine a paper you are workingon and look for any examples of misused or omitted commas. Do you noticeconsistent patterns? How accurate was your initial prediction of where yourdifficulties would lie? Edit any sentences in which you have misused or omittedcommas.


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