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3 7 1
A HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF
FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES OF TECHNOLOGY
IN NIGERIA
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
University of North Texas in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
By
Joseph Obukowho Asagba, B.S., M.Ed,
Denton, Texas
August, 1993
3 7 1
A HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF
FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES OF TECHNOLOGY
IN NIGERIA
DISSERTATION
Presented to the Graduate Council of the
University of North Texas in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
By
Joseph Obukowho Asagba, B.S., M.Ed,
Denton, Texas
August, 1993
Asagba, Joseph Obukowho, A Historical Review of the
Development of Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria. Doctor of Philosophy (Higher Education
Administration), August, 1993, 267 pp., 9 tables, reference
list, 314 titles.
The overall purpose of this study was to identify the
major factors and events that led to the establishment of
the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. The
study examined and analyzed the growth and development of
the three Nigerian Federal Universities of Technology at
Owerri, Akure, and Minna.
The academic programs in the three Nigerian Federal
Universities of Technology have a significant importance to
the national development of Nigeria. The first conclusion
of this study is that the federal government of Nigeria has
played a significant, role in establishing the Federal
Universities of Technology in order to provide the modern
scientific and technological education for the economic need
of the country, and that the most compelling factors that
led to the establishment of those institutions are
(a) philosophical, (b) economic, (c) sociological, and
(d) geographical factors. The second conclusion is that
the program of study at each of the Federal Universities of
Technology was designed to train students in science and
technical fields, and that both the number of students
enrolled and the number of graduated students has increased
significantly. The third conclusion is that the Federal
Ministry of Education and the National Universities
Commission have played an important role in the
administration, planning, and financing of the Federal
Universities of Technology. The final conclusion is
that the method used in selecting a vice-chancellor for the
Federal Universities of Technology is based on the facts
that the professors in the university vote on nominees and
then the list is submitted to the University Council for
appointment of the vice-chancellor through the Federal
Ministry of Education. Several implications and
recommendations for this study are listed. In addition,
further studies are recommended in the next five years to
identify possible changes or development of the Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria.
Copyright by
Joseph Obukowho Asagba
1993
i n
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my appreciation to my Major
Professor, Dr. Todd Davis, and Minor Professor, Dr. Pat N.
McLeod, and to Drs. John Baier and Constance Hilliard, my
committee members, for their patience, guidance, assistance,
and advice to me in completing my dissertation.
A special thanks to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Vann E.
Asagba for their substantial encouragement and financial
support through my years in the United States.
My greatest debt is to my wife Lorinda and children for
their patience, dedication, and persuasion. Their
encouragement and undiluted spirit were a major source of
inspiration and perseverance which sustained me through the
proj ect.
Finally, I would like to give special thanks to God for
all the love, blessings, strength, and guidance he has
provided me during the period of my studies and for the
years I have spent in the United States; for without his
blessings, love, and guidance, all of this would not be
possible.
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES viii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION 1
The Establishment of Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri, Akure, and Minna, Nigeria 6
Statement of the Problem 12 Purposes of the Study 12 Research Questions 13 Background and Significance of the Study . . . 14 Definition of Terms 16 Delimitations of the Study 17 Methodology 17 Procedures for Collection of Data 19 Chapter Reference List 31
2. HISTORY AND RELATED LITERATURE 36
Introduction 36 Traditional Education in Nigeria 37 The History of Education in Nigeria 42 The Development of Higher Education
in Nigeria 46 Chapter Reference List 59
3. PROCEDURES FOR THE COLLECTION OF DATA 64
Presentation and Description of the Data Collected 66
The Role of the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) on Higher Education in Nigeria 86
Summary 88 Chapter Reference List 89
4. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF NIGERIA'S NATIONAL POLICY ON HIGHER EDUCATION FROM 1962-1987 . . . . 90
The Need to Understand Educational Policies and Policy Processes 90
Chapter " Page
Definition of Development 91 Definition of Policy 92 The First National Development Plan of
1962-1968 93 The Second National Development Plan of
1970-1974 95 The 1976 Universal Primary Educational
Policy 96 The 1977 National Policy on Education . . . . 104 The Third National Development Plan of
1975-1980 109 The Fourth National Development Plan of
1981-1985 115 The 1987 6-3-3-4 Nigeria Educational
System 124 The Efforts to Improve Education by the
Federal Government of Nigeria by the Year 2000 129
Summary 131 Chapter Reference List 133
5. THE PROCESS FOR SELECTING VICE-CHANCELLORS INTO THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES OF TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIA 141
Introduction 141 Past and Present Vice-Chancellors of Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria . . . 142 The Method of Selecting and Evaluating
Vice-Chancellors and Administrators in Nigerian University 146
Definition of Administrative Organization and Leadership 148
Administrative Organization and Functions of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria 152
The Role of the Federal Government of Nigeria in Administration, Planning, and Financing of Federal Universities of Technology through the Federal Ministry of Education and the National Universities Commission 165
The Role of the National Universities Commission (NUC) in Higher Education . . . 168
The Function of the Administration Division of the National Universities Commission . . 175
Summary 180 Chapter Reference List 182
vx
Chapter • Page
6. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 189
Introduction 189 Summary of Major Findings 189 Conclusions 201 Implications 202 Recommendations 203 Chapter Reference List 206
APPENDICES
A. Map of Africa Showing the African Countries . . 208 Map of Nigeria Showing the Thirty States and
Capitals 209
B. Organization Chart of the Ministry of Education . 211 Organization Chart for Top Administrators for
University Policy Making in Nigeria 212 Organization Chart of the National Universities
Commission Secretariat 213 Organization Chart of the Subadministrative
Division of the National Universities Commission 213
The Federal Arena Chart of the Administrative Relationship between the Federal Government and the Federal Universities of Technology . . 215
The 6-3-3-4 Educational System Chart on the National Policy on Education of 1987 216
C. Letters 217
D. Topics Addressed in Interviews by Author
(Interview Questions) 227
E. Interview Questions and Responses 232
REFERENCE LIST 245
vx 1
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Links between U. S. Universities and Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria . . . . 66
2. University Income and Source for 1980-1991 Academic Years for the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria 67
3. Student Enrollment for Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria for the Academic Years of 1980-1991 70
4. Student Enrollment Distribution for 1980-1991 Academic Years and Fields of Study for Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria . . . . 72
5. Number of Students and Degrees Awarded from 1985-1991 at Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria 80
6. Subdegree Programs and Their Entry Requirement into the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria 87
7. Number of Enrolled Students in Nigerian Primary and Secondary Education from 1955-1974 before the Universal Primary Education Policy of 1976 100
8. Number of Enrolled Students in Nigerian Primary, Secondary Education, and Universities from 1977-1985 after the Universal Primary Education Policy of 1976 was Implemented . . . 101
9. Fields of Study of Students in Nigerian Universities, 1975-1980 and 1984 109
Vlll
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The history of education in Nigeria can be traced to
the Colonial Periodf but of importance to the Nigerian
people is the need to establish technological universities.
As a developing nation, the Nigerian government established
the Federal Universities of Technology in 1980 to train its
citizens to meet the manpower needs of its economic
development. It was also established to train the diverse
personnel reguired for the economic, technological,
educational, and social development of the country.
The problems facing Nigeria are those in the areas of
social change and the modification of societal structures
which will enable the system to accommodate the new
technological innovations that have come and will continue
with economic development. Nigeria, a country located in
Africa, gained independence from the British government in
1960. Over the past 30 years, Nigeria has attempted to
adjust to the demands of political independence as well as
to the social and economic needs of the country.
A "Special Report on Education" by Adobe (1980) clearly
delineated the significance of education with the following
explanation: Education is a basic human need. People need
an education to acquire a broad base of knowledge, attitude,
values, and skills on which they can build a better life.
Education enhances the ability to learn and adapt to social
and cultural activities? education is a means of meeting
other basic needs. Education influences and is in turn
influenced by access to other basic needs—adequate
nutrition, safe drinking water, health services, and
shelter. In this context, one remembers the argument of
experts that health programs could be accelerated more by
teaching the people basic principles of hygiene than by
sophisticated medical science. Also, if children are better
fed they can learn better, which would improve their overall
benefits from education; and all development programs depend
on education, for the simple reason that they all require
skilled workers at all levels to manage capital, technology,
services, and administration in every sector.
Possibly as a result of the establishment of the
Federal Universities of Technology, Nigeria is being
transformed into a demanding and changing society. The
people of Nigeria foster a strong belief in the benefits of
an improved technological education. Nigerians believe that
education is the key to the social and economic success of
the country. Ojiaka (1984) agreed that the well being and
future of a nation depends heavily on its education system.
The federal military government announced in 1975 that
all Nigerian universities would become federal government
institutions, in order for the federal government to control
the policies and finances of the universities and to manage
their affairs. The government also stated that higher
education would be the sole responsibility of the federal
government. All of the universities and the newly
constructed facilities have been fully funded by the federal
government. In reporting the events associated with the
federal takeover, a columnist in a major Nigerian newspaper
stated:
We are in the midst of a revolution, an intellectual
revolution designed to guarantee for all Nigerians
functional literacy, a keen awareness for civil rights,
responsibility for a good and adequate diet, low infant
mortality and longer life span, decent accommodation,
and generally, a happy life. (Ogunsola, 1977, p. 63)
Because of the federal government's takeover of all
universities in Nigeria, it is important to identify its
role in the administration, planning, and financing of
higher education in Nigeria. The success of any system of
education hinges on proper planning, efficient
administration, and adequate financing. The administration
of education includes organization and structure,
proprietorship, control, inspection, and supervision.
School systems and the policies that govern their management
and day-to-day administration should grow out of the life
and social ethics of the community which they serve.
According to the Federal Ministry of Education (1983), the
administrative machinery for an educational system should be
based on three cardinal principles: (a) intimate and direct
participation and involvement in the administration and
management of the school; (b) effective lines of
communication between the administrations for policy
formulation and implementation; and (c) the coordination,
planning, financing, and directing of the total educational
effort by the Federal Ministry of Education.
The Federal Ministry of Education has the
responsibility for the overall development of education in
Nigeria. Since the government's decision to take over all
universities in 1975, the primary function of the Federal
Ministry of Education has consisted of coordination of all
educational matters, the guidance of government policies on
education, and the maintenance of higher academic standards.
The Federal Ministry of Education is headed by the
Minister of Education, and the permanent secretary is the
chief administrative officer. The permanent secretary is
responsible to the Minister, not only for the organization
and efficiency of the ministry, but also for advising the
Minister (Federal Ministry of Education, 1983).
According to Morrison (1964), the permanent secretary
is the Chief Civil Servant of the Ministry of Education.
Adedeji (1981) stated, as follows:
The federal government will have to continue to depend
on their higher Civil Services for assistance in policy
formation, between the past and present, between an
outgoing government and an incoming administration at
the federal level, for being a unifying force
containing in its ranks people from virtually all the
ethnic groups of Nigeria. (p. 667)
According to the Federal Ministry of Education (1983),
there are seven divisions within the Ministry of Education.
These seven divisions include: (a) Administration and
Finance; (b) Educational Administration; (c) Scholarship and
Student Affairs; (d) School Inspection; (e) Educational
Services; (f) Examination and Registration; and (g) Planning
and Research (see Appendix B).
The vice-chancellor of any university in Nigeria is the
chief executive of the university. It is important to
discuss the method of selecting a vice-chancellor in
Nigerian universities, because the improvement and
development of any university depends on the executive head
of the university. The heads of universities in Nigeria are
the vice-chancellors, and they are the highest political
officers in Nigerian universities. When a university in
Nigeria is established, or when there is a vacancy in the
appointment of a university vice-chancellor, the federal
government, based on the vote of the professors in the
university, submits a list of nominees to the University
Council to appoint a vice-chancellor through the Federal
Ministry of Education (National Universities Commission,
1982). The appointment of a vice-chancellor will determine
who makes the decision. How the decision is to be made
affects the efficiency and effectiveness of the institutions
and their organizations, because the administration of the
university will be in the hands of the vice-chancellor. The
members of the University Council believe that when a vice-
chancellor is appointed, changes and progress in that
institution must become an integral part of the new vice-
chancellor' s position. Eble (1978) stated the following:
The appointment: of a vice-chancellor is accompanied
with expectation about change and progress. Change has
to be introduced as soon as possible, otherwise it may
be hard to introduce these changes, as delay in
appointing administrators who will carry out tasks will
result in loss of opportunities. (p. 6)
The Establishment of Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri, Akure,
and Minna, Nigeria
The development of Federal Universities of Technology
was the work of an educational team of experts that was set
up by the federal government of Nigeria, through a committee
of the Nigerian National Universities Commission. The
committee was set up in 1978 to conduct an investigation
into needs in the field of technological education.
According to the National Universities Commission (1983),
the planning committee that was set up by the federal
government of Nigeria to establish the Federal Universities
of Technology was under the chairmanship of Col. A.A. Ali,
the former Federal Minister of Education. The experts were
drawn from a wide range that included representatives from
the National Universities Commission, such as the chief
planning officer for academics, to carry out planning for
the new universities. Also participating were the
representatives of the ministries of health, education,
economic development, and finance.
One of the functions of the National Universities
Commission is to advise the head of the federal government
of Nigeria through the minister of education as to the need
for the creation of new universities. The committee
recommended that there is need to establish Federal
Universities of Technology for the following reasons:
(a) to train people for the modern scientific and technical
education; (b) to meet the rate of growth in science student
population; (c) to provide the manpower skill that will lead
the country into economic and social development; (d) to
establish universities in the north, west and eastern parts
of the country to balance the geographical spread of the
institution; and (e) to assure that the technical training
is parallel with the pattern of technological training in
United States universities and that the Federal Universities
8
of Technology should have a special link with the United
States universities (see Table 1 in Chapter 3).
The committee believes that the American model of
technical education will be a means to the goal of economic
development- The responsibility of the National
Universities Commission was to set up working parties in
engineering and agriculture with the U.S. universities to
advise on the courses for the Federal Universities of
Technology in order to make them relevant to the need of the
Nigerian economy.
The federal government of Nigeria decided to establish
the Federal Universities of Technology in order to provide
modern scientific and technical education for the
technological needs of the country.
The Federal University of Technology in Owerri was
established in 1980 as an autonomous institution. It is
located in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria, with a population of
approximately 42,631. The university formally enrolled its
first students in the 1980/81 academic year with a student
population of 213. The university was structured to have
four schools.
The federal minister for education, Col. A. A. Ali
(1980), at the inaugural ceremony of the Federal University
of Technology, Owerri, declared that,
The establishment of the Federal University of
Technology was an instrument of sociopolitical as well
as economic change, and that technological education
would produce the manpower needed for national
development. (p. 9)
The Federal University of Technology at Akure was
established by the fcsderal government of Nigeria in 1981 and
enrolled its first student in the 1981/1982 academic year,
with a student population of 112. The university was
established to train Nigerians in vocational technical areas
such as agriculture/agricultural technology,
engineering/engineering technology, and science education.
The university has four schools, and it is located in Akure,
capital city of Ondo State, Nigeria, which has a population
of approximately 71,106. Akure is located in the western
part of Nigeria.
The Federal University of Technology at Minna was
established by the federal government of Nigeria on February
1, 1983, but enrolled its first student in February 1984
with a student population of 306. The university was
established in order to train its citizens in vocational
skills, and it was structured to have four schools together
with a pre-degree and foundational courses program. The
university is located in Minna, capital city of Niger State,
Nigeria, which has a population of approximately 1,745,644.
Minna is located in the northern part of Nigeria.
The Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri,
Akure, and Minna were carefully planned to have their own
10
distinctive characte.r. Each of the universities was
established on the basis of the national manpower needs and
the differing environmental characteristics of each school.
The Federal University of Technology at Owerri catered
to the needs of the eastern portion of Nigeria, the Federal
University of Technology at Akure to the needs of the
western portion of Nigeria, and the Federal University of
Technology at Minna to the needs of the northern portion of
Nigeria. The universities were conceived as technological
institutions which would train people in such areas as
agriculture/agricultural technology, engineering/engineering
technology, environmental technology, science/science
education, and veterinary medicine/science (Commonwealth
Universities Yearbook, 1990).
In 1980, 1981, and 1983 the federal government of
Nigeria established the Federal Universities of Technology
at Owerri, Akure, and Minna to train the diverse personnel
required for the economic, technological, educational, and
social development of the country. The universities'
primary purposes were to produce graduates in science
subjects and to serve as national institutions for
technological research.
According to the Federal University of Technology,
Owerri Calendar for 1983/85, the objectives of the Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria are as follows:
(a) to encourage the advancement of learning and to hold out
11
to all persons without distinction of race, creed, sex or
political conviction the opportunity of acquiring a higher
education in technology; (b) to develop and offer academic
and professional programs leading to the first degrees,
post-graduate degrees, research and higher degrees which
emphasize planning, adaptive, technical, maintenance,
developmental and productive skills in the engineering,
scientific, and agricultural disciplines; (c) to identify
technological problems and needs of the society, and to find
solutions to them within the context of overall national
development; (d) to provide and promote sound basic
scientific training as a foundation for the development of
technology and applied sciences in needs of national
development; (e) to offer to the general population, as a
forum of public service, the results of training and
research and to foster the practical applications of these
results; (f) to establish appropriate relationships with
other national institutions involved in training, research
and development of technologies; and (g) to undertake any
other activities appropriate for a university of technology
of the highest standards (pp. 15-16).
12
Statement of the Problem
Since the founding of the Federal Universities of
Technology in Nigeria, there has been no research concerning
their development in light of their mission. This study
will examine and analyze the growth and development of these
institutions in light of the creative tension between
legitimate interests of both the national government and the
University community. This study will review the selection
of campus governance and the factors and events that led to
the establishment and development of the Federal
Universities of Technology.
Purposes of the Study
The purposes of this study will be as follows:
1. to identify the major factors and events that led
to the establishment of Federal Universities of Technology
in Nigeria;
2. to review the programs of study and to analyze the
student enrollment and output patterns of the Federal
Universities of Technology during their developmental
stages;
3. to identify the role of the Federal government of
Nigeria in administration, planning, and financing of the
Federal Universities of Technology through the National
Universities Commission and the Federal Ministry of
Education;
13
4. to identify the role of the federal government of
Nigeria and the governing bodies of the universities on the
process for selecting or appointing vice-chancellors to the
Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria.
Research Questions
Based upon the statement of the problem and the
purposes of the study, the following questions will guide
this research:
1. What were the major factors and events that led to
the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology
in Nigeria?
2. What were the programs of study, student
enrollment, and output patterns of each Federal University
of Technology during the period following their founding?
3. What is the role of the federal government of
Nigeria in administration, planning, and financing of
Federal Universities of Technology through the National
Universities Commission and the Federal Ministry of
Education?
4. What is the role of the federal government of
Nigeria and the governing bodies of the universities in the
process for selecting or appointing vice-chancellors to the
Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria?
14
Background and Significance of the Study
Nigeria, located in West Africa, is bordered by the
Niger Republic on the north and the Atlantic Ocean and Bight
of Benin on the south. On the eastern and northeastern
border are the two countries of Cameroon and the Republic of
Chad. The Republic of Benin, formerly Dahomey, forms the
western border of Nigeria (see Appendix A).
There are two seasons in Nigeria: the rainy season,
which runs from May through October, and the dry season,
which runs from November through April. The climate of
Nigeria is generally tropical, although there is some
variance within the nation. While southern Nigeria is hot
and wet, northern Nigeria is hot and arid.
Nigeria, a nation comprising 30 states (see Appendix
A), has a total land surface of 923,768 square kilometers—
approximately 356,669 square miles. According to the
Statesman's Yearbook of 1992, the total population of
Nigeria is approximately 118,819,377. Nigeria is the second
largest nation in land area in Africa and the largest in
population (see Appendix A).
There are about 252 distinct ethnic languages spoken in
Nigeria. The main languages are Hausa, Yoruba, Ibo, Edo,
Fulani, Kanuri, Ibibio, Tiv, Itsekiri, Ijaw, Urhobo, Efik,
Igbirra, and Ogini.
Nigeria gained independence from the British government
in I960. Because Nigeria was a British colony until 1960,
15
the official language of the Nigerian people is English.
Nigeria has three tiers of government: federal, state, and
local. Nigeria has a presidential system of government that
is comprised of the National Assembly on the federal level
and State House of Assembly on the state level. The
National Assembly contains the House of Representatives and
the Senate. The Executive Branch is represented by the
President and by state Governors. The present governmental
system in Nigeria is a Federal System operated by the
military.
Nigeria is a major producer of oil and other minerals
including tin, columbite, limestone, and coal. Agricultural
and industrial independence is the major economic objective
of the country. Nigeria is an agricultural country. Eighty
percent of its total working population is engaged in this
industry, producing yams, cassava, plantains, rice, beans,
sugar-cane, and citrus fruits for food and cocoa, palm oil
produce, ground nuts, rubber, cotton and timber for export
(Federal Ministry of Information, 1990).
Educational policy matters are formed and enforced by
the Federal Ministry of Education, which is located in
Lagos. Financial matters, certification of teachers, and
inspection of schools are additional responsibilities of the
Ministry of Education (see Appendix B).
This study traces the historical establishment and
development of the Federal Universities of Technology and
16
identifies the role of thee federal government of Nigeria in
the administration, planning, and financing of the Federal
Universities of Technology. It also identifies the role of
the federal government of Nigeria and the governing body of
the university in the process of selecting vice-chancellors
to the Federal Universities of Technology. This study
reviews the programs of study, student enrollment, and
output patterns of each Federal University of Technology
during their development stages.
Definition of Terms
Higher education institutions are those that cover
the post-secondary section of Nigeria's educational system,
such as universities, polytechnics, colleges of education,
and advanced teacher training colleges.
2• Polytechnics or colleges of technology are
technical education institutions established by the
government through which two types of diploma certificates
are awarded: Ordinary National Diplomas (ONDs) are awarded
following the first two years of studies, and Higher
National Diplomas (HNDs) are diplomas awarded after four
years of training.
3- Universities are federally approved Nigerian
institutions of higher education that conduct research and
award both academic and full professional degrees. The
universities award undergraduate and graduate degrees.
17
4- Advanced teacher* -braining colleges are established
by the Federal Ministry of Education in order to train
qualified teachers in the field of higher education and
technical education. The length of the training is three
years.. Upon completion of the program, students are awarded
a grade 2 teacher's certificate (GTC).
5. Colleges of Education are approved higher
institutions offering both research and academic training.
The length of the training is three years, and, upon
completion of the program, students are awarded the Nigeria
Certificate of Education (NCE).
Delimitations of the Study
This study is concerned only with the historical
development of the three Federal Universities of Technology
in Nigeria.
Methodology
This study historically researches the establishment
and development of Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria for 1980-1990. Cohen (1976) wrote, "The past exists
in its own right and demands to be understood on its own
terms"1 (p. 330). Renier (1961) observed that history is
"the story of the deeds and achievements of men living in
societies" (p. 35). Nevins (1962) defined historical
research as a description or analysis of past events or
facts written in a spirit of critical inquiry for the whole
18
truth, and Good (1963) stated that history is "an integrated
narrative or description of past events or facts, written in
the spirit of critical inquiry to find the whole truth and
report it" (p. 115).
Van Dalen (1962) stated that modern historical research
is critical; it is the search for truth. Therefore,
historians must apply the same scholarly standard whether
the problem is concerned with the history of a nation or the
history of an educational institution. Mouly (1963)
observed that one of the purposes for historical research is
the scholarly desire of the researcher to give an accurate
account of the past. Carr (1967) noted that history is a
continuous process of interaction between the facts, the
present, and the past. Bailyn (1969) pointed out that the
reason for conducting a historical research is to learn
something new and to present the new information. History
consists of "events of the past, to the actual happenings
themselves . . . history means a record or account of these
events (Shafer, 1969, p. 2). The study of past events can
be specific results. "Old norms and values are modified as
a result of challenges; new norms and values appear in
response to felt needs" (Shafer, 1969, p. 8). According to
Best (1970), "History is a meaningful record of man's
achievement which helps him to understand the present and,
to some extent, to predict the future" (p. 94). Why is
historical research important? Best (1970) observed that,
19
"Man uses history to understand the past, and to try to
understand the present in light of past events and
developments" (p. 94). He noted that historical research
should go beyond the mere listing of events, providing
instead a "truthful, integrated account of the relationships
between persons, events, times, and places" (p. 94).
Postan (1971) felt that historical research gives credible
testimony to actually what happened and is the best
available source to examine the past, present, and future.
Historical research offers the most logical methodology
to analyze, reconstruct, and narrate evidence, according to
Borg (1963) and Best (1981) historical research involves
investigating, recording, analyzing, and interpreting the
events of the past for the purpose of discovering
generalizations that are helpful in understanding the past,
understanding the present, and to a limited extent, in
anticipating the future. Hillway (1964) stated that the
historical method can probably be considered the oldest form
of true research.
Procedures for Collection of Data
First, the method used in acquiring data for this study
involved a computer search of Educational Resources
Information Center (ERIC) and Dissertation Abstracts
International. In addition, a search was conducted through
Social Science Search Database of the Institute of
20
Scientific Information (ISI). The searches aimed at
avoiding duplication of work. Unpublished dissertations and
dissertations in progress were checked to avoid duplication
and indexes revealed journal articles that were used in the
study.
Second, a document study included the researching of
unpublished sources consisting of letters, personal papers,
notes, minutes, manuscripts of principals and interviews.
Published materials consisted of annual reports, addresses
or speeches, official university publications,
proclamations, autobiographies, and publications in books,
journals, and newspapers. Third, primary sources for this
study included the oral history account of eyewitnesses who
were privy to the events leading to the establishment of
Federal Universities of Technology. Oral history interview
is an appropriate tool of the institutional researcher
(Crawford, 1974; Cutler, 1971; Marcello, 1978).
For the completion of this study, oral interviews were
conducted with Nigerian officials selected because of their
knowledge in the events that led to the establishment of the
Federal Universities of Technology. They are: (1) the
vice-chancellors of the Federal Universities of Technology
in Nigeria; and (2) the director-general of higher
education, Federal Ministry of Education, in Lagos.
Oral interviews as a research method are unique in that
they involve the collection of data through direct verbal
21
interaction between individuals (Guion & Imade, 1981).
Historical study usually relies heavily upon the interview
process because interviews can be used to verify, validate,
and supplement information (Gorden, 1975; Stewart & Cask,
1974).
Borg (1981) has pointed out that sources for historical
research can be obtained from professional journals,
research articles, and reports when conducting a historical
research. Primary source material is important in
historical research in order to establish the authenticity
and credibility of the findings (Brook, 1969; Dollar &
Jensen, 1974; Moore, 1983; Zuelow, 1977). According to
Bailey (1982), if good data are available, historical
research can serve as an effective complement to generalized
scientific research by documenting a unique historical
event. Further, if one is interested in learning how some
contemporary event or institution came into being, a
historical approach is indispensable.
Fourth, secondary sources were selected based on their
pertinence and appropriateness to the study and on the
unavailability of primary sources. Good and Scates (1954)
indicated that secondary sources include such materials as
histories of education, bibliographies, encyclopedias, and
sections of books on school administration.
The essential steps involved in doing a historical
research project are as follows: (a) define the problems or
22
questions to be investigated; (b) search for sources of
historical facts; (c) summarize and evaluate the historical
sources; and (d) present the pertinent facts within an
interpretive framework (Beach, 1969; Berlinger, 1978; Block,
1971). According to Gottschalk (1967), the historical
method consists of (a) the collection of probable sources of
information; (b) the examination of those sources for
genuineness; and (c) the analysis of the genuine sources for
their credible particulars. This refers to both external
and internal criticisms, respectively. After the materials
have been collected and during the collection process, all
items were examined externally (as to the reliability and
likelihood of deceit or error in the materials) and
internally (for an analysis of credible details, including
author, date, primary and secondary source).
Hopkins (1976) and Gay (1987) identified the following
steps in historical research: (a) identification of the
problem; (b) accumulation of source materials, their
classification and criticism, and determination of facts;
(c) organization of facts into results; (d) formation of
conclusions; and (e) synthesis and presentation in organized
form. The three basic steps involved when conducting
historical research are: the collection of data;
classifying or categorizing data; and presenting the
arrangement as facts in a synthetic form (Eddy & Laabs,
1990).
23
Stempel and Westley -(1981) have observed that
historical research concerns the establishing of facts and
that historians most have the ability "to weigh the
•consequences1 of these events" (p. 280). The goal of
historical research is the description, explanation, and
interpretation of past events through a careful analysis and
evaluation of the sources of historical evidence (Sowell &
Casey, 1982).
This study was designed to survey the historical and
contemporary development of the Federal Universities of
Technology in Nigeria. Hence, no experimental design will
be necessary. However, information from the review of the
primary and secondary sources will be synthesized in order
to establish facts and conclusions concerning the past,
present, and future development of the Federal Universities
of Technology in Nigeria.
The sources for historical research are typically
records of past events. They are written or printed
materials that may be official or unofficial, public or
private, published or unpublished, prepared intentionally to
preserve an historical record or prepared to serve an
immediate practical purpose. Documents may be letters,
diaries, wills, receipts, oral interviews, maps,
autobiographies, journals, newspapers, court records,
official minutes, proclamations and laws (Gay, 1987;
McMillan, 1984? Slavin, 1984).
24
In historical research, the historian locates
appropriate documents, gathers suitable data, and draws
conclusions concerning a situation being studied. In
addition, historical research may provide new perspectives
on a crisis situation where other types of research would be
impossible (Ary, 1985).
Best (1986) has stated that historical research can
best be accomplished by a systematic search of primary and
secondary sources that would provide pertinent information.
Kerlinger (1986) observed the following:
Education is a particularly good example of the virtue
of historical research. In education, historical
research has great value because it is necessary to
know and understand educational accomplishments and
trends of the past in order to gain perspective on
present and future directions. (p. 621)
He pointed out that one of the basic rules of research in
history is the use of primary sources, which he termed "the
original repository of an historical datum" (p. 621).
Examples of some primary sources include, (a) a criminal
record in an important investigation; (b) an eyewitness
description of an event; (c) a photograph; and (d) minutes
of organization meetings.
Kerlinger defined a secondary source as "an account or
record of an historical event or circumstance which is one
or more steps removed from an original repository" (p. 621).
25
Wise (1967) pointed out that historical research involves a
systematic approach in the identification and collection of
data and that objectivity is the only valid goal- According
to Skager and Weinberg (1971), the sources of material upon
which historical research is based are usually classified as
primary or secondary. Leedy (1974) stated that, in the
search for historical truth, the researcher should rely, if
at all possible, on primary data.
Historical research is used to understand the past and
to try to understand the present in light of past events and
developments (Gottschalk, 1963; McLeod, 1985). Beach (1969)
contended that historical research in education is important
because it brings out past events and developments.
According to Finley (1963), historical studies are used in
examining the growth and development of colleges and
universities. A study of the entire history of institutions
of higher education provides valuable insights into the
process of establishing and maintaining adult education
activities in a formalized institutional setting. The
Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria are no
exception (Van Dalen, 1962). Van Dalen (1962) further
emphasized that a historical approach to higher education
also provides administrators and planners with descriptions
or explanations for institutional change and that historians
also interpret the highly visual and emotional character of
colleges and universities. Bell (1974) agreed that
26
historical research will .assist present and future college
and university administrators to identify problems,
weaknesses, strengths and deficiencies in teaching, program
development, and faculty recruitment. One of the reasons
for conducting the current study is that history has a
tendency to provide a better understanding of the past and
future (Vaughu, 1983).
In supporting this position, Vaughu (1983) noted that,
regardless of how new or different our world may seem, the
study of the past still offers much in personal and societal
terms. Each of us constantly draws meaning from the past in
an effort to make reference to the future. By examining the
past, we can note the steps that were not taken, the doors
that were not opened, or the measures that were not adopted,
and, thus, we can become consciously aware of the
consequences of our personal and collective decisions.
According to Borg and Gall (1979), historical research
in education is important because its findings enable
educators to "learn from past mistakes and discoveries,
perceive needs for educational reform, and to a certain
extent, predict future trends" (p. 372). Borg and Gall
(1979) further emphasized that, by studying the past, the
educational historian hopes to achieve better understanding
of present institutions, practices, and problems in
education. They also emphasized that historical research in
education is important for several reasons, that the finding
27
of historical research enables educators to learn from past
discoveries and mistakes (Borg & Gall, 1983).
Since history tends to repeat itself, its study can
prevent mistakes and help to point new directions for higher
education. According to Fogel and Elton (1983), historical
research is important because it searches for evidence in an
investigation.
Historical research must be accomplished by following
procedure (Van Dalen, 1962). The historical research for
this study was accomplished by following a five-step
procedure: (a) select the problem; (b) collect source
materials; (c) critique source materials; (d) formulate
questions to guide the study; and (e) interpret and report
the findings.
This historical research was also accomplished by
Barzun and Graff's (1970) six virtues for anyone engaged in
historical research; they are as follows: accuracy—if
history is the story of past facts, those facts must be
ascertained; love of order—there must be a system developed
for reading, noting, comparing, verifying, indexing,
grouping, and organizing; logic—the ready and practical
application of the perplexities of library research must be
applied; honesty—put it down as you find it; self-
awareness—making personal biases and standards of judgment
known to the reader; and imagination—creativity in finding
sources and synthesizing the facts (p. 140). With careful
28
attention to these procedures, this study will attempt to
conduct a historical review of the development of Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria by looking at the past
and present and attempting to understand both.
Cohen (1976) noted that careful attention to procedures
in a historical research must be the historian's goal in
order to discover the past and understand it. History
provides the means through which the course of political,
social, and economic problems can be understood (Farmer,
1983).
Historical research can provide a perspective for
decision-making about educational problems, and it assists
in understanding why things are as they are. Educational
reform and even social reform are functions often served by
historical research. Issues are often better understood and
probably better dealt with if the historical perspective is
known. Historical research can also be useful for
predicting future trends (Wiersma, 1985).
Finally, the purpose of historical research is to
obtain a better understanding of present institutions,
practices and problems in education. It aids in avoiding
past mistakes, builds on what is known, and helps to predict
the future (Curry, 1986).
29
Organization of the Study
The outline for the organization of this study is as
follows:
Chapter 1 presents the introduction, the establishment
of Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri, Akure, and
Minna, Nigeria, statement of the problem, and purposes of
the study, research questions, background and significance
of the study, definition of terms, delimitations of the
study, methodology, organization of the study, and chapter
references.
Chapter 2 consists of a review of related literature,
introduction, traditional education in Nigeria, the history
of education in Nigeria, the development of higher education
in Nigeria, summary and chapter references.
Chapter 3 describes the procedures for the collection
of data; presents data in table format; the role of the
joint admissions and matriculation board on higher education
in Nigeria; summary and chapter references.
Chapter 4 includes a discussion of the following: the
federal government of Nigeria's national policy on higher
education from 1962 to 1987; the need to understand
educational policies and policy processes; a definition of
development; a definition of policy; the first national
development plan of 1962-1968; the second national
development plan of 1970-1974; the 1976 universal primary
education policy; Nigeria's 1977 policy on education; the
30
third national development plan of 1975-1980; the fourth
national development plan of 1981-1985; the 1987 6-3-3-4
Nigeria educational system policy on education; the efforts
to improve education by the federal government of Nigeria by
the year 2000; summary and chapter references.
Chapter 5 presents the process for selecting a vice-
chancellor in Federal Universities of Technology;
introduction; the appointment of the past and present vice-
chancellors of Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria; the method of selecting and evaluating vice-
chancellors and administrators in Nigerian universities;
defenition of administrative organization and leadership;
administrative organization and functions of the Federal
Universities of Technology; the role of the federal
government of Nigeria in the administration, planning and
financing of Federal Universities of Technology; the role of
the National Universities Commission (NUC) in higher
education; the function of the administration division of
the National Universities Commission; summary and chapter
references.
Chapter 6 consists of introduction, summary of major
findings, conclusions, implications, and recommendations.
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Adobe, O. (1980, September 22). Special report on education. West Africa. 9., p. 1819.
Ali, A. A. (1980). The need for technological education. Opening address delivered at the inaugural ceremony of the Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria.
Ary, D. J. (1985). Introduction to research in education (3rd ed.). New York: CBS College Publishing.
Bailey, K. D. (1982). Methods of social research (2nd ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.
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Barzun, J., & Graff, H. F. (1970). The modern research (2nd ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Beach, M. (1969). History of education. Review of Educational Research, 39. p. 561.
Bell, T. H. (1974). A performance accountability system for school administrators. West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing.
Berlinger, R. E. (1978). Historical analysis: Contemporary approaches to Clio's graft. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Best, J. W. (1970). Research in education (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Best, J. W. (1981). Research in education (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Best, J. W. (1986). Research in education (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
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32
Block, J. (1971). Understanding historical research: A search for truth. Glen Rock, NJ: Research Publications.
Borg, W. R. (1963). Educational research: An introduction. New York: David McKay.
Borg, W. R. (1981). Applying educational research: A practical guide for teachers. New York: Longman.
Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. D. (1979). Educational research: An introduction (3rd ed.). New York: Longman.
Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. D. (1983). Educational research: An introduction (4th ed.). New York: Longman.
Brook, P. C. (1969). Research in archives: The use of unpublished primary sources. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Carr, E. H. (1967). What is history? New York: Random House.
Cohen, S. (1976). The history of the history of American education, 1900-1976: The use of the past. Harvard Educational Review. 66. 330.
Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. (1990). History of higher education in Nigeria. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities, Longmans House.
Crawford, C. W. (1974). Oral history - the state of the profession, Oral History Review, p.l.
Curry, J. (1986, Fall). What is historical research? Lecture in the Methods of educational research, EDUC 6000, University of North Texas, Denton.
Cutler, W. W. (1971). Oral history: Its nature and use for educational history, History of Education Quarterly, p. 184.
Dollar, C. M., & Jensen, R. J. (1974). Historians guide to statistics: Quantitative analysis and historical research. Huntington, NY: Krieger.
Eble, K. E. (1978). The art of administration. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
33
Eddy, J. P., & Laabs, T. R. (1990). Doctoral dissertations as historical research in higher education. Peace Progress Journal, 1, 1.
Farmer, R. (1983, January/February). The benefits of historical study. The Social Studies. 23. 14-15.
Federal Ministry of Education. (1983). Functions of the ministry. Washington, DC: Publication of Nigerian Universities Commission.
Federal Ministry of Information. (1990). The federal republic of Nigeria at a glance. Lagos: Government Printer.
Federal University of Technology. (1983/85). Calendar: History and objectives of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. Owerri: Government Printer.
Finley, M. (1963). Generalizations in ancient history. In L. Gottschalk (Ed.), Generalizations in the writing of history (p. 34). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Fogel, W. R., & Elton, G. R. (1983). Which road to the past: Two views of history. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Gay, L. R. (1987). Educational research, competencies for analysis and application (3rd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishing Company, a Bell & Howell Information Company.
Good, C. V. (1963). Introduction to educational research. New York: American Book.
Good, C., & Scates, D. E. (1954). Methods of research: Educational, psychological and sociological. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Gorden, R. I. (1975). Interviewing strategy, techniques and factors (rev. ed.). Homewood, IL: The Dorsey Press.
Gottschalk, L. (1963). Categories of historical generalization. In Gottschalk (Ed.), Generalization in the writing of history (p. 121). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gottschalk, L. (1967). Understanding history: A primer of historical method. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
34
Guion, R. M., & Imade, A.- S. (1981). Eyeball measurement of dexterity: Tests as alternatives to interviews. Personnel Psychology. 34, 31.
Hillway, T. (1964). Introduction to research (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Hopkins, C. D. (1976). Educational research: A structure for inquiry. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
Kerlinger, F. N. (1986). Foundations of behavioral research. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston.
Leedy, P. D. (1974). Practical research: Planning and design. New York: MacMillan.
Marcello, R. (1973, March). Oral history statement. History Department, University of North Texas, Denton, TX.
McLeod, P. N. (1985 Spring). How to conduct historical research. Lecture in the techniques of vocational-technical education, research and analysis, EDVT 5480, University of North Texas, Denton.
McMillan, J.H. (1984). Research in education: A conceptual introduction. Boston: Little, Brown.
Moore, G. W. (1983). Developing and evaluating educational research. Boston: Little, Brown.
Morrison, L. (1964). Government and parliament: A survey from the inside. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mouly, G. A. (1963). The science of educational research. New York: American Book.
National Universities Commission. (1982). Methods of selecting a vice-chancellor in Nigerian universities. Washington, DC: Publication of the National Universities Commission.
National Universities Commission. (1983). Inputs and participation of the establishment of Federal Universities of Technology. Lagos: Government Printer.
Nevins, A. (1962). The gateway to history (rev. ed.). Boston: Raytheon Education.
Ogunsola, A. (1977, July-September). Nigeria embarks on an educational revolution, Nigeria Illustrated, 1, p. 63.
35
Ojiaka, S. I. (1984). An historical review of federal government of Nigeria in national higher education, 1954-1982. Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Denton, TX.
Postan, M. M. (1971). Fact and relevance, essays on historical method. Cambridge: The University Press.
Renier; G. J. (1961). History, its purpose and method, London: George Allen and Unwin.
Shafer, R. J. (1969). A guide to historical method (3rd ed.). Homewood, IL: The Dorsey Press.
Skager, R. W., & Weinberg, C. (1971). Fundamentals of educational research. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Slavin, R. E. (1984). Research methods in education: A practical guide. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Sowell, E. J., & Casey, R. J. (1982). Research methods in education- San Francisco: Wadsworth.
Statesman's Yearbook. (1991/92). New York: St. Martins Press.
Stempel, G. H., & Westley, B. H. (1981). Research methods in mass communications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Stewart, C. J., & Cask, W. B. (1974). Interviewing principles and practices. Duguque, IA: William C. Brown.
Van Dalen, D. B. (1962). Understanding educational research: An introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Vaughu, S. (1983, March/April). History: Is it relevant? The Social Studies, 24, 56-60.
Wiersma, W. (1985). Research methods in education (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Baco.
Wise, J. E. (1967). Methods of research in education, Boston: D. C. Heath.
Zuelow, M. C. (1977). An historical perspective for, and evaluation of, change in secondary education program for rural Alaskans in one regional education attendance area. Doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR.
CHAPTER 2
HISTORY AND RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
The review of related literature on the history and
development of higher education in Nigeria was conducted in
two different ways. The first step was to seek out books,
reports, and articles dealing with the role of the federal
government of Nigeria toward higher education. The second
step was to review these studies to apply the concepts
contained therein to the development of institutions of
higher education in Nigeria. Education in Nigeria has
become a problem of national scope? this is due to three
great phenomena: the rapid change in modern science and
technology, the high birth rate, and the rising expectations
of the people of Nigeria.
The review of related literature will provide
information concerning the historical review of the
establishment and development of Federal Universities of
Technology in Nigeria. The discussion is limited to the
following topics: (a) traditional education in Nigeria;
(b) history of education in Nigeria? and (c) development of
higher education in Nigeria.
36
37
Traditional Education in Nigeria
Traditional education has differed from place to place
because of social, economic, and geographical imperatives.
Patterson (1955) stated that the education of the child in
Nigerian society began in infancy, just as was true in
European, Asiatic, or American societies. Parents were
responsible for the early childhood education of their
children. The traditional education in Nigeria has taught
young people to conform to social customs and traditions in
their community and to learn trades in order to become
productive citizens. Such education was maintained as
knowledge and values were gained. Body (1936) believed that
good education should originate in the family and that it
was essential for children to submit without question to
their parents' and teachers' instructions.
Traditional education was made up of the following
features: physical training, development of character,
respect for elders and peers, intellectual training,
training in the poetic and the prophetic aspects of
knowledge, vocational training, community participation, and
promotion of cultural heritage (Fafunwa, 1974). Scanton
(1964) viewed traditional education as making an individual
ready for his responsibilities as an adult in his home, his
village, and his tribe. According to Ulrich (1967),
education is the cultivation of a person or the shaping of
life. Knight (1971) pointed out that education meant
38
bringing up a child in a "way that helps to shape a human
being to make the individual what he is or hinder him from
being what he is not, and Castle (1966) stated that
education in Nigeria is generally viewed as preparation for
life. .According to Durkheim (1947), education is systematic
socialization and training of the young generation by which
the latter learns religious and moral beliefs, feelings of
rationality, and collective opinions of all kinds. This
means that education helps integrate the individual into the
wider society in which he is born (Mursell, 1972).
Hambly (1975) observed that, in pre-colonial Nigeria,
the education of the child began with the attitude of
society toward the expectant mother. The home was the first
school for children, and early childhood education was
entirely in the hands of the parents. He identified such
education as care at home, social activities, physical care,
domestic work, respect for elders, history of the family,
and education through legends and folklore. Pre-colonial
Nigerian society stressed education for the practical needs
of life and for full participation in tribal activities—
political, social, economic, and religious. Parents,
relatives, elders, and peer groups were teachers, and each
person knew the customs and traditions of the tribe and
cooperated in the education of the children. According to
Busia (1968),
39
It was the goal of traditional education to inculcate
this sense of belonging, which was the highest value of
the cultural system. The young were educated in and
for the community's way of life. Traditional education
sought to produce men and women who were not self-
centered; who put the interest of the group above
personal interests. (p. 49)
The main objective of traditional education in Nigeria is
continuity of the community. It is for this purpose that
the accumulated knowledge of the community is transmitted to
the young by the older members. The acquisition of physical
and intellectual skills, character training, respect for
elders, and vocational training become the means of ensuring
community survival. For the Nigerian child, education is an
integrated experience. It combines physical training with
character building, and manual activity with intellectual
ability (Nuduka, 1964; Oduyale, 1960). In discussing the
purpose, content, and method of traditional education in
Nigeria, Banjo (1972) maintained the following:
Before the advent of Christianity in this country,
there were no schools, but this does not mean that
there was no education of the young. The home was the
school, and the parents and older members of family
were the school staff. The method of teaching was
informal, gradual, and practical. The child was given
40
the education that enabled him to take his place in the
society as he grew older.
He received no formal lectures, but by handling
and experimenting, he learned a lot about nature. By
the process of imitation and of trial and error, he
came to distinguish through domestic discipline between
desirable and undesirable habits of conduct and health.
Through play and manual work, he performed physical
exercises, and walked longer and longer distances which
increased his strength and promoted his health. By
helping his parents in pursuit of their occupation, he
learned a trade. (p. 49)
Banjo (1972) showed clearly that the purpose, content,
and method of traditional education are intricately
intertwined. He disagreed that traditional education is a
preparation for future life or adulthood, but maintained
that the child is taught how to live in his society and how
to adapt to his environment at the different developmental
stages. Reinforcement and punishment are two important
means by which the traditional society molds children and
makes them conscious of the expectations of the group or
community, and children are made to meet these expectations.
Adjustment to these expectations forms the basic curriculum
for further growth in politics, religion, economics, and
social relationships, which were invariably interwoven in
traditional education in Nigeria until the advent of Islam
41
and subsequent missionary education. Islam and its Koranic
education were first accepted in Nigeria, particularly in
the north, and spread rapidly in that region. Both
traditional education and the Koranic system of education
predate Western education in Nigeria.
Long before the missionaries established formal
education in Nigeria, education in the country was basically
informal (Fafunwa & Aisiku, 1982). Fafunwa and Aisiku
contended that every society, whether simple or complex, has
its own system for training and educating its youth for a
good life. However, the goal of education and the method of
approach differ from place to place, nation to nation, and
people to people. For example, the Greeks considered an
educated person as one who was mentally and physically well-
balanced. The Romans also emphasized oratorical and
military training, whereas the African considered the
warrior, the hunter, the nobleman, and the man who combined
good character with a special skill to be a well-educated
and well-integrated citizen of his community.
According to Fafunwa and Aisiku (1982), knowledge or
training can be acquired in three major ways: (a) a formal
school system, which includes primary, middle, secondary and
post-secondary or higher education; (b) a non-formal system
that involves apprenticeship and on-the-job training in
which learning is accomplished by doing? and (c) an informal
system that includes various experiences and exposures,
42
otherwise known as incidental education. Most developing
countries have this system of education, and Nigeria is no
exception.
The History of Education in Nigeria
Missionaries from various European denominations—
Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, and Catholic—arrived in
Nigeria during the 19th century. The missionaries
introduced the European pattern of living and western form
of education that has operated as a formal educational
system since that time. The primary goal of the
missionaries was to build schools and to train Nigerians who
were interested in becoming trained teachers (Ajayi, 1965).
According to Grover (1948), the missionaries
established schools in order to spread literacy and train
their pupils to earn a living. They also thought schools
were one of the best means of spreading the Christian faith.
Chianakwalam (1956) noted that the reason for Nigeria's
progress in the field of education was the zeal of the
missionaries, whose connection with education dates back to
1841.
During this period, through 1843, the missionaries
controlled and dictated which educational policies should be
initiated. By 1846 the Church Missionary Society (CMS) had
established nine schools, with a student population of 549.
This period was characterized by lack of coordination simply
43
because the missionaries carried out their work as deemed
most convenient to them.
According to Odueze (1990), in 1876 an Irish priest
opened a secondary school in Lagos, now known as Saint
Gregory's Secondary School, and instruction in English was
introduced. The missionaries effectively established
boarding schools and gradually built up a pattern of primary
education at every mission. There was no system in the
pattern that emerged, no common syllabus, no general
inspectorate. The Bible was the major textbook, and
geography and grammar were added later. In 1909 a
government secondary school, Kings College, Lagos, was
established (Odueze, 1990), The boarding school tradition
was developed in the colonial period, when western
missionaries established such schools as a way of
inculcating Christianity in students who were away from
their pagan homes ("Kenya Crisis," 1991).
The year 1899 marked the establishment of the first
government schools and secondary schools. These were
continually improved between 1846 and 1899 (Chianakwalam,
1956).
Horton (1868), in discussing the improvement of
education in the colony, observed that lectures should be
given in the theory and practice of education, classics,
mathematics, natural philosophy, mensuration, and
44
bookkeeping. English language and literature should be
introduced in the form of western education into Africa.
Blyden (1882) agreed that the improvement of education
in colonial West Africa should be introduced and that
improving the culture and integrity of the people of West
Africa through education was a very important method to be
used in improving the African tribes. Blyden also stressed
the importance of a liberal education in West Africa and
noted that education was necessary to give the people the
opportunity for free and healthy development that would
civilize and shape the character and originality of the
individual.
In discussing the improvement of education in Africa,
Ward (1953) suggested that education should be adapted to
the mentality, aptitudes, occupations, and traditions of the
various peoples, conserving as far as possible all sound and
healthy elements in the fabric of the social life,
circumstances, and progressive ideas as an agent of natural
growth and evolution. Education's aim should be to render
the individual more efficient in his condition of life,
whatever it may be and to promote the community as a whole
through the improvement of agriculture, the development of
native industries, the improvement of health, the training
and indication of true ideas of citizenship and service, and
the raising up of capable, trustworthy, public-spirited
leaders.
45
As late as 1934, the missionaries still controlled
schools in Nigeria. This resulted in the development of
educational institutions and practices in Nigeria. On
January 19, 1934, the first institution of higher education
in Nigeria, Yaba College, was opened to provide Nigerians
with vocational skills. The second landmark in the
development of higher education in Nigeria was the
establishment of the University College of Ibadan in June,
1948 (Ajayi & Tamuno, 1973; Umaru, 1980).
In discussing why higher educational institutions
should be established in British West Africa, Hayford (1911)
pointed out that higher educational institutions in West
Africa should be established for the following reasons: to
create a means of revising erroneous current ideas regarding
the African; to raise the African in self-respect; and to
make the African an efficient co-worker in the uplifting of
man to nobler effort, and Nigeria is no exception. Hilliard
(1957) agreed that the purpose of founding universities in
British West Africa was threefold: to raise the African in
self-respect, to educate the African, and to produce
qualified persons to promote African economic development.
As Wise (1956) wrote that African universities would be
a force in economic transformation and modernization and
that African universities would lead in social, economic,
and political development. According to Hussey (1930), the
motives behind the founding of the higher colleges were
46
manpower needs coupled with reasons of economy, and the aim
of higher college was to provide well-trained assistants for
various departments of government and private enterprise.
Higher education on the whole was a main instrument of
national progress, the chief guardian of the people's
heritage, and the voice of the people in international
councils of technology and scholarship (Kayubi, 1984).
The Development of Higher Education in Nigeria
The beginning of higher education for Nigerians dates
to the time of slavery and the resettlement of freed slaves
in Freetown, Sierra Leone, in the late 18th century. The
first known Nigerian to have received some form of
university education was Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowthers, who
was among one of the last groups of slaves sold in West
Africa cind who was repatriated to Sierra Leone in 1822. At
the age of 13, Crowthers was trained by the Church
Missionary Society and sent to the United Kingdom for
further training, after which he returned to Sierra Leone in
time to become the first registered student of the newly
founded Fourah Bay College in 1827. Crowther was ordained a
priest in 1861. He became the first African bishop, and he
translated the English Bible into Yoruba, which is a
Nigerian language. He also prepared a Yoruba dictionary and
grammar and founded many churches and schools in Nigeria
(Ashby, 1964).
47
Th€i development of higher education in Nigeria was made
possible* by the efforts of the Nigerian and the Christian
missions. Writing about the background of higher education
in Nigeria, Adams (1970) observed that the move toward
higher education had its germination in the work of the
Christian missionaries.
According to the Commonwealth University Yearbook of
1989, the first institution of higher education in Nigeria,
Yaba College, was officially opened on January 19, 1934.
The mission of this college was to provide vocational
courses and prepare civil servants. The training would be
of "professional character" and so highly vocational that,
by itself, it could not earn United Kingdom university or
professional qualifications. The Colonial Governor
emphasized this point at the opening ceremony of the college
in 1934:
As the level of attainment of students who matriculate
at Yaba Higher College rises in proportion to the
improvements in the schools from where these students
come, the standard of the work at the college will rise
in a corresponding degree, and we look forward to the
time when it will be possible for men and women to
obtain at Yaba external degrees of a British
University. (Cameron, 1934)
The statement that the standards of Yaba Higher College
could not compete with any British university started a
48
spate of public protest and criticism. The heat generated
by public discussion was so momentous that it prompted
events which profoundly affected not only the educational
but also the Nigerian political situation. A leading
newspap€»r noted in an editorial:
Unless the standard of the college is high, it will be
impossible to justify the huge expenditure that is
being incurred.... As far as Nigeria is concerned,
nothing but the best is good enough for Nigeria. If we
must have higher education, we wish to declare
emphatically that this country will not be satisfied
with an inferior brand such as the present scheme seems
to threaten. ("Editorial," 1934, p. 6)
The college was seen by the Nigerian public as inferior and
of no value other than to supply government agencies with
young recruits instead of providing higher education.
Although it was declared that Yaba Higher College would be
adapted to the mentality and aptitudes to suit the local
environment, the reward of a local diploma that could not be
recognized outside Nigeria caused frustration for the
students, who would have preferred certificates of
international recognition ("Reports," 1935). The Nigerians1
discontent was an expression of a people who had come to
realize, in varying degree, that their place in the changing
world would be determined by their rate of educational
advancement and the application of modern knowledge to their
49
daily affairs. All available jobs that had some level of
honor or prestige had to be filled by those who had higher
levels of education. The first landmark for higher
education in Nigeria was the establishment of the Elliot
Commission, instituted by the Secretary of State for the
Colonies on June 13, 1943. The commission was to make
recommendations on the founding of future colleges in West
Africa. Azikiwe (1937) stated that the establishment of
universities in Africa would not only uplift the Africans
but would help them shape the new Africa. He noted that
universities have been responsible for shaping the destinies
of races, nations, and individuals. "Give the Renascent
African a university and this continent can become
overnight, a continent of light" (p. 144). The outcome of
the commission's recommendation, the University College of
Ibadan, was created in June, 1948. The curriculum and most
of the important academic decisions for the college were
determined by the University of London. This trend
continued until 1962, when the University College of Ibadan
became a full-fledged university (Elliott, 1970). According
to the Report of the Commission on Higher Education in the
Colonies, the Asquith Commission (1945) recommended that the
University College of Ibadan set and maintain high academic
standards through the assistance of the University of London
in order to gain international recognition. The British
government and the University of London helped formulate
50
policy, advised the University College of Ibadan on all
matters relating to higher education in the British
colonies, and helped the college to obtain an academic staff
of a quality that would aid them in maintaining the high
standards of British Universities.
According to Mellanby (1963), after the establishment
of the University College of Ibadan in 1948, the college was
severely criticized for not offering courses that led to a
recognized degree of a standard equal to those obtained in
Britain.. The Nigerian government then attempted to reduce
public criticism of the college by making an effort to make
the pattern of higher education in Nigeria parallel with the
pattern of higher education in Great Britain.
The Elliot Commission reported in 1945 that the
development of higher education in Nigeria was marked by
more deliberate attempts to reproduce the principles and
practices of higher education in the United Kingdom
("Report," 1943-1945). Kolinsky (1985) agreed that the
result of the development of University College, Ibadan
Standard and Curriculum was due to the influence of
Britain's higher education. The British model of higher
education was the primary concern for cultivating a
political and intellectual elite, and the British pattern
was also a means to the goal of economic development in
Nigeria (National Universities Commission, 1964).
51
The development of higher education in Nigeria was
influenced by the social, economic, and political needs of
the natives, and, also, the institutions of higher education
in Nigeria had academic standards similar to those of higher
education in Great Britain (Ahmed, 1989). The primary
purpose of the establishment of the University of Ibadan in
1948 was to produce an elite who could meet the standards
for public service and who had the capacity for leadership
that was needed for self-rule after the departure of the
colonial government (Ashby, 1966; Fafunwa, 1971; Majason,
1974).
Moore (1955) pointed out that the establishment of
University College, Ibadan, was needed to produce West
Africans capable of filling positions of authority in
administration and the professions. Ferguson (1965) wrote
that Nigerian higher education should be limited to the act
of nurturing an administrative elite of producing men and
women with standards of public service and capacity for
leadership of self-rule. Kolinsky (1985) noted that the
establishment of colonial higher education was intended to
produce Africans with the standards of public service and
capacity for leadership in self-rule and, also, that the
establishment of the University College, Ibadan, was an aim
to achieve independence of the colonies.
McWilliam (1969) stated that one of the purposes of
establishing a university in West Africa was to train the
52
Africans to have self-respect and to provide the manpower
skill and leadership needed for self-rule after the colonial
government. Ike (1977), in his study of university
development in Africa, agreed that the purposes of
establishing universities in Nigeria was to provide the
manpower skill that would lead the country to economic and
social development.
The second landmark in the development of higher
education in Nigeria was the work of the Ashby Commission,
which began its assignment in April 1959. The Commission,
appointed by the Nigerian government, was assigned to
conduct an investigation into Nigeria's needs concerning
post-secondary school certificate and higher education over
the next two decades (1960-1980). The significance of this
commission was noted by Fafunwa (1975): It was the first
time in the history of education in Nigeria that the
Nigerians themselves decided to examine the higher
educational structure in terms of the needs of the country
not only for the material time but for a long term; it was
the first official comprehensive review of higher education
in Nigeria to be undertaken by a team of experts (p. 2119).
The Ministry of Overseas Development and the Inter-
University Council in Great Britain planned to offer
concerted assistance to the government of Nigeria in
reorganizing its system of higher education in order to make
education a direct factor in economic development. This
53
objective was explained by Alan Pifer, then Executive
Associate of the Carnegie Corporation of New York, in a
memorandum addressed to Sir Ralph Gray, Deputy Governor-
General of Nigeria, in March, 1959. Pifer suggested that
the Ashby Commission's recommendations should be guided by
economic concerns, since economic development was bound to
be of predominant importance to Nigeria after independence.
He also suggested that the Commission should concentrate on
how to develop the personnel for leadership as the basis for
the planning of Nigerian national economic development.
Pifer1s suggestion was welcomed by the Nigerian government,
which agreed that economic development should be one of the
greatest concerns in the years after independence. Sir
Ralph Gray felt that higher education might have a part in
preparing the human resources of the country for greater
efficiency and economic output.
According to the International Yearbook of Education
(1961), the Ashby Commission recommended the creation of
universities at Nsukka, Ife, Lagos, and Zaria, as well as
the upgrading of the University College of Ibadan to the
status of a full-fledged university. There then followed
the establishment of the University of Nigeria at Nsukka in
I960? the University of Ife, now Obafemi Awolowo University,
in 1961; the University of Lagos in 1962; and the Ahmadu
Bello University, Zaria in 1962. The Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria, was carefully planned to have its own
54
distinct character. Each-of these four universities was
established on the basis of the national manpower needs and
the different environmental characteristics of each of the
universities.
Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria catered to the needs
of the entire northern portion of Nigeria? the University of
Ife, now Obafemi Awolowo University, in the largely
agricultural western section of Nigeria, emphasized
agriculture and African cultural studies. The University of
Lagos was conceived as a professional institution that would
train people in such areas as engineering, medicine,
business administration, and law. The University of Nigeria
at Nsukkci, conceived to have faculties in the arts, science,
and engineering, stressed the need for the industrial and
commercial arts of food technology, catering, domestic
science cind secretaryship (International Yearbook of
Education, 1963). Akintoyo (1973), in his 10-year study on
the University of Ife, now Obafemi University, agreed that
the University of Ife was established to train people in
such areas as agriculture and African cultural studies.
Aderibigbe and Gbadamosi (1987) mentioned in their
study of the University of Lagos that the mission of the
University of Lagos is to offer urban-based courses in
business administration, law, medicine, engineering, and
environmental studies, all with a good dose of compulsory
general African studies for all students. They noted that
55
those courses were offered to meet the growing needs of the
country's economy.
Chineto (1984) observed that Ahmadu Bello University in
Zaria, was established to train Nigerians in such academic
areas as agriculture, engineering, science, education,
business administration, Islamic law and Arabic studies, and
that those courses are essential to the economic and social
development of the country. Azikiwe (1963), in his study of
the University of Nigeria, stated that the University of
Nigeria at Nsukka was established to train Nigerians in such
areas as arts, food technology, science, domestic science,
and engineering. The university was created to be an
instrument of national development and to prepare students
for leadership and service.
During the post-war centralization of Nigeria, the Mid-
West region began to demand its own university. In 1970 the
Mid-West Institute of Technology was established and became
recognized for federal assistance as the University of Benin
in 1972. It was intended to be a technological university
emphasizing courses such as petroleum technology
(Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. 1980). The federal
government of Nigeria created seven new universities in
1975, the Bayero University, the University of Calabar, the
University of Port Harcourt, the University of Ilorin, the
University of Maiduguri, the University of Jos, and the
University of Sokoto. The creation of those universities
56
was largely in response to the pressing need all over the
country for university education. Each of these seven
universities was established on the basis of the national
manpower needs of Nigeria. The University of Maiduguri and
Sokoto were allocated schools of agriculture and veterinary
medicine because of their location in the heart of Nigeria's
cattle industry. Ilorin, Port Harcourt, and Jos
Universities were allowed to develop engineering faculties
for specific reasons: Ilorin is near Nigeria's developing
and already gigantic iron and steel complex; Port Harcourt
is the hub of the oil industry; and Jos is the center of a
thriving tin and columbite mining and refining complex.
According to the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook (1989),
the number of universities in Nigeria has grown to 30.
Although growing attention was paid to education by the
colonial government in the post-war years, expansion was
slow, at least in relation to the size of Nigeria's school
age population. Some of the challenges to educational
planning included gross differences in educational
opportunities between the sites, disparities regarding
educational availability among primary school graduates, the
demands of an expanding economy, and the need to conserve
scarce resources (Okanlawon, 1980). Much progress has been
made toward solving some of these problems, but, admittedly,
some of them persist to the present day.
57
With regard to the development of higher education in
Nigeria, Barkam (1975) concludes the following:
Despite the rapid growth of African educational systems
since independence, the method of instruction and the
values they communicate are basically the same as those
which evolved during the colonial era, and . . . most
African university students have thus, been trained to
assume technocratic roles in an administrative state
similar to that which existed in their countries prior
to independence and they are being taught to adjust
their values to western norms to a point where they
regard it as legitimate. (p. 30)
Clarke (1977) stated that the concern over the creation
of institutions of higher education in Nigeria is in
accordance with the universal concept of the mission and
purpose of universities in relation to the communities they
serve.
Clarke (1977) also noted that universities exist to
fulfill three objectives—teaching, research, and service—
and to promote the application of this knowledge to the
service of society. Universities must reach out in serving
their communities in the following areas:
(a) Direct material services: to provide direct
physical or material benefit to small communities.
58
(b) Research-based consulting service: to provide
consulting services on a limited basis to aid government as
well as small businesses and industries.
(c) Educational extension: to relate to the teaching
function of universities in adult and continuing education
to tackle illiteracy.
Guardo (1982) agreed that the mission of universities
is to fulfill three objectives—teaching, research, and
service. The mission of the Nigerian universities is to
teach, carry out research, disseminate knowledge, and serve
the community (Nigeria Educational Research Council, 1969).
The findings of this literature indicated that formal
education was introduced to Nigeria during the 19th century
by the Christian missionaries. The first higher institution
of learning, the Yaba College of Technology, was established
in Nigeria in 1934, followed by the establishment of the
University College, Ibadan, in 1948. Then followed the
establishment of the University of Nigeria at Nsukka in
1960; the University of Ife, now Obafemi Awolowo University,
in 1961; the University of Lagos in 1962; the Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria in 1962; and the University of Benin in
1970. As described in Chapter 1, the federal government of
Nigeria played a significant role in higher education when
the Federal Universities of Technology was established in
the 1980s as a national institution for technological
research.
CHAPTER REFERENCE LIST
Adams, S. G., Jr. (1970, January). Nigeria: Where education has not kept pace with politics, Phi Delta Kappan. 12. 152.
Aderibigbe, A. B., & Gbadamosi, T. G. O. (Eds.). (1987). A history of the University of Lagos. 1962-1987. Lagos: University of Lagos Press.
Ahmed, A. (1989). Asquith tradition, the Ashby reform, and the development of higher education in Nigeria. Minerva. 27.(2), 29.
Ajayi, J. F. A. (1965). Christian missions in Nigeria. 1841-1891. London: Longman.
Ajayi, J. F. A., & Tamuno, T. N. (Eds.). (1973). The University of Ibadan. 1948-1973: A history of the first twentv-five years. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press.
Akintoyo, S. A. (1973). Ten years of the University of Ife 1962-1972, Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press.
Ashby, E. (1966). Universities: British. Indian and African. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Ashby, E. (1964). African universities and western tradition: Godkin lectures. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Asquith Commission. (1945). Report of the co-mmissinn nn higher education in the colonies. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Cmd 6647 v673, 1944-1945.
Azikiwe, N. (1937). Renascent Africa. Lagos, Nigeria: Lagos Press.
Azikiwe, N. (1963). Origins of the University of Nigeria. Nsukka: University of Nigeria Press.
Banjo, B. A. (1972). Method of traditional education in Nigeria. London: Preager.
Barkam, J. (1975). An African dilemma. Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press.
59
60
Blyden, E. W. (1882). The aim and methods of a liberal education for Africans. Inaugural address delivered on January 5, 1881, Cambridge, MA.
Body, A. H. (1936). John Weslev and education. London: Preager.
Busia, K. A. (1968). Purposeful education for Africa. The Hague: Houston, N.V. Publishers.
Cameron, D. (1934). As we grow. Opening address delivered at the inaugural ceremony of Yaba Higher College, Yaba-Lagos, Nigeria.
Castle, E. B. (1966). Principles of education for teachers in Africa. London: Oxford University Press.
Chianakwalam, S. (1956). Educational development in Nigeria. School and Society. 84., 9-10.
Chineto, A. C. (1984). Twenty years of education in Nigeria. Lagos: Publication of National Universities Commission.
Clarke, R. (1977). Extending the university for grass-roots development. Institute of Development Studies. Bulletin 8., 4.
Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. (1980). History and development of higher education in Nigeria. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities, Longmans House.
Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. (1989). University development in Nigeria. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities, Longmans House.
Durkheim, E. (1947). Sociology of education. Chicago, IL: Glencoe Free Press.
Editorial on the establishment of Yaba College (1934, January 19). Nigerian Daily Service, p. 6.
Elliot Commission. (1943-1945). Report of the commission on higher education in West Africa. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Cmd 665 v593.
Elliott, K. (1970). An African school. London: Cambridge Press.
61
Fafunwa, A. B. (1971). A history of Nigerian higher educationIiagos: MacMillan.
Fafunwa, A. B. , & Aisiku, J. U. (1982). Education in Africa: A comparative survey. London: George Allen and Unwin Publications.
Fafunwa, B. (1975). The universities of Nigeria. Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities, Longmans House.
Fafunwa, B. (1974). History of education in Nigeria. London: George Allen and Unwin.
Ferguson, J. (1965, September). Ibadan arts and classics. Universities Quarterly. £(3), 399.
Gray, R. (1959). A report on higher education in West Africa. Birkbeck College Archives. London: University of London.
Grover, C. P. (1948). The planting of Christianity in Africa. London: Rex Collings.
Guardo, C. J. (1982, September). Defining the mission of a university. Case Currents, 8.(3), 24.
Hambly, W. (1975). Origins of education among the primitive peoples: A comparative study in racial development. London: MacMillan.
Hayford, J. E„ C. (1911). Ethiopia unbound: Studies in race emancipation. London: University of London Press.
Hilliard, F. H. (1957). A short history of education in British West Africa. Edinburgh: George and Harrap Company.
Horton, J. A. (1868). West African countries and peoples. British and native: With the requirements necessary for establishing that self-government recommended bv the committee of the House of Commons; and a vindication of the African role. London.
Hussey, E. R. J. (1930). Educational policy in Nigeriar Lagos: Government Printer.
Ike, V. C. (1977). University development in Africa: The Nigerian experience. London: Oxford University Press.
62
International Yearbook of „ Education. (1961). Nigerian educational development in 1960-1961, 23., 267.
International Yearbook of Education. (1963). Nigerian educational development in 1962-1963, 25, 144.
Kayubi, S. (1984). Higher education and the dilemma of nation-building in Africa. In A. Taylor (Ed.), Insights into African education. New York: Teacher College Press.
Kenya crisis of boarding school. (1991, August 14). The Dallas Morning News, p. 9.
Knight, E. W. (1971). Twenty centuries of education. New York: Ginn.
Kolinsky, M. (1985, Spring). The growth of Nigerian Universities 1948-1980: The British share. Minerva. 29(2), 29-33.
Majason, J. A. (1974). Indigenous education and progress in developing countries. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press.
McWilliam, H. 0. A. (1969). The development of education in Ghana: An outline. London: William Clowes and Sons.
Mellanby, K. (1963, Winter). Establishing a new university in Africa. Minerva. .1(4), 151.
Memorandum from Alan Pifer . . . to Sir Ralph Gray. (1959, March 30). Lockwood paper on higher education, file on Nigeria, Birkbeck College Archives. London: University of London.
Moore, G. (1955, Spring). Higher Education in Nigeria. Adult Education. 27(2), 15.
Mursell, J. L. (1972). Principles of education. New York: Ryerson Press.
National Universities Commission. (1964). Nigerian higher education system: British model. Lagos: Government Printer.
Nduka, O. (1964). Western education and the Nigerian cultural background. London: Oxford University Press.
63
Nigerian Educational Research Council. (1969). Proceedings of the Nigerian National Curriculum Conference. Lagos: Government Printer.
Odueze, S. A. (1990). An historical review of higher education in Nigeria from 1960-1985 with emphasis on curriculum development. Doctoral dissertation, University of North Texas, Denton, TX.
Oduyale, A. (1960). Practical physical education. London: Longman.
Okanlawon, A. (1980, October 2). Free education and the issue of quality. Nigerian Tribune, p. 7.
Patterson, F. D. (1955). Education in Nigeria, Journal of Negro Education, 24., 93.
Scanton, D. G. (1964). Traditions of African education. New York: Markham.
Ulrich, R. (1967). Three thousand years of educational wisdom. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Umaru, M« (1980). Nigerian colleges and universities. In Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities, Longmans House.
Ward, W. E. F. (1953). African education: A study of education policy and practice in British tropical Africa. London: Crown Agents for the Colonies.
Wise, C. G. (1956). A history of education in British West Africa. London: University of London Press.
CHAPTER 3
PROCEDURES FOR THE COLLECTION OF DATA
This chapter consists of the description of the study.
It describes how and where the data was collected for this
study, and it also consists of reviewing the universities1
income, programs of study, student enrollment, and output
patterns by the various schools at Federal Universities of
Technology in Nigeria.
This survey is followed by analysis of the
universities1 income, programs of study, student enrollment,
and their output patterns. The first step was to search for
books, reports and articles that dealt with the history and
development of Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria. The second step was to review these books, reports
and articles and apply the concepts they contain to this
study. The following procedures were used to collect the
data for this study: (a) data were collected primarily from
the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook from 1981 through
1992 concerning the income, programs of study, student
enrollment, and the output patterns of each Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria; (b) the researcher
made a trip to Nigeria to conduct a personal interview with
the Vice-Chancellor of Federal Universities of Technology,
64
65
Owerri, Professor Obah, for pertinent information relating
to the process for selecting or appointing vice-chancellors
and the factors and events that led to the establishment of
the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria; (c) Mr.
Hamze, the Director-General of Higher Education, Federal
Ministry of Education, in Lagos also provided specific
information on the role of the federal government in
administration, planning and financing of Federal
Universities of Technology? and (d) telephone interview was
made to Mrs. Bundy, a representative of the Nigerian
Universities office, in Washington, D.C., to obtain
additional information on the national educational policy
development on higher education in Nigeria. Materials were
received from the Nigerian Universities office in
Washington, D.C. (see Appendix C). These searches and
interviews that were conducted have revealed sufficient
materials and information on the topic to complete an
effective and efficient dissertation on this subject. The
transcripts of the interviews were reviewed and analyzed in
an attempt to add to the overall development of Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria. Areas covered in the
questions asked to each interviewee are found in Appendix E.
After collecting of the data and materials, the facts
are used to provide useful information concerning the
development of the Federal Universities of Technology as
institutions of higher education in Nigeria. The results of
66
the analysis are used to develop the summary, conclusions,
and recommendations in Chapter 6.
Presentation and Description of the Data Collected
Table 1
Links between U. S. Universities and Federal Universities of
Technology in Nigeria
Federal University of Technology in
Nigeria Obj ective Field U. S. university
1. Kansas State Federal Faculty Agriculture, University and University of development and veterinary City College Technology, development of medicine and of the City Owerri programs in science University of agriculture education New York
2. University of Federal Academic Agriculture Wisconsin, University of exchange Madison Technology, Minna
3. Massachusetts Federal Faculty Agriculture Institute of University of development of and Technology Technology, Akure programs in engineering and Iowa State agriculture and
engineering
University engineering
Source: "Expansion of University Education in Nigeria," by National Universities Commission, p. 47, 1983.
Table 2 reveals the income and sources of income for
Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria for the
academic years of 1980-1991.
67
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Table 3 reveals the number of enrolled students for the
academic years 1980-1991 at Federal Universities of
Technology in Nigeria.
Table 4 reveals the student enrollment distribution by
fields of study for Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria for the academic years 1980-1991.
Table 5 reveals the output patterns for Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria.
70
Table 3
Student Enrollment for Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria for the Academic Years of 1980-1991
Name of institution Academic
year Number of enrolled
students
Federal University of Technology, Owerri (founded 1980)
1980/81
1981/82
213
286
1982/83 366
1983/84 460
1984/85 774
1985/86 883
1986/87 1,010
1987/88 1,281
1988/89 2,210
1989/90 2,079
1990/91 2,435
Federal University of Technology, Akure (founded 1981)
1981/82
1982/83
112
189
1983/84 299
1984/85 419
1985/86 623
1986/87 907
1987/88 1,044
1988/89 1,206
1989/90 1,491
1990/91 1,846
(table continues 1
71
Name of institution Academic year
Number of enrolled students
Federal University of Technology, Minna (founded 1983)
1984/85
1985/86
306
429
1986/87 568
1987/88 870
1988/89 800
1989/90 1,458
1990/91 1,556
Source: Commonwealth Universities Yearbook, London, Association of Commonwealth Universities, Vol. 3, 1981-1992
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86
The Role of the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) on Higher Education in Nigeria
The federal government of Nigeria established the Joint
Admission Matriculation Board (JAMB) in 1977. The objective
of this board included greater student mobility and easy
access to higher educational institutions in the country.
The JAMB is responsible for allocating those students who
pass the common entrance examination to the institutions of
higher education in Nigeria (Federal Ministry of Information
1977a). Before students may attempt the common entrance
examination, they must not only obtain a high school
diploma, but get a minimum of five credits in all subjects
attempted (Federal Ministry of Education, 1978).
The government of Nigeria set up the Joint Admission
and Matriculation Board (JAMB) to monitor the process of
admissions. This board is responsible for writing,
administering and marking the examinations and recommending
those who passed to the universities in Nigeria (Biobaku,
1978). According to the Joint Admission and Matriculation
Board (1992), the entry requirement for candidates applying
for admission into the following fields of study:
agriculture, engineering and science must pass five subjects
that include English language and mathematics (see Table 6).
For candidates applying for direct entry, they must also
pass five subjects on their WASC or GCE "0" Level and must
pass a minimum of two subjects in the GCE "A" Level and the
87
subject should be relevant to the proposed course(s) of
study (Joint Admission and Matriculation Board, 1992).
Table 6
Subdegree Programs and Their Entry Requirement into the
Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria
Programs of study Entry requirement
Agriculture/agricultural technology
Engineering/engineering technology
Environmental technology
Science/science technology
Candidate must pass the W.A.S.C. or G.C.E. "0" Level with five subjects including English language
Candidate must pass the W.A.S.C. or G.C.E. "0" Level with five subjects including English language
Candidate must pass the W.A.S.C. or G.C.E. "O" Level with five subjects including English language and mathematics
Candidate must pass the W.A.S.C. or G.C.E. "0" Level with five subjects including English language and mathematics
Direct entry candidate must pass the W.A.S.C. or G.C.E. "0" Level with five subjects including English language and mathematics, and must pass minimum of two subjects in the G.C.E. "A" Level that are relevant to the course of study.
Source: Joint Admission and Matriculation Board, 1992. Note: WASC=West Africa School Certificate; GCE "0" Level=Ordinary Level on General Certificate Examination; and GCE "A" Level=Advance Level on General Certificate Examination
88
Summary
This chapter described the procedures used in securing
and analyzing the materials used in this study. Tables were
used to better present the links between several United
States universities and the Federal Universities of
Technology, university income, programs of study, student
enrollment, and output patterns of various schools at each
Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. A table was
also used to describe the entry reguirement for admission
into the Federal Universities of Technology.
CHAPTER REFERENCE LIST
Biobaku, S. 0. (1978). Africa's need and Africa's universities. West Africa Journal of Education. 7, p. 40.
Federal Ministry of Information. (1977a). National policy on education. Lagos: Government Printer.
Federal Ministry of Education. (1978). Entry requirement into the Nigerian universities. Lagos: Government printer.
Joint Admission and Matriculation Board. (1992, November 16). Entry requirement into Nigerian universities for the year 1993/94 academic year. National Concord, pp. 22-23.
89
CHAPTER 4
THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF NIGERIA'S NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL
POLICY DEVELOPMENT ON HIGHER EDUCATION 1962-1987
This chapter presents the need to understand the
educational policies of Nigeria; definition of development;
and definition of policy. It describes Nigeria's national
educational policies from 1962-1987 and the efforts to
improve education by the federal government of Nigeria by
the year 2000.
The Need to Understand Educational Policies and Policy Processes
Federal Universities of Technology, as referred to in
this study, covers the post-secondary section of higher
education system in Nigeria. Higher education is provided
through universities, polytechnics, and colleges of
technology, colleges of education, advanced teacher training
colleges and such institutions as may be allied to them. In
1960, after independence, the federal government of Nigeria
saw a need for a Nigerian policy on education which would be
sufficiently comprehensive to build an entirely new country.
The leaders of the country can no longer seek guidance from
the British. Since Nigeria gained independence in 1960, the
90
91
future development of the country is the responsibility of
the Nigerian people.
Educational development in Nigeria has progressed
through four distinct stages:
1890-1925 the period of Experimentation 1925-1948 the period of Attempted Reorganization 1948-1966 the period of consolidation and
independence, and 1966- the period of evolution of the National
Policy on Education (Okanlawon, 1980, p. 7).
Each period has been characterized by Okafor (1971) as
periods with organizational, racial or other compelling
forces which determined the specific objectives.
Because it was important for the federal government of
Nigeria to develop its educational system, in 1962 the
Nigerian federal government launched what it described as
the First National Development Plan of 1962-1968. The
peculiar primary aspect of the First National Development
Plan was the recognition and the priority it placed on
Nigerian educational needs and objectives (the establishment
of sufficient educational facilities at all levels of
education). The comprehensive nature of this development
plan gives it its national character.
Definition of Development
Kim (1973) analyzed development in terms of
improvement, growth, and change (p. 462). Portes (1976)
agreed that development when treated as a normative concept,
which is usually the case, is synonymous with improvement.
92
In this context, development means social transformation in
the direction of more egalitarian distribution of social
goods such as education and political decision making.
Portes further noted that while development as improvement
tends to focus more on the social and psychological
transformations in societies and educational communities,
development as growth involves the technological and
economic transformation and change comes opportunities.
Definition of Policy
The word "policy" is filled with ambiguity. This is
due in large measure to the various ways the term "policy"
is used by social scientists. Traditionally, policy has
been viewed from a legal perspective. Salisbury (1968)
believed that there are two major positions on the subject
of policy, sometimes taken separately, and sometimes in
combination. Easton (1965) defined policy as the
authoritative allocation of values for society. Policy
consists of a broad frame of rules, and Easton describes
this as the more general intentions of the authorities of
which any binding output might be a partial expression.
Friedrich (1963) noted that "it is essential for the
policy concept that there be a goal, objective, or purpose"
(p. 12). According to this position, all educational
activities are policy-oriented and must encompass specific
objectives to be purposeful. Friedrich further states that
93
there is a relationship between a governmental unit and its
environment in the responses of government to challenges or
pressures from the physical and social environment.
The First National Development Plan of 1962-1968
Historically, education has received a high priority in
Nigeria's development planning. In 1962, the nation adopted
a systematic economic plan as an instrument for effective
management of the national economy based on a five-year
national development plan (Federal Ministry of Economic
Development, 1977, p. 237). Nigeria has a growing
industrial economy. Therefore, emphasis is placed on
education and, more importantly, graduate education.
The post independence educational needs of Nigeria, as
outlined in the First National Development Plan, called for
more purposeful governmental intervention in the educational
planning in Nigeria so as to achieve six major national
objectives in education. These objectives were: (a) a
redefinition of the goal of Nigerian education; (b) a
departure from the existing practice regarding the
ownership, control, and administration of all educational
institutions in Nigeria? (c) a democratization of education
at all levels and for all Nigerians irrespective of their
geographical location, religion persuasion, and age; (d) a
re-evaluation of the content of the curriculum so as to make
it relevant to a country poised to modernize her economy and
94
sensitive to a preservation of her moral and cultural
values; (e) a revision of the division of responsibilities
between the federal, state and local governments and a
readjustment of financial obligations for education among
the layers of the government; (f) a review of adult
education programs in Nigeria with a view to producing
functionally literate Nigerian adults ("Objectives for
Education." First Nigerian National Development Plan.
Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, 1962).
During this period, 1962-1968, the federal government
was responsible for education in the capital territory of
Lagos. The regional government, on the other hand, had
primary responsibility for education at all levels in their
respective regions with some assistance from the federal
government. For this plan period, a total expenditure of
£45,000,000-65,000,000 was incurred for the implementation
of the federal and regional governments' programs in the
educational sector of the economy (First Nigerian National
Development Plan, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos,
1962). This represented 65.2 percent of the total planned
estimate of £69,800,000. The federal government spent
£24,700,000 against the £29,200,000 estimated. The regional
governments together incurred a total capital expenditure of
£21,000,000.
The First National Development Plan emphasized (a) an
increase in enrollment at all levels of the Nigerian
95
education system? (b) division of funds to make such an
enrollment increase possible; (c) the training of teachers;
(d) provision of physical space, construction of new school
buildings and expansion of existing facilities; and finally,
(e) governance of all schools in the country including
higher educational institutions. No specific mention or
provision was made regarding the curriculum change in terms
of course content at any level to reflect the high-level
manpower development which the government considered as the
most critical need. The prevailing view among the Nigerian
educators was that education should be tailored to reflect
the economic and social conditions of the country. The
colonial system of education thus registered its final
approval in post-independence Nigeria. The four premier
post-independence Nigerian institutions of higher education
were the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria; the University of
Nigeria, Nsukka; the University of Ife; and the University
of Lagos, which became fully operational during this period.
Each was unique.
The Second National Development Plan of 1970-1974
According to the Nigeria Diarv Handbook (1977), the
1970—74 Second National Development Plan objectives were to
look at expansion and improvement of educational
institutions in Nigeria. This plan called for the
importance of science and technology and the teaching of new
96
mathematics in primary school curriculum to prepare students
toward the area of technological education, so as to meet
the growing needs of the economy.
Dike (1966) has argued that progress in science,
medicine and technology should tend to follow rather than
precede education and that despite the demands for change,
the growth producing subjects such as agriculture, science
and technology in the university curriculum will always have
been a conventional resistance. The Second National
Development Plan (1970-1974) objective was to make higher
education the instrument of national policy in education to
build entire new Nigerian national aspirations that was
needed (Ali, 1977).
The 1976 Universal Primary Education Policy
On October 17, 1975 the Federal Military Government of
Nigeria gave M58 million capital grant (Nigerian currency)
to the states to execute the Universal Primary Education
project during the 1975-76 financial year (Nigeria Diary
Handbook, 1977). According to the Area Handbook Series on
Nigeria (1981), in September 1976 the federal military
government of Nigeria launched the Universal Primary
Education (UPE) policy in order to make education free at
all levels and ushered into the society a free primary
education as a weapon against illiteracy. The interest of
the Nigerian people was that education is an important road
97
to power, wealth, and status and that the Universal Primary
Education will provide them free education, because until
the introduction of the UPE, paying for school could be a
problem for impoverished parents even at the primary level
(Anyanwu, 1976; Gesinda, 1976).
In 1981, free education and the issues of quality were
discussed in the mass media and by some Nigerians. The main
topic in the discussion was that free education at all
levels would require more money. The question of who would
pay for free education was raised. Free education would
also tremendously increase the student population.
According to Payne (1989), the economy of Nigeria is 90
percent dependent on oil. An economy based on oil resources
was the future plan for Nigerian national development.
During the 1970s, high oil prices helped Nigeria's
foreign earnings and Nigeria became an oil rich nation
because of the petroleum boom that earns Nigeria $20 billion
a year. The financing of all levels of education in Nigeria
occurred because of the oil revenues. The education and
economic development of Nigeria depends on the oil revenues,
especially with the introduction of free primary education
in the 1970s (Beers, 1991).
According to the report of the National Education
Policy Implementation Task Force (1978), Nigeria, given its
oil revenues, would have the resources to undertake
development of a massive educational program based on the
98
1976 Universal Primary Education policy. The federal
government of Nigeria believed that this would be an
equitable way to share oil revenues since Nigeria's
political and economic development depended on an educated
population. The Nigerian educators and politicians have
stressed the need for education to meet the challenges of
today. The federal government of Nigeria built primary and
secondary schools, as well as universities and technical
schools, as the number of students increased during the 1976
Universal Primary Education policy (Beers, 1991).
Odetola (1980) attempts to enumerate in descriptive and
statistical forms the accomplishments of free education to
dispel the efforts of the critics of "quality" in
miseducating the Nigerian people. Odetola states that:
Some Nigerians and some sections of the mass media are
outdoing themselves in their criticisms of the
scheme . . . . The critics concentrate their
blistering attacks on inadequacy of educators viewing
the shortages and inadequacies they conclude that it
was hasty, ill digested and of low quality (p. 7).
Odetola also states that even though critics are entitled to
their opinion, they can often mislead the uninformed.
Ozigi (1979) noted that "until about a decade ago, most
post-primary institutions in Nigeria had enrolled 300
students . . . . Today the story is different . . . it is
99
not uncommon to find institutions with student enrollments
approaching 2,000" (p. 1753).
Table 7 and Table 8 show the number of student
enrollment before and after the Universal Primary Education
policy of 1976. Before the Universal Primary Education
policy of 1976 was put into effect, Nigeria had 1,703,000
children in primary education in 1955. By 1960, the year of
Nigeria's independence, the number had risen to 2,193,000.
In 1966, the total enrollment in primary schools was
3,026,000 and the number of student enrollment was estimated
at 12.3 million in 1977. Enrollment in secondary schools in
1955 was 62,550; in 1960, it was 66,320; in 1966, it was
257,400 and the number of student enrollment was estimated
at 1.2 million in 1977. The rise in 1977 is due to the fact
that primary education had been free since 1976 (Federal
Ministry of Education, Statistics Report Division, 1980).
According to the Area Handbook series on Nigeria
(1981), the 1976 Universal Primary Education policy has
brought growth in student enrollment as follows: primary
school pupils from 4.4 million in 1974 to more than 13.6
million in 1980 and the secondary school system has
increased from more than 500,000 pupils in 1974 to 2 million
in 1980. The introduction of the 1976 Universal Primary
Education policy has lead to the growth in numbers of
educated persons in Nigeria.
100
Table 7
Number of Enrolled Students in Nigerian Primary and
Secondary Education from 1955-1974 before the Universal
Primary Education Policy of 1976
Post-Primary Number of Enrolled Institution Year Students
Primary education 1955 1,703,000
Primary education 1960 2,193,000
Primary education 1966 3,026,000
Primary education 1974 4,400,000
Secondary education 1955 62,550
Secondary education 1960 66,320
Secondary education 1966 257,400
Secondary education 1974 649,000
University education 1974 25,000
Source: Federal Ministry of Education, Statistics Report Division, Lagos, 1980.
101
Table 8
Number of Enrolled Students in Nigerian Primary, Secondary
Education and Universities from 1977-1985 after the
Universal Primary Education Policy of 1976 was
Implemented
Post-Primary and Secondary Institutions Year
Number of Enrolled Students
Primary education 1977 12.3 million
Primary education 1980 13.6 million
Primary education 1985 15.0 million
Secondary education 1977 1.2 million
Secondary education 1980 2.0 million
Secondary education 1985 2.5 million
University education 1985 130,000
Source: Federal Ministry of Education, Statistics Report Division, Lagos, 1986.
Oladapo (1988) pointed out that the 1976 Universal
Primary Education policy ensured that the Nigerian
government provided: (a) free, compulsory and universal
primary education, (b) free secondary education, and
(c) free university education at all levels of education.
He also stated that in 1985 this policy brought growth in
student enrollment as follows: (a) primary school—15
102
million; (b) secondary school—2.4 million; and
(c) universities—130,000.
According to Okanlawon (1980), a completely free
education system: (a) is a guarantee against illiteracy,
ignorance, superstition and sometimes religious fanaticism;
(b) improves the democratic process by increasing the
political awareness of the populace; (c) contributes to the
well-being and health of the people; and (d) improves the
social and economic conditions of the citizens (p. 10).
Obozuwa (1981) stated that Nigerians must pursue a
vigorous policy of manpower development through education to
promote the economic development of the nation. Awokoya
(1985) in discussing the issues of education and development
into policy stated that the Nigeria Universal Primary
Education policy development plan for education is the
keystone of a people's life and happiness, and that the 1976
Universal Primary Education policy must meet the many needs
and aspirations of the nation as a whole, and that it must
also care for the individual, for it is the policy of the
government of Nigeria to build up a sound education
throughout the nation and to encourage every parent to
ensure that their children benefit from the free Universal
Primary Education. Awokoya also stated that Universal
Primary Education without fees was an immediate governmental
objective and anticipated the expansion of post-primary
school opportunity in the future.
103
There is no doubt that educational development has come
of age in independent Nigeria since the introduction of the
Universal Primary Education policy of 1976. According to
Rusk (1962), in his address in the Policy Conference on
economic growth and investment in education, he emphasized
that "education plays an important role in any society and
that education is the single greatest instrument of
development, it is an integral part, and inescapable and
essential part of the development itself" (p. 17). Hanson
(1966) in discussing the issue of education in social and
economic development has pointed out that the key role of
education in any nation depends on how the people of the
nation perceive what education is out to do, and on what
benefits they associate with such functions, and that the
position of the federal government of Nigeria is that
education is an integral part, an inescapable and essential
part of the economic and social development process.
The Nigerian philosophies of education are due to the
past and present social, political, and economic setting of
Nigeria (Adaralegba, 1969). Oladapo (1988) stated that the
Nigerian political leadership recognized that education was
an essential instrument for awakening the national
consciousness, and for achieving national development and
that education was not only necessary but an essential
condition for democracy. The Nigerian government believes
that education is a way of encouraging a national unity
104
among the many ethnic and language groups in the country,
and that education provides the skilled workers, managers,
teachers, and technicians needed for economic development
(Beers, 1991).
The 1977 National Policy on Education
The work started in 1973 on the planning of the
National Policy on Education and ended in 1977 under the
chairmanship of Chief Simeon Adebo, the Chairman of the
Nigerian National Universities Commission. The experts were
drawn from a wide range that included representatives of the
universities, the National Universities Commission, and
Ministries of Health, Education, Economic Development, and
Finance. Also participating were representatives of the
National Council for Education, the Joint Consultative
Committee on Education, and the National Educational
Research Council.
The government's white paper on national education
policy states that one of the main factors that led to the
planning exercise was the government's realization that:
For the benefit of all citizen's of Nigeria the
country's educational goals in terms of its relevance
to the needs of the individual as well as in terms of
the kind of society desired in the relation to the
environment and realities of the modern world and rapid
105
social changes should be clearly set out. (Federal
Ministry of Information, 1977b, p. 13.)
The 1977 policy on education was implemented to
effectively utilize education for national development,
because a comprehensive approach to educational planning is
necessary. Ogunsola (1977) warned that "any development
that will not reflect national planning and realistic
implementation may lead to disaster" (p. 26). In response
to this fundamental concept of development through
education, Nigeria created the National Policy on Education
(Federal Ministry of Education, 1977), the document which
attempted to redirect and focus educational efforts in a
comprehensive and purposeful manner. This policy was the
product of a combined group of educators, administrators,
and policy makers appointed by the then Federal Military
Government and was published in 1977 by the Federal Ministry
of Education, Lagos, to ensure: (a) Nigeria a free and a
democratic society, (b) Nigeria a just and egalitarian
society, (c) Nigeria a united, strong, and self-reliant
nation, (d) Nigeria a great and dynamic economy, and
(e) Nigeria a land of bright and full opportunities for all
citizens (pp. 1-5).
The 1977 National Policy on Education contains general
statements which indicate the philosophy of Nigeria
education, and the policy contains the following goals for
higher education:
106
(a) The acquisition, development, and inculcation
of the proper value-orientation for the survival of the
individual and society.
(b) The development of the intellectual capacities
of individuals to understand and appreciate their
environments.
(c) The acquisition of both physical and
intellectual skills which will enable individuals to
develop into useful members of the community; and
(d) The acquisition of an objective view of the
local and external environments. (Federal Ministry of
Information, 1977b, p. 14).
The National Policy on Education seemed to have placed
emphasis on giving education rather than certificates to the
beneficiaries of the Nigerian educational system. The 1977
policy also emphasizes the following: (a) de-emphasizing of
examinations, (b) acquisition of skills, (c) provisions of
options, (d) emphasis on the worth of life, (e) exposure to
technical versatility, and (f) promotion of naturalism
through an understanding of relationship of individuals to
one another and the State (Federal Ministry of Education,
Education Today. 1987a). Nwagud (1976) stated that the
government brought about a new educational policy to be used
as a guide for the future of the people in attaining the
useful goals of education.
107
Thompson (1976) stated that Nigerian educational
policies help to shape the vital decisions a society has to
make with regard to education. Thompson defines the most
vital decision in the following manner:
Major educational policies must be made regarding who
will attend school, what will be taught and who will
teach, how the educational system will be governed and
administered, and how education will be financed. How
these questions are answered depends upon the
interaction of a host of economic, cultural, social,
psychological, and political variables. (p. 15)
These are the major factors that influence educational
policies in any society. Various societal conditions which
cause changes in one or more of these variables will result
in a different educational policy. In fact, the federal
government of Nigeria has been constantly affected by such
social, political, economic, and cultural variables.
Iruka (1979) agrees that the 1977 education policy
aimed for these objectives. More importantly, Nigeria
relies heavily on education to solve its social, political
and economic needs.
The 1977 National Policy on Education is intended to
provide economic development at the highest level in basic
and applied sciences, and education at the secondary level
for skilled technicians and industrial workers. The 1977
National Policy on Education is also intended to make each
108
Nigerian a sound and effective citizen who can make a
contribution to a united, strong, free and democratic
society (Federal Ministry of Education, 1979).
Qsuntokun (1982) pointed out that the 1977 National
Policy on Education is an attempt to meet Nigeria's national
educational objections and to help shape the social and
economic development. Awokoya (1985) agreed that the 1977
National Policy on Education adopted by the federal
government of Nigeria is an instrument of excellence for
effecting national development and that it is the greatest
investment that the nation can make for the quick
development of its economic, political, sociological and
human resources.
According to Oladapo (1988), the 1977 National Policy
on Education should serve as the goal of social and economic
transformation and the development of the Nigerian people,
and that the policy was the government commitment to
education to ensure that every citizen is given full
opportunity to develop his intellectual and working
capabilities for his own benefit and that of the community.
Uchendu (1979), the Nigerian educator and writer, observes
that the 1977 National Policy on Education objectives are
shared by most African countries because it helped shape the
social and economic development.
109
The Third National Development Plan of 1975-1980
On March 29, 1975 the federal government of Nigeria
announced that the government will spend M30 billion
(Nigerian currency) for the Third National Development Plan
of 1975-80 (Nigerian Diary Handbook. 1977).
Table 9
Fields of Study of Students in Nigerian Universities. 1975-
1980 and 1984
Field of Study
(percentages) 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1984
Humanities 5,132
16.3
6,465
16.7
6,938
17.1
5,963
13.5
8,731
15.8
10,908
17.1
14,897
15.7
Social services and law 6,872
21.8
8,557
22.0
7,767
19.1
13,066
29.7
13,501
24.4
12,978
20.3
20,175
21.3
Education 5,126
16.3
7,025
18.1
6,239
15.4
6,268
14.7
9,487
13.5
11,420
17.8
15,789
16.6
Natural sciences 5,000
15.8
6,101
15.7
6,338
15.6
6,491
14.7
7,453
13.5
9.868
15.4
15,456
16.3
Medical, sciences 4,504
14.3
4,989
12.8
6,638
16.3
6,465
14.6
7,813
14.1
7,826
12.2
11,331
11.9
Engineering, architecture,
etc.
3,252
10.3
3,730
9.6
4,374
10.8
3,879
8.8
5,767
10.4
7,121
11.1
11,061
11.7
Agriculture, etc. 1,625
5.5
1,990
5.1
2,321
5.7
1,959
4.4
2,497
4.6
3,931
6.1
6,170
6.5
Total 31,511 38,877 40,615 44,121 55,249 64,052 94,879
Source: From Fourth National Development Plan (1980-84). Lagos: Federal Ministry of National Planning, p. 268.
During the 1975/80 national development plan, the
National Universities Commission was to forecast Nigerian
manpower and educational needs of the country and to
110
evaluate the economic capacity of the educational system.
The Commission's report was instrumental in the great
expansion of educational facilities in Nigeria (Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 1986, p. 10).
The NUC created the Inter-Regional Manpower Board in
order to determine the needs of higher sector manpower. The
Committee on Education and Human Resource Development joined
with the National Manpower Board to determine the
educational and training requirements of certain
occupations. Through its study, the Committee was able to
determine the state of Nigerian human resources and the
critical manpower needs in the higher sector (National
Universities Commission, 1983, p. 67). The Manpower Board
duty is also to encourage inter-university meetings between
employees and the government (Moghrasi, 1972, p. 2).
Etuk (1984) stated that Nigerian educational objectives
were shaped by the Third National Development Plan of 1975-
80. This plan called for the reform of the content of
general education to be more responsive to the socioeconomic
need of the country. It also called for the consolidation
and development of the national system of higher education
in response to the economic manpower need.
The 1975-80 Third National Development Plan gives
specific impetus to higher education for high-level manpower
training and economic development. Among other things, the
Plan states,
Ill
Government commitment, however is the creation of the
country educational system capable of ensuring that
every citizen is given the full opportunity to develop
his intellectual and working capabilities for his own
benefit and that of his community. (Federal Ministry
of Economic Development, 1975, p. 45)
This Third National Development Plan was a very powerful
instrument for social change in a process of dynamic nation-
building of Nigeria. The government identifies six national
objectives for the Third National Development Plan and they
are:
(a) to expand facilities for education aimed at
equalizing individual access to education throughout the
country;
(b) to reform the content of general education to make
it more responsive to the socio-economic needs of the
country;
(c) to consolidate and develop the nation's system of
higher education in response to the economy's manpower
needs;
(d) to streamline and strengthen the machinery for
educational development in the country;
(e) to rationalize the financing of education with a
view of making the educational system more adequate and
efficient; and
112
(f) to make an impact in the area of technological
education so as to meet the growing needs of the economy
(Nigeria Diary Handbook, 1977).
This led to the establishment of Federal Universities
of Technology in the 1980s. During the Third National
Development Plan, the federal government decided to build
new Federal Universities of Technology in states without
federal universities. The Third National Development Plan
has contributed to the development of the Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria. In short, the
federal government of Nigeria felt that locating the Federal
Universities of Technology in areas that were educationally
backward would stimulate an interest in education on the
part of local communities.
The Third National Development Plan also emphasized the
following:
(a) free universal and compulsory primary education
throughout the country;
(b) free education for handicapped and gifted children
at all levels;
(c) the expansion of secondary schools;
(d) the introduction of parallel system of secondary
technical schools to supplement the present system of
secondary education;
(e) the production of trained teachers for schools at
all levels and the up-grading of teachers in-service;
113
(£) the expansion and consolidation of the
universities; and
(g) the establishment of new universities under the
federal government leadership and control. They are the
University of Sokoto, University of Maijuguri, University of
Calabar, University of Jos, University of Port Harcourt, and
the University of Ilorin (Nigeria Diary Handbook. 1977).
Conroy (1980) has stressed that the objectives of
general education are directly related to productivity, and
that general education goals are valued by society in terms
of economic productivity. The Third National Development
Plan of 1975-1980 emphasized that Nigerian Universities must
offer courses in science and technology. However, Nigerian
policy makers had already realized that a major constraint
on Nigerian development was the lack of adequate manpower,
and that economic and social development required more
doctors, engineers, and educators. For this reason, the
1975-1980 National Development Plan earmarked the N30
billion for the improvement of education (World Almanac and
Book of Facts, 1987, p. 10). Table 9 shows the fields of
study of students in Nigerian universities between 1975 and
1984. According to the UNESCO Yearbook of Education (1987),
The percentage studying practical subjects like
engineering and agriculture remains a small minority.
Over 70 per cent of all Nigerian university students
between 1975 and 1979 enrolled in the traditional
114
disciplines—including basic or "pure" sciences. Less
than 30 per cent enrolled to study applied or practical
subjects, including human and veterinary medicine. The
combined average output of agriculturalists and
technologists of all specialties by all the Nigerian
universities between 1975 and 1979 accounts for only 14
per cent of the yearly total number of students who
graduated during the period. The "overproduction" of
"educated persons" in the humanities and
"underproduction" of graduates in the applied sciences
and technology continued from 1980 through 1984. In
1980, for instance, 55 percent of all those enrolled in
the Nigerian universities were inscribed in courses of
study in the arts and humanities, social sciences and
law; 15 per cent took courses in the natural or pure
sciences, and 12 per cent in the medical sciences.
Those in the applied sciences such as engineering,
agriculture, construction, architecture and related
fields of study, constituted less than 20 per cent of
the total number of students enrolled in all the
Nigerian universities in 1980. Roughly the same
percentage was enrolled in the applied sciences in
1984. In the session of 1984-85, social sciences and
law had the largest enrollment—more than 21 per cent
of all students—followed by education with 16.6 per
115
cent, pure science with 16.3 per cent, and humanities
and arts with 15.7 per cent.
Thus, one of the many problems that resulted from
attempts to reform the Asquith tradition in Nigerian
higher education was shown in the readiness of policy-
makers merely to alter the aspirations and aims of
education in favour of science and technology, but with
little or no institutional measures to support such
"change." Indeed, the state of applied science and
technology in relation to pure scholarship has not
changed to any significant extent. Thus far, the
traditional neo-classical orientation of Nigerian
higher education has, in effect, been maintained to the
dismay of the initiators of reform. The preexisting
curriculum of higher education with its primacy of
academic subjects has been preserved. (p. 20)
The Fourth National Development Plan of 1981-1985
According to the Federal Ministry of Planning (1985),
Nigeria's educational objectives were also shaped by the
Fourth National Development Plan of 1981-85. The plan
helped change student preferences from the humanities,
social sciences, and law and encouraged students going on to
universities to work for a degree in pure or applied science
such as engineering, agriculture and medicine. Many
116
Nigerian universities stressed such curricula in response to
the economic needs of the country.
The reorganizing of the system of higher education
toward economic development has been one of the declaimed
objectives of governmental policy for higher education in
Nigeria since independence in 1960. Politicians, military
men in office, administrators, foreign advisers and
educationalists have called for a development of model
higher education and that in the view of many Nigerians,
there would clearly be a place in the developing economy for
high-level manpower such as technologists, engineers,
agriculturists, and veterinarians who would guide the
Nigerian national economic development (UNESCO, 1987).
The Nigerian economy has needed skilled labor to combat
the various problems it faces. According to Hoselitz and
Weiner (1961), the extent to which higher education in many
modernizing countries is not calculated to produce graduates
with the skills relevant to the needs of the country creates
the paradoxical but common situation of a country in which
skilled labor is a scarce resource, and yet, in which highly
educated persons are in superabundant supply (p. 177).
Nigeria is no exception to this type of situation.
Nigeria must avoid this situation by creating more job
opportunities and providing the right education. Bunting
(1955) in an address at an educational conference in Nigeria
mentions that if Nigerians want to make the Nigerian youth a
117
better human being, a better citizen and a better worker,
then Nigerian educators and government must re-examine their
approach to education. According to Harbison and Myers
(1965), the economic development of every country is the
result of the trained effort of its citizens, and that it
takes human agents to discover and exploit natural
resources, to mobilize capital, to develop technology, to
produce goods, and to carry on trade. Harbison and Myers
(1965) also state that the wealth of a country is based upon
its power to develop and utilize the innate capacities of
its people, and that if a country is unable to develop its
human resources, it cannot build anything else, whether it
be a modern political system, a sense of national unity, or
a prosperous economy.
The national economic development of Nigeria must be
the primary goal of higher education (Ashby, 1965; Adetoro,
1966b). Harbison (1970) stated that the building of a
reservoir of highly educated persons was the key to
Nigeria's economic development, and that higher education
should produce qualified persons able to promote national
economic development. The political leaders regarded higher
education as the basic component in nation building and the
foundation from which they hoped the economic revolution
would be launched and achieved (Lewis, 1965; Yesufe, 1969).
Meier (1970) in his study of international poverty,
pointed out that there is a strong association between the
118
educational, economic and political subsystem of a
developing nation. He also points out that education is
considered both a consumer good (because of the benefits it
gives to the educated) and a capital good (because of the
increased earnings to the educated person).
Gray (1959) has pointed out that higher education needs
to play a part in preparing the human resources of the
country for greater efficiency and economic output, and that
higher education should lay emphasis on the production of
engineers, technologists, agriculturists, veterinarians,
architects, and other categories of the skilled persons who
should be actively engaged in economic production.
Adetoro (1966a) contended that the standards of the
Nigerian higher education academic system must emphasize
economic development. Adetoro advised the makers of
Nigerian educational policy that they must do everything
possible to avoid catastrophe. He believed that the
curriculum of educational institutions must be designed to
meet the demands of science and technology, scientific and
technological studies. In supporting this position, Arikpu
(1968) noted that curriculum of educational institutions
should be designed to meet the demands for economic and
social development. The college curriculum must be capable
of responding to precipitous change in technology,
demographics, and social systems (Moore, 1992).
119
Hcilsey (1961) stated- that some of the problems
associated with social and economic development and the
production of skilled manpower are the result of
deficiencies in the African educational system, and he noted
the following:
1. Little has been done by African universities to
develop technological research personnel who could transfer
scientific and technical knowledge to business enterprises
in order to strengthen the economy of the country and
increase the national income.
2. The rate of development is hampered by lack of
sufficient numbers and quality of technical, scientific,
professional, and managerial personnel to undertake
feasibility studies, evaluate development projects,
determine what projects would best further the country's
development, formulate viable development programs and
manage and supervise the implementation of projects. These
inadequacies make Africa dependent on expatriates for even
modest activities in important sectors.
3. The educational system was not devised to meet the
challenge of rapid transition from a traditional economy to
an industrial one.
4. The curriculum tended to be conventional in outlook
and largely satisfied with conditions and facilities that
cannot meet the challenge of rapid economic development and
the application of modern technology. Specialized training
120
courses in professional and technological fields are
generally either absent or inadequately developed. In terms
of student enrollment, liberal arts and the humanities
predominate while insufficient numbers are enrolled in
agriculture, scientific, engineering, and technological
fields.
Bushnell (1980) stated that the social and economic
foundation of any nation must be built through education by
planning and implementing programs that will improve the
economic development of the nation. Fafunwa (1975) stressed
that '"education should reflect the present and future of the
dynamic Nigerian society in terms of social and economic
development" (p. 52). According to Lewis and Mertens
(1987), for economic development reasons, the right
education prepared individuals for the dual responsibilities
of home management and wage earning. Denison (1971) pointed
out that the role of education is to provide skills that
contribute to the productivity of all individuals, and that
the basic requirement of education occurs at the elementary
and secondary levels and extends to the college level. The
right education was generally regarded as essential to
economic growth.
Poignant (1967) argued that education should have a
privileged position in the national plan because it trains
future workers with the aim of raising production and the
standard of living, thereby improving every aspect of human
121
society. He also states that education is a long-term
national investment and that the future active population of
a country will benefit from the expanding flow of better
educated and trained young people. This, he says, will
gradually transform the intellectual and vocational
structure of the population.
Shoemaker (1971) contended that the expanding role of
education for work is that individuals require formal
training, and preparation for initial job entry, because it
is a basic responsibility of the public that we must choose
between increased welfare or an expanded program of
preparing for work. The purpose of education is to
perpetuate and improve the society in which it exists. Our
society requires that everyone receive the opportunity to
earn an adequate living. According to Ginzberg (1982),
higher education must provide the right education to help
build the nation's economy, and that economy has no place
for functional illiterates, and that education courses or
programs can help acquire occupational skills.
A nation's position of leadership demands a strong
economic base to train people for new skills when required,
and to provide an increased level of efficiency and
productivity if we are to survive in world competition.
That is why the right education should be provided
(Goldhammer and Taylor, 1972). Galbraith (1975) mentioned
that education is very essential for human resource
122
development, because it gives opportunities for people to
enjoy higher incomes and it invests human capital in
economic growth.
Conroy and Diamond (1976) point out that occupational
education is important because it provides the right
training and skills to people for particular occupations,
such as nursing, computer programming, and drafting, that
can cause economic growth in the society. Corman (1980)
maintained that people lack the basic skills so often
required in entry-level jobs, and that is why the right
education should be provided in preparing people for work.
Adesua (1980), in his study of vocational education in
Nigeria, pointed out that modern technology has great
elimination of unskilled and low-skilled persons and that
vocational technical education will be responding to the
needs of the society by keeping up and training the people
due to the technological change. Vocational education must
recognize the economic condition of a society and to provide
technological training to individuals to meet the demands of
the market in terms of the technological change (Oyeneye,
1980a, 1980b and 1981). According to the report of the task
force on education for economic growth (1983), it was
concluded that poor quality of education does an inadequate
job of preparing students for work, will threaten any
country's economy, and that higher education in many
123
modernizing countries must produce graduates with the skills
by providing the right education.
Almond and Powell (1966) stated that education enables
individuals to improve their welfare. Education also gives
people more confidence in their ability to influence their
environment, and education is important in political
socialization. In a developing society, only higher
education can open the way to economic and social
advancement and potential political power. Nigeria is no
exception (Cowan, 0,Connell and Scanlon, 1965).
Gowon (1973) stated that universities should play a
significant role in providing the skill and knowledge that
will lead to the economic, cultural, and social development
of the people. According to Deutsch and Hecole (1981),
higher education increases people's general awareness and
widens their view of world events, and the people of Nigeria
are no exception.
N'Daw (1969) stated that African universities are a
force in economic transformation and modernization, and that
the African universities must lead in the push for
modernization processes such as social and economic
mobilization. Yesufe (1973) pointed out that African
universities must be committed to active participation in
social transformation, economic modernization, and the
training and upgrading of the total human resources, and
government gives a high priority to education. It is
124
important to study the history of higher education in
Nigeria, so as to see what the politicians and educators are
doing to promote future development through education.
Almond (1978) mentioned that "it is higher education
that provides the human pool from which most intellectuals
and the elites who run the country are drawn" (p. 5). The
Nigerian leaders' philosophy is to provide education for its
citizens and to invest highly in education as a weapon in
the fight for independence. The nationalist leaders viewed
university education as essential as an instrument for
developing national consciousness and the catalyst for
national development (Oladapo, 1988). Aderibigbe (1989)
agreed that the Nigerian leaders viewed university education
as an instrument that must reflect to the social and
economic development of Nigeria.
The 1987 6-3-3-4 Nigeria Educational System
According to the Federal Ministry of Education (1987b),
Nigerian educational objectives are shaped by the 6-3-3-4
Education System Plan of 1987. This plan called for the
Nigerian educational system to be reorganized to prepare
students in stages consisting of pre-primary, primary, and
secondary in two tiers of (I) Junior and (II) Senior,
technical colleges and higher education (see Appendix D).
In 1987, the federal government of Nigeria implemented
this educational reform program and the objectives of this
125
program are: (a) the inculcation of national consciousness
and national unity, (b) the inculcation of the right type of
values and attitudes for the survival of the individual in
the Nigerian society, (c) the forming of the mind in the
understanding of the world around, and (d) the acquisition
•of appropriate skills, abilities and competitiveness, both
mental and physical, as equipment for the individual to live
in and contribute to the development of his society. This
policy was based on "the integration of the individual into
a sound and effective citizen and to give equal educational
opportunities for all citizens of the nation at the primary
and secondary and tertiary levels, both inside and outside
the formal school system" (Federal Ministry of Education,
1987b).
Pre-primary education is the education given in an
educational institution to children the age of three, prior
to their entering the primary school. Primary education is
given to children at the age of six, for a period of six
years. The objectives of primary education include the
preparation for a broad based education with emphasis in the
following curriculum: (a) language study, (b) integrated
science, (c) mathematics, (d) social studies, (e) cultural
arts, (f) health and physical education, (g) religious
instruction, (h) agriculture, and (i) home economics.
Secondary education is given in two stages: Junior and
Senior Secondary, each of three years duration with a total
126
of six years. The aim of secondary education is to prepare
students for useful living within the society and for higher
education.
The junior secondary school is both pre-vocational and
academic and offers the following subjects: (a) mathe-
matics, (b) English, (c) language of the environment,
(d) one major Nigerian language, (e) integrated science,
(f) social studies, (g) creative arts such as music and art,
(h) practical agriculture, (i) religious students,
(j) physical education, and (k) two pre-vocational subjects.
The pre-vocational subjects may be selected from the
following: (a) introductory technology, (b) local crafts,
(c) home economics, (d) business studies, (e) Arabic
studies, and (f) French.
Senior secondary school education is given to students
after successfully completing the junior high. There are
three types at this stage: Senior Secondary School,
Technical Colleges, and Teacher's Colleges.
In senior secondary schools, students are offered the
following subjects: (a) English language; (b) one Nigerian
language; (c) mathematics; (d) one of physics, chemistry and
biology; (e) one of literature in English, history and
geography; (f) agricultural science or a vocational subject;
and (g) three elective subjects. The elective subjects may
be from the following: agricultural science, additional
mathematics, Arabic studies, auto mechanics, bible
127
knowledge, biology, bookkeeping, chemistry, commerce,
economics, electronics, English literature, fine arts,
French, geography, government, health science, history, home
economics, Islamic studies, metal work, music, physical
education, physics, shorthand, technical drawing,
typewriting, and woodwork.
The recent 6-3-3-4 education system was developed in
1987. The system reflects the present national policy on
education, including technical education, which is aimed at
giving attention to the need for the development of skills
in certain basic fields like agriculture, engineering,
environmental science, and those other sectors that might be
urgently needed for the economic growth of the country. The
major objectives of the current 6-3-3-4 national policy on
education includes the following aims concerning technical
education: (a) to provide trained manpower in applied
science, technology, and commerce; (b) to provide the
technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for
agricultural, industrial, commercial, and economic
development; (c) to educate people who can apply scientific
knowledge to the improvement and solution of environmental
problems for the use and convenience of man; (d) to give an
introduction to professional studies in engineering and
other technologies; (e) to give training and impart the
necessary skills leading to the production of craftsman,
technicians, and other skilled personnel who will be
128
enterprising and self-reliant; and (f) to enable young men
and women to have an intelligent understanding of the
increasing complexity of technology (Federal Ministry of
Education, 1989).
Technical colleges are those that cover the post-
secondary section of Nigeria's educational system. The
length of the training is three years. The technical
colleges offer programs such as electrical technology, auto
mechanics, welding, and building construction. Upon
completion of the program, students are awarded the City and
Guide Certificate. According to the Nigeria Educational
Research Council (1988), the new 6-3-3-4 educational system
that includes technical education was developed to meet the
educational needs, manpower needs, and economic development
of the country.
Higher education, as referred to in this study, covers
post-secondary education in either a university, a
polytechnic, a college of education, technical colleges, or
advanced teacher's college. The objectives of higher
education include the development of intellectual capacity
to understand the environment and the acquisition of
physical and intellectual skills necessary for the
development of both the individual and his society (see the
6-3-3-4 educational chart in Appendix D) for the duration of
the year of studies. The 1987 6-3-3-4 educational policy on
129
education contributed to the importance of the role of the
federal government of Nigeria in all levels of education.
The Efforts to Improve Education by the Federal Government of Nigeria by the Year 2000
Education experts met in Lagos for the "Education for
All by Year 2000" conference and endorsed a plan to
revitalize education in Nigeria from the primary level to
the university level. The experts recommended that the
government should subsidize the cost of providing
instructional materials, especially books, in schools. They
also recommended that, due to the high cost of providing
education for all, the government should establish "a
national education development fund with inputs from the
government, international organizations, private citizens
and non-governmental organizations" (Kerr, 1990, p. 23).
The government apparently worried by reports that 8 million
Nigerian children between the age of 6 and 11 have no access
to education and that 55 million adults are illiterate,
issued a statement that education will, from 1992, be free
and compulsory in the first nine years of schooling (p. 23).
In September 1992 an amendment was made on the 6-3-3-4
national policy on education. Fafunwa, the Minister of
Education, announced to the nation that free and compulsory
education from primary to junior secondary school levels
throughout the country has started. He also stated that the
6-3-3-4 national policy on education holds great promise for
130
the future and that children will now stay longer years in
school based on the nine years compulsory education with
tuition free (Asemota, 1993).
Educationally disadvantaged states were given a ten-
year deadline to ensure that school age children are
enrolled by the year 2000. Any child that misses out is to
be handled by special education units of the ministries of
education. The Minister of Education, Professor Babatunde
Fafunwa, emphasized that the government planned for all
school-age children to be literate by the year 2000 (Kerr,
1990, p. 23). According to Fafunwa (1990), states are to
contribute If250 million to the yearly primary education
fund, while the federal government is to contribute H800
million. On the university level, the federal government
has been granted a long-awaited loan from an international
body (IDA). Nigeria's reguest for $120 million (about 1*960
million) for its ailing universities was formally granted in
1990. The fund will help provide desperately needed
facilities for Nigerian universities. The Nigerian head of
state, President Babangida, explained that the acceptance of
the loan by the federal government was based on the need to
review and restore excellence to institutions of higher
learning.
131
* Summary
The following is the summary of the review of the
educational policy and development in Nigeria. The policies
spell out the country's educational philosophy which is
based on the objectives of molding individuals into sound
and effective citizens, and the provision of equal
educational opportunities for all citizens. The Nigeria
educational policy on higher education has changed
substantially in the last 30 years. But there must be a
clear conception of what the policies of higher education
are and of the federal government's position in the
development of those policies. Policy-makers' attitudes
toward higher education are critical in a nation where all
colleges and universities are not only publicly supported
but owned by the federal government. On the other hand, the
educational and political leaders in Nigeria have played an
important role in implementing the educational policies that
shape the Nigerian educational system.
After Nigeria gained independence from British rule on
October 1, 1960, education became a national concern. The
federal government of Nigeria perceived education as an
instrument for affecting national development and
nationalized the university systems. From that point the
federal government began clarifying the philosophy and
objectives underlying its massive investment in education
and spelled out in clear, unequivocal terms the policies
132
that would guide the government's educational efforts. All
of the Nigerian educational policy developed from 1962-1987
was structured to fulfill the individual economic,
political, social and personal goals.
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Oladapo, I. 0. (1988). The emergence of state and private universities in Nigeria: Twenty-five years of central university education in Nigeria. A. U. Kabiri, ed. Washington, D. C.: National Universities Commission.
Osuntokun, A. (1982). Expansion of university education in Nigeria. Washington, D. C.: National Universities Commission.
Oyeneye, 0. Y. (1980, August). The problem of self-allocation in planning of vocational education in Nigeria. Vocational Aspect of Education. 32.(82), 39.
139
Ozigi, A. (1979, September 24). Management problem for schools. West Africa. 27., 1753.
Payne, L. (1989, March 20). Healing economic wounds: Nigeria, once oil-rich, struggles to redevelop. New York: Newsdav.
Poignant, R. (1967). The relation of educational plans to economic and social planning. Paris: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
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140
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CHAPTER 5
THE PROCESS FOR SELECTING OR APPOINTING VICE-CHANCELLORS
INTO THE FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES OF
TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIA
This chapter will identify the role of the federal
government of Nigeria and the governing bodies of the
universities on the process used to select vice-chancellors
into the Federal Universities of Technology and the
administrative organization and functions. It will also
describe the role of the federal government of Nigeria in
administration, planning and financing of the Federal
Universities of Technology through the Federal Ministry of
Education and the National Universities Commission.
Introduction
The improvement and development of Nigerian
universities have traditionally depended on the executive
heads of the universities. The heads of the Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria are the vice-
chancellors, the highest political officer of each
university.
According to the National Universities Commission
(1982), when a university has been established or when there
141
142
has been a vacancy in the position of university vice-
chancellor, the University Council, which is the governing
body of the Nigerian Universities, will submit a list of
nominees to the Federal Ministry of Education to appoint a
vice-chancellor. Such lists were obtained from votes of the
professors at the university. How this decision is made
affects both the efficiency and effectiveness of the
institution and its organizations, since the administration
of the university is the responsibility of the vice-
chancellors .
Past and Present Vice-Chancellors of the Federal Universities of Technology
of Nigeria
Federal University of Technology at Owerri. Professor
Gomwalk was the first Vice-chancellor and Chief Executive
Officer of the Federal University of Technology at Owerri.
Gomwalk was appointed Vice-Chancellor in 1980. He brought a
wealth of knowledge and experience necessary to run the
university. He was the previous head of the chemistry
department and Dean of Faculty of Science at Ahmadu Bello
University. His greatest challenge regarding the Federal
University of Technology at Owerri was to meet all the
requisites necessary to begin operation of the university in
1980. He accomplished that task with a positive attitude
with great devotion to the profession and the university.
His academic leadership position at Ahmadu Bello University
143
contributed greatly to his appointment as Vice-Chancellor
for the Federal University of Technology at Owerri.
Professor Gomwalk graduated with a B.Sc. in chemistry from
the University of London and a Ph.D. degree in chemistry
from the University of Strathclyde.
The mission of the Federal University of Technology at
Owerri did advance under his presidency leadership, both
organizationally, fiscally, and academically. He was
bright, energetic, and totally dedicated to the University's
development (Federal University of Technology at Owerri,
Calendar for 1983/85 and 1989/92). Professor Gomwalk was
the Vice-Chancellor of the University until 1989 when
Professor A. Nduka was appointed Vice-Chancellor of the
Federal University of Technology, Owerri. Professor Nduka
was a former head of the physics department at the
University of Ife. He brought with him his academic
administrative experience to be the Chief Executive of the
University. Professor Nduka graduated with a B.Sc. degree
from the University of California, an M.Sc. from Stanford,
and Ph.D. degree in physics from the University of Chicago.
Professor Nduka was the Vice-Chancellor of Federal
University of Technology at Owerri from 1989 to 1991 when
Professor C. 0. G. Obah was appointed Vice-Chancellor.
Professor Obah graduated with a B.Sc. degree in electrical
engineering and went on to obtain his M.Sc. and Ph.D. in
electrical and electronics from the University of London.
144
As a vice-chancellor of the University, Professor Obah is
still a professor at the Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering at the university- As a former head
of the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
at the University, Professor Obah brought with him
administrative experience and academic knowledge necessary
to be Vice-Chancellor of a scientific and technological
institution.
Federal University of Technology at Akure. When this
university was established in 1981, the federal government
of Nigeria appointed Professor T. I. Francis to be the first
Vice-Chancellor and Chief Executive head of the university.
Professor Francis was formerly a professor and head of the
College of Medicine at the University of Ibadan. He
graduated with an M.B.B.S. medical degree from the
University of London. He was the Vice-Chancellor of the
University until 1991 when his Deputy Vice-Chancellor,
Professor A. A. Ilemobade, was appointed Vice-Chancellor.
Professor Ilemobade is also a professor of Animal Production
and Health at the University. He graduated with an M.S.
degree from the University of Oklahoma and a D.V.M. and
Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Medicine from Ahmadu Bello
University in Nigeria. His position as former Deputy Vice-
Chancellor and his unique academic qualifications
contributed greatly to his appointment as Vice-chancellor of
145
the University (Federal University of Technology, Akure,
Calendar for 1989/92).
Federal University of Technology at Minna. When this
University was established in 1983, the federal government
of Nigeria appointed Professor J. 0. Ndagi the first Vice-
Chancellor of the University. Professor Ndagi was the
former head of the Department of Research Test and
Measurement at the Ahmadu Bello University. He graduated
with a B.Sc. degree from the University of London, and an
M.Sc. and Ph.D. degree in research and statistics from the
University of Wisconsin. He was the Vice-Chancellor of the
University until Professor S. 0. Adeyemi was appointed the
new Vice-Chancellor in 1991 by the federal government of
Nigeria. Professor Adeyemi was a former head of the
Department of Civil Engineering at Ahmadu Bello University.
He graduated with a B.Sc. degree from Ahmadu Bello
University, and an M.Sc. and Ph.D. degree in civil
engineering from the University of Wisconsin. Professor
Adeyemi brought with him a great knowledge in science and
administrative experience to be the Vice-Chancellor of the
Federal University of Technology in Minna. He is an
intelligent, and socially and politically astute individual.
Undoubtedly, his previous leadership position contributed
greatly to his appointment (Federal University of
Technology, Minna, Calendar for 1988/92).
146
The Method of Selecting and Evaluating Vice-Chancellors and Administrators
into Nigerian Universities
Prior to the selection of a vice-chancellor, the
factors to be considered in the selection of Nigerian
university chief executives and the criteria to be utilized
in evaluating a vice-chancellor's job performance
effectiveness have been identified. Customarily, the method
employed in the selection of a vice-chancellor has been one
of the problems in the Nigerian educational system.
According to the National Universities Commission (1982),
when there were vacancies in the position of vice-
chancellor, the appointment was made by the government and a
vote was taken by the professors at the university. The
next step in the procedure was for the University Council to
submit to the government a list of nominees for possible
appointment. A government official, through the Federal
Ministry of Education, chose the best nominee.
In any higher education institution in Nigeria, the
educational leadership and managerial development of academe
has been most successful when a complex balance of qualities
were recognized by the government search committee which
selected a vice-chancellor. The search committee from the
Federal Ministry of Education looked at the following
factors when considering selection of a vice-chancellor:
personality, academic background, and job experience (Hamze,
1993). Marchese (1987) agreed that the following factors
147
were used in selecting and recruiting administrators by
search committees: academic qualifications, job experience,
communication ability, and personality. University Council
members, on the other hand, have looked at the following
factors to evaluate vice-chancellors: fairness, integrity,
managerial capability, communication ability, coordination
ability, productivity, sensitivity, flexibility, and
nationality (Federal Ministry of Education, 1983; Obah,
1993). The members of the University Council believed that
when a vice-chancellor was appointed, changes and progress
in that institution would become an integral part of the new
vice-chancellor's position. Eble (1978) stated that:
The appointment of a vice chancellor is accompanied
with expectation about change and progress. Change has
to be introduced as soon as possible, otherwise it may
be hard to introduce these changes, as delay in
appointing administrators who will carry out tasks will
result in loss of opportunities. (p. 21)
Neuhling (1981) indicated that a candidate for college
president should be evaluated in terms of character,
intelligence, fairness, ability to reason, high energy
level, willingness to work hard, ability to work
independently while part of a team, ability to be loyal, and
balance in the possession of need for power. Neuhling
(1981) also suggested that the job of an effective college
president would include directing and leading an
148
administrative team, effecting needed changes and strategies
for implementation of institutional goals, obtaining input
from all constituencies in any strategy for change, and
holding discussions with all personnel selected to implement
strategies. Eble (1978) identified a method of evaluation
for administrators as follows: (a) communication, (b)
decision making, (c) operations, (d) delegation of
communication, (e) problem-solving, and (f) relations with
students and colleagues.
Definition of Administrative Organization and Leadership
An administrative organization may be defined as a
group set up whereby university administrators with several
levels of structure in the areas of leadership aim to carry
out objectives and reach a goal. The administrative
organization could be as follows: administrative
leadership, governance, and management. University
administrative organizations exist to serve the objectives
of higher education. The nature of the organization
includes the nature of administrative and academic
organizational set up (Ewell, 1985).
Governance was a process of making decision by basic
policies and a process for using personal power. Management
was a process of delivering the services of a college or
university and the techniques used to develop work programs
and employ people to get a job done (Martorana & Kuhns,
149
1975). Leadership was a process involved in governance and
management. Leadership sought objectives for purpose and
performance to reach the objectives. Administrative
leadership was a process of making decisions in the best
interests of those in higher education (Jedamus, Peterson &
associates, 1980). According to Vroom and Yetton (1973),
leadership was an elusive, yet very real concept that
influenced everyone. Yuki (1981) defined leadership as an
act that initiated a structure in interaction as part of the
process of solving a mutual problem. Fielder (1967) defined
leadership as the task of directing and coordinating task-
relevant group activities. Etzioni (1961) stated that
leadership was power, based predominantly on personal
characteristics. Dubin (1961) viewed leadership in an
organization as involving the exercise of authority and the
making of decisions. Leadership as a comprehensive element
was defined by Lassey and Fernandez (1976) as:
a role that leads toward goal achievement, involvement,
involves interaction and influence, and usually results
in some form of changed structure of behavior of
groups, and organizations. Strength of personality and
ability to induce compliance or to persuade are
critical variables in the effectiveness of leaders, but
their relative influence depends on time and
circumstance. (p. 69)
150
The theories of administration were used to identify
the principles and development of an administrative system.
The system used in running a higher education institution
was as follows:
Authority. According to Richman and others (1974),
authority was a power, based on the recognition of the
legitimacy or lawfulness of the attempt to exert influence
and that the basis of authority was found in the influence
rather than in the influencer. McGregor (1960) defined
authority as leadership that depended on using one's power
in a formal manner to get the employees1 maximum performance
and in use when the leader put the task of work before the
employee's viewpoint.
Decision making. This, according to Harrison (1972),
was the scientific process whereby a situation was studied
and evaluated and the problems were considered before a
course of action with intent to execute was formulated. Cope
(1981) defined decision making as a process of studying a
situation and taking action to be formulated.
Policy determination. As Good (1973) pointed out,
policy making is a selection and statement of the principles
and rules of action that are to govern a particular type of
activity.
Democracy. This term referred to a governmental system
or a system used in an administrative set up of a higher
institution of learning in which respect existed for human
151
dignity and performance in all areas through the use of
influence, persuasion, and compromise (Zammuto, 1982).
Ouchi (1981) defined democracy as leadership that depended
on developing a team of persons who worked effectively
together and who allowed other persons a chance to make
decisions on group problems.
Administrative organizational decision making has
rested on the foundation of the administrative structure of
the institution. The function of improving the quality of
decision making between the chancellors and the university
administrators has been dependent on policy. Policy has
been represented in the traditional system of hierarchical
control in which power resided at the top of the
organization and flowed unilaterally downward.
In many higher education organizations, the
administrators, board members, students, and faculty members
have been given the opportunity to participate in decision
making. Within the institutions of higher learning in
Nigeria, there has been participation in the decision making
process by University Council members and administrators in
matters affected by institutional policy formulation and
administrative practices.
Berghe (1973) pointed out that governance in Nigerian
universities was by nature oligarchical with the decision
making power at the executive level of the structure. This
type of power structure favored greater participation in
152
decision making by the senior staff such as the chancellors,
the registrars, and deans. This power structure shows that
most universities thus have been very authoritarian in
nature.
Okafor (1971) observed that most Nigerian university
decisions involving policy formulation and administrative
practices have been greatly influenced by both national
leaders and national politics. All Nigerian universities
were controlled by the federal government. In order for
Nigerian universities to function well in administration and
policy matters, the University Council of each Nigerian
university has necessarily involved the vice-chancellors,
administrators, and even faculty members in decision making.
This action has achieved a balance and created a healthy
organization. All administrative efforts to operate any
organization both effectively and efficiently must have
included successful decision making processes. Zwingle and
Mayville (1974) stated that for a university to function
well, there should have been an effective working
relationship between the university council members and the
president or vice-chancellor of the university.
Administrative Organization and Functions of the Federal Universities of
Technology of Nigeria
The improvement and development of any university is
dependent on the executive heads of the universities.
153
According to the National-Universities Commission (1990a),
the governing body of the Federal Universities of Technology
in Nigeria is the University Council. The University
Council or governing body in each of the Federal
Universities of Technology is patterned after that of the
British Universities of Technology (Commonwealth
Universities Yearbook. 1987). The heads of the Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria were:
1. The University Council (University Senate)—the
highest academic body of the University system. The
University Council is the most powerful administrative and
policy making organization in each institution. It is the
University's governing body, and its members were appointed
by the Pro-Chancellor, who is also the chairperson of the
University Council, to serve on the University Council for a
period of five years. Usually the University Council is
comprised of full professors, department chairperson and a
few elected representatives at large, such as six persons
appointed by the federal government to represent the
University interests. Two members appointed are from the
Federal Ministries of Education, Health and Finance. The
registrar is the secretary to the University Council
(Commonwealth Universities Yearbook, 1987).
The responsibilities of the governing body of the
University Council include the selection of the Vice-
Chancellor, control management, administration of funds
154
granted to the University, and taking final action on all
matters of high-level policy and decision-making in the
institution. The University Council also handled questions
about curriculum, teaching programs, conferring of degrees,
and dealt with the appointment of the academic staff,
promotion and student welfare services through the dean of
student affairs.
2. Pro-Chancellor (Chairperson)—as applied to
Nigerian higher education, the highest political officer of
the Federal Universities of Technology. (S)he was appointed
through the Federal Ministry of Education and served as a
member of the University Council for a period of five years.
His or her responsibilities included the hiring and
administration of classified staff employees. Hartnett
(1971) stated that the chairperson of the University Council
must have an open relationship, communicate regularly, and
be honest with members of the University Council, and have a
basic understanding of the university's goals and
priorities.
3. Vice-Chancellor (President)—administered the
university and was appointed by the government from the vote
of the professors in the universities. When there was a
vacancy, the University Council submitted to the government
a list of nominees to be appointed vice-chancellors. Then
the government officials, through the Federal Ministry of
Education, chose the best nominee. Ritchie (1970) stated
155
that an integral part of the President's job involved
defining, redefining, supporting and implementing the goals,
priorities and changing programs of the institution.
McConnell and Mortimer (1971) suggested that for a president
or chancellor to be effective, (s)he must have the formal
power to take appropriate measure for dealing with problems
and needs, and be supportive of the faculty members in the
fulfillment of their obligations on behalf of the
institution. According to Balderston (1974), for a
university president to be effective, he or she should be
occupied with administrative procedures, information
systems, and methods of attaining efficiency and
effectiveness, lines of authority, and channels of
communication and organizational strategy. A university
president should be granted adequate authority in dealing
with financial problems, goals and priorities, and
encouraging constructive changes for his institution (Gross
& Grambsach, 1974). Cohen and March (1974), in their study
of university presidents, suggested that in order for an
administrative leader to be effective, he or she must
stimulate a thorough analysis of the problems facing the
institution and encourage administrative members to offer
possibly fruitful alternatives. Kauffman (1977), in his
study of the college and university president's or
chancellor's leadership styles, found that many of these
chief executive officers placed top priority in restoring
156
faculty morale and self-respect, and that some of the
presidents let people know that they are friendly, open, and
accessible.
4. Deputy-Chancellor—acts as the chief administrative
officer to the vice-chancellor and is responsible for
advising, planning, and assisting the vice-chancellor in all
administrative affairs. This person is appointed to
represent the vice-chancellors in their respective
university offices. The deputy-chancellor is a member of
the academic personnel committee. He or she is responsible
for recommending personnel policy, conducting faculty
grievance procedures, and reviewing recommendations on
retention, promotion and tenure (Cohen & March, 1974).
5. Dean of Academic Affairs (Vice-Chancellor of
Academic Affairs)—is responsible for the academic matters
of the students, developing curriculum for the university,
and reporting any changes to the vice-chancellor for
approval.
6. Director of Budget (Bursar)—is responsible for the
financial management of the university.
7. Director of Planning and Development—is concerned
with the policies, planning, and development pf the
university.
8. Registrar—is a ranking officer of the university,
appointed by the council of the university and, by statute,
is responsible to the deputy vice-chancellor. Coombs (1970)
157
stated that "the responsibilities of a registrar include
general administration and for providing secretarial
services for the University Council, Academic Board, and
other such bodies and committees as may be prescribed by
statutes" (p. 6). The registrars responsibilities were the
academic matters related to admission and examination.
According to a report from the Council of Student Personnel
Associations (1974), the role and responsibilities of a
registrar included aiding prospective students in matching
their educational needs, interests, and qualifications with
the offerings, opportunities and standards of the college or
university; maintaining the academic records of the students
and providing timely and accurate data for communication,
both within the college and between the college and its
constituency; and being active in top-level decision making
in administrative and educational policy areas, such as long
range planning, academic standards, enrollment projections,
and student recruitment. Since the registrar's
responsibilities are very broad, (s)he executes these duties
through a deputy registrar, who performs through a network
of assistant registrars.
Assistant Registrars—Each university has several
assistant registrars and each assistant registrar has a rank
and an assigned specific area of responsibility, as follows:
(1) Senior Assistant Registrar Number One is responsible for
publicity and public relations; (2) Senior Assistant
158
Registrar Number Two is responsible for matters relating to
Senior and Junior staff; (3) Assistant Registrar Number One
is responsible for academic matters relating to admissions
and examination; (4) Assistant Registrar Number Two is
responsible for offering assistance to the Registrar on
general matters; (5) Assistant Registrar Number Three offers
assistance to the Registrar on appointments and promotions
of senior staff; and (6) Assistant Registrar Number Four
offers assistance to Assistant Registrar Number One.
9. College Dean—is the chief officer of the
departmental unit of his or her college. The dean is
appointed by faculty members from each department by vote
when there is a vacancy. The function of the dean is to
carry out administrative matters within the college. Gould
(1964) stated that the responsibilities of a dean involved
academic personnel matters, curriculum and other purely
academic problems. As Hodgkinson and Meeth (1980) have
stated, a dean is a scholar and an academic administrator.
He or she is responsible to keep control of available
resources and goals within the department, and makes
recommendations on promotion decisions and tenure of the
faculty members. According to Griffiths and McCarty (1980),
the responsibility of a college dean is to serve as a chief
officer to the Chairpersons of the departmental unit of the
college. The dean must demonstrate strong leadership, and
organizational and managerial skills. He or she must be
159
able to establish goals and objectives, establish
communication lines with department chairpersons, and work
effectively with the faculty members. The primary function
of a dean is to sense the rhythm of each department in terms
of its growing or wanting strength in order to anticipate
needs for several years ahead.
The dean must have a deep concern about the quality of
every teacher-scholar under his or her oversight and should
take a special interest and recognize the good work of his
or her colleagues (Brown, 1973). According to McHenry and
Associates (1977), the dean of the faculty of a university
should be both the chief representative of the president to
the faculty through the schools and departments and the
recognized representative of the general faculty in the
higher levels of the university administration. The dean
should have direct access to the president and to all other
chief officers reporting to the president. His or her job
was to be a leader in the educational functions of the
university. Bennett (1983) pointed out that the toughest
jobs of a dean of the faculty involved the educational
policies and curriculum, faculty appointment and
advancements, and faculty morale.
10. Department Chairperson—is the head of a
department. The chairperson is elected by a vote of the
faculty members when there is a vacancy and functions to
carry out administrative matters within the departmental
160
unit. According to Bowen and Schuster (1986), the
chairperson position existed to better understand the
situation of faculty in a department and to work toward good
interpersonal communication with the staff, thus enabling
faculty to grow and develop. As Knowles (1970) stated, an
academic chairperson of a department had an important role
to play in both academic and day-to-day administration of
the department. The chairperson needs a good organization
of faculty members to work with and is responsible to keep
authority invisible and peace among his faculty members.
One of the most important functions a department chairperson
should perform is assuring a proper balance in the diverse
approaches to learning and the varied sub-areas of
instruction and scholarship represented in his or her
discipline. A chairperson must lead because (s)he is the
chief operator in a department and must demonstrate the
qualities and arts of leadership (Bergmann & O'Malley,
1979) .
According to Brammer (1979), a chairperson should work
hard to identify the strengths of the faculty, build
strengths through encouragement, work with all faculty, and
be ready to provide encouragement and reinforcement.
McCorkle and Archibald (1982) stressed that an academic
chairperson must demonstrate strong leadership,
organizational and managerial skills, as well as a clear
understanding of the diverse nature of the academic
161
disciplines. (S)he was responsible for recruitment,
selection, and evaluation of faculty members. The
department chairperson was the one responsible for seeing
that these things actually got done as they should. A
department chairperson makes sure the integrity of the
institution is maintained. He or she is responsible for
curriculum, personnel, and budget. The chairperson is also
responsible for annual employee evaluations, for tenure and
promotions, recommendations, and for course assignment and
scheduling, not to mention such matters as conflict
mediation and performance counseling (Tucker, 1981). As
Tucker (1984) has suggested, a chairperson must serve as a
role model and mentor to faculty members. He or she should
stress the concept of role modeling and try to set a good
example for the faculty in teaching, research, and faculty
development in general. A chairperson is the key link
between the institutional administration and the faculty and
student. A department chairperson has both to resist and to
promote change in curricular and instructional requirements.
He or she must learn to weigh the interest and progress
within the department (Waltzer, 1975).
Neumann and Boris (1978) pointed out that a chairperson
must accomplish a great deal through department consensus
and participation, and that interpersonal relationships with
faculty members are a must. An effective chairperson must
recognize the need to encourage his or her faculty members,
162
not neglecting the ones that seem to be doing fine, and
giving all encouragement. A department chairperson should
have the communication and management skills useful in
confrontations and providing feedback to individuals.
Kimble (1979) stated that a chairperson should demonstrate
strong interpersonal skills, encourage faculty to
participate in developmental activities, respect colleagues
as academic leaders and scholars, and understand the
mission, direction, priorities, and orientation of the
institutions they serve. One of the major roles a
chairperson must play is visiting with a new faculty member,
showing interest and support, and helping the person get off
to a positive start—trying to make them feel like a regular
faculty member (Corcoran & Clark, 1984). Brown (1977)
viewed the responsibilities of a chairperson as making tough
decisions about evaluating and recruiting faculty, providing
raises, adjudicating conflicts, moderating tensions, and
counseling faculty about diverse topics such as midlife
crises, personal and professional growth, and early
retirement. A chairperson could support faculty, especially
junior faculty, by adjusting workloads and assignments,
allocating funds, providing information, and finding
research equipment (Creswell, 1985). According to Mager and
Pipe (1970), a chairperson should be able to detect a
problem situation as early as possible, review faculty
performance, and give feedback about performance to the
163
promotion and tenure committee. A chairperson should have
access to both summative and formative evidence documenting
progress of work toward specified objectives and goals.
The department chairperson must maintain a
collaborative, open, fair atmosphere, one in which there is
a sense of caring about the development of the faculty as a
primary function of the job (Kouzes & Posner, 1988). An
excellent chairperson must establish an open atmosphere to
build trust, openness, and honesty. Openness is essential
in creating a situation where faculty members are free to
express their views without threat of retaliation or
reprisal. The chairperson must be honest and
straightforward with the faculty (Creswell, Wheeler,
Seagren, Egly, & Beyer, 1990).
Because chairpersons are called upon to solve many
types of problems, Boice (1982) suggested that a chairperson
should initiate the first level of response to their faculty
as a colleague and friend. He or she should be aware of
issues and concerns, hold a colleague-to-colleague
discussion about issues, then use the authority of the
position and, if necessary, initiate formal procedures to
modify faculty behavior. A chairperson should make faculty
feel comfortable by talking to them, listening to what they
have to say and being frank in response to their inquiries,
keeping an open mind and asking questions rather than making
164
statements to clarify an understanding of communication
(Burley-Allen, 1982).
Booth (1982) mentions that chairpersons should keep
themselves intellectually alive because this is the most
important thing for their overall growth and development and
that they must be involved in some challenging intellectual
focus in both teaching and their academic fields. A
chairperson must also have strong leadership skills in
dealing with conflict.
Bragg (1981) points out that as chairpersons become
more savvy about the political process involved in their
jobs, the budget and the management processes involved in
the department, they become more effective as chairpersons.
KirkpsLtrick (1985) contended that the responsibilities of a
chairperson were to determine the need or desire for a
changes, prepare a tentative plan, analyze probable
reactions, make a final decision, establish a timetable,
communicate the change, and implement the change. According
to Clark and Lewis (1985), chairperson must demonstrate
academic vitality by remaining active in their fields,
helping to build a focus for the department and keep it
before the faculty, help faculty set goals at the beginning
of the year, and review accomplishments of the goals with
faculty at the end of the year. As Furniss (1981) stated,
the role of a chairperson is to creatively help faculty move
in new directions and to identify resources for these moves.
165
11. Faculty Member—is a member of a university
department with a rank of professor, associate professor,
reader, senior lecturer, lecturer I, II, III, or assistant
lecturer. Faculty members have roles in academic and
personnel administration and share authority effectively,
both as academic and personnel administrators, in the areas
of management and decision making. They sit on committees
to hear faculty grievances, develop curricula, conduct
research, and teach (Mortimer & Mcconnell, 1978). Becker
(1975) pointed out that the responsibilities of a faculty
member included teaching and conducting research in a
direction that the institution will accept in the
advancement of knowledge.
The federal government established policies and passed
legislation directing the organization and administration of
the formal educational system of university institutions in
Nigeria (National Universities Commission, 1990). The
organization and top administrators' policy making functions
in Nigerian universities appears in Appendix B.
The Role of the Federal Government of Nigeria in Administration, Planning, and Financing of the Federal Universities of Technology through the Federal Ministry of Education and the
National Universities Commission
The educational administration, planning, and financing
of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria are
controlled by the Federal Ministry of Education and the
166
National Universities Commission. The Federal Ministry of
Education has the responsibility for overall development of
the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria and its
function consists of all educational matters such as
management and maintenance of higher education standards.
The Ministry of Education is headed by the Minister for
Education, and the permanent secretary is the chief
administrative officer, whose major duty is to run the
organization efficiently and to advise the Minister on
educational matters (Federal Ministry of Education, 1983).
According to Morrison (1964), the permanent secretary is the
chief civil servant of the Ministry of Education. As
Adedeji (1981) outlined:
The government, both Federal and State, will have to
continue to depend on their higher Civil Services for
assistance in policy formation, between the past and
the present, between an outgoing government and an
incoming administration and, at the Federal level, for
being a unifying force containing in its ranks people
from virtually all the ethnic groups of Nigeria,
(p. 667)
The Federal Ministry of Education has several internal
divisions and they are as follows: Educational
Administration, School Inspection, Administration and
Finance, Scholarship and Student Affairs, Educational
Services, Planning and Research, Examination and
167
Registration. The Federal Ministry of Education outlines
the educational policies on education. They are responsible
for the curricula, courses, and program development for
higher institutions of learning. Ukeje (1964) agrees that
some of the responsibility of the Federal Ministry of
Education is to develop curriculum, courses and programs to
each higher educational institutions in the country. The
Federal Ministry of Education is also responsible for
preparing an educational development plan which takes
economic and social need into account. This unit of the
Ministry is headed by a well-trained staff, and their duties
are as follows: (a) policy control and administration of
higher education; (b) planning, research, and development of
education; (c) inspection services to improve and maintain
standards; and (d) educational services. See Appendix B for
the organizational structure of the Ministry of Education.
The duties of the Minister of Education are: (a)
supply information and make recommendations on educational
policy; (b) prescribe regulations for management of the
Ministry and provide the Ministry with information on higher
education; (c) recommend annual budget for higher education;
(d) advise and counsel the heads of higher institutions of
learning concerning the administration, budget, and methods
to improve higher education; (e) make a full report to the
legislative session of advice and counsel with heads of
higher education institutions concerning their
168
administration, budgets, "and methods to improve higher
education, and develop recommendations for legislative
consideration; and (f) act as the administrator to carry out
responsibility for education programs.
The duties of the Federal Ministry of Education include
among other things: (a) the determination of a national
policy on education in order to ensure uniform standards and
quality control; (b) the coordination of educational
practices in Nigeria; (c) advisory services to all levels of
education, including the universities; (d) federal
inspection advisory services to help improve and maintain
standards; (e) planning and research on a national scale;
(f) the coordination of non-formal education, including
adult education and vocational improvement centers; (g) the
coordination of educational services; (h) international
cooperation in education; (i) the coordination of national
school examinations and relevant teacher examinations—
testing and evaluations; and (j) the establishment of a
central registry for teachers (Federal Ministry of
Education, 1983).
The Role of the National Universities Commission (NUC) in Higher Education
According to the National Universities Commission
annual report of 1963-1966, the federal government of
Nigeria established the National Universities Commission
(NUC) in 1962 to ensure the maintenance of high academic
169
standards in Nigerian universities. The NUC has undisputed
control over the affairs of the universities, particularly
in terms of finance, personnel, and courses. The
relationship between the Nigerian universities and the
government is one of a good working relationship that exists
between the universities and the government. The Federal
Ministry of Education and the National Universities
Commission are fully responsible for higher education. They
are responsible in terms of the freedom to teach, conduct
research, and to make appointment to both academic and
administrative positions (Commonwealth Universities
Yearbook. 1988).
In the area of funding, the NUC, through the Federal
Ministry of Education, occupies a very significant position
in relation to the Nigerian university system. The
commission makes allocation of funds to the universities
from a block grant from the government. The federal
government supports the universities with grants
administered through the National Universities Commission
which is set up by law (Commonwealth Universities Yearbook.
1992). The NUC and the Federal Ministry of Education
handles the affairs of the universities. The Federal
Ministry of Education has direct relationships with the
president of the country and the universities commission on
the federal levels. The relationship between the
universities and the government appears in the Federal arena
170
chart (see Appendix B). The commission serves as an
intermediary between government and the universities to
audit and transmit their financial, personnel, and other
requests (Musa, 1979). The major responsibilities of the
commission are as follows:
1. To investigate proposals for the establishment of
universities or other institutions of higher learning which
desire to have federal grants and to advise the federal
government whether the proposal for federal grants should be
approved;
2. To initiate and consider, in consultation with the
universities, plans for such balanced development as may be
required to enable universities to meet national needs;
3. To examine the financial needs, both recurrent and
capital, of universities seeking or receiving federal grants
and to present these needs to the Federal Ministry of
Education;
4. To receive annually a block grant from the federal
government and to allocate it to universities with such
conditions attached as the commission may deem advisable;
5. To collect, examine, and publish information
relating to university finance and education in Nigeria;
6. To make, either itself or through committees, such
other investigations relating to higher education as the
commission may think necessary, and, for the purpose of
171
these investigations, to have access to the records of
universities seeking or receiving federal grants;
7. To make such other recommendations to the federal
government or to the universities relating to higher
education as the commission may deem to be in the national
interest (University Development in Nigeria, Report of the
National Universities Commission, 1963).
The National Universities Commission was given
responsibility to advise the government as to the
desirability of centralized planning of university
development (NUC, Annual Report, 1967-1969).
In 1975, under the leadership of General Muhammed,
Nigeria former head of state, the commission was given more
powers and began to apply itself seriously to the
development of centralized planning and fiscal control. It
maintained that the autonomy given to universities could
only be exercised with fiscal restraint and that all
Nigerian universities must demonstrate political awareness
and national responsibility through their various admissions
policies (NUC, Annual Report, 1987-1989).
According to the NUC Annual Report of 1971-1973,the
commission and the universities themselves were acutely
aware of the staffing problems of the university system.
Because of the importance of quality personnel, each of the
new universities was given funds to hire faculty and to send
them to graduate school in Nigeria or abroad for further
172
education or training. In some cases, faculty members are
hired from overseas. The NUC has set up Nigerian university
offices in London, Cairo, New Delhi, India, Washington, D.C.
and Ottawa, Canada for the purpose of coordinating staff
recruitment, advertisement, training of students, and
purchases of university books, laboratory equipment and
consumables. These foreign offices help to attract
academics from their respective locations to visit a
Nigerian university under an academic exchange program,
sometimes subsidized by the host government through grants
made available for salary supplementation of particular
foreign teachers in Nigerian universities.
With the increase in the scope and responsibilities of
the new commission, consequent upon the federal government
decision to take over the responsibility for higher
education, the secretariat needed expansion and re-
organization in order to cope with this. Consequently, five
main divisions were created in the secretariat, each headed
by a director with appropriate qualifications. These
divisions are: Administration, Academic Planning, Finance,
Physical Planning, Research and Post Graduate Development.
(The Role of the NUC, Nigerian Observer, 1983)
The areas of responsibility of these divisions are as
follows:
1. Administration Division
—Internal Administration of the Commission
173
—Commission's Staff Matters
—Commission's Meetings
—University Administration
—Academic Visitation to the Universities
—Conditions of Services of University Staff
—Special Investigations
—Circulars to the Universities
—Liaison with Nigerian governments and ministries
-—Annual Report of the Commission
—Publication and Information
—Other schedules as may be added from time to
time.
2. Academic Planning Division
—The processing of new courses. This in turn,
includes proposed faculties and institutes in the
existing universities, and courses to be offered
by the new Universities Curriculum Development
and Coordination/Preparation of Master Plans
—Costing of Academic Programmes
—Annual Estimate Hearings of the Universities
—Allocation of Federal Grants to the universities
—Other schedules as may be added from time to
time.
3. Finance Division
—Participation in Annual Estimate Hearings of the
Universities
174
—Collating the various estimates of all
universities
—Operation of the National Universities Commission
Fund
—Other schedules as may be added from time to
time.
4. Physical Planning Division
—This unit is responsible for advising the
executive secretary on the planning, general
supervision and inspection of university building
projects consistent with the planning of the new
university institutions.
5. Research and Post-Graduate Development Division
—Liaison with outside Agencies
—External Aid for Nigerian Universities
—Coordination of research work in the universities
—Processing of applications for overseas travels
by the universities and NUC staff.
6. Statistics/Data Unit
—This Unit is responsible for analyzing and
producing the statistical data arising from the
annual operations of the commission.
Each of these divisions, with the exception of the
Statistics/Data Unit, has a reasonable complement of senior
and junior staff to support the divisions, although it
should be pointed out that the commission has not been able
175
to recruit as many staff as it needed to perform its
functions effectively due to various reasons, the most
important of which is lack of housing facilities for its
staff and appropriate salary (Organization of the National
Universities Commission Secretariat, NUC, 1990b).
See Appendix B for the organizational chart of the National
Universities Commission.
The Function of the Administration Division of the National Universities Commission
According to the Annual Report of the National
Universities Commission of 1986-88, the sub-administration
division is an imperative service link among all other
divisions of the NUC and hence a good factor in the
implementation of policy decision relating to university
administration. The Director of Administration is the
secretary to the board and most of its committees, hence the
division looks after the effectiveness of the various
committees and the welfare of the commission members. It is
in charge of the communication of government circulars and
decisions to the universities. The administration division
serves as a service center to all divisions in the sense
that it provides guidelines for the effective performance of
the various divisions in the recruitment of staff, provision
of establishment estimates for the secretariat, as well as
serving as the liaison between the federal government and
the secretariat staff on government policies and procedures.
176
According to the Annual Report of the NUC of 1974-1976, for
the commission to carry out its function effectively, the
division of sub-administration was established into six
units: Establishment Section, Committee on Protocol
Section, Information and Publication Section, Transport
Section, General Services Section, and Library Section.
Committee on Protocol Unit. The Board of the
Commission meets at least four times a year and in order for
the members of the commission to be more aware of the
progress and problems of the universities, board meetings
rotate round the university towns.
The meetings of the various committees are held as
constantly as necessity demands. For all these meetings the
administration division provides both secretariat and
clerical services as will be highlighted shortly (Annual
Report of NUC, 1980-1982).
The Committee and Protocol Unit. This unit or section
is charged with the responsibility of servicing the various
committees for a more effective and direct thrust into the
different spheres of its responsibilities.
The Committees are:
1. Accreditation Committee
2. Finance Committee
3. University Development Committee
4. Tenders Committee
5. Management Committee
177
6. Establishment Committee
7. Appointments Promotion Committee
Secretaries are appointed from the committee unit to
cover the various meetings of the commission and the
committees which come up from time to time. The protocol
arm of the unit organizes receptions, accommodation and
entertainment for members of the commission and the
committees (Annual Report of NUC, 1987-1989).
Transport Unit. This is charged with the movement of
board members during meetings. The unit also oversees the
use of vehicles allocated to the various sections and or
units of the commission's secretariat for maintenance
purposes.
The General Services Unit. This unit purchases and
maintains office equipment and as well maintain staff
quarters. It is also responsible for the security
arrangement for offices and houses of the commission as well
as seeing to the cleanliness of the office surroundings
(Annual Report of the NUC, 1987-89).
The Information and Publication Unit. This unit is
responsible for collation, edition and publication of news
as it affects the commission. In that capacity, the unit
has the onerous task of image making for the commission.
For this reason, it is this unit therefore that deals
directly with the media in order to project the activities
of NUC. The unit has for long been publishing and
178
distributing quarterly bulletins where current issues in
university management are highlighted for local and
international consumption (Annual Report of NUC, 1989-91).
The Universities and Overseas Unit whose duty is to
encourage and foster linkage relationships among Nigerian
universities and their foreign counterparts in order to have
Nigerian universities activities recognized internationally
as well as benefit financially, technically and morally, was
a unit of the administration division. This division,
research and post graduate development, was set up in 1987
to promote and fund research programs in the universities.
This brings to five the number of divisions in the
commission (Annual Report of NUC, 1989-91).
The Library. A sub-unit in administration is largely a
reference one with limited facilities for borrowing.
External publications are sometimes procured in exchange for
the commission's bulletins and annual reports. Publications
like weekly bulletins of the Federal universities, research
reports of government enquiries and white papers are
available for reference purposes (Annual Report of NUC,
1989-91). See Appendix B for the sub-administration
division organization chart of the National Universities
Commission.
Growth and Changes within the Division. According to
the Annual Report of 1989-91 the steady growth of the
division is a direct response to the growth of the
179
commission. With a staff strength of less than ten persons
at inception, the commission currently has 336 employees.
The Administration Division naturally has grown in order to
cater for the increased staff strength of the secretariat.
The staff strength of the members of staff. Administration
Division has the largest number of employees with varied and
encompassing duties. In its period of growth there were
changes in the structure of the division. In 1985, a unit
in the division, purchases, was moved to finance and moved
back to administration in 1987. Transport, legal,
committee, information and protocol were one time or the
other subjected to similar movement. All these units had
been returned to the administration division, where they
rightly belong, by the end of 1987.
There has also been a high incidence of changes in
leadership of the division, starting with the time when the
head of division was referred to as head of administration
until NUC became a first class government parastatal and the
headship becomes a director. Since then, the division has
been headed by about seven persons.
The division is set to do its best towards the
achievement of the goals of the commission. As a service
center of any organization, administration division has to
be bold, dynamic, foresighted, adventurous and unequivocal.
Only in doing this can it be effective, efficient and
respectable.
180
The administration division of the National
Universities Commission is aware of the benefits good
management and effective implementation welfare conditions
could bestow on its employees and is doing very well in that
regard- This alone can lead to great heights of achievement
for staff whose duty it is to evolve a single university
system through central coordination and national planning
(Annual Report of NUC, 1989-91).
Summary
The following is a summary of the findings of this part
of the study:
1. The appointment of a vice-chancellor in Nigerian
universities is approved by the federal government through
the Ministry of Education. This shows that the federal
government plays an important role in the selection process.
Meaningful improvement in university administration may
be achieved through a clear definition of the functions of
vice-chancellors. Identification of the factors that should
be considered in the selection of university vice-
chancellors is important, and a clear definition of the
criteria that should be used in the evaluation of vice-
chancellors1 job performance is a major step in arriving at
a fair appraisal of the productivity of university officers.
2. Hamze, the Director-General of Higher Education at
the Federal Ministry of Education, stated in an interview
181
with the researcher (1993) that some of the factors that are
considered to be very important in the selection of a vice-
chancellor are personality, academic qualifications,
experience in the job, clear definition of the selection
process and job incentives and rewards.
3. The Vice-Chancellor of Federal University of
Technology, Owerri, Professor Obah, stated in an interview
with the researcher (1993) that the nine factors used by the
University Council members in evaluating and selecting of a
vice-chancellor are fairness, integrity, managerial
capability, communication ability, coordination ability,
productivity, sensitivity, flexibility, and nationality.
4. The Federal Ministry of Education and the National
Universities Commission are responsible for the
administration, planning and financing of higher education
institutions in Nigeria.
5. The function of the administrative division of the
National Universities Commission includes accreditation,
finance, university development, tenders, management,
establishment of new universities, and appointment of
faculty.
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Waltzer, H. (1975). The job of the academic department chairman. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education.
Yuki, G. (1981). Leadership in organizations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Zammuto, R. F. (1982). Assessing organizational effectiveness. Albany: State University of New York.
Zwingle, J. L., & Mayville, W. V. (1974). College trustees: A question of legitimacy. Report No. 10. Washington, D.C.: American Association for Higher Education and ERIC.
CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This chapter presents a summary of the study. The
results of the data analysis are presented, and the findings
and conclusions are discussed. The chapter concludes with
the implications and recommendations.
Summary of Major Findings
The findings of the study enhance the achievement of
the objectives of this study. Those objectives were to seek
answers to four research questions. The first question was
the following: "What were the major factors and events that
led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of
Technology in Nigeria?"
The development of the Federal Universities of
Technology was the work of an educational team of experts
that was set up by the federal government of Nigeria,
through a committee of the National Universities Commission.
The committee was set up in 1978 to conduct an investigation
into the need in the field of technological education. The
Mohammed Commission was under the chairmanship of Col. A. A.
Ali, the former federal commissioner for education. The
experts were drawn from a wide range that included
189
190
representatives from the National Universities Commission,
such as the Chief Planning Officer for Academics, to carry
out planning for the new universities. Also participating
were the representatives from the Ministries of Health,
Education, Economic Development, and Finance.
The committee recommended that the Federal Universities
of Technology should be established for the following
reasons: (a) to train people for modern scientific and
technological educational; (b) to meet the rate of growth in
science student population; (c) to provide the manpower
skill that will lead the country into economic and social
development; and (d) to establish the Federal Universities
of Technology in the north, west, and eastern parts of the
country to balance the geographical spread of the
institution. According to the Federal University of
Technology, Owerri, Calendar of 1983-85, the Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria was established for
the following reasons: (a) to provide the Nigerian people
the opportunity of acguiring a higher education in
technology; (b) to provide and promote sound basic
scientific training as a foundation for the development of
technology and applied sciences; (c) to identify
technological problems and needs of the society, and to find
solutions to them within the context of overall national
development; (d) to offer academic and professional programs
leading to the award of first degrees, post-graduate
degrees, research, and higher degrees emphasizing in
191
planning, adaptive, technical, maintenance, developmental,
and productive skills in the engineering, scientific, and
agricultural disciplines with the aim of producing socially
mature men and women with capability to understand, use, and
adapt existing technology and to improve on it, and develop
new ones; and (e) to act as agents and catalysts, through
post-graduate training, research, and innovation for the
effective and economic utilization, exploitation, and
conservation of the country"s natural, economic, and human
resources (pp. 15-16). The most compelling factors that led
to the establishment of the Federal Universities of
Technology in Nigeria are (a) philosophical, (b) economic,
(c) sociological, and (d) geographical factors.
As Carr (1967) noted, in examining the cause of
educational institutions, the following factors must be
emphasized: (a) economic, (b) geographical,
(c) sociological, and (d) philosophical factors and that
historians should take an eclectic view and explain the
historical events in terms of a combination of all these
views.
Philosophical factors. The Nigerian government and
educators recognize that two questions are fundamental to
the development of a sound technical program: what should
be taught, and how should it be taught? Answers to these
questions involve the establishment of the Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria. The Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria was established to
192
train and prepare students .in modern scientific and
technical education for the technological need of the
country.
Economic factors. Technical education is a contributor
to the Nigerian society's economic mainstream, and the
economy of technical education itself. Labor is a basic
component of the Nigerian economic system. The development
of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria has a
source of labor supply to the country's economic growth.
The rapid rate at which technological changes are
occurring creates a need to establish the Federal
Universities of Technology, in order to provide the
technological education programs that are flexible enough to
adapt to a changing economy to operate as productively as
possible. As Wirth (1971) noted, economic growth will
increasingly depend on the rate of technological
development, which in turn will depend on the availability
of technically trained personnel.
Sociological factors. As the Nigerian government and
educators recognized that Nigerian society and nature of
work has changed, and a technology becomes increasingly
compleix, engineers and scientists have to become more highly
traineid. The Federal Universities of Technology was
established to provide scientific and technological training
to its citizens in speeding up training of manpower need of
the country, and to train or retrain people for suited
occupations with the needs, interests, and ability to
193
benefit: from such training. The Nigerian government and
educators look at technical education for at least a partial
solution to the social problems related to Nigeria's
unemployment. As Leighbody (1972) stated, technical
education is a based need to the nature and broad goals of
societal needs and personal fulfillment.
Geographical factors. The assessment of education in
each of the northern, eastern and western regions of Nigeria
also led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of
Technology at Owerri, Akure, and Minna. The federal
government of Nigeria established the Federal University of
Technology at Owerri in 1980, the Federal University of
Technology at Akure in 1981, and the Federal University of
Technology at Minna in 1983. Each of these three
universities was carefully planned to have its own distinct
character. The Federal University of Technology at Owerri
catered to the need of the entire eastern portion of
Nigeria, stressing such academic areas as agriculture/
agricultural technology, engineering/engineering technology,
management technology, and natural/applied science. The
University enrolled 213 students for the 1980/81 academic
year and the primary purpose of the University was to
produce graduates in science and technical subjects.
The Federal University of Technology at Akure catered
to the need of the western section of the country and
emphasized the following academic areas: agriculture/
agricultural technology, engineering/engineering technology,
194
environmental technology, science technology, and veterinary
medicine. The University enrolled the first students in
1981/82 academic year with a student population of 112.
The Federal University of Technology in Minna catered
to the need of the northern section of Nigeria and
emphasized the following academic areas: agriculture/
agricultural technology, engineering/engineering technology,
science/science education, and veterinary medicine, together
with the pre-degree and foundational courses for first and
second year students of degree programs. The University
enrolled the first students in February 1984 with a student
population of 306. The School of Agriculture/Agricultural
Technology and Veterinary Medicine at the Federal University
of Technology were allocated because of their location in
the heart of Nigeria's cattle industry.
Research question two asked, "What were the programs of
study, student enrollment and output patterns of each
Federal University of Technology as they developed from 1980
to 1991?"
The three Federal Universities of Technology at Owerri,
Akure, and Minna, all of which started with only a handful
of students and a small number of courses and a few schools,
now constitute a complex and well-developed system of higher
education. Each of the universities has schools which offer
programs in a wide range of fields in the undergraduate
level.
195
The first degree programs in all three universities
have high entry requirements. Both honors, 1st class, 2nd
class, upper and lower divisions; and 3rd class or a pass
degree are offered. The bachelor's degree in technology may
be obtained in five or six years, depending upon the
discipline and type of degree in question.
The Federal University of Technology in Owerri offers
post-graduate studies which began in 1989. The University
offers the following degrees in three semesters: (a) Master
of Science, (b) Master of Engineering, (c) Master of
Technology, (d) Master of Business Administration, and
(e) the Doctor of Philosophy degree in four semesters,
depending upon the subjects of specialization. Both
master's and doctor's programs involve research in an
approved topic and the presentation of a thesis.
The Federal University of Technology at Owerri. The
university was founded in 1980. It has four schools:
Agriculture/Agricultural Technology, Engineering/Engineering
Technology, Management Technology, and Natural/Applied
Science.
The Federal University of Technology at Akure. The
university was founded in 1981. It has four schools:
School of Agriculture/Agricultural Technology, School of
Engineering/Engineering Technology, School of Science
Technology, and School of Veterinary Medicine and Science.
The Federal University of Technology at Minna. The
university was founded in 1983. It has four schools
196
together with a pre-degrea and foundational courses program.
The Schools consist of the following: Agriculture/
Agricultural Technology, Engineering/Engineering Technology,
Science/Science Education, Veterinary Medicine/Science, and
the pre-degree and foundational courses program for first
and second year students of degree programs.
Enrollment and Output Patterns. The Federal University
of Technology at Owerri opened in 1980 with 213 students.
By the 1981/82 academic year it had 286 students, rose to
366 in the 1982/83 academic year, and to 460 in 1983/84. In
the 1984/85 academic year 774 students enrolled at the
University. In 1985/86 883 students enrolled, and it
awarded 67 degrees in 1985/86. Enrollment rose to 1,010 in
the 1986/87 academic year.
In 1987/88, the University had 1,281 students, and it
awarded 175 degrees in 1986/87 and 163 degrees in 1987/88.
In 1988/89 the student enrollment had risen to 2,210 and it
awarded 209 degrees in 1988/89. By the 1989/90 academic
year the University saw a significant growth in student
enrollment of 2,079 and awarded 236 degrees in 1989/90 with
addition to the 13 post-graduate degrees awarded between
1989-1991 and with enrollment of 2,436 for the 1990/91
academic year.
The Federal University of Technology at Akure was
established in 1981 and admitted its first students in the
1981/82 academic year with student enrollment of 112. By
the 1982/83 academic year it had 189 students and rose to
197
299 in the 1983/84 academic year, and to 419 in 1984/85. In
the 1985/86 academic year, 623 students enrolled at the
University, and the University awarded only 1 degree in
1985/86. By the 1986/87 academic year 907 students
enrolled, and the University awarded 54 degrees in 1986/87.
The student enrollment rose to 1,044 in the 1987/88 academic
year, and the University awarded 133 degrees. In 1988/89,
the University had 1,206 students enrolled and awarded 131
degrees. In the 1989/90 academic year the University
enrolled 1,491 students and awarded 216 degrees. The
University saw a significant growth in student enrollment of
1,846 and awarded 238 degrees in 1990/91.
The Federal University of Technology in Minna was
established in 1983, but opened in 1984 with 306 students.
By the 1985/86 academic year the University had 429 students
and rose to 568 in the 1986/87 academic year. In 1987/88
the University enrolled 870 students and in the 1988/89
academic year the enrollment fell to 800 due to a decline in
the number of students that enrolled in environmental
technology, but enrollment increased to 1,458 in the 1989/90
academic year. By the 1990/91 academic year student
enrollment was 1,556. The University awarded 115 degrees in
1988/89, 156 in 1989/90, and 190 degrees were awarded in
1990/91.
Research question three asked, "What is the role of the
federal government of Nigeria in administration, planning,
and financing of Federal Universities of Technology through
198
the National Universities Commission and the Federal
Ministry of Education?"
The Federal Ministry of Education outlines the
educational policies and they are responsible for the
curriculum, courses, and program development for higher
institutions of learning. The National Universities
Commission and the Federal Ministry of Education are
responsible for preparing the educational development plan
which takes economic and social need into account. Together
with the National Universities Commission, the Federal
Ministry of Education handles the affairs of all Federal
Universities in Nigeria.
The federal government of Nigeria is responsible for
education at all levels and has the full financial
responsibility for higher education in the whole country.
The federal government plays a coordinating role with the
broad direction of educational policy, planning, and
finance.
Planning. When the Federal Universities of Technology
was established, the NUC and the Federal Ministry of
Education handled the affairs of the universities. The NUC
coordinates the physical, academic, and staff development of
the Universities. The NUC set up an academic planning group
to devise the systematic phasing of academic and
professional courses in these universities. In planning for
the development of the universities, the NUC and the Federal
Ministry of Education considered not only the plans put
199
forward by the individual universities themselves, but other
factors such as the demand for students and national needs
for qualified graduates.
Financing. The financing of higher education in
Nigeria cannot be made possible without the oil revenues
that ctre shared among the universities, including the
Federal Universities of Technology. The Federal government
makes sure that these revenues are equitably distributed
among the universities. Sources of financing the Federal
Universities of Technology include: (1) grants in-aid from
the government where contribution is over 90 per cent; and
(2) income from services rendered (e.g., accommodation
charges).
Approximately four months before the beginning of the
financial year each University submits its draft estimates
of expenditures to the National Universities Commission and
the Federal Ministry of Education. These estimates are
prepared under three headings: recurrent expenditure; non-
recurrent, capital or development expenditure; and equipment
expenditure. After receiving the draft estimates from each
institution, the National Universities Commission (NUC) and
the Federal Ministry of Education finance committee
scrutinizes them on a line-by-line basis. The committee
then meets with the heads of institutions and their
financial officers so that they can justify their estimates.
After reaching the consensus on the draft estimates of each
institution, the Director of Finance Division at the NUC and
200
the Director of Higher Education at the Federal Ministry of
Education will then present a form of recommendations to the
Budget Division of the Ministry, which represents the
government and determines specifically the size of the
grants to be made to each institution.
Research question four asked, "What is the role of the
federal government of Nigeria and the governing bodies of
the Universities on the process for selecting vice-
chancellor into the Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria?" The improvement and development of the Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria depends on the
executive heads of the Universities. The head of the
Nigerian Universities are the vice-chancellors, and they are
the highest political officers of the Universities.
When a University is established or when there is a
vacancy in the position of a University vice-chancellor, the
professors in the University submit a list of nominees to
the University Council to appoint a vice-chancellor through
the Federal Ministry of Education. The search committee
from the Federal Ministry of Education looks at the
following factors when considering the selection of a vice-
chancellor: personality, academic qualifications, and job
experience. On the other hand, the University Council
members look at the following factors for evaluating and
selecting a vice-chancellor: fairness, integrity,
managerial capability, communication ability, coordination
201
ability, productivity, sensitivity, flexibility, and his or
her nationality.
Conclusions
Based on the findings of this study, the following
conclusions are made:
1. It is concluded that the federal government of
Nigeria has played a significant role in establishing the
Federal Universities of Technology in order to provide the
modern scientific and technological education for the
economic need of the country, and that the most compelling
factors that led to the establishment of those institutions
are (a) philosophical, (b) economic, (c) sociological, and
(d) geographical factors.
2. It is concluded that the program of study at each
of the Federal Universities of Technology was designed to
train students in science and technical fields, and that the
number of student enrollment and graduated students has
increased significantly since the establishment of those
institutions.
3. It is concluded that the Federal Ministry of
Education and the National Universities Commission have
played an important role in the administration, planning,
and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology.
4. It is concluded that the method used in selecting a
vice-chancellor for the Federal Universities of Technology
is based on the facts that the professors in the University
vote on nominees and then the list is submitted to the
202
University Council for appointment of the vice-chancellor
through the Federal Ministry of Education.
Implications
The findings and conclusions of this study suggest the
following implication:
1. Compared to institutions in European and Western
societies, Nigerian higher education is very young.
Nevertheless, the Nigerian people are fully cognizant of the
value of a strong educational policy system of education
that was developed from 1962 through 1987 to upgrade and
strengthen the education in Nigeria. The work of the
Federal Ministry of Education in implementing the
educational policies has provided a viable system of
education for its people.
2. From the beginning the Nigerian people accepted the
British pattern and content of higher education in order to
establish their universities and to gain academic
recognition. However, with the establishment of the
Nigerian Federal Universities of Technology, the university
communities and the Nigerian people approach their
establishment to manpower training and procurement that will
provide the national development of the country.
3. There will be many unskilled and uneducated people
in Nigeria because of the new technological development. In
order for those who are not educated to fit into the working
cycle in the new technological development, the education
and training at the Federal Universities of Technology will
203
be of vital importance to anyone going into branches of
science and technology.
4. To assure that the technical training at the
Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria is parallel
with the pattern of technological training in United States
universities, the educators at the Federal Universities of
Technology should be current in their training with the
American universities with which they have special links, in
order to cope with the ever-changing technology.
Recommendations
Based on the findings, conclusions, and implications of
this study, the following recommendations are made:
1. Since technical education develops human talents
and willingness to change, all of which are essential
ingredients for technological, economic, and social progress
in any society, the Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria should place emphasis on the technical education in
imparting knowledge and skills for development.
2. It is recommended that an investigation could be
made to determine whether the academic programs offered in
each Federal University of Technology are in tune with the
university1s mission as accorded by the 6-3-3-4 Educational
Policy of 1987.
3. It is recommended that an investigation could be
made to determine whether the courses taught at the Federal
Universities of Technology have improved with regard to the
economic and social needs of Nigeria.
204
4. Since the federal government of Nigeria has
supported the growth and development of the Federal
Universities of Technology, it is recommended that the
federal government should continue to provide financial
support to the Universities.
5. It is recommended that the federal government of
Nigerian, through the Federal Ministry of Education and the
National Universities Commission, should continue to develop
a long-range comprehensive educational plan for each of the
Federal Universities of Technology.
6. It is recommended that the Federal Ministry of
Education and the National Universities Commission should
conduct periodic self-studies to determine whether they are
keeping pace with the needs of the changing conditions in
the higher educational institutions in Nigeria.
7. It is recommended that the Federal Ministry of
Education should conduct a research study on "national
policy on education in Nigeria." From this research,
criteria for higher educational decisions could be developed
which would further the development of effective educational
standards.
8. It is recommended that the present relationships
between the universities, the National Universities
Commission, and the Federal Ministry of Education should
remain and be strictly adhered to.
9. It is recommended that the approved channel of
communication between the government and the universities on
205
matters of educational interest should continue to be
through the Federal Ministry of Education and the National
Universities Commission.
10. It is recommended that matters relating to the
internal administration of the Federal Universities of
Technology should be addressed directly to the Federal
Minister of Education by the University Council. On the
other hand, the university should communicate directly with
the National Universities Commission on all matters that
fall within the responsibilities of the NUC, on which they
may require the guidance of the Federal Ministry of
Education.
11. It is recommended that in the case of the vice-
chancellor's position, it will be the responsibility of the
University Council to select three suitable candidates from
among whom the president will ultimately appoint one.
12. It is recommended that a similar study be
conducted in five years from now in order to identify any
possible changes or development of the Federal Universities
of Technology in Nigeria.
CHAPTER REFERENCE LIST
Carr, E. H. (1967). What is history? New York: Random House.
Federal University of Technology. (1983/85). Calendar: History of the University, Owerri. Nigeria: Government Printer.
Leighbody, G. B. (1972). Vocational education in America's schools: Manor issues of the 1970*5. Chicago: American Technical Society.
Wirth, A. G. (1971). Education in the technological society. Scranton, PA: International Textbook Company.
206
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APPENDIX C
LETTERS
The letters were photocopied on white heavy bond letterhead 8-1/2" x 11". Papers reproduced here as 74% of original. The cover letters were reduced 52% and photocopied on white 8-1/2" x 7" papers.
The following letters are:
1. Letter from Dr. Witt? approval to conduct study by the Office of Research Administration at the University of North Texas.
2. Letters from Dr. Davis of introduction of the study to the Vice-Chancellor, Federal University of Technology, Owerri; the Director, Nigerian Universities Office, Washington, D. C.; and the Director, Office of Higher Education, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, Nigeria.
3. Letter from author to schedule interview with the Director of Higher Education, Federal Ministry of Education.
4. Letter from the Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos.
5. Letters from the Nigerian Universities Office in Washington, D. C..
6. Letter from author to the Nigerian Universities Office.
217
2 1 8
University of North Texas O f f i c e of Research Administration
October 26, 1992
Joseph Asagba 2605 Mingo Rd #202 Denton, TX 76201
Dear Mr. Asagba:
Your proposal entitled "A Historical Review of the Development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria 1980-1990," has been approved by the IRB and is exempt from further review under 45 CFR 46.101.
If you have any questions, please contact me at (817) 565-3946.
Good luck on your project.
Sincerely,
Peter Witt, Chair Institutional Review Board
PW/tl
P 0 . Box 5396 . Denton. Texas 76203-5396
817/565-1940 • FAX 817/565-2141 • INTERNET: RESEARCH© VAXB ACS UNT EDU
219
Department of Higher Education College of Education
University of North Texas
November 9, 1992
Umaru: Dechi Gomwalk Professor and Vice Chancellor Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State Nigeria, West Africa
Dear Professor Gomwalk,
I am writing this letter in support of the doctoral study that Mr. Joseph Obukowho Asagba has proposed. Mr. Asagba is completing a , dissertation under my direction as part of his Ph.D. program in Higher Education at the University of North Texas. His topic is the historical development of the Nigerian Federal Universities of Technology. His purpose is to explore the manner in which the institutions serve the Nigerian nation in light of their founding mission. Further, he is interested in examining the relationship between the Nigerian government and the University administration as both work for the development of Nigeria.
As an individual who has an important perspective to share, Mr. Asagba will be in contact with you in the very near future. When he does I hope that you will consent to speak with him concerning his study. If I may be of service in resolving any questions you might have please feel free in contacting me directly. My address is:
Prof. Todd M. Davis Department of Higher Education University of North Texas Denton, Texas 76203 (817) 565-2045
Once again, I offer you my thanks in advance for your assistance.
Sincerely,
Todd M. Davis, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Higher Education
P O Box 13857 • Denton, Texas 76203-3857
817/565-2045 . TDD 800-735-2989
220
Department of Higher Education College of Education
University of North Texas
November 9, 1992
The Director, Nigerian Universities Office Embassy of Nigeria 2010 Massachusetts Ave., N.W. Suite 400
Washington, D.C. 20036
Dear Sir, I am writing this letter in support of the doctoral study that Mr. Joseph Obukowho Asagba has proposed. Mr. Asagba is completing a ' dissertation under my direction as part of his Ph.D. program in Higher Education at the University of North Texas. His topic is the historical development of the Nigerian Federal Universities of Technology. His purpose is to explore the manner in which the institutions serve the Nigerian nation in light of their founding mission. Further, he is interested in examining the relationship between the Nigerian government and the University administration as both work for the development of Nigeria.
As an individual who has an important perspective to share, Mr. Asagba will be in contact with you in the very near future. When he does I hope that you will consent to speak with him concerning his study. If I may be of service in resolving any questions you might have please feel free in contacting me directly. My address is:
Prof. Todd M. Davis Department of Higher Education University of North Texas Denton, Texas 76203 (817) 565-2045
Once again, I offer you my thanks in advance for your assistance.
Sincerely,
Todd M. Davis, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Higher Education
P O . Box 13857 • Denton, Texas 76203-3857
817/565-2045 • TDD 800-735-2989
2 2 1
Department of Higher Education College of Education
University of North Texas
November 9, 1992
The Director, Office of Higher Education Federal Ministry of Education Lagos, Nigeria, West Africa
Dear Sir,
I am writing this letter in support of the doctoral study that Mr. Joseph Obukowho Asagba has proposed. Mr. Asagba is completing a dissertation under my direction as part of his Ph.D. program in Higher Education at the University of North Texas. His topic is the historical development of the Nigerian Federal Universities of Technology. His purpose is to explore the manner in which the institutions serve the Nigerian nation in light of their founding mission. Further, he is interested in examining the relationship between the Nigerian government and the University administration as both work for the development of Nigeria.
As an individual who has an important perspective to share, Mr. Asagba will be in contact with you in the very near future. When he does I hope that you will consent to speak with him concerning his study. If I may be of service in resolving any questions you might have please feel free in contacting me directly. My address is:
Prof. Todd M. Davis Department of Higher Education University of North Texas Denton, Texas 76203 (817) 565-2045
Once again, I offer you my thanks in advance for your assistance.
Sincerely,
Todd M. Davis, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Higher Education
P.O.Box 13857 • Denton, Texas 76203-3857
817/565-2045 • TDD 800-735-2989
222
2605 Mingo Road Apartment 202 Denton, TX 76201 U. S. A. November 16, 1992
The Director of Higher Education Federal Ministry of Education Lagos, Nigeria West Africa
Dear Sir:
I am a Nigerian and a Ph. D. candidate in Higher Education at the University of North Texas, Denton, Texas. I am completing a dissertation as part of my Ph. D. program and my topic is the historical review of the development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. The purpose of the study is to explore the manner in which the institutions serve the Nigerian nation in light of their founding mission and to examine the following: (a) the major factors and events that led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria; (b) to review the programs of study and to analyze the student enrollment and output patterns of the Federal Universities of Technology during their developmental states; (c) to identify the role of the federal government of Nigeria in administration, planning, and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology through the National Universities Commission and the Federal Ministry of Education; and (d) to identify the role of the federal government of Nigeria and the governing bodies of the Universities on the process for selecting or appointing vice-chancellors to the Federal Universities of Technology.
I will be coming to Nigeria in December and plan to stay in Nigeria for about six weeks. I would like to schedule an interview with you during my stay in Nigeria as part of collecting data for the completing of my study.
This study and the data collected shall neither implicate, cause harm to, or embarrass the participation of institutions in any way. The results of the study will be made available to participating institutions desiring them.
By the time of your response to schedule the interview I will be in Nigeria, so I would appreciate that you forward all your correspondence directly to me in Nigeria. My address is:
Mr. Joseph 0. Asagba P. 0. Box 1674 Sapele, Delta State Nigeria
Thank you for your attention and cooperation. I look forward to hearing from you soon.
Yours truly,
Joseph 0. Asagba
223
FEDERAL MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND YOUTH DEVELOPMENT
P. M. B. No ...12573
Telegrams
Telephone 613567
OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR " "FORMAL'' EDUCATION' D'EPMlMfeWT'
DIVISION
When replying, please quote earlier reference
Ret. No. D*iEW?l?.L.2.8..
Date . . December.1.9.9.2
Mr. Joseph 0. Asagba, P.O.Box 1674, Sapale, Delta State.
RE: INTERVIEW FOR DATA COLLECTION
I am directed to acknowledge receipt of your letter dated November, 16th 1992 and to Inform you that my director will be willing to receive you whenever you would be ready in January, 1993.
A.O. Bankole for: Director of Formal Education,
1} -VW,
vw<
PROF. ROMANUS EGUDU
TELEPHONE (202)659-8113 CABLE ADDRESS.- NUCO WASHINGTON TELEX NO. 89-630
YOUR REF:
OUR REF:
2 2 4
NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES OFFICE EMBASSY OF NIGERIA
2010 MASSACHUSETTS AVENUE, N.W. 4TH FLOOR
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20036
12 December, 1990
Mr. Joseph Asagba 2605 Mingo Road Apt.# 202 Denton, Texas 76201
Dear Mr. Asagba:
As a follow-up to our telephone conversation, I am enclosing the following information which may prove useful to you in the completion of your dissertation:
(1) Articles from the National Universities Commission publication, "25 Years of Centralised University Education in Nigeria", ed. Dr. A.U. Kadiri:
(a) "The Emergence of State and Private Universities"
by Professor 1.0. Oladapo; (b) "Organisation of the National Universities
Commission Secretariat" (Contributions from the NUC Secretariat)
(2) Directory to Subjects of Study (taken from the 1988 Commonwealth Universities Yearbook)
(3) The 6-3-3-4 System of Education at a Glance, issued by Implementation Committee, National Policy on Education, Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, Nigeria, 1987.
Please let me know if we can be of further assistance to you.
Sincerely,
Barbara L. Bundy for: Education Attache (Universities)
/bib Enclosures: a/s
225
2506 Mingo Road Apartment #202 Denton, TX 76201 October 9, 1992
Ms. Barbara L. Bundy Nigerian Universities Office Embassy of Nigeria 2010 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. 4th Floor
Washington, DC 20036
Dear Ms. Bundy: To complete my dissertation research entitled "A Historical Review, of
the Development of Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria, 1980-1990" I would like to request the following material:
1. The history and development of Federal Universities of Technology (FUT) in Nigeria including the name of the committee and those involved in the founding of the FUT; and,
2. Names of the U. S. Universities that have links or special relationship with the FUT in Nigeria.
The materials will be very helpful for completion of my dissertation. Your help will be appreciated.
Sincerely,
Joseph Asagba
226
PROF ROMANUS EGUDU EDUCATION ATTACHE TELEPHONE (202) 659-8113 CABLE ADDRESS: NUCO WASHINGTON TELEX NO. 89-630 FAX NO. (202) 659-8116 YOUR REF:
OUR REF:
NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES OFFICE EMBASSY OF NIGERIA
2010 MASSACHUSETTS AVENUE, N.W. SUITE 400
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20036
16 October, 1992
Mr. Joseph O. Asagba 2605 Mingo Road Apt. #202
Denton, Texas 76201
Dear Mr. Asagba:
I wish to acknowledge receipt of your letter dated 9 October, 1992.
I regret to inform you that I do not have the specific information you requested in your letter. However, I am enclosing some information that may prove useful to you in the completion of your dissertation research:
(1) Select pages from the following university calendars: (a) FUT, Owerri [1983-1985]; (b) FUT, Yola [1982-83]; Rivers State University of Science & Technology [1984-89];
(2) List of Existing Inter-Institutional Linkages Between Nigerian and U.S. Universities;
(3) Map of Nigeria showing thirty states and capitals.
Best wishes are conveyed to you on the completion of your Ph.D.
Sincerely,
L. Bundy , for: Education Attache
(Universities)
bib/ Enclosures: a/s
APPENDIX D
TOPICS ADDRESSED IN INTERVIEWS BY
AUTHOR (INTERVIEW QUESTIONS)
227
228
The following people were interviewed on January 27,
1993, and March 12, 1993, for use in this research:
Vice-Chancellor of Federal University of Technology,
Owerri: Professor C. 0. G. Obah.
Director-General of Higher Education at Federal
Ministry of Education, Lagos: Mr. M. Y. Hamze.
Interview Documented Activity Log
Interviewee name and position records
Date interviewed
Interview
Personal notes
Tape recording
Professor C. 0. G. Obah, Vice Chancellor, Federal University of Technology
Mr. M. Y. Hamze, Director of Higher Education, Federal Ministry of Education
1-27-93
3-12-93
X X
X
229
Crucial Questions Asked the Director of Higher Education at the Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos
1. What is the role of the federal government of Nigeria in administration, planning and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology? What actual role does the Federal Ministry of Education play in this?
2. In the area of financing of the Federal Universities of Technology, what role does the federal government of Nigeria play? Where do the funds come from and how does the Federal Ministry of Education estimate the amount of funds to give to the University?
3. Have there been any changes in the method and amount of funding to the Federal Universities of Technology during the 1980s to present? Explain.
4. From your perspective, is the federal government of Nigeria playing an important role in administration, planning, and financing of the Federal Universities of Technology? Explain what the actual role of the government is.
5. In the selection process of the Vice-Chancellor to the Federal Universities of Technology, what actual role does the Federal Ministry of Education play? Please explain.
6. What are the major factors that the Federal Ministry of Education considers during the selection process of a Vice-Chancellor to the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? Explain why this process is used.
7. As a Director of Higher Education at the Federal Ministry of Education, what is your actual role or administrative function?
230
Crucial Questions Asked the Vice-Chancellor of the Federal University of Technology at
Owerri, Nigeria
1. What major factors and events led to the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? How does the Nigerian society support the establishment of the Universities? Who opposed their establishment and why?
2. What are the two or three most critical developments that shape the establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria?
3. In the next decade what do you think the Mission of the Federal Universities of Technology should be?
4. What are the major factors affecting the Federal Universities of Technology that you might expect in the next decade?
5. What are the major developments regarding the Mission of the Federal Universities of Technology? What is coming? What are the problems and opportunities that you see that we should be examining?
6. What do you think will happen if the federal government of Nigeria does not pay attention to technological education?
7. Are the Federal Universities of Technology considered to be major research institutions?
8. Do you think that the academic programs at the Federal Universities of Technology prepare students to exercise real leadership? In what way and how?
9. Who decided the curricula content of the degree programs at the Federal Universities of Technology?
10. What are your views of strategic planning for the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria?
11. From your perspective as a Vice-Chancellor, what is best about the Federal Universities of Technology as an educational institution and what is worst about it?
12. What are the strengths and unique characteristics of the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria?
13. What is the role of the Federal Universities of Technology as a federal institution to the Nigerian society?
14. How did the University evaluate student progress at the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria?
231
The following key questions are about the Vice-Chancel lor and the selection process of the Vice-Chancellor position.
15. What was your position before being appointed Vice-Chancellor at the Federal University of Technology?
16. What are your educational qualifications?
17. Do you think that your educational qualifications influence your appointment as a Vice-Chancel lor? In what way?
18. What is the process used in selecting or appointing a Vice-Chancellor to the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? Why is this process used? What are the positive and negative aspects of this process?
19. From your perspective, what are the major factors that the University Council considers during the process of selecting or appointing a Vice-Chancellor to the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria? Why does the council use such a process?
20. As a Vice-Chancellor, what are your administrative functions as a chief executive of the University?
APPENDIX E
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS AND RESPONSES
232
233
INTERVIEW RESPONSES
Interviews with the Vice-Chancellor and the Director-
General of Higher Education at the Federal Ministry of
Education resulted in the following responses. The
following are the crucial questions asked the Vice-
Chancellor and the Director-General.
Vice-Chancellor
Question la: What major factors and events led to the
establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria?
Answer: The major factors that led to the
establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria are:
1. The philosophical factors—that is, the Nigerian
government and educators recognize that two questions are
fundamental to the development of a sound technical
education: what should be taught and how it should be
taught.
2. Economic factors—that is, technical education will
be a contributor to the Nigerian society1s economic
mainstream and that the rapid rate at which technological
changes are occurring creates a need to establish the FUT,
to provide the technological education that will adapt to
the changing economy.
234
3. Sociological factors—that is, the Nigerian
government and educators recognized that Nigerian society
and the nature of work has changed and, as technology
becomes increasingly complex, engineers and scientists have
to become more highly trained. The government and educators
look at technical education for at least a partial solution
to the social problems related to the Nigerians
unemployment.
4. Geographical factor—the assessment of education in
each of the northern, eastern, and western regions of
Nigeria led to the establishment of the Federal Universities
of Technology. The FUT of Owerri catered to the need of the
entire eastern portion of Nigeria, the FUT at Minna catered
to the need of the northern section, while the FUT at Akure
catered to the need of the western section of the country.
The major events that led to the establishment of the
Federal Universities of Technology was the work of an
educational team of experts that was set up by the federal
government, through a committee of the National Universities
Commission. The committee was set up in 1978 to conduct an
investigation into the need in the field of technological
education. The Mohammed Commission was created by the
Nigerian President, Usman Aliju Shagari, and was under the
chairmanship of Col. A. A. All. The experts were drawn from
a wide range that included representatives from the National
Universities Commission and the Ministries of Education,
235
Health, Economic Development, and Finance. During the
establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology, the
committee met numerous challenges on how to meet the
requisites necessary to begin operation of the Universities.
The committee^ greatest challenges regarding the
establishing the Federal Universities of Technology requires
the following: (a) securing a location and facilities? (b)
employing faculty, staff, and administration? (c) developing
procedures for admissions? (d) promulgating regulations for
students? (e) creating a curriculum? (f) prescribing
estimate for costs? (g) obtaining financial support? and
(h) addressing important matters. However, the Universities
were set up and approved by the president.
Question lb: Did the Nigerian society support the
establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology?
And who opposed their establishment and why?
Answer: The establishment of the Federal Universities
of Technology was lcirgely supported by the Nigerian society.
They see this as a means of receiving the technological
education as a solution to the unemployment.
Question 2: What are the two or three most critical
developments that shape the establishment of Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria?
Answer: The most critical developments that shape the
establishment of the Federal Universities of Technology are:
(a) securing a location and facilities? (b) creating
236
curriculum; and (c) employing faculty, staff, and
administration to start operation of the Universities.
Question 3: In the next decade what do you think the
mission of the Federal Universities of Technology could be?
Answer: In the next decade the mission of the Federal
Universities of Technology will continue to be to provide a
sound scientific and technological education to the Nigerian
people, to identify technological problems and needs of the
society, and to find solutions to overall national
development of Nigeria.
Question 4: What are the major factors affecting the
Federal Universities of Technology that you might expect in
the next decade?
Answer: To continue to provide the best post-graduate
training in science and technical education, to adapt to the
new technology, and to improve on it.
Question 5: What are the major developments regarding
the mission of the Federal Universities of Technology? What
is coming? What are the problems and opportunities that you
see which we should be examining?
Answer: The major development regarding the mission of
this University is that the academic program is designed to
respond to the changes in technology. What is coming? I
see more changes in modern technology. The problems I see
are the rapid economic development and modern technology,
and insufficient numbers of students enrolling in
237
agriculture, scientific, engineering, and technological
fields. Those are what we should be examining.
Question 6: What do you think will happen if the
federal government of Nigeria did not pay attention to
technological education?
Answer: The social and economic development of the
country will not be strengthened and there will be lack of
sufficient numbers and qualified people in the areas of
technical and scientific profession.
Question 7: Are the Federal Universities of Technology
considered major research universities? And in what way?
Answer: Yes, the Federal Universities of Technology
are research institutions because of their academic programs
in engineering, scientific, and agricultural disciplines.
Question 8: Do you think that the academic programs at
the Federal Universities of Technology do prepare students
to exercise real leadership? In what way and how?
Answer: Yes, I believe that the academic programs at
the Federal Universities of Technology do prepare students
to exercise real leadership in their academic disciplines
because the students are provided with a sound scientific
and technological training.
Question 9: Who decided the curricular content of the
degree programs at Federal Universities of Technology?
Answer: The curricula is decided by the University
Council in collaboration with the National Universities
238
Commission academic planning division for curriculum
development.
Question 10: What are your views of strategic planning
for Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria?
Answer: Strategic planning process for the Federal
Universities of Technology in Nigeria is aimed at selecting
the academic programs that are vital to the need of the
economic and social need of the country. And to have the
best faculty member with the basic qualification in their
areas of study.
Question 11: From your perspective as a Vice-
Chancellor, what is best about the Federal Universities of
Technology as an educational institution and what is worst?
Answer: The academic program is what is best about the
Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria. The
University prepares students for technological education.
There is nothing worst about the Universities because the
mission of the Universities is being met; that is providing
the technological training to individuals and responding to
the needs of the society in terms of the technological
change.
Question 12: What are the strengths and unique
characteristics of the Federal Universities of Technology in
Nigeria?
Answer: The strengths of the University is the support
of the federal government and the Nigerian people. The
239
academic programs are the- unique characteristic of the
Universities. The Universities offered programs such as
Agricultural Engineering Technology, Engineering Technology,
Agricultural Technology, Science Education Technology, and
Environmental Science.
Question 13: What is the role of the Federal
Universities of Technology as a federal institution to the
Nigerian society?
Answer; The Federal Universities of Technology is a
federally supported higher institution. Their role is to
provide the scientific and technical education to the
Nigerian people and to provide the necessary technical
education to the unskilled and unemployed in order to seek
gainful employment that will meet the economic and social
need of the country.
Question 14: How did the University evaluate faculty
and student progress?
Answer: The departmental heads supervised their
faculty and student progress.
Question 15: What position did you hold before being
appointed Vice-Chancellor at the Federal University of
Technology, Owerri?
Answer: Previously I was the former head of Electrical
and Electronic Engineering Department at FUT of Owerri. I
was appointed the Vice-Chancellor of this University in
1991.
240
Question 16: What is your educational background?
Answer: My educational background has always been in
science. I obtained my Ph.D. in Electrical and Electronics.
Question 17: Do you think your educational background
in science influenced your appointment as the Vice-
Chancellor to a technological institution as the Federal
University of Technology?
Answer: Yes, I believe that my appointment as the
Vice-Chancellor had a lot to do with my educational
background in science.
Question 18: What is the process used in selecting or
appointing a Vice-Chancellor? Why is this process used?
What are the positive and negative aspects of this process?
Answer: First, a vote is taken from the Professors at
the University on nominees. Secondly, the list of nominees
is submitted to the University Council. Thirdly, the
University Council submits the list of nominees to the
Federal Ministry of Education for the selection process.
The selection committee from the Federal Ministry of
Education chooses the best nominee to the President of the
country for appointment.
Question 19: From your perspective, what are the major
factors that the University Council looks at during the
process of selecting a Vice-Chancellor? And why does the
Council use such a process?
241
Answer: The University Council looks at the following
factors when selecting nominees for the Vice-Chancellor
position: (a) fairness, (b) integrity, (c) leadership and
managerial capability, (d) communication ability,
(e) coordination ability, (f) productivity, (g) sensitivity,
(h) flexibility, and (i) nationality. The University
Council uses such a process as a method in evaluating the
nominees in order to get the best candidate for the Vice-
Chancellor position.
Question 20: As a Vice-Chancellor, what are your
administrative functions?
Answer: My job as a Vice-Chancellor is to administer
the University, to lead the administrators and faculty
members, taking change and doing what is right for the
University.
Director-General of Higher Education
Question: What is the role of the federal government
of Nigeria in administration, planning, and financing of the
Federal Universities of Technology? And what actual role
does the Federal Ministry of Education play in this?
Answer: The federal government is responsible for the
overall development of the Federal Universities of
Technology. The role of the Federal Ministry of Education
is to outline the educational policies, responsible for the
curriculum, courses, and program development. The actual
242
role of this office is to- handle the affairs of the
Universities such as finance, policy, and planning.
Question: In the area of financing of the Federal
Universities of Technology, what role does the federal
government of Nigeria play in this? And where do the funds
come from and how does the Federal Ministry of Education
estimate how much funds to give the University?
Answer: The federal government of Nigeria is
responsible for the financing of the Universities. The
funds come from the oil revenues that are shared among the
Universities in terms of grants. The Universities must
submit a draft estimate of their expenditures to the
National Universities Commission and this office. The NUC
and this office will scrutinize the estimates. After
reaching the consensus on the draft estimates, then we will
present a form of recommendations to the budget division of
this ministry which represents the government and then
determine specifically the size of the grant to be made to
each of the Universities through the National Universities
Commission.
Question: Have there been any changes in the method
and amount of funding to the Federal Universities of
Technology during the 1980s to present? Explain.
Answer: There has been no change in the method used in
handling the financing of the Universities but funding to
the Federal Universities of Technology during the 1980s to
243
present has increased. This is because of their academic
programs and increases in student enrollment.
Question: From your perspective, is the federal
government playing an important role in administration,
planning, and financing of the Federal Universities of
Technology? Explain what are the actual roles.
Answer: The federal government is playing an important
role in these areas through this office and the National
Universities Commission office.
Question: In the selection process of the Vice-
Chancellor to the Federal Universities of Technology, what
actual role does the Federal Ministry of Education play in
this? And explain why?
Answer: The Federal Ministry of Education plays an
important role in the selection process of the Vice-
Chancellor to the FUT. The actual role of the Ministry is
to make sure the best candidate is recommended to the
president for appointment as a Vice-Chancellor.
Question: What are the major factors that the Federal
Ministry of Education looks at during the selection process
of a Vice-Chancellor to the Federal Universities of
Technology in Nigeria? And explain why this process is
used?
Answer: The Federal Ministry of Education looks at the
following factors when selecting a Vice-Chancellor:
(1) academic gualifications, (2) job experience,
244
(3) communication ability, and (4) personality. This
process is being used in order to select the best candidate
for the Vice-chancellor position.
Question: As a Director-General of Higher Education at
the Federal Ministry of Education, what is your actual role
or administrative function?
Answer: My actual role as the Director-General of
Higher Education at the Federal Ministry of Education is to
make sure that the administration, planning, and financing
of the federal universities and colleges are met.
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