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Département Systèmes Energétiques et Environnement,

Ecole des Mines de Nantes, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, BP 20722, 44307 Nantes, Cedex 03, France.

* Corresponding Author. Email: Jerome.Bellettre@emn.fr. Tel: + 33 251858296.

$%675$&7

The effect of fuel inlet temperature on performance, emission and combustion characteristics

of a diesel engine is evaluated. A single cylinder direct injection diesel engine developing a

power output of 2.8 kW at 1500 rev/min is tested using preheated animal fat as fuel.

Experiments are conducted at the fuel inlet temperatures of 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70°C. Animal

fat at low temperature results in higher ignition delay and combustion duration than diesel.

Preheated animal fat shows reduced ignition delay and combustion duration. Peak pressure

and rate of pressure rise are found as high with animal fat at high fuel inlet temperatures. Heat

release pattern shows reduced premixed combustion phase with animal fat as compared to

neat diesel at normal temperature. Preheating improves the premixed combustion rate. At low

temperature, animal fat results in lower smoke emissions than diesel. The maximum smoke

density is 6.5 K with diesel and 3.6 K with animal fat at 30°C. Preheated animal fat further

reduces smoke levels at all temperatures. The smoke level is reduced up to 1.7 K with

preheated animal fat at the temperature of 70°C. Hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide

emissions are higher with animal fat at low temperature as compared to diesel. Fuel

Preheating reduces these emissions. NO emission is found as low with animal fat at low

temperature. Fuel preheating results in increased NO emission. However, the level is still

2

lower than diesel even at high temperature (i.e. 70°C). On the whole it is concluded that

preheated animal fat can be used in diesel engines with reduced smoke, hydrocarbon and

carbon monoxide emissions with no major detoriation in engine performance.

.H\ZRUGV�� Compression ignition engine, alternative fuels, animal fat, preheating, engine

performance, combustion, emissions.

,1752'8&7,21Compression ignition engines play a great role particularly in the field of heavy

transportation, industrial sectors and agricultural applications on account of their high thermal

efficiency and durability. Uncertainties concerning stable supplies of petroleum fuels and the

need to clean up the environment have renewed interest on the use of alternative fuels.

Alcohols, vegetable oils, hydrogen, compressed natural gas etc. are used as good alternative

fuels for internal combustion engines [1-5]. Among this, animal fats and vegetable oils hold

out good promise for compression ignition engines. Animal fats and vegetable oils have

properties comparable to diesel and can be used to run a compression ignition engine without

any modifications [6-8]. One of the limiting factors on the use of vegetable oils and animal

fats as fuel in diesel engine is their tendency to solidify at normal cold operating temperatures.

Neat fats and vegetable oils are too viscous to be used directly in diesel engines.

Attempts have been made in the past to evolve suitable methods of using vegetable oils and

animal fats in diesel engines. Transesterification and emulsification are found as effective

methods for improving performance and reducing emissions of a diesel engine fuelled with

animal fats and vegetable oils [8-10]. However, transesterification is a more expensive, time

consuming and complex process due to the chemical and mechanical processes involved.

3

Emulsions can be made by mixing water and surfactants with oil in a simple process.

However, making stable emulsions with suitable surfactants is a difficult task. In addition to

that use of emulsions in diesel engines results in inferior performance at part loads [11] .

Fuel preheating technique offers the advantage of easy conversion of the normal diesel engine

to work on heavy fuels. It needs no modifications in the engine. Engine with fuel preheating

has indeed in principle superior characteristics to that of normal fuel operation [12]. Past

investigations showed that preheated vegetable oils in diesel engines resulted in improved

brake thermal efficiency and reduced smoke, particulate emissions [13,14]. However,

literature shows limited analysis on the use of animal fats in diesel engines. In Europe the

production of animal fat is very high and it finds no use due to environmental reasons. Hence

it finds attraction to use as fuel in diesel engines. The properties of animal fat like density,

calorific value etc. are very close to diesel (Table 1). Moreover, the animal fat has fixed

oxygen in it which can enhance the combustion process. However, the high viscosity and poor

volatility of animal fat show difficulty in handling by the conventional fuel injection system.

Preheating can offer significant reduction in viscosity with improved performance and

reduced emissions in a diesel engine fuelled with neat animal fat.

In this work, effect of fuel preheating using animal fat as fuel in a diesel engine is

investigated. Experiments are carried out at the rated speed of 1500 rev/min with variable load

conditions. A separate heater arrangement is made to preheat the neat animal fat. The fat is

heated to 30°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C and 70°C. Experiments are conducted at all temperatures.

Performance, emissions and combustion parameters are analyzed and compared with neat

diesel.

4

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A Single cylinder 4-Stroke air-cooled diesel engine developing a power output of 2.8 kW is

used for the work. Engine details are given in Table 2. The Schematic of the experimental set

up is shown in Fig.1. An electrical dynamometer is used for loading the engine. An orifice

meter connected to a large tank is attached to the engine to make air flow measurements. An

optical shaft position encoder is used to give signals at TDC. The fuel flow rate is measured

on the volumetric basis using a burette and a stopwatch. A separate heater arrangement is

made to preheat the fat before it is injected into the engine. The heater arrangement is made in

such a way that it can heat the fat through out the entire path of its travel. Chromel alumel

thermocouples in conjunction with a slow speed digital data acquisition system is used for

measuring the exhaust gas temperature. An another high-speed digital data acquisition system

(AVL–Indiwin) in conjunction with two piezoelectric transducers is used for the measurement

of cylinder pressure and fuel line pressure histories. An infrared exhaust analyzer is used for

measuring HC/CO emissions. NO in the exhaust is measured by using a Beckman

chemiluminashence analyser. Smoke levels are obtained by using a standard Hartridge smoke

meter which works on light absorption technique (passing a light beam through the exhaust

sample and the fraction of light is absorbed by the exhaust gas). Standard SAE J1667

procedure is followed for the measurement of smoke [15]. Light extinction coefficient K is

used as the measure of smoke density per meter. It uses the following relationship,

. �����/� OQ����1������

where, K = Smoke density (m-1)

L = Optical path length of the smoke measurement (m) and

N= Smoke opacity (%).

5

Experiments are initially carried out on the engine using diesel as the fuel in order to provide

base line data. During the entire investigation the injection timing is optimized and set at 20o

before TDC. The engine is stabilized before taking all measurements. Readings for engine

speed, fuel flow, air flow, exhaust gas temperature etc. are recorded for obtaining

performance parameters. Exhaust gas analyzers are calibrated before making measurements.

Observations are made for smoke, NO, HC and CO to analyse the emission characteristics. In

all cases pressure crank angle data are recorded and processed to get combustion parameters.

Subsequently experiments are repeated with animal fat at different fuel inlet temperatures for

comparison.

(67,0$7,21�2)�81&(57$,17<All experimental results regardless of the care taken to obtain them posses errors. These errors

are of systemic and random nature. Systemic errors can be corrected by calibration. The

uncertainty in the results due to random errors are obtained statistically. Uncertainties in the

measured parameters from the experiments are estimated with confidence limits of �� �(95.5% of measured data lie within the limits of �� around the mean). The percentage

uncertainty in the measured parameter is estimated using the equation

[L������ �� L[[Ls2

;�����

In order to have reasonable limits of uncertainty for the computed values obtained from the

measured parameters, the uncertainties were evaluated based on Kline and Mc.Clintock

method [16]. The uncertainties for some of the measured and computed quantities from the

experiments are estimated as 7.9 � 0.8% for air flow (g/sec), 1755 � 1.2% for power (watts),

65 � 2.8% for hydrocarbon (ppm), 107 � 0.7% for carbon monoxide (ppm), 425 � 0.6% for

nitric oxide (ppm) and 3.5 � 4% for smoke density K (m-1).

6

5(68/76�$1'�',6&866,21

&RPEXVWLRQ�3DUDPHWHUVThe cylinder pressure crank angle histories obtained by averaging 100 cycles at peak power

output are shown in Fig.2. Animal fat follows the trend, similer to the diesel pressure diagram

at all temperatures.

The variation of peak pressure and maximum rate of pressure rise with animal fat at different

power output are shown Figs.3 and 4. Animal fat results in lower peak pressure and rate of

pressure rise as compred to diesel at normal temperature. In a compression ignition engine,

the peak pressure depends on the combustion rate in the initial stages, which in turn is

influenced by the amount of fuel taking part in the uncontrolled combustion. The uncontrolled

or the premixed combustion phase is governed by the delay period and the spray envelope of

the injected fuel. It is also affected by the mixture preparation during the delay period. Thus

the higher viscosity and lower volatility of the animal fat is the reason for this trend of peak

pressure and maximum rate of pressure rise. The maximum cylinder peak pressure are found

as 94.5 bar with diesel and 84.2 bar with animal fat at 30°C. With increase in temperature of

the fuel, the peak pressure and maximum rate of pressure rise are increased due to rapid

burning of the injected fuel. The highest peak pressure is found as 92.5 bar with animal fat at

the fuel inlet temperature of 70°C.

The variation of ignition delay with animal fat at different fuel inlet temperatures is shown in

Fig.5. Ignition delay in diesel engine is defined as the time between the start of injection to the

start of combustion. Animal fat shows longer ignition delays as compared to diesel. The

ignition delay at peak power output is 6°CA with diesel and 8°CA with animal fat at normal

temperature (30°C). The increase in ignition delay with animal fat is due to high viscosity and

7

poor volatility which cause slow vaporisation and fuel air mixing rates and increase the

physical delay. The reduction in oxygen concentration as a result of low volumetric efficiency

(will be seen later) is also one of the factors of increased ignition delay with animal fat at low

temperature. However, preheated animal fat shows reduced ignition delay.

The combustion duration (Fig. 6) is increased with animal fat as compared to diesel. This is

due to injection of high quantities of animal fat. Preheated animal fat shows slight reduction

in combustion duration at high temperatures mainly at high power outputs.

The variation of heat release rate with animal fat at different fuel inlet temperatures are shown

in Fig.7. As expected, the premixed burning is more with diesel. The diffusion-burning phase

indicated under the second peak is greater with the animal fat at normal temperature. This is

consistent with the expected effects of animal fat viscosity on the fuel spray, and reduction of

air entrainment and fuel air mixing rates. At the time of ignition less fuel air mixture is

prepared for combustion with the animal fat. Therefore more burning occurs in the diffusion

phase rather than in the premixed phase. However, at high fuel inlet temperatures there is an

improvement in heat release rate with animal fat. By raising the temperature the premixed

phase of the heat release curve becomes high. Preheating improves atomisation and

vaporisation of the animal fat. The low viscosity of the preheated fat leads to form more

flammable fuel air mixture during the delay period and enhances the combustion. This results

in high heat release rates.

3HUIRUPDQFH�SDUDPHWHUVThe variation of specific energy consumption with power is shown in Fig.8. It can be seen

that the specific energy consumption is more with neat animal fat at all temperatures as

8

compared to diesel. High viscosity and poor volatility of the animal fat results in poor

atomization and mixture formation and increases the fuel consumption to maintain the power.

In addition to that, the low heating value of the animal fat leads to more fuel delivery for the

same load conditions. However, preheated animal fat shows improvement in energy

consumption as compared to the fat at low temperature (30°C).

Shown in Fig.9 is the variation of volumetric efficiency with animal fat at different

temperatures. The volumetric efficiencies of animal fat at different temperatures are lower

than diesel at all power outputs. This is because of the temperature of the retained exhaust

gases in the cylinder. The retained hot exhaust gases preheat the incoming fresh air and

lowers the volumetric efficiency. Since diesel has low exhaust temperature (see Fig.10) the

volumetric efficiency is high.

Exhaust gas temperature is higher with animal fat as compared to diesel at normal

temperature. This is due to slow combustion of the injected fuel as already mentioned. The

poor volatility and high viscosity are responsible for this trend. With the increase in fuel inlet

temperature the exhaust gas temperature tends to slightly increases further. The maximum

temperature of exhaust gas at peak power output are about 570°C, 580°C, 585°C, 600°C and

620°C with animal fat at 30°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C and 70°C respectively. Where as it is about

470°C with diesel.

(PLVVLRQ�3DUDPHWHUVThe variation of smoke emission with preheated animal fat at different temperatures is shown

in Fig.11. Smoke emission is defined as the presence of carbon particles in the exhaust as a

result of incomplete combustion. It is interesting to note that animal fat results in lower smoke

9

levels than neat diesel operation even at normal fuel inlet temperature. The maximum smoke

emissions at normal temperature is 6.3 K with neat diesel and 3.6 K with neat animal fat at

peak power. The result of low smoke level with neat fat is explained by the presence of fixed

carbon in the animal fat. It can be noted that the carbon content present in the animal fat is

72% which is lower than diesel (87%). Smoke emission is further reduced with animal fat

operation at increased fuel inlet temperatures. It is reduced to 3.5 K, 3.4 K, 2.1 K and 1.7 K

with the preheated animal fat at the temperatures of 40, 50, 60 and 70°C respectively. As

mentioned earlier, at high temperatures animal fat becomes less viscous and results in better

atomization and vaporization and leads to complete combustion of the injected fuel. This

results in reduced smoke emissions.

Shown in Fig.12 is the variation of hydrocarbon emissions with animal fat at different

temperatures. It is seen that neat animal fat leads to higher unburnt fuel emission than diesel

operation. The hydrocarbon emission at normal temperature is 143 ppm with neat animal fat

and 113 ppm with diesel at peak power output. Unburn hydrocarbons are the results of

incomplete combustion. High viscosity and poor volatility of animal fat result in poor mixing

of the fuel with air and leads to more hydrocarbon emission at normal temperature. However

with the preheated fats there is a reduction in HC emission. Hydrocarbon levels at peak power

output are 136 ppm, 126 ppm, 118 ppm and 115 ppm with animal fat at the fuel inlet

temperatures of 40°, 50°, 60° and 70°C respectively. It can be noted that the HC emission

with animal fat approches diesel value at high fuel inlet temperature (i.e. 70°C). Due to the

improved vaporization and fuel air mixing rates combustion becomes complete and results in

low hydrocarbon emissions with the preheated animal fat.

10

Animal fat leads to higher CO emissions than diesel at normal temperature as seen in Fig.13.

In addition to the other factors mentioned earlier, fuel richness due to low volumetric

efficiency and insufficient oxygen for complete combustion are also responsible for this trend.

Rich pockets formed in the cylinder cause more CO emissions with animal fat at normal

temperature. It may be noted that the high specific energy consumption with animal fat leads

to injection of higher quantities of fuel as compared to diesel for the same load conditions.

However, fuel preheating leads to complete combustion and reduces CO emission. The level

becomes lower than the diesel value beyond 50°C.

The variation of NO emission with power output is shown in Fig.14. NO formed in diesel

engine is due to high combustion temperature and availablity of oxygen. It is seen that the

neat animal fat emits lower NO levels as compared to standard diesel. The NO emission at

normal temperature is 1815 ppm with neat fat and 2340 ppm with diesel at peak power output.

The reduction in NO emission with animal fat is mainly associated with the reduced premixed

burning rate following the delay period. The lower air entrainment and fuel air mixing rates

with the animal fat result in low peak temperature and NO levels. Fuel preheating shows

rising trend of NO emissions due to rapid burning and increased fuel inlet temperatures. This

is the draw back with fuel preheating. However, the values are still lower than diesel.

Methods like fuel emulsification and water injection can control NO emissions [17].

&21&/86,216A single cylinder compression ignition engine was operated successfully on animal fat as the

only fuel at different fuel inlet temperatures. The following conclusions are made based on the

experimental results:

11

� Peak pressure and rate of pressure rise are lower with animal fat at low temperature as

compared to diesel. They increase with increased fuel inlet temperatures.

� Ignition delay is higher with animal fat as compared to diesel at all power outputs. With

fuel preheating there is a reduction in ignition delay.

� Lower heat release rates are found with animal fat as compared to diesel during the

premixed combustion phase. However, fuel preheating increased the heat release rates.

� Neat fat results in increased specific energy consumption as compared to neat diesel at

low temperature (30°C). By increasing the fuel inlet temperature, there is an improvement

in specific energy consumption.

� Neat animal fat results in increased exhaust temperature as compared to neat diesel. It

increases further with fuel preheating. Highest exhaust gas temperature is found with

animal fat at 70°C.

� Smoke density is low (3.6 K) with the animal fat as compared to diesel (6.5 K) at 30°C. It

is further reduced with fuel preheating. The lowest smoke level was found as 1.7 K with

animal fat at the temperature of 70°C.

� Hydrocarbon emission and carbon monoxide emissions are higher with animal fat as

compared to diesel. However, fuel preheating reduces these emissions.

� Low levels of NO emissions are found with animal fat at normal temperature. Fuel

preheating increases these emissions.

On the whole it is concluded that preheated animal fat can be used as the fuel in a

compression ignition engine with reduced smoke, HC and CO emissions without any

important detoriation in engine performance.

12

$&.12:/('*(0(176The authors thank Mr. François-Xavier BLANCHET, Mr. Eric CHEVREL and Mr. Yvan

GOURIOU, techniciens of our department for their assistance in engine setup development

and making heating arrangement for preheating the animal fat.

5()(5(1&(6[1] Humke AL, Barsic NJ. Performance and emission characteristics of a naturally aspirated

diesel engine with vegetable oils (Part-2). Transactions of Society of Automotive Engineers

1981; 810955.

[2] Czerwinski J. Performance of HD-DI Diesel engine with addition of ethanol and rapeseed

oil. Transactions of Society of Automotive Engineers 1994; 940545.

[3] Senthil Kumar M, Ramesh A, Nagalingam B. Use of hydrogen to enhance the

performance of a vegetable oil fuelled compression ignition engine. International Journal of

Hydrogen Energy 2003 ; 28 : Issue 10 : 1143-1154.

[4] Brecq G, Bellettre J, Tazerout M. A new indicator for knock detection in gas SI engines.

International Journal of Thermal Sciences 2003; 42: 5: 523-532.

[5] Brecq G, Bellettre J, Tazerout M, Muller T. Knock prevention of CHP engines by

addition of N2 and CO2 to the natural gas fuel. Applied Thermal Engineering 2003; 23: 11:

1359-1371.

[6] Senthil Kumar M, Ramesh A, Nagalingam B. An experimental comparison of methods to

use methanol and Jatropha oil in a compression ignition engine. Biomass and Bioenergy

2003; 25: 3: 309-318.

[7] Praveen R. Muniyappa, Scott C. Brammer, Hossein Noureddini. Improved conversion of

plant oils and animal fats into biodiesel and co-product. Bioresource Technology 1996 ; 56: 1:

19-24.

13

[8] Ghassan M. Tashtoush, Mohamad I. Al-Widyan, Mohammad M. Al-Jarrah. Experimental

study on evaluation and optimization of conversion of waste animal fat into biodiesel, Energy

Conversion and Management 2004, (In Press, Corrected Proof).

[9] Gerhard Vellguth, Performance of vegetable oils and their monoesters as fuel for diesel

engines. Transactions of Society of Automotive Engineers 1983 ; 831358.

[10] Chang DY, Van Gerpen H. Determination of particulate and hydrocarbon emissions from

diesel engines fueled with biodiesel. Transactions of Society of Automotive Engineers 1998;

982527.

[11] Subramanian KA, Ramesh A. Experimental Investigation on the Use of Water Diesel

Emulsion With Oxygen- Enriched Air in a Di Diesel Engine. Transactions of Society of

Automotive Engineers 2001; 2001-01-0205.

[12] Nwafor OMI. The effect of elevated fuel inlet temperature on performance of diesel

engine running on the neat vegetable oil at constant speed conditions. Renewable Energy

2003; 28 : 171-181.

[13] Bari S, Lim TH, Yu CW. Effect of preheating of crude palm oil (CPO) on injection

system, performance and emission of a diesel engine. Renewable Energy 2002 ; 27 : 339-351.

[14] Kalam MA, Masjuki HH. Emissions and deposit characteristics of a small diesel engine

when operated on preheated crude palm oil. Biomass and Bioenergy 2004 (In press).

[15] SAE J1667. Recommended Practice. Snap Acceleration Smoke Test Procedure for

Heavy-Duty Powered Vehicles. Society of Automotive Engineers 1996-02.

[16] Holman JP. Experimental Methods for Engineers, Seventh Edition, New york: McGraw-

Hill; 1993.

[17] Nazha MAA, Hobina R, Wagstaff SA. The Use of Emulsion, Water Induction and Egr

for Controlling Diesel Engine Emissions. Society of Automotive Engineers 2001; 2001-01-

1941: 1205-1211.

14

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