35 years of Cognitive Linguistics Session 6: Frame semantics
Martin Hilpert
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your questions
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semantic valence
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valency Verbs typically impose restrictions on the kinds of
structures that can occur with them: John devoured the pizza. *
John devoured. John handed Bob a muffin. * John handed Bob. / *
John handed. John admitted his mistake to Bob. * John admitted. / *
John admitted to Bob.
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semantic valency What participants are evoked by a verb?
devour: eater, something eaten hand: giver, taker, something that
is given admit: admitter, something admitted, listener
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syntactic valency Which participants have to be expressed?
devour: subject, object hand: subject, indirect object, direct
object admit: subject, direct object, (oblique object) Sometimes
semantic valency syntactic valency John admitted his mistake. John
ate and ate.
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case frames
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characteristic of a verb, pairing of syntactic and semantic
valency an example: open the AGENT who performs the opening action,
expressed as subject the PATIENT who undergoes the opening action,
expressed as direct object the INSTRUMENT with which the opening
action is performed, expressed as an oblique object verbs may have
several different case frames
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case frames case frames often occur with groups of semantically
related verbs AGENT, THEME, LOCATION put: I put the book on the
shelf. kick: Mary kicked the ball into the goal. sweep: John swept
the crumbs into the corner. AGENT, RECIPIENT, THEME give: John gave
Mary the book. promise: You promised me a horse. send: They sent us
an email.
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case grammar
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normal definition of case: morphological marking on nominal
elements, indicating distinctions such as subject and object case
in case grammar: the semantic role of a nominal in a sentence
(agent, patient, theme, instrument,...), sometimes called deep case
central claim of case grammar: every verb projects a set of
participants that have a particular role (a case frame) knowledge
of verbal case frames allows you to understand who did what to whom
when you hear a sentence
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case grammar initial ideas of Case Grammar: a limited number of
deep cases (Agent, Patient, Recipient, etc.) as an inventory of
semantic roles a limited number of case frames (transitive,
ditransitive, causative, etc.) later development of this idea:
verb-specific roles (giver for the verb give, hitter for hit,
etc.), generalizations over those roles Well get to this when we
talk about CxG
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What do frame semantics and prototype theory have in
common?
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frame semantics and prototype theory both reject checklist
theories of meaning no necessary and sufficient features both
stress the experiential basis of meaning your experience with the
world influences your understanding of what a given word means
frames are prototypes of common situations breakfast marriage a
university lecture
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What are the framing words in a text? Are there non-framing
words?
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frame-evoking elements elements that you cannot understand
without reference to a frame penalty shot >> soccer divorce
>> marriage thumb >> hand hypotenuse >>
right-angled triangle Are there elements that do NOT depend on
frames or do NOT evoke frames?
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non-frame-evoking elements items with very general grammatical
meanings that: I know that. to: Id like to see that movie. items
that resonate with a frame that is already active We went to the
chicken house to collect the eggs. Well have a BBQ and make a few
burgers.
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What about that carpenter?
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In particular, certain scholars insist on a distinction between
purely semantic information about words and encyclopedic
information about the designata of words. Somebody holding this
view might expect to be able to justify certain characteristics of
carpenters (or the concept carpenter) as belonging to the semantic
category of the noun, other distinct characteristics of carpenters
as simply being true of the individuals who satisfy the criteria
associated with the category.
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semantic vs. encyclopedic information dictionaries: the most
economic description that allows you to understand a concept
encyclopedias: a rich array of information, not limited to what is
strictly necessary Frame semantics assumes that human knowledge of
word meaning is encyclopedic, rather than dictionary-like
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How has frame semantics evolved since its development, and how
popular is it nowadays?
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frame semantics
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Defining word meanings: the essential features approach MAN
WOMANBOYGIRL [+human][+human][+human][+human]
[+adult][+adult][adult][adult] [+male][male][+male][male] Checklist
theory of word meaning Word meaning is defined by a set of semantic
features These features are necessary and sufficient As long as all
features are present, every instance of the category is equally
representative
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define game What are the defining features of a game? opponents
played for fun winners and losers you need luck, skills
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define lie Someone says something that is false that the
speaker believes to be false in order to deceive someone else OED:
a false statement made with intent to deceive Is this a lie? Mary
is leaving the house to buy Johns Christmas present: J: Mary, where
are you going? M: Were out of milk. (They actually are out of
milk.) not false speaker does not believe it to be false yet the
speech act is deliberately misleading
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a solution: prototypes
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a persistent problem In talking about prototypes, we still work
with features that can be present or absent. The prototype has all
of the typical features, peripheral members do not have all of the
features. Many everyday words are very hard to define in terms of
bundles of features. Rather, definitions of those words need to
make reference to situations in which those words are used
so-called frames.
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define discount
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When a seller allows a buyer to buy goods at a reduced price,
the difference between the normal price and the new price is called
the discount.
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define discount When a seller allows a buyer to buy goods at a
reduced price, the difference between the normal price and the new
price is called the discount.
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define discount When a seller allows a buyer to buy goods at a
reduced price, the difference between the normal price and the new
price is called the discount. The COMMERCIAL SCENARIO frame
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define discount When a seller allows a buyer to buy goods at a
reduced price, the difference between the normal price and the new
price is called the discount. The word discount can only be
understood against the background of a commercial exchange of money
and goods. If you dont have the frame, you dont understand the
word!
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Test cricket is a game that spans over two innings. This means
that one team needs to bowl the other team out twice and score more
runs then them to win the match. In test cricket there is no limit
to the innings length. Whereas in one day cricket & Twenty20
cricket there are a certain amount of overs per innings. Before the
game begins an official will toss a coin. The captain who guesses
the correct side of the coin will then choose if they want to bat
or field first.
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Semantic frames The meaning of many linguistic forms is
impossible to define on the basis of features, however conceived.
Frame Semantics is an approach to the study of meaning that
characterizes the meaning of words as relative to a semantic frame.
Frames are recurrent events or situations, pieces of procedural
cultural knowledge (what happens when) commercial exchange going to
a restaurant working a day job football
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How do words get their meanings? They denote parts of
frames.
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Word meanings denote parts of frames The meaning of Friday is a
part of the frame week, which is a part of the frame Roman Calendar
system. In the Roman Calendar system, the passage of time is
divided into seven-day intervals, the fifth day of these intervals
is called Friday. The meaning of vacation is a part of the frame
work life. In work life, people carry out activities for which they
are paid. They have the right to interrupt these activities for
some time of the year and often use this time for travel to another
place, commonly with friends and family. The meaning of penalty
shot is a part of the frame football In football, an offence may be
penalized by giving the opponent team the possibility to aim a shot
at the goal from a certain distance. For that shot, the time of the
game is stopped and until the shot is carried out only the
goalkeeper may defend the goal.
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Frame semantics a semantics of understanding What do hearers
have to know in order to understand a word or a sentence?
Understanding vacation necessitates some familiarity with the
concept of work life Understanding hypotenuse is impossible without
knowledge of what a right-angled triangle is. Understanding what it
means to bowl out the other team requires you to know how cricket
is played.
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Words evoke frames Julia will open her presents after she has
blown out the candles. Frame: birthday a person has a date of birth
this date is celebrated each year, usually with family and friends
the person receives presents the person receives a cake there are
candles on birthday cakes, the number of which often corresponds to
the number of years the person has lived the person is entitled to
blowing out those candles
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Words evoke frames I corrected the exams on the train. that
took me where I wanted to go not on a train that was being
stationed on a spare track! (Cf. I corrected the exams sitting in a
train) Frame: public transport people use means of public transport
to get to places they pay money to receive a ticket which entitles
them to a seat there are stops where people may get on and off
while using those means of public transport people can engage in
recreational or professional activities
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Knowledge of frames allows people to understand words
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frame-dependent words the frame of football goal, offside,
penalty shot, referee, goalie, corner, foul the frame of marriage
wedding, bride, best man, engagement, divorce, alimony, widow, gay
marriage the frame of hand knuckle, thumb, index, palm, pinkie
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frames and their elements (FEs) going to a restaurant customer
waiter food and drink check exchange of money tip commercial
transaction seller buyer goods exchange of money
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frames and their elements What are the frame elements of
cure?
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frames and their elements What are the frame elements of cure?
patient disease (healer) (treatment) Doctor Smith cured Frank of
his depression with acupuncture.
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frames and their elements What are the frame elements of
smuggle?
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frames and their elements What are the frame elements of
smuggle? perpetrator goods goal (source) (path) Frank smuggled
drugs into the prison.
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highlighting different parts of frames What are the frame
elements of smuggle? perpetrator goods goal (source) (path) Frank
smuggled drugs into the prison. More and more drugs are smuggled
out of Brazil. The drugs were smuggled through a narrow tunnel. The
tunnel was used for smuggling.
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Frames impose a perspective on an event
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frames and perspectivization The same event may be presented in
ways that incorporates a different perspective on it: John sold the
book to Mary for $100. Mary bought the book from John for $100.
Mary paid John $100 for the book. John collected $100 for the book
from Mary.
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frames and perspectivization The verbs buy and sell evoke the
same frame (commercial transaction), but they differ in their
portrayal of the participants: buy: the buyer is the AGENT, i.e.
active and controlling the event sell: the seller is the AGENT,
i.e. active and controlling the event
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frames and perspectivization Compare: In ten minutes we will
reach the coast. In ten minutes we will reach the shore. That day
Captain Miller stayed on land. That day Captain Miller stayed on
the ground.
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Imagine that Switzerland is preparing for the outbreak of an
unusual disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two
alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed. The
exact scientific estimates of the consequences of the programs are
as follows. Program A: 200 people will be saved Program B: There is
a 1/3 probability that 600 people will be saved, and a 2/3
probability that no people will be saved.
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Imagine that Switzerland is preparing for the outbreak of an
unusual disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two
alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed. The
exact scientific estimates of the consequences of the programs are
as follows. Program A: 200 people will be saved 80% Program B:
There is a 1/3 probability that 600 people will be saved, and a 2/3
probability that no people will be saved. 20%
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Imagine that Switzerland is preparing for the outbreak of an
unusual disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two
alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed. The
exact scientific estimates of the consequences of the programs are
as follows. Program A: 400 people will die. Program B: There is a
1/3 probability that nobody will die, and a 2/3 probability that
600 people will die.
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Imagine that Switzerland is preparing for the outbreak of an
unusual disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two
alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed. The
exact scientific estimates of the consequences of the programs are
as follows. Program A: 400 people will die. 20% Program B: There is
a 1/3 probability that nobody will die, and a 2/3 probability that
600 people will die. 80%
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Program A: 200 people will be saved Program B: There is a 1/3
probability that 600 people will be saved, and a 2/3 probability
that no people will be saved. Program A: 400 people will die.
Program B: There is a 1/3 probability that nobody will die, and a
2/3 probability that 600 people will die. The saving frame
Priority: if you can save at least some of the people, do that The
death frame Priority: if there is a chance to avoid deaths, take
it
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Frames reflect cultural practices
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Frames and cultural practices The recurrent situations that
shape our daily lives are pieces of our cultural environment
marriage football vs. baseball work life using public
transportation going to a restaurant taking out liability
insurance
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Frames and cultural practices identity theft
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Frames and cultural practices identity theft a victim: a person
whose identity is assumed by a perpetrator a perpetrator: a person
who assumes another persons identity by presenting a means of
identification, usually to obtain assets a means of identification:
an identifying number, such as social security number, credit card
number, etc. assets: money and goods belonging to the victim
Frames and grammatical constructions Some sentence patterns of
English reflect basic semantic frames Example: the ditransitive
construction SUBJ VERB OBJ1 OBJ2 John gave Mary a cookie John
taught Mary French John faxed Mary the news John bequeathed Mary a
gold watch Evidence: ditransitives with new verbs Grandma crutched
Mary the ball
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Frames are culturally contested
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How do politicians talk about taxation? tax relief tax is a
burden there is a protagonist (the taxpayer) who carries that
burden politicians have the power to make the burden lighter
politicians give the protagonist relief anyone trying to stop the
politician from reducing taxes is acting against the protagonist
elements of taxation that are not represented in the frame:
benefits that come from taxation (universities, roads, ) taxes as
investments into future well-being
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Summary 1.Words evoke frames, denote parts of frames bride
denotes an important participant of marriage 2.Knowledge of frames
allows us to understand words words get their meanings from frames
hypotenuse does not make any sense without knowledge of triangle
3.Frames impose a particular perspective on a situation In ten
minutes well reach the shore / the coast. 4.Frames often reflect
cultural practices marriage, football, the Roman calendar 5.Basic
sentence patterns of English reflect semantic frames the
ditransitive construction 6.Frames are culturally contested tax
relief
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next time: usage-based linguistics How does your daily
experience with language shape your knowledge of language? Grammar
is grammar and usage is usage From usage to grammar: the minds
response to repetition
