Upload
buddy-page
View
213
Download
0
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
3.1 Life’s molecular diversity is based on the properties of carbon
Diverse molecules found in cells are composed of carbon bonded to other elements
– Carbon-based molecules are called organic compounds
– By sharing electrons, carbon can bond to four other atoms
– By doing so, it can branch in up to four directions
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.1 Life’s molecular diversity is based on the properties of carbon
Methane (CH4) is one of the simplest organic compounds
– Four covalent bonds link four hydrogen atoms to the carbon atom
– Each of the four lines in the formula for methane represents a pair of shared electrons
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Structuralformula
Ball-and-stickmodel
Space-fillingmodel
Methane
The four single bonds of carbon point to the cornersof a tetrahedron.
3.1 Life’s molecular diversity is based on the properties of carbon
Methane and other compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons
– Carbon, with attached hydrogens, can bond together in chains of various lengths
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
A chain of carbon atoms is called a carbon skeleton
– Carbon skeletons can be branched or unbranched
– Therefore, different compounds with the same molecular formula can be produced
– These structures are called isomers
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.1 Life’s molecular diversity is based on the properties of carbon
3.2 Characteristic chemical groups help determine the properties of organic compounds
An organic compound has unique properties that depend upon
– The size and shape of the molecule and
– The groups of atoms (functional groups) attached to it
A functional group affects a biological molecule’s function in a characteristic way
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.2 Characteristic chemical groups help determine the properties of organic compounds
Compounds containing functional groups are hydrophilic (water-loving)
– This means that they are soluble in water, which is a necessary prerequisite for their roles in water-based life
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.2 Characteristic chemical groups help determine the properties of organic compounds
The functional groups are
– Hydroxyl group—consists of a hydrogen bonded to an oxygen
– Carbonyl group—a carbon linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom
– Carboxyl group—consists of a carbon double-bonded to both an oxygen and a hydroxyl group
– Amino group—composed of a nitrogen bonded to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton
– Phosphate group—consists of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.3 Cells make a huge number of large molecules from a small set of small molecules
There are four classes of biological molecules
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Lipids
– Nucleic acids
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.3 Cells make a huge number of large molecules from a small set of small molecules
The four classes of biological molecules contain very large molecules
– They are often called macromolecules because of their large size
– They are also called polymers because they are made from identical building blocks strung together
– The building blocks are called monomers
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
A cell makes a large number of polymers from a small group of monomers
– Proteins are made from only 20 different amino acids, and DNA is built from just four kinds of nucleotides
The monomers used to make polymers are universal
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.3 Cells make a huge number of large molecules from a small set of small molecules
3.3 Cells make a huge number of large molecules from a small set of small molecules
Monomers are linked together to form polymers through dehydration reactions, which remove water
Polymers are broken apart by hydrolysis, the addition of water
All biological reactions of this sort are mediated by enzymes, which speed up chemical reactions in cells
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Animation: Polymers
Unlinkedmonomer
Short polymer
Unlinkedmonomer
Short polymer
Longer polymer
Dehydrationreaction
Hydrolysis
CARBOHYDRATES
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.4 Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates
Carbohydrates range from small sugar molecules (monomers) to large polysaccharides
– Sugar monomers are monosaccharides, such as glucose and fructose
– These can be hooked together to form the polysaccharides
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.4 Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates
The carbon skeletons of monosaccharides vary in length
– Glucose and fructose are six carbons long
– Others have three to seven carbon atoms
Monosaccharides are the main fuels for cellular work
– Monosaccharides are also used as raw materials to manufacture other organic molecules
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Glucose(an aldose)
Fructose(a ketose)
3.5 Cells link two single sugars to form disaccharides
Two monosaccharides (monomers) can bond to form a disaccharide in a dehydration reaction
– An example is a glucose monomer bonding to a fructose monomer to form sucrose, a common disaccharide
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Animation: Disaccharides
Glucose Glucose
Glucose Glucose
Maltose
3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units
Starch is a storage polysaccharide composed of glucose monomers and found in plants
Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide composed of glucose, which is hydrolyzed by animals when glucose is needed
Cellulose is a polymer of glucose that forms plant cell walls
Chitin is a polysaccharide used by insects and crustaceans to build an exoskeleton
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units
Polysaccharides are hydrophilic (water-loving)
– Cotton fibers, such as those in bath towels, are water absorbent
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Animation: Polysaccharides
LIPIDS
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules
Lipids are water insoluble (hydrophobic, or water fearing) compounds that are important in energy storage
– They contain twice as much energy as a polysaccharide
Fats are lipids made from glycerol and fatty acids
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules
Fatty acids link to glycerol by a dehydration reaction
– A fat contains one glycerol linked to three fatty acids
– Fats are often called triglycerides because of their structure
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Animation: Fats
Fatty acid
Glycerol
3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-storage molecules
Some fatty acids contain double bonds
– This causes kinks or bends in the carbon chain because the maximum number of hydrogen atoms cannot bond to the carbons at the double bond
– These compounds are called unsaturated fats because they have fewer than the maximum number of hydrogens
– Fats with the maximum number of hydrogens are called saturated fats
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.9 Phospholipids and steroids are important lipids with a variety of functions
Phospholipids are structurally similar to fats and are an important component of all cells
– For example, they are a major part of cell membranes, in which they cluster into a bilayer of phospholipids
– The hydrophilic heads are in contact with the water of the environment and the internal part of the cell
– The hydrophobic tails band in the center of the bilayer
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Water
Hydrophobictails
Hydrophilicheads
Water
PROTEINS
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.11 Proteins are essential to the structures and functions of life
A protein is a polymer built from various combinations of 20 amino acid monomers
– Proteins have unique structures that are directly related to their functions
– Enzymes, proteins that serve as metabolic catalysts, regulate the chemical reactions within cells
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.11 Proteins are essential to the structures and functions of life
Structural proteins provide associations between body parts and contractile proteins are found within muscle
Defensive proteins include antibodies of the immune system, and signal proteins are best exemplified by the hormones
Receptor proteins serve as antenna for outside signals, and transport proteins carry oxygen
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.12 Proteins are made from amino acids linked by peptide bonds
Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, have an amino group and a carboxyl group
– Both of these are covalently bonded to a central carbon atom
– Also bonded to the central carbon is a hydrogen atom and some other chemical group symbolized by R
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Carboxylgroup
Aminogroup
3.12 Proteins are made from amino acids linked by peptide bonds
Amino acids are classified as hydrophobic or hydrophilic
– Some amino acids have a nonpolar R group and are hydrophobic
– Others have a polar R group and are hydrophilic, which means they easily dissolve in aqueous solutions
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Leucine (Leu)
Hydrophobic
Serine (Ser)
Hydrophilic
Aspartic acid (Asp)
3.12 Proteins are made from amino acids linked by peptide bonds
Amino acid monomers are linked together to form polymeric proteins
– This is accomplished by an enzyme-mediated dehydration reaction
– This links the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of the next amino acid
– The covalent linkage resulting is called a peptide bond
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Carboxylgroup
Amino acid
Aminogroup
Amino acid
Carboxylgroup
Amino acid
Aminogroup
Amino acid
Peptidebond
Dipeptide
Dehydrationreaction
3.13 A protein’s specific shape determines its function
A polypeptide chain contains hundreds or thousands of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
– The amino acid sequence causes the polypeptide to assume a particular shape
– The shape of a protein determines its specific function
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Groove
3.13 A protein’s specific shape determines its function
If for some reason a protein’s shape is altered, it can no longer function
– Denaturation will cause polypeptide chains to unravel and lose their shape and, thus, their function
– Proteins can be denatured by changes in salt concentration and pH
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.14 A protein’s shape depends on four levels of structure
A protein can have four levels of structure
– Primary structure
– Secondary structure
– Tertiary structure
– Quaternary structure
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.14 A protein’s shape depends on four levels of structure
The primary structure of a protein is its unique amino acid sequence
– The correct amino acid sequence is determined by the cell’s genetic information
– The slightest change in this sequence affects the protein’s ability to function
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Four Levels of Protein Structure
Amino acids
Primary structure
Alpha helix
Hydrogenbond
Secondary structure
Pleated sheet
Polypeptide(single subunitof transthyretin)
Tertiary structure
Transthyretin, withfour identicalpolypeptide subunits
Quaternary structure
Amino acids
Primary structure
3.15 TALKING ABOUT SCIENCE: Linus Pauling contributed to our understanding of the chemistry of life
After winning a Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Pauling spent considerable time studying biological molecules
– He discovered an oxygen attachment to hemoglobin as well as the cause of sickle-cell disease
– Pauling also discovered the alpha helix and pleated sheet of proteins
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Short polymer MonomerHydrolysis
Dehydration
Longer polymer
Sucrose
Temperature (°C)
0 20
Rat
e o
fre
acti
on
Enzyme A
100
Enzyme B
40 60 80
You should now be able to
1. Discuss the importance of carbon to life’s molecular diversity
2. Describe the chemical groups that are important to life
3. Explain how a cell can make a variety of large molecules from a small set of molecules
4. Define monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides and explain their functions
5. Define lipids, phospholipids, and steroids and explain their functions
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
You should now be able to
6. Describe the chemical structure of proteins and their importance to cells
7. Describe the chemical structure of nucleic acids and how they relate to inheritance
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.