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8/8/2019 3 Arch sy 2010 Models of man
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Models of Man
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Models of Man
Mechanistic
Perceptual-Cognitive
Behavioural Ecological, Social systems
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Mechanistic Model
Popular in the 1950s and 1960s
Man- machine systems approach
Fit the machine to the man
Roots: Early industrial psychology studies of time
and motion, energy expenditure, etc.
In modern times: layout analyses, traffic flow
systems, lighting, colour, heating analyses ofenvironment
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Mechanistic Model
Man viewed as a performing, task-oriented
organism
Goal to ensure that mans performance related
skills are maximised
Environments are designed for man in a static
sense with few options to alter environments or to
function in them in a flexible fashion Man is merely another system component with
limited degrees of operational freedom
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Perceptual-Cognitive Model
View of man as a variety of internal
processes
P
erceptual reactions to the environment(how he senses, perceives, and organsises
environmental stimuli)
Motivational and emotional states
associated with environmental stimuli(stress, negative and positive affect)
Cognitive responses to the environment
(subjective estimates of the richness, complexity,
meaning and evaluation of the environment)
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Perceptual-Cognitive Model
More concerned with subjective psychological
processes in relation to the environment than
with overt behavioural responses
Goal: to uncover how man sees, perceives, feels
and reacts to aspects of his environment
subjective perceptions of an environment
irrespective of objective characteristics
Techniques: semantic differential scales,
cognitive maps
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Behavioural Model
Emphasises study of overt behaviour rather than
internal, subjective states
What a man does is stressed over how he feels
or perceives
Involves detailed observations made of peoples
movements and activities as they function in
various environments
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Behavioural Model
Research in laboratory settings Dealing with of which deals with overt behavioural
events
Field experiments with behavioural measurements How people overtly interact
Protect spaces
Occupy chair locations
Approach others at varying distances as functions ofmanipulated variables such as nature and degree ofintrusion, status, etc
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Ecological, Social systems Model
Central theme: Human interpersonal behaviour
is part of a complex ecosystem
1. Environment and behaviour are closely
intertwined. Behaviour cannot be wholly understoodindependent of its intrinsic relationship to the physical
environment
2. There is mutual and dual impact between man
and his environment. Man becomes anenvironmental change agent not merely a recipient ofenvironmental influences i.e. An active coping use of the
environment by people and not merely reactive responses
to environmental stimuli
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Ecological, Social systems Model
3. Dynamic, changing quality of man-environment
relations. Not static, immutably fixed or intransigentrelationships. Territories shift functions alter
4. Man-environment relations occur at several levels ofbehavioural functioning and as a coherent system
All the previous models emphasize different facets ofhuman functioning. This model proposes many levelsoccur simultaneously and must be seen as a coherent
set.a. Verbal content and paraverbal behaviour
b. Nonverbal behaviour
c. Environmentally oriented behaviour
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Summary
Mechanistic model: with man viewed primarilyas a part of a complex man machine, andemphasis placed on performance-relative
behaviours Perceptual-cognitive-motivational model: Studies
of cognitive maps and subjective reactions toenvironmental stimuli
Behavioural model: Emphasis on overtbehaviour rather than internal psychologicalprocesses
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Summary
Ecological, social systems model:Conceives of man- environment events asinvolving
Several behavioural levels eg. Subjective internalprocesses, Overt verbal, nonverbal andenvironmental behaviours which
Function as a coherent system of interrelated,substitutable and complementary behaviours and
Where there is a mutual relationship betweenenvironment and behaviour, each influencing andshaping the other
In a dynamic time-linked sense
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Major Themes
Attention
Perception and cognitive maps
Preferred environments Environmental stress and coping
Participation
Conservation
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Attention
Understanding human behaviour starts withunderstanding how people notice theenvironment
This includes at least two kinds of stimuli:those that involuntarily command humannotice, as well as those places, things orideas to which humans must direct theirawareness
Restoring and enhancing peoples capacity tovoluntarily direct their attention is a majorfactor in maintaining human effectiveness
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Perception and cognitive
maps How people image the natural and built environment Information is stored in the brain as spatial networks
called cognitive maps
These structures link ones recall of experienceswith perception of present events, ideas andemotions
It is through these neural networks that humansknow and think about the environment, plan andcarry out their plans.
What humans know about an environment is more than external reality in that they perceive with prior
knowledge and expectations, and
less than external reality in that they record only a portion ofthe entire visual frame yet recall it as complete andcontinuous
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Preferred environments People tend to seek out places where they feel competent
and confident, places where they can make sense of the
environment while also being engaged with it
It involves coherence (a sense that things in the environment gel
together) and legibility (the inference that one can explore anenvironment without becoming lost) as contributors to
environmental comprehension
Being involved and wanting to explore an environment
requires that it have complexity (containing enough variety to
make it worth learning about) and mystery (the prospect of gainingmore information about an environment)
Preserving, restoring and creating a preferred environment
is thought to increase sense of well being and behavioral
effectiveness in humans.
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Environmental stress and
coping Along with the common environmental stressors(e.g., noise, climatic extremes) some define
stress as the failure of preference, including in
the definition such cognitive stressors asprolonged uncertainty, lack of predictability and
stimulus overload
Research has identified numerous behavioral
and cognitive outcomes including physical
illness, diminished altruism, helplessness and
attentional fatigue.
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Environmental stress and
coping Coping with stress involves a number of options Humans can change their physical or social settings to
create more supportive environments (e.g., smaller
scaled settings, territories) where they can manage theflow of information or stress inducing stimuli
People can also endure the stressful period, incurring
mental costs that they deal with later, in restorative
settings (e.g., natural areas, privacy, solitude)
They can also seek to interpret or make sense of a
situation as a way to defuse its stressful effects, often
sharing these interpretations as a part of their culture
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Participation
Enhancing citizen involvement in environmental
design, management and restoration efforts
Concerned not only with promoting citizen
comprehension of environmental issues but withinsuring their early and genuine participation in
the design, modification and management of
environments
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Conservation behavior
Environmental Psychology plays a major role in
bringing psychological knowledge to bear upon
the issue of developing an ecologically
sustainable society It explores environmental attitudes, perceptions
and values as well as devise intervention
techniques for promoting environmentally
appropriate behavior
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Orientations
Problem Oriented
Systems Oriented
Interdisciplinary Oriented Space-Over-Time Oriented
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Orientations
Problem Oriented: Addressesenvironmental problems such as density and
crowding, noise pollution, sub-standard
living, and urban decay
Systems Oriented: Applied to theindividual level of analysis and higher order
levels of analysis needed by difficultenvironmental problems, surrounding groups
and organizations
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Orientations
Interdisciplinary Oriented: Relies oninteraction with other disciplines. There are
three necessary fields that environmental
psychology must collaborate with
Behavioural sciences (sociology, political science,
anthropology, economics, etc.)
Interspecialisation (other psychologies such as
developmental, social, cognitive, etc.)
Design professions (architecture, interior design,
landscape architecture, etc.)
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Orientations
Space-Over-Time Oriented: Highlights the importance of the past
Examining problems with the past in mind creates a
better understanding of how past forces, such as
social, political, and economic forces, may be ofrelevance to present and future problems
Also physical settings change over time; they change
with respect to physical properties and they change
because individuals using the space change over time Looking at these spaces over time will help monitor the
changes and possibly predict future problems.