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3-1
Emergency Response to TerrorismTC: Hazardous Materials
Unit 3: Chemical and Physical Properties
3-2
Terminal Objective
Given chemical and physical properties of an unknown material, the students will be able to estimate risk and to determine appropriate response actions and precautions.
3-3
Enabling Objectives
The students will: Identify chemical and physical properties of
terrorist agents that relate directly to providing a safe and effective response.
Identify the mechanisms of harm for Biological, Nuclear, Incendiary, Chemical, and Explosive (B-NICE) agents.
Identify various B-NICE dissemination methods and devices.
3-4
Introduction
Chemistry has existed for thousands of years.
Properties have not changed. Our perception of chemical hazards may
need to change. Base response on chemical and physical
properties, not hysteria.
3-5
Properties
States of matter Concentration Melting and
freezing point Vapor density
Molecular weight Vapor pressure Volatility Persistency
Overview
3-6
States of Matter
Biological agents--solids or liquids Chemical and blister agents--solids, liquids, or
gases Blood and choking agents--gases
3-7
Concentration
Low probability of finding pure agent Nearly impossible to produce pure agent
Two primary reasons--ability and safety Ability--must be produced following exact procedures, pure compounds needed
for quality agents Safety--dangerous to produce pure substances, packaging and transportation
dangerous
3-8
Melting & Freezing Point
Chemical Celcius Fahrenheit
Ethion -13 9
Sulfuric Acid 11 52
Chlorine -101 -150
Acetone -95 -138
Benzene 6 42
Toluene -96 -141
3-9
Vapor Density
Relationship of materials to air (air=1) Materials with vapor density <1 will rise in air. Materials with vapor density >1 will stay at ground
level. Except hydrogen cyanide, all warfare agents are >1.
Those with higher numbers have difficulty escaping their containers.
3-10
Molecular Weight
Based on chemical formula and structure Can be used to determine vapor density Partially determines how much material
goes into the air (volatility)
3-11
Vapor Pressure: Definition
Pressure exerted on a container from the vapor coming from a liquid
Pressure exerted by surface of liquid against atmospheric pressure
Ability of a material to produce vapor that can cause severe human problems Respiratory Skin
3-12
Vapor Pressure: Importance
One of the most important physical properties and a key to survival
High vapor pressure may require high levels of personal protective equipment (PPE)
Low vapor pressure may dictate lesser levels Materials with little or no vapor pressure present
only a contact risk
3-13
Vapor Pressure: Measurements
Usually expressed in one of three terms Pounds per square inch (14.7 psi) Atmospheres (1 atm) Millimeters of mercury (760mm/Hg)
3-14
Volatility
Ability to evaporate Sometimes used in conjunction with
vapor pressure Materials with high vapor pressure = volatile
Amount of material going into the air Helps us understand the agent’s ability to
do harm
3-15
Persistency
Military term Combination of vapor pressure and volatility Persistent agents remain in place for a period
of time when released Nonpersistent agents disperse Generally described in days (not hours) Most vapor pressure or volatilities are
measured at 20°C (70°F)
3-16
Vapor Risk
Chemicals begin to evaporate rapidly at 40mm/Hg
H2O evaporates in a few days; gasoline in a couple of hours; ether in a few minutes In an open cup at standard temperature
and pressure (STP) (68°F)
3-17
Vapor Pressure / Volatility
Chemical VaporPressure
Volatility Persistency
V-Agent 0.0007mm/Hg
10.5mg/m3 @25C
Persistent
Sulfuric Acid 1 mm/Hg@145C
5,362mg/m3 @145C
Sarin 2.1 mm/Hg 16,090mg/m3
Nonpersistent
3-18
Vapor Pressure / Volatility (cont'd)
Chemical VaporPressure
Volatility Persistency
Water 25 mm/ Hg 22,933mg/ m3 @25C
Gasoline 300 mm/ Hg 1,246,607mg/ m3
Chlorine 4,800 mm/ Hg 19,369,000mg/ m3
Nonpersistent
3-19
Characteristics of Terrorism Agents: Biological
Some similarities to chemical agentsSome similarities to chemical agents Onset of symptoms is the big differenceOnset of symptoms is the big difference Route of entryRoute of entry Sensitive to environmental conditionsSensitive to environmental conditions Toxicity comparisonsToxicity comparisons Invisible to our senses, difficult to detectInvisible to our senses, difficult to detect
3-20
Manufacture of Bio Agents
Obtained from natureObtained from nature Detection probably will occur after the factDetection probably will occur after the fact Someone with little training can, with a small Someone with little training can, with a small
amount of a culture, grow larger quantitiesamount of a culture, grow larger quantities Relatively easy to produceRelatively easy to produce
Only “relatively”Only “relatively” Hard to produce high gradeHard to produce high grade Must be able to survive the distributionMust be able to survive the distribution
3-21
Biological Agents--Weapon
Delayed effects are to the terrorist’s Delayed effects are to the terrorist’s advantageadvantage
Variety of dispersal methods possibleVariety of dispersal methods possible Aerosol dispersion via agricultural sprayerAerosol dispersion via agricultural sprayer Contaminated water, food, or medicineContaminated water, food, or medicine Bombings with little damage may signal Bombings with little damage may signal
biological agent disseminationbiological agent dissemination Containers from labs or bio supply are cluesContainers from labs or bio supply are clues
3-22
Biological Terrorism Agents
Biological and toxinsBiological and toxins Greatest risk to our community.Greatest risk to our community. Toxins--second most popular.Toxins--second most popular. Ricin is easy to produce without Ricin is easy to produce without
suspicion.suspicion. Biological agents are difficult to Biological agents are difficult to
detect, so rely on labs.detect, so rely on labs.
3-23
Biological Terrorism Agents(cont'd)
BacteriaBacteria Single-celled microscopic Single-celled microscopic
organismsorganisms Direct pathogenic effectsDirect pathogenic effects Dangerous to humansDangerous to humans
AnthraxAnthrax PlaguePlague Tularemia and choleraTularemia and cholera
3-24
Biological Terrorism Agents(cont'd)
VirusesViruses Submicroscopic agentSubmicroscopic agent Contain protein coat of ribonucleic acid Contain protein coat of ribonucleic acid
(RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)(RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Dangerous and sometimes deadlyDangerous and sometimes deadly
Viral hemorrhagic feversViral hemorrhagic fevers Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE)Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) SmallpoxSmallpox
In most cases, require a host to reproduceIn most cases, require a host to reproduce
3-25
Biological Terrorism Agents (cont'd)
ToxinsToxins Ricin--derived from beans of the castor Ricin--derived from beans of the castor
plantplant Abrin--similar to ricin, but 75 times more Abrin--similar to ricin, but 75 times more
powerfulpowerful Botulinum toxin--made from bacterial Botulinum toxin--made from bacterial
byproducts; highly potentbyproducts; highly potent 3,000 times more powerful than ricin3,000 times more powerful than ricin 100 times more powerful than sarin100 times more powerful than sarin
3-26
Biological Terrorism Agents (cont'd)
Mycotoxins Dangerous biological toxins Can be introduced by almost any route
including absorption through the skin Effects similar to those of blister agents
except symptom onset is faster, usually minutes
Not sensitive to heat or ultraviolet light and can be used effectively as a weapon
3-27
Nuclear Agents
Radioactive materials Three types of radiation injuries
External irradiation Contamination Internal (target organs)
Ionizing radiation: alpha, beta, gamma
Overview
3-28
Comparing Radiation Particle Types
Alpha particles Heaviest Least penetrating Hazardous if inhaled, swallowed, or entered via wound
Beta particles High speed Moderate penetrating power Travel 10 times farther than alpha Penetrate into skin and cause severe skin burns Require fairly thin shielding for protection
3-29
Comparing Radiation Particle Types (cont'd)
Gamma particles Most penetrating type Can travel miles in the air Can penetrate many centimeters into tissue,
damaging deep organs Also called “penetrating” radiation Both internal and external hazard
3-30
Measuring Radioactivity:Units of Quantity
Units of quantity Curie (Ci)--old term but still common; measures
amount of radiation emitted System International (SI)--new terminology that
uses meter, gram, liter SI unit is becquerel (Bq) 1 Ci = 37 gigabecquerel (GBq)
GBq = 1.000.000.000 Bq
3-31
Measuring Radioactivity:Units of Dose
Dose--amount of radiation absorbed Absorbed dose--energy imparted to matter by
ionizing radiation per unit of mass of irradiated material
Radiation absorbed dose (rad)--measure of energy deposited in matter by ionizing radiation Indicator of immediate damage SI unit is the Gray (Gy)
100 rad = 1 Gy 1 rad = 0.01 Gy
3-32
Measuring Radioactivity:Units of Exposure
Roentgen (R)--how much charge due to ionization is produced in a volume of air
Roentgen equivalent man (rem)--damage caused by radiation passing through living tissue
The SI unit is the sievert (Sv) 1 rem = 0.01 Sv 100 rem = 1 Sv
3-33
Elements of Protection
Time
Distance
Shielding
3-34
ALARA
As Low As Reasonably Achievable
Take all reasonable steps to minimize exposure.
Should guide all activities involving radiation.
3-35
Responder Exposure Limits
Recommended limits established by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Not considered safe limits because they still present some risk
Recommended: Maximum 25 rem total dose for any single life-threatening emergency
3-36
Emergency Response Exposure Limits
Dose Limit(REM)
Activity Condition
5 All10 Protecting
valuableproperty
Lower dosenot practical
25 Lifesavingorprotectionof largepopulations
Lower dosenot practical
>25 Lifesavingorprotectionof largepopulations
Only on avoluntarybasis topersonsfully aware
3-37
Common Radiation ExposuresRadiation Source Relative Dose
(millirem)Gastrointestinal series(upper and lower)
1,400
Radon in averagehousehold in the UnitedStates
200 annually
Living in Denver 81 annually
X-rays and nuclearmedicine
50 annually
Natural radioactivity in thebody
39 annually
Living in Chicago 34 annually
3-38
Common Radiation Exposures (cont'd)
Radiation Source Relative Dose(millirem)
Cosmic Radiation 31 annually
Mammogram 30
Living at sea level 28 annually
Consumer products (suchas drinking water)
11 annually
Chest X-ray 10
Living near a nuclear powerstation
< 1 annually
3-39
Incendiaries
General info Used for centuries Flexible IRA used for years and use is on the rise here Used in 20 to 25 percent of all U.S. bombing
incidents Fewer than 5 percent of actual or attempted
bombings have been preceded by a threat
3-40
Incendiary Device Components
Ignition source Combustible filler Housing
3-41
Materials Used for Incendiary Devices
Roadway flares Gasoline and motor oil Light bulbs Common electrical components and devices Matches Household chemicals Fireworks Propane and butane cylinders Plastic pipes, bottles, and cans
3-42
Chemical WeaponsCategories
Nerve agents Blister agents Blood agents Choking agents Riot control agents (irritants) Industrial chemicals
Overview
3-43
Chemical Weapons:General Information
Liquids when containerized Disseminated as aerosols or gases Effects from irritation to death Onset of symptoms: seconds to several
hours Influenced by weather Can be protected against, treated and
decontaminated
3-44
Military Designations
Military has its own designations even for chemicals in common industrial use.
Often named after the inventor. Military detection equipment uses
military designations.
3-45
Military Designations (cont'd)
MilitaryDesignation
AgentCategory
Agent Name
GA Nerve Tabun
GB Nerve Sarin
GD Nerve Soman
VX Nerve V-Agent
H Blister Mustard
S-mustard Blister Sulfurmustard
3-46
Military Designations (cont'd)
MilitaryDesignation
AgentCategory
Agent Name
HD Blister Mustarddistilled
HN Blister Nitrogenmustard
HT Blister Thio mustard
L Blister Lewisite
3-47
Military Designations (cont'd)
MilitaryDesignation
AgentCategory
Agent Name
CX Blister Phosgeneoxime
CK Blood Cyanogenchloride
AC Blood Hydrogencyanide
3-48
Military Designations (cont'd)
MilitaryDesignation
AgentCategory
Agent Name
CL Choking Chlorine
CG Choking Phosgene
CR or CS Irritant Tear gas
CN Irritant Mace
OC Irritant Pepperspray
3-49
Toxicity Terms
Standard exposure values provided for chemical agents
Military may add some terms Toxicity derived from extensive military
studies Standard exposures and military use:
Dose = Concentration X Time
3-50
Lethal Dosage
LD50--Lethal Dose
LC50--Lethal Concentration
LCt50--Time expression, in minutes
LDt50--Lethal dose per time
ICt50--Incapacitating concentration AEL--Airborne Exposure Limit
3-51
Choking Agents
Most common: chlorine and phosgene Widely used in industry and can be found
in every community Used in World War I Nonpersistent and move away quickly
3-52
Blood Agents
“Blood” agent is a misnomer Attack the cell’s ability to use oxygen Example: hydrogen cyanide Ingredients can be found in some
industrial locations and labs
3-53
Blister Agents
Used during World War I Affect both skin and respiratory system Examples: mustards, lewisite Effects may be delayed
Higher concentrations act more quickly At low concentrations, symptoms may be
delayed 4 to 24 hours
3-54
Blister Agents (cont'd)
Both mustard and lewisite carcinogens Lewisite and phosgene oxime cause
irritation and pain upon contact If liquid or vapors inhaled, blister agents
cause respiratory damage
3-55
Nerve Agents
Act on the nervous system quickly and are composed of chemicals similar to organophosphate pesticides
Examples: GA, GB, GD, and VX Have high vapor density and low
volatility
3-56
Incapacitating Agents
Also known as irritants Nonlethal Four basic categories
Tear gas--CR or CS Mace--CN Pepper spray--OC Combination mace/pepper--none designated
3-57
Other Toxic Gases
Texts suggest additional agents Most are common industrial chemicals Adaptable for large-scale attack Include
Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide Arsine Phosphine
3-58
Obstacles to Effective Terrorist Use of Chem Agents
Vapor pressure Vapor density Molecular weight Volatility Instability in water/humidity
3-59
Obstacles to Effective Terrorist Use of Chem Agents (cont'd)
Producing nerve agents Aum Shinrikyo cult example:
Full-scale sarin production area Backed by millions of dollars
Chemicals required for sarin not easily obtained or manufactured
Production takes expertise, equipment, facilities, and ability to produce undetected
Hoax more likely than actual agent
3-60
Chemical WeaponsDissemination Methods
Aerosol--suspension or dispersion of small particles (solids or liquids) in a gas Hand-held spray bottles Backpack pesticide spray equipment
3-61
Chemical WeaponsDissemination Methods (cont'd)
Dissemination is difficult Most scenarios have limited effectiveness Military dissemination uses explosive detonated in air. Most serious injury to those in physical contact with product. Persons in immediate area most affected. Very difficult to produce building-wide or large-scale effects.
3-62
Dissemination Devices:Electrical Box
Can be mounted on a wall. Box has a hole in the side and spray device mounted inside. Can be placed on a timer or remotely activated.
3-63
Dissemination Devices:Electrical Box (cont'd)
Inside the box: spray device container plunging
mechanism battery remote
activation system
3-64
Dissemination Devices:Fire Extinguisher
Fire extinguisherwith a solenoid and four spray nozzles using a timer mechanism
3-65
Dissemination Devices:Cylinder
Pressurized cylinder with a holding tank, which provides agent delivery through Venturi effect
Can be used with a timer or remote activator
3-66
Dissemination Devices:Spray Paint and Milk Carton
Spraypaint delivery bottle (left)
Delivery device hidden in milk carton activated by remote control (right)
3-67
Dissemination Devices:Briefcase
Contains fans for bio agent dispersalor could house a spray device for chemical agents
Newer models have concealed fans
3-68
Dissemination Devices:Leaf Blower
Containeradded to bottom, provides mechanism for biologicaldistribution
3-69
Render Safe Considerations
Using a water cannon,explosive ordnance division (EOD) attempted to breach this device. It was not successful in openingthe box, and broke the chemical containeron the inside.
3-70
Explosives Terrorist weapon of choice 70 percent of all terrorist incidents in the United
States Can deliver death themselves or disperse an
agent of death IED's
Vehicle bombs Pipe bombs Satchel devices
3-71
Activity 3.1
Ranking Hazardous Agents
3-72
Summary
Key chemical and physical property is vapor pressure, and by understanding vapor pressure, you can identify the true risk of chemicals, making responses easier.
Basic chemical properties of terrorism agents work against their successful use in most cases.
By understanding the relationship of vapor pressure, volatility, and vapor density, a responder can make informed decisions regarding tactics and PPE.
By using science, fear can be conquered.