28.57143 35.71429 35.71429 100% 100%

Exam 1 Exam 2 Aplia Score Predicted Grade E1 E2 A PG

Is the wage gap changing over time?

Sample from 2000 Census, when Trish would have been roughly 50 years old.

Sample Selection Criteria:

• Editor (2000 code=283) or Reporter (281)• Employed by Newspaper (2000 industry=647)

• Worked more than half-time (more than 20 hours per week & 26 weeks per year)

• Wage per hour

Male Sample Female SampleWage 21.43 17.54lnWage 2.91 2.71Education 15.66 15.56Age 41.92 40.63Sample Size (N) 1740 1330

Table 1. Means of Dependent & Explanatory Variables

𝑙𝑛𝑊=1.177+0.073𝐸𝑑+0.0141 𝐴𝑔𝑒−0.174 𝐹𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒(0.0052 ) (0.0009 ) (0.0181 )

𝑙𝑛𝑊=𝛼0+𝛼1𝐸𝑑+𝛼2 𝐴𝑔𝑒+𝛼3 𝐹𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒+𝜀

𝑙𝑛𝑊=1.163+0.032𝐸𝑑+0.0126 𝐴𝑔𝑒−0.283 𝐹𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒(0.0042 ) (0.0008 ) (0.0182 )

2000 Census

1980 Census

𝑙𝑛𝑊=0.880+0.0965𝐸𝑑+0.0081 𝐴𝑔𝑒Women

Men 𝑙𝑛𝑊=1.363+0.0461𝐸𝑑+0.0197 𝐴𝑔𝑒

(0.0076 ) (0.0014 )

(0.0071 ) (0.0012 )

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 20200

10

20

30

40

50

60

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Historical Income Tables, Table P-38. Full-Time, Year-Round Workers by Median Earnings and Sex

Median Annual Earnings of Full-Time Workers by Gender, 1960-2010

Earnings(thou. of 2010$)

Male

Female

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 20200

50

100

Gender Earnings Gap for Full-Time, Full-Year Workers, 1960-2010

𝑬 𝒇𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒆

𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒆∙𝟏𝟎𝟎

60.7

77.4

All Measures of the Gender Gap are Narrowing

Why is the gender earnings gap closing?

• Increases in labor market experience of women• Increases in the education of women.

• Decreases in unionization• Increases in the demand for intellectual skills relative

to physical strength. • Shifts of women into higher paying occupations• Decreases in discrimination?

SOURCE: bechdeltest.com

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𝑩𝑹𝒖𝒍𝒆

⋮ ⋮⋮

𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒆 𝑩𝒖𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒕 𝑩𝑹𝒖𝒍𝒆

⋮

By WALT HICKLEY

Audiences and creators know that on one level or another, there’s an inherent gender bias in the movie business — whether it’s the disproportionately low number of films with female leads, the process of pigeonholing actresses into predefined roles (action chick, romantic interest, middle-aged mother, etc.), or the lack of serious character development for women on screen compared to their male counterparts. What’s challenging is quantifying this dysfunction, putting numbers to a trend that is — at least anecdotally — a pretty clear reality.

By WALT HICKLEY

Audiences and creators know that on one level or another, there’s an inherent gender bias in the movie business — whether it’s the disproportionately low number of films with female leads, the process of pigeonholing actresses into predefined roles (action chick, romantic interest, middle-aged mother, etc.), or the lack of serious character development for women on screen compared to their male counterparts. What’s challenging is quantifying this dysfunction, putting numbers to a trend that is — at least anecdotally — a pretty clear reality.

By WALT HICKLEY

Audiences and creators know that on one level or another, there’s an inherent gender bias in the movie business — whether it’s the disproportionately low number of films with female leads, the process of pigeonholing actresses into predefined roles (action chick, romantic interest, middle-aged mother, etc.), or the lack of serious character development for women on screen compared to their male counterparts. What’s challenging is quantifying this dysfunction, putting numbers to a trend that is — at least anecdotally — a pretty clear reality.

What’s challenging is testing the hypothesis and measuring its magnitude.

⋮ ⋮⋮

𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒆 𝑩𝒖𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒕 𝑩𝑹𝒖𝒍𝒆

⋮

Using data on the financial characteristics of movies released from 2005 to 2013 and their Bechdel scores, we test the hypothesis that ….

“Using Bechdel test data, we analyzed 1,615 films released from 1990 to 2013 to examine the relationship between the prominence of women in a film and that film’s budget and gross profits.”