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Reading Wordsworth after McGann:

Moments of Negativity in "Tintern Abbey"

and the Immortality Ode

P E T E R S I M O N S E N

Is i t not poss ible , under cer ta in condit ions and at cer ta in t imes , forvery important things to betray themselves in very s l ightindicat ions? . . . So let us not under-value small s igns : perhaps f romthem it may be poss ible to come upon the t racks of greater things .( Freu d : 3 1 )

S i n c e t h e m i d 1 9 8 0 s , J e r o m e J . M c G a n n h a s b e e n t h e " m o s t i n fl u e n ti a lc r it ic o f R o m a n t i c i s m " ( C r o n i n : 5 ) . M c G a n n ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n s in t h is f ie ldh a v e b e e n d e c i s i v e in o p e n i n g a n d r e v i s i n g t h e R o m a n t i c c a n o n a s w e l l a si n a l t e r i n g o u r a p p r o a c h t o R o m a n t i c t e x ts . D u e i n l a r g e p a r t t o M c G a n nm a n y m o r e v e r y d i f f e re n t p o e t s f r o m t h e p e r i o d a r e t o d a y b e i n g r e a d i nt h e h i s t o r i c a l, c o n t e x t u a l m a n n e r h e h a s t h e o r i s e d a n d a d v o c a t e d . A s s u c hh i s w o r k h a s b e e n a n d is a s a l u t a r y s o u r c e o f i n s p i r a t i o n f o r m o s tc o n t e m p o r a r y R o m a n t i c i s t s . Y e t o n e s e r i o u s p r o b l e m r e m a i n s : i n b o o ka f te r b o o k , e s s a y a f te r e s s a y , M c G a n n f e a t u r e s W i l l i a m W o r d s w o r t h i n t h er o l e o f t h e p a r t l y c u n n i n g r e a c t i o n a r y , p a r t l y d e l u d e d i d e a l i s t , w h ow r o n g l y s u p p r e s s e s p a r t i c u l a r s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l o r p s y c h i c a c t u a l i t i e s f r o mt h e s u r f a c e o f h i s p o e t r y . I n h i s m a j o r w o r k i n R o m a n t i c c r i t i c i s m , TheRomantic Ideology, w h i c h p r o v i d e d t h e s c r i p t a n d s et t h e s t a g e fo r A n g l o -A m e r i c a n R o m a n t i c cr i t ic i s m w e ll i n t o t h e 1 9 9 0 s , o n e o f M c G a n n ' sc e n t r a l p r e m i s e s is t h a t W o r d s w o r t h ' s p o e t r y e n a c t s " a s tr a t e g y o fd i s p l a c e m e n t " w h e r e b y " T h e p o e m a n n i h i l a te s i ts h i s to r y , b i o g r a p h i c a la n d s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l a l i k e , a n d r e p l a c e s t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r s w i t h a r e c o r d o fp u r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s " ( 9 0 ) . H e r e it o n l y r e m a i n s fo r M c G a n n t o a d d " t h a tW o r d s w o r t h ' s . . . i s a f a l s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s n e e d s s c a r c e l y t o b e s a i d " ( i b i d . ) .

I t i s n o t M c G a n n ' s a s s u m p t i o n o f a h i s t o r ic a l l y e l e v a t e d p o s i t i o n f r o mw h i c h t o p r o n o u n c e a d e v a s t a t i n g c r i t iq u e o f t h e e s c a p i s t t e n d e n c y i nW o r d s w o r t h i a n R o m a n t i c i s m ' s i m a g i n a t i v e p r o j e c t t h a t s e e m s t o b e

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R e a d i n g W o r d s w o r t h a f t e r M c G a n n

p r o b l e m a t i c . S u r e l y R o m a n t i c p o e t r y o f t h e W o r d s w o r t h i a n k i n d a t f ir sts i g h t o f t e n a p p e a r s t o w i s h t o b e a b l e t o t r a n s c e n d r a t h e r t h a n a r t i c u l a t e i t sp a r t i c u l a r m a t e r i a l e n a b l i n g c o n d i t i o n s , w h e t h e r t h e s e a r e u p s e t t i n g s o c i o -h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s e x t e r i o r t o t h e p o e t , o r p s y c h i c e v e n t s i n t e r i o r t o t h e p o e t .T h e p r o b l e m is M c G a n n ' s b e li e f t h a t W o r d s w o r t h m a n a g e s successfully t od i s p l a c e a n d e v e n ' a n n i h i l a t e ' w h a t e v e r c a u s e s h i s a n x i e t i e s a n d c r i s e s . F o rM c G a n n W o r d s w o r t h r e m a i n s in a s t a t e o f n a i v e a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e r e i si n d e e d f u l l c o m p e n s a t i o n i n t h e i m a g i n a t i v e i d e a l i t i e s p r o j e c t e d i n t h e p o e t i cw o r k s . H o w e v e r , n e i t h e r W o r d s w o r t h n o r h i s p o e m s w e r e e v e r a s c o n v i n c e dt h a t t h e y h a d s u f f i c ie n t l y s t a b l e g r o u n d s f o r a s s e r t i n g s u c h a s s u r a n c e a s t h e ya r e m a d e o u t t o b e i n t h e c r i t i c i s m o f M c G a n n . 1 T o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s c l a i mt h e f o l l o w i n g a t t e n d s t o ' m o m e n t s o f n e g a t i v i ty ' i n W o r d s w o r t h ' s p o e t r y ;m o m e n t s i n w h i c h i t a n t i c i p a t e s a n u n d e l u d e d a n d sc e p t i c a l c r i t i q u e o f i tso w n t r a n s c e n d e n t a s s u m p t i o n s a n d a f f i r m a t i v e v i s i o n s . 2

T h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e s e m o m e n t s o f n e g a t i v i t y i n W o r d s w o r t h h a sb e e n a p e r s i s t e n t c o n c e r n o f m u c h tw e n t i e t h c e n t u r y W o r d s w o r t hc r i t i c i s m f r o m A . C . B r a d l e y t h r o u g h G e o f f r e y H a r t m a n a n d P a u l d e M a nt o F r a n c e s F e r g u s o n , D a v i d S i m p s o n a n d m a n y o t h e r s . T h e s e c r it i cs h a v ei n v a r i o u s w a y s d e v e l o p e d i n s i g h t s p r o v i d e d b y B r a d l e y w h o in 1 9 0 0t u r n e d a g a i n s t t h e V i c t o r i a n r e c e p t i o n o f W o r d s w o r t h . F o r B r a d l e y ,W o r d s w o r t h w a s n o t t h e n o s t a l g i c , n e c e s s a r i l y s o l a c i n g a n d o v e r -e m o t i o n a l l o v e r o f n a t u r e r e a d e r s s u c h a s J o h n S t u a r t M i l l a n d M a t t h e wA r n o l d h a d f o u n d h i m t o b e . W o r d s w o r t h w a s a p r o t o - m o d e r n p o e t w h oc o n f r o n t e d " p o v e r t y , c r i m e , i n s a n i t y , r u i n e d i n n o c e n c e , t o r t u r i n g h o p e sd o o m e d t o e x t i n c t i o n , s o l i ta r y a n g u i s h , e v e n d e s p a i r " , a n d w h o " d i d n o ta v e r t h i s e y e s f r o m i t " (B r a d l e y : 1 2 4 ) . T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f W o r d s w o r t hs t a n d s i n d a n g e r o f b e i n g c u r b e d b y M c G a n n ' s p o w e r f u l i n f l u e n c e i n s o f a r

1 For other critiques of the understanding of Romanticism professed by McGann andorher new historicists and cultural materialists, see M. H. Abrams, "On Political Readingsof theLyrical Ballads', in hisHow to Do Things with Texts: Essays in Criticism and CriticalTheory (New York: No rton, 1989), pp. 364 -39 1, Peter Man ning, "Placing Poor Susan:Wordsworth and the New Historicism", in hisReading Romantics: Texts and Contexts (NewYork and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 300-320, and Susan Wolfson,"Questioning 'The Romantic Ideology': Wordsworth", Revue Internationale de Philosophic44:3 (1990), pp. 429-447. In granting Wordsworth some of the insights the newhistoricists typically refuse him the essays by Ma nn ing and W olfson have been most useful.

2 For a consideration of the role and articulation of negativity in literature, see the essaysin Sanford Budick and Wolfgang Iser (eds.), Languages of The Unsayable: The Play ofNegativity in Literature and Literary Theory (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996 ).

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a s it s p r o b a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e i s a l e ss t h a n d e s i r a b l e r e t u r n o f W o r d s w o r t hs t u d i e s t o V i c t o r i a n c o n d i t i o n s .

W o r d s w o r t h o f t e n f u n c t i o n s as t h e n o r m a g a i n s t w h i c h m o s t o t h e rp o e t s o f t h e R o m a n t i c p e r i o d a p p e a r i n t e r e s t i n g a n d a p p e a l i n g t oM c G a n n . I n a n e ss a y o n v e rs i o n s o f e l e gy i n R o m a n t i c p o e t r y , " T h eF a i l u r e s o f R o m a n t i c i s m " , M c G a n n d i s c u s s e s w h a t h e c a ll s ' a p o e t r y o ff a i l u r e ' a s a s p e c i a l " m o d e o f p o e t r y " : " P o e t r y a s t h e e x p r e s s i o n a n d e v e nt h e e m b o d i m e n t o f l o ss a n d f a i lu r e " ( 2 7 1 ) . 3 T h i s i s a r a d i c a l l y d a r k p o e t r y ,w h i c h M c G a n n t y p ic a l ly c h a m p i o n s , a n d i t e x h i b i ts a n " I n d u r a t e dB y r o n i c s o r r o w [ w h i c h ] s i g n i f i e s a l o s s f r o m w h i c h t h e r e i s n or e d e m p t i o n " ( 2 7 3 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o M c G a n n , th is d a r k m o d e o f p o e t ry ,w h i c h is p r a c t i c e d b y B y r o n , K e a t s a n d S h e l l e y , d e r i v e s f r o m s u c h l a t ee i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y e l e gi a c w o m e n p o e t s a s C h a r l o t t e S m i t h a n d M a r yR o b i n s o n , a n d g e t s r e a r t i c u l a t e d b y s u c h la t e r p o e t s a s F e l i c i a H e m a n s a n dL e t i ti a E l i z a b e t h L a n d o n . T h e s e p o e ts M c G a n n n a m e s s e n t im e n t a l a n dd i s t i n g u i s h e s f r o m th e i r R o m a n t i c c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . S e n t i m e n t a l " p o e t i c a lt h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e [ is ] firm ly l o c a t e d i n h i s t o r y " , w r i t e s M c G a n n ,

. . . indeed, i t s theory and pract ice make his tor ical i ty , with a l l i t snontranscendental features , a def ining qual i ty of the poet ical .Romant icism feeds upon this theory, but only to ra ise up cr ies ofres is tance, or to bui ld temples in excremental places . Sent imentalpoetry, by contrast , brings all of its i l lusions, including its losti l lus ions , down to eat th . (285)

I n o r d e r t o f o c u s a n d f r a m e h i s r e a d i n g o f t h e s e n t i m e n t a l t r a d i t i o n , w h i c he m p h a s i s e s l o s s , t h e b o d y , d i s i l l u s i o n , d e a t h , m a t e r i a l i t y , t h e r e al , M c G a n nc o n s t r u c t s a R o m a n t i c t r a d i t i o n t h a t e m p h a s i s e s t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e s o fc o m p e n s a t i o n , t h e m i n d , i l l u s i o n , l i fe , s p i r i t u a l i t y , t h e i d e a l . P r e s e n t i n gt h e n o r m a t i v e R o m a n t i c t r a d it i o n a ga i n s t w h i c h h e p r o m o t e s th e m o r eh o n e s t ( w e m a y a s s u m e ) m a n n e r o f c o n f r o n t i n g l o s s a n d f a i lu r e i n t h es e n t i m e n t a l t r a d i t i o n , M c G a n n w r i te s ,

The usual undertaking of these matters fo l lows aWord swor th ian/C oler id gean l ine : 'For su ch lo s s . . . abu nd antrecom pence ' . Accord ing to th i s v iew, there i sthere m u s t beafa i th that looks throu gh d earh . The ph i lo sophic m ind o f

3 See also McGann's chapter, "The Loss of Sentimental Poetry" in The Poetics ofSensibility: A Revolution in Literary Style (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), pp . 150 -173.

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romantic i sm works to redeem the harrowing logic o f ul t imate los s :perhaps even, as in certa in Chris t ian and Marxian schemas , totrans form i t into sp lend or. Bu t a ser ious pr obl em lurks beneaththes e e legant co m p ens a to ry f o rmula s . W e kno w th is f ro mWo rds wo rth ' s o wn p o erry , who s e bes t mo ments regu la r ly be t rayrhei r co ns c io us co m m itm en ts . (27 1 ; M cG an n ' s e l lip si s)

W o r d s w o r t h i s h e r e m a d e t o s u b s c r i b e to a n i d e a o f a c l o s e d p s y c h i ce c o n o m y i n w h i c h i t is p o s s i b l e t o b e l i e v e i n f ul l c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r l o s s .H e t h u s c o m e s t o r e p r e s e n t a n a l m o s t u n b e l i e v a b l y n a i v e p o s i t i o n a g a i n s tw h i c h M c G a n n c a n p r e s e n t h i s c o u n t e r - t r a d i t i o n o f s e n t i m e n t a l i s t p o e t s ,w h o c o n s c i o u s l y r e c o g n i s e a n d f a ce t h e " p r o b l e m " o f " u l t i m a t e l o s s " t h a tM c G a n n c l a i m s W o r d s w o r t h o n l y a r t ic u l at e s b y a c c i d e n t w h e n h is p o e m s" b e t r a y t h ei r c o n s c i o u s c o m m i t m e n t s " .

M c G a n n i s c l e ar l y b e i n g h y p e r b o l i c a l i n h i s c o n s t r u a l o f W o r d s w o r t ha s t h e n o r m t r a n s g r e s s e d b y t h e therefore n e w l y i n t e r e s t i n g s e n t i m e n t a lp o e t s . Y e t t h i s is e x a c t l y t h e p r o b l e m . O n e o f t h e e a si e s t w a y s t o l e g i t i m a t et h e r et r ie v a l o f a n y o f t h e n u m e r o u s n e g l e c t e d R o m a n t i c p o e t s is t o c l a i mt h a t t h i s o r t h a t p o e t o r g r o u p o f p o e t s d e p a r t s f r o m a n d t r a n s g r e s s e s ' t h en o r m ' . A s a l w a y s i n s u c h u n d e r t a k i n g s w h a t i s p o s i t e d as t h e n o r m h a s t ob e a u n i f i e d a n d s e l f- i d e n t i c a l e n t i t y , w h i c h a t m o s t c a n c o n t r a d i c t i t s e l fw h e n i t b e t r a y s i ts " c o n s c i o u s c o m m i t m e n t s " i n u n i n t e n d e d s l i p s a n dl a p s e s . H o w e v e r , t h e u n n e c e s s a r i l y h i g h p r i c e f o r t h i s s a l u t a r y r e c u p e r a t i o no f a c o u n t e r - t r a d i t i o n a t w o r k i n t h e R o m a n t i c p e r i o d i s a m i s r e a d i n g a n dr e - m y s t if i ca t i on o f W o r d s w o r t h w h i c h t h r e a t en s t o b e c o m e t h e n o r m a t i v eu n d e r s t a n d i n g o f W o r d s w o r t h in s o fa r a s M c G a n n ' s i n f l u e n c e h a s c o m e t oa s s u m e h e g e m o n i c s t a t u s i n c u r r e n t R o m a n t i c c r i t ic i s m

W h e n h e p r e s e n t s W o r d s w o r t h ' s a ll e g e d ly cl o s e d e c o n o m y o f lo s sa n d fu ll c o m p e n s a t i o n in " T h e F a i l u r e s o f R o m a n t i c i s m " , M c G a n n r ef er st o t w o f a m o u s p o e m s a n d p a s s a g e s b y W o r d s w o r t h . H e q u o t e s a l i n e f r o m" T i n t e r n A b b e y " ( 1 7 9 8 ) a n d h e a l l u d e s t o s t a n z a t e n o f t h e I m m o r t a l i t yO d e ( 1 8 0 4 / 0 5 ) a n d p r e s e n t s t h i s a s e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e r e i s, a s t h e r e m u s tb e , a b u n d a n t r e c o m p e n s e in t h e f ac e o f l o ss i n n o r m a t i v e W o r d s w o r t h i a nR o m a n t i c i s m . T h i s e ss a y i s e s s e n t ia l l y a t e s t i n g o f M c G a n n ' s e v i d e n c e .T h e u s e o f " T i n t e r n A b b e y " w i l l b e r e c o n s i d e r e d first i n o r d e r t o b e g i n t os u g g e s t t h a t o n a s e c o n d l o o k , W o r d s w o r t h i s n o t s a y i n g e x a c t l y w h a tM c G a n n t a k e s h i m t o b e s a y i n g . N e x t , a h i s t o r ic a l f r a m e i s p r o v i d e d t os i t u a t e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e v a l u e o f p o e t r y a n d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i n t h eR o m a n t i c p e r i o d itself, w h i c h f i n a l l y l e a d s t o a r e a d i n g o f a p a s s a g e i n t h eI m m o r t a l i t y O d e w h i c h , l ik e t h e p a s s a g e f r o m " T i n t e r n A b b e y " ,

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p r o f o u n d l y p r o b l e m a t i s e s a n d c o m p l i c a t e s w h a t M c G a n n l ea v es a s a nu n p r o b l e m a t i s e d g i v e n : t h a t W o r d s w o r t h ' s p o e t i c l a n g u a g e a i m s t oc o n v i n c e u s i n t h e a f f i r m a t i v e t h a t i t p r o v i d e s f u ll c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h elos ses i t r eg i s t er s .

" T i n t e r n A b b e y " i s a b o u t w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e i n t i m e : a r e v i s it t o af o r m e r l y v i s i t e d s p o t in n a t u r e c o m p e l s t h e s p e a k e r t o m e a s u r e w h a t i s l o s ta g a i n s t w h a t is g a i n e d a s t i m e p a s s e s . T h e p o e m m a k e s u s e o f o n e o fW o r d s w o r t h ' s m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a r t is t ic t e c h n i q u e s , w h a t C a r l o s B a k e rt e r m s " t h e d o u b l e - e x p o s u r e t e c h n i q u e " ( 1 0 6 ) . A s B a k e r e x p l a i n s ,W o r d s w o r t h u s e d t h e t e c h n i q u e t o e x p l o r e h i s m a j o r t h e m e o f p e r s o n a lg r o w t h b y j u x t a p o s i n g " t w o w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d p e r i o d s o f t i m e i n s u c h a w a yt h a t w e a r e m a d e d r a m a t i c a l l y c o n s c i o u s o f t h e d e g r e e o f g r o w t h t h a t h a st a k e n p l a c e b e t w e e n S t a g e O n e a n d S t a g e T w o " ( ib i d . ) . T h e p o e ms u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s p e a k e r h a s l o s t a n i m m e d i a t e , d i r e c t , s e n s u o u s r e l a t i o nt o n a t u r e s u c h as t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d i n e a r l y y o u t h . Y e t W o r d s w o r t h w i l l n o tl a m e n t t h i s l o s s , b e c a u s e s o m e t h i n g i s g a i n e d f r o m i t. W h a t i s g a i n e d is t h ee x p e r i e n c e as such, t h e m e m o r y o f i t, w h i c h o n t h e o n e h a n d c a n s e rv e a s as u b s t i t u t e f o r n a t u r e w h e n t h e s p e a k e r is a w a y f r o m n a t u r e , a n d o n t h eo t h e r h a n d m a k e s e v i d e n t t h e p o w e r o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o f u n c t i o n i n t h ei m m e d i a t e a b s e n c e o f t h e w o r l d . I n " T i n t e r n A b b e y " , a c c o r d i n g t o B a k e r ," A s [ W o r d s w o r t h ] o v e r l o o k s t h e s c e n e o n c e m o r e , w i t h t h e m e n t a ll a n d s c a p e o f t h e p a s t s t i l l i n h i s p u r v i e w , h e i s m a d e d o u b l y a w a r e o f as e n s e o f l o s s ( t h e p a s t w i l l n o t r e t u r n ) a n d a s e n s e o f c o m p e n s a t i o n g r e a t e rt h a n t h e l o s s ( t h e n e w m a t u r i t y a n d i n s i g h t w h i c h t h e a d v a n c i n g y e a r sh a v e b r o u g h t ) " ( 1 0 7 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e y d i s a g r e e i n t h e ir e v a l u a t i o n o fW o r d s w o r t h ' s p o e m , B a k e r ' s r e a d i n g is c o n s o n a n t w i t h M c G a n n ' s . T h e ya r e b o t h c o n f i d e n t th a t W o r d s w o r t h i n " T i n t e r n A b b e y " r e c ei v e s" a b u n d a n t " c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e l o s s e s r e g i s t e r e d i n t h e p o e m .

Y e t M c G a n n r e p r e s se s t h e u n d e r c u r r e n t o f s c e p t i c a l d o u b t t h a tq u a l i f i e s W o r d s w o r t h ' s a f f i r m a t i o n s a n d m a n i f e s t s i ts e l f i n c e r t a i nm o m e n t s o f n e g a t i v i t y i n t h e p o e m . M c G a n n c i t e s a c r u c i al p h r a s e f r o mt h e p o e m t o i l l u s t r a t e h i s i d e a t h a t i n W o r d s w o r t h t h e r e i s f u l lc o m p e n s a t i o n , b u t h e l e av e s s o m e t h i n g o u t o f t h e q u o t a t i o n , w h i c h c a n b es e e n t o q u a l i f y a n d n e g a t i v i z e t h e a f f i r m a t i o n t h a t e n c a p s u l a t e s i t .W o r d s w o r t h r e g i s t e r s t h e l o s s o f h i s e a r l ie r s e l f a n d t h e i m m e d i a t e r e l a t i o nt o n a t u r e h e e x p e r i e n c e d o n h i s first v i s i t t o T i n t e r n A b b e y :

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That t ime is past ,And al l i t s aching joys are now no more,And all its dizzy raptures. Not for thisFaint I , nor mourn nor murmur : othei g i f t sHave fol lowed, for such loss , / would believe,A bu nd an t r ecom pence . For I have learnedT o lo ok on na ture, not as in the hourO f thoug ht less you th, but hear in g of tent im esThe s t i l l , s ad m u s ic o f hu m ani ty ,Nor har sh nor g ra t ing , thou gh o f am ple powerTo chas ten and su bd u e . ( Gi l l : 134 ,11 . 8 4 -9 4 ; em phas i s ad d ed )

I n " T h e F a i l u r e s o f R o m a n t i c i s m " , M c G a n n d e l i b e r a t e l y e r a s e s t h e c r u c ia li t a li c i s e d p h r a s e t h a t W o r d s w o r t h d e p l o y s t o d e s t a b i l i se t h e n a i v e n o t i o no f f ul l c o m p e n s a t i o n i n t h e c l o s e d e c o n o m y o f l o s s a n d g a i n i m p l i e d i n t h ep a s s a g e . C o m m e n t i n g o n th i s a n d o t h e r m o m e n t s o f n e g a t i v i t y i n th ep o e m , S u s a n W o l f s o n a s t u t e l y p o i n t s o u t th a t " t o p h r a s e a s p ir i t u ale c o n o m y . . . w i t h a t e n t a t i v e a u x i l i a r y . . . i s t o d e p l e t e t h e s t o r e o fr e c o m p e n s e . W o r d s w o r t h ' s r h e t o ri c o f a f f i r m a t i o n i n ' T i n t e r n A b b e y 'i n d u l g e s a f o r m o f n e g a t i v e a s s e r t i o n " ( 4 3 9 ) . T o s u g g e s t t h a t w e a r e m e r e l yd e a l i n g w i t h m i n o r a n d r el a ti v e ly i n s i g n i f i c a n t d e t a i l s o r w i t h a ni n s t a n c e w h e n W o r d s w o r t h i n a d v e r t e n t l y b e t r a y s h i s " c o n s c i o u sc o m m i t m e n t s " w o u l d b e t o p r o f o u n d l y m i s r e a d h i m . A s C h r i s t o p h e rR i c k s p o i n t s o u t a n d a m p l y d e m o n s t r a t e s i n h i s a t t e n t i o n t o m i n u t e ,p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i ls i n W o r d s w o r t h , " S o s i m p l y l u c i d is W o r d s w o r t h ' s s p e e c ht h a t i t c a n c o n s t i t u t e a t e m p t a t i o n : w e m a y n o t p a y s u f f i c ie n t a t t e n t i o n t ot h e v e r y w o r d s , s i n c e w e a r e s o c o n f i d e n t o f w h a t t h e y a r e s a y i n g " ( 1 2 7 ) .I n a c e r t a i n s c e p t i c a l r e a d e r l y m o o d , t h e " I w o u l d b e l i e v e " a d m i t s t h ei l l u s o r y o r a t l e a s t t e n u o u s g r o u n d o n w h i c h W o r d s w o r t h b u i l d s h i s h o p e sf o r f ul l c o m p e n s a t i o n . I f w e re c o v e r M c G a n n ' s r e p r e s s e d p a s s a g e a n db r i n g t h e p r o p e r w e i g h t t o b e a r o n t h e t e n t a t i v e m o d a l a u x i l i a r y ' w o u l d ' i n" I would b e l i e v e " , t h e n w e u n d e r s t a n d W o r d s w o r t h t o b e s a y i n g th a t inf a c t h e d o e s n o t b e l i e v e t h a t h e h a s h a d o r e v e r w i l l r e c e i v e " a b u n d a n tr e c o m p e n c e " i n t h e f a c e o f l o s s , a b s e n c e , d e a t h .

W o r d s w o r t h a l m o s t , b u t n o t e x a c t l y , s a y s t h e o p p o s i t e o f w h a tM c G a n n w a n t s h i m t o b e s a yi n g . M c G a n n w a n t s W o r d s w o r t h t o b ew r i t i n g i n t h e i n d i c a t i v e a n d t o b e s t a t i n g a h e l d f a c t , w h e r e a s a l lW o r d s w o r t h c a n d o i s t o w r i t e in t h e o p t a t i v e t h u s e x p r e s s i n g a w i s h ,w h i c h m a y o r m a y n o t b e f u lf il l ed . " I w o u l d b e l i e v e " c o m e s c l o s e t o

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i m p l y i n g , ' I w o u l d i f I c o u l d ' , o r 'I w o u l d b u t I d o n ' t ' . F o l l o w i n g t h i s l i n eo f t h o u g h t w e b e g i n t o s e n s e t h e o x y m o r o n i c n a t u r e o f t h e s h e e r i d e a o f" a b u n d a n t r e c o m p e n c e " a n d to r a is e t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r ar e p r e s e n t a t i o n b e i t i n t h e f o r m o f m e n t a l i m a g e r y h e l d i n m e m o r y o rv e r b a l p o e t r y u n d e r a n y c i r c u m s t a n c e c a n b e s a i d t o s u b s t i t u t ea d e q u a t e l y f o r w h a t i t r e p r e s e n t s , a n d h o t r a t h e r f u n c t i o n a s a r e m i n d e r o fl o s s , a c o m p l e x si g n o f a b s e n c e a s m u c h a s p r e s e n c e . M c G a n n ' s c o n s t r u a lo f a b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n a W o r d s w o r t h i a n , o p t i m i s t i c a n dc o m p e n s a t o r y v i s i o n a n d i ts d a r k , s e n t i m e n t a l , B y r o n i c c o u n t e r - v i s i o nb e g i n s to d i s s o lv e a s w e r e c o g n i z e t h a t W o r d s w o r t h e n c o m p a s s e s b o t hw h a t M c G a n n c a ll s t h e s e n t i m e n t a l a n d w h a t h e c a ll s t h e R o m a n t i ce l e g i a c c u r r e n t . I f W o r d s w o r t h ' s n e g a t i o n s a r e n e v e r a b s o l u t e n o r , b y t h es a m e t o k e n , a r e h i s a f f i r m a t i o n s .

T o u n d e r s t a n d m o r e f ul ly w h e r e M c G a n n ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o fW o r d s w o r t h ' s p o e t r y d e r iv e s f r o m , a n d t o s e e m o r e c l e a rl y w h a t i s a t s t a k ei n r e c u p e r a t i n g c e r t a i n m o m e n t s o f n e g a t i v i t y in t h i s p o e t r y , it i s n e c e s s a r yt o r e c a p i t u l a t e t h e w a y in w h i c h p o e t r y w a s a g g r a n d i s e d a n d e v a l u a t e d a s ak i n d o f s u b s t i t u t e r e l i g i o n i n t h e R o m a n t i c p e r i o d a n d a ft e r. N o r m a t i v e l yR o m a n t i c i s m h a s b e e n s a i d t o c e n t r e o n t h e i d e a t h a t i m a g i n a t i v el i t e r a t u r e c a n s o m e h o w c o r r e c t t h e w r o n g s o f t h e w o r l d ; t h a t t h e f a i l u r e so f t h e r ea l c a n b e a m e n d e d a t t h e i d e a l l e v el o f h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s st h r o u g h t h e r e d e m p t i v e i n t e rv e n t i o n o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . I m a g i n a t i o n ist h e m e n t a l , q u a s i - d i v i n e f a c u l t y t h a t i s m o b i l i z e d i n R o m a n t i c a e s t h e t i c s i no r d e r t o c o m p e n s a t e i n i d e a l i t y f o r t h e s h o r t - c o m i n g s o f r e a l i t y .

I n a l e t te r f r o m 1 8 0 7 W o r d s w o r t h s a y s t h a t h i s v o c a t i o n i s t o c r e a t ep o e t r y , w h i c h a t s o m e f u t u r e d a t e w i l l " c o n s o l e t h e a f f l i c te d , . . . a d ds u n s h i n e to d a y l i g h t b y m a k i n g t h e h a p p y h a p p i e r , . . . [ a n d ] t e a c h t h ey o u n g a n d t h e g r a c i o u s o f e v e r y a g e , t o s e e , t o t h i n k a n d fe e l , a n dt h e r e f o r e t o b e c o m e m o r e a c t i v e ly a n d s e c u r e l y v i r t u o u s " ( D e S e l i n c o u r t1 9 6 9 : 1 4 6 ; 1 5 0 ) . T h i s c a p t u re s w h a t M c G a n n t ak e s W o r d s w o r t h ' s p o e t r yt o e x e m p l i f y a n d a r t i c u l a t e s s o m e o f o u r c u l t u r e ' s m o s t d e e p l y e n t r e n c h e di d e a s a b o u t w h a t i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e ra t u r e i s a n d is s u p p o s e d t o d o : c o n s o l e i nt i m e s o f d i s t re s s , a d d s u n s h i n e o n a r a i n y d a y , a n d p r o v i d e a m e a n s t oc u l t i v a t e t h e f a c u l t i e s o f s e e i n g , t h i n k i n g , a n d f e e l i n g t o r e a l i s e o u r f u l lh u m a n p o t e n t i a l . I n t h e P r e f a c e t o t h e Lyrical Ballads, W o r d s w o r t hs i m i l a r l y w r i t e s :

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Poe try is rhe brea th an d f iner spirit o f all kn ow led ge [T he poet]i s the rock of defence o f h um an natur e ; an uph old er and preserver,carrying everywhere with him rela t ionship and love . In sp i te o fdi f ference o f so i l and c l imate , o f language and manners , o f lawsand cus to ms , the p o e t b inds to ge ther by p a s s io n and kno wledgethe vasr empire o f human society, a s i t i s spread over the wholeearth, and over a l l t ime. (Gi l l : 606)

A s R a y m o n d W i l l i a m s p o i n t s o u t , f or W o r d s w o r t h p o e t r y i d e al lye m b o d i e s a n d t r a n s m i t s t o t h e r e a d e r " c e r t a i n h u m a n v a l u e s , c a p a c i t i e s ,e n e r g i e s , w h i c h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s o c i e t y t o w a r d s an i n d u s t r i a lc i v i l i s a t i o n w a s fe lt t o b e t h r e a t e n i n g o r e v e n d e s t r o y i n g " ( 3 6 ) . I n d e e d ,e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h b u t a l s o i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ,W o r d s w o r t h ' s p o e t r y w a s o f t e n v a l u e d f o r i t s t h e r a p e u t i c e f f ec t s , it sc a p a c i t y t o f u n c t i o n a s a r e f u g e , a n t i d o t e a n d s o u r c e o f h u m a n e v a l u e ina n i n c r e a s i n g l y u r b a n i s e d , i n d u s t r i a l i s e d , c a p i t a l i s e d , a n d u l t i m a t e l yg o d l e s s m o d e r n w o r l d o f s c i e n c e a n d c o l d c a l c u l a t i o n .

A f e w l i n e s f r o m K e a t s c a n b e t a k e n t o s u m u p t h e R o m a n t i c i d e a o fp o e t r y ' s h u m a n i s i n g a g e n c y . I n o n e o f h i s l a st p o e m s , t h e u n f i n i s h e dm e d i t a t i o n o n t h e s o u r c e s o f a r t i s t i c i n s p i r a t i o n a n d c r e a t i o n a s w e l l a s t h er o l e o f t h e p o e t i n t h e m o d e r n w o r l d , t h e The Fall of Hyperion f r a g m e n tc o m p o s e d in t h e s u m m e r o f 1 8 1 9 , K e a t s a s k s :

' . . . sure not a l lT h o s e m elo d ie s s ung in to the wo r ld ' s ea rAre useless : sure a poet is a sage,A h um ani s t , p h ys ic i an to a ll m en [ ? ] ' (B arnard : 4 4 0 ,1 1 . 1 8 7 - 9 0 )

O n e o f t h e c o n t e x t s n e c e s sa r y f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g K e a t s ' s d e s i r e t o k n o ww h e t h e r p o e t r y is " u s e l e s s " i s t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l m o v e m e n t o f u t i l i t a r i a n i s m ,w h i c h h a d i t s o r i g i n s i n l a t e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y B r i t a i n a n d r e c e i v e d i t sc la ss ic a l f o r m u l a t i o n s in t h e w o r k o f J e r e m y B e n t h a m . A s M . H . A b r a m sp o i n t s o u t , t h e u t i l i t a r i a n t h i n k e r s " a t t a c k e d p o e t r y f o r b e i n g a n o u t m o d e dl u x u r y t r a d e , o r a f u n c t i o n l e s s v e s t i g e o f a p r i m i t i v e m e n t a l i t y " ( 3 2 6 ) . I n t h ef a c e o f a m a t e r i a l - m i n d e d p u b l i c t h a t e s p o u s e d s u c h i d e a s a b o u t p o e t r y , t h eR o m a n t i c s i n v e s t e d t h e i r p o e t r y w i t h a b s o l u t e v a l u e b y p r o m o t i n g it a s t h eh u m a n e a g e n t fo r s e c u l ar r e d e m p t i o n , s o m e t h i n g a ll h u m a n s n e e d fo r t h e ire m o t i o n a l a n d m e n t a l w e l l - b e i n g . T h u s S h e l l e y c l a i m e d , i n r e s p o n s e t oT h o m a s L o v e P e a c o c k ' s u ti li t ar i an t h e o r y o f p o e t r y i n " T h e F o u r A g e s o f

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P o e t r y " , t h a t " P o e t r y i s . . . s o m e t h i n g divine" a n d t h a t p o e t s a r e t h e" u n a c k n o w l e d g e d l e g is l at o rs o f t h e w o r l d " .

A f a m o u s i n c i d e n t f r o m t h e p e r i o d r el a te s h o w J o h n S t u a r t M i l l w a ss a v e d f r o m a s t a t e o f d e p r e s s i o n a n d m e n t a l b r e a k d o w n b y r e a d i n gW o r d s w o r t h ' s p o e t r y i n 1 8 2 8 . M i l l f a m o u s l y d e s c r i b e s t h i s i n h i sAutobiography ( 1 8 7 3 ) i n t e r m s o f a q u a s i - r e l i g i o u s c o n v e r s i o n e x p e r i e n c e .M i l l h a d b e e n e n g a g e d i n t h e u t i l i t a r i a n p r o j e c t o f r e f o r m i n g a n di m p r o v i n g s o c i e t y a n d it s i n s t i t u t i o n s in o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e m a t e r i a lw e l l - b e i n g a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e h a p p i n e s s o f t h e l a r g e s t p o s s i b l e n u m b e r o fh u m a n s . " B u t t h e t i m e c a m e w h e n I [ a w o k e ] f r o m t h i s a s f r o m a d r e a m " ,M i l l r e c o g n i s e s , a n d c o n t i n u e s :

I t was in the autumn of 1826 . I was in a dull s tate of nerves . . .u nsu scept ib le to en joym ent or p leasu rable ex c i t em ent . . . I n th i sf rame of mind i t occurred to me to put the quest ion d itect ly tomyself: 'Suppose that all your objects in life were realised; that allthe changes in ins t i tu t ions and op inions which you are look ingforward to could be completely ef fected at this very insrant : wouldthis be a great joy and happiness to you? ' And an ir repress ible self-con sciou sne ss d isr inct ly answ ered ' N o ' At this my heart s an kwith in m e: the whole fou nd at ion u pon which m y l i f e wasconstructed fel l down. All my happiness was to have been found inthe cont inual pursuit of this end. The end had ceased to charm,and how could there ever again be any interest in the means? Iseemed to have nothing left to live for. (Srillinger: 80-81)

Y e t , h a v i n g r e a c h e d t h i s l o w p o i n t , M i l l d i s c o v e r s W o r d s w o r t h ' s p o e t r y :This [depressed] s tate of my thoughts and feel ings made the fact ofm y read ing Word swor th for the f i r s r t im e ( in the au tu m n o f 1 8 2 8 ) ,an im po rrant event in m y l if e W hat m a d e W ord sw or th ' s poe m sa medicine for my s tate of mind, was that they expressed , nor mereoutward beauty , but s tates of feel ing , and of thought coloured byfeel ing , under the excitement of beauty . They seemed to be thevery culture of the feelings, which I was in quest of . In them Iseem ed to d raw f rom a sou rce o f inward joy , o f sym pathet ic andimaginat ive pleasure. . . . I needed to be made to feel that there wasrea l , perm anent happines s in t r anqu i l contem pla t ion . Word swor thtaught me this . (88)

M i l l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f W o r d s w o r t h ' s p o w e r t o g i v e m e n t a l r e l ie f w a sp r e f i g u r e d b y W o r d s w o r t h h i m s e l f i n t h e m o v e m e n t s o f h i s m a j o r p o e m s .A s M i l l p u t s it w i t h r e f e re n c e to th e I m m o r t a l i t y O d e , " I f o u n d t h a t

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c o n t e x t u a l p l a c e m e n t s a s w e l l a s a t t e n t i o n t o th e s t a g e s o f c o m p o s i t i o n a n dr e v i s i o n , R o b i n s o n ' s s t u d e n t s w e r e l e d t o r e v i s e t h e i r i n i t i a l s e n s e o f" W o r d s w o r t h ' s g e n e r a l ly c o n s o l i n g i n t e n t i o n " t o b e c o m e " t a n g l e d inW o r d s w o r t h ' s o w n c o n f u s i o n s o f l o ss a n d g a i n " ( 6 3 ) . A l s o r e s p o n d i n g t ot h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e p o e m ' s ' q u e s t i o n i n g s ' o f i ts o w n c e r ta i n t i e s , P e t e rM a n n i n g h a s s h o w n h o w i t " e x p l o i t s t h e r e s o n a n c e o f C h r i s t i a n f a it hw i t h o u t c o m m i t t i n g i t se l f t o belief, t o t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t w o u l d l e s s e n i t sh u m a n u n c e r t a i n t y " ( 8 0 ) , a n d , m o r e re c e n tl y , F r e d H o e r n e r h a s a r g u e dt h a t in t h e O d e t h e " l o s s t h a t b r e a k s t h e h e a r t r e k i n d l e s a d i a l e c t i c o fj o i n i n g a n d q u e s t i o n i n g , p r e s e n c e a n d a b s e n c e " r a t h e r t h a n a " r e t r e a t a w a yf r o m s u f f e r in g a n d i n t o c o n s o l a t i o n " ( 6 5 6 ) . I t i s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s ea n d o t h e r m o r e fu l l e x p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e n e g a t i v e t h r u s t s i n O d e t h a t I f o c u si n t h e f o l l o w i n g o n o n e u n s e t t l i n g m o m e n t o f n e g a t i v i t y in t h e p o e m .

T h e fi rs t t h r e e s t a n z a s o f t h e p o e m t h a t c u r e d M i l l ' s d e p r e s s i o nc a p t u r e t h e t o t a l m o v e m e n t o f t h e p o e m , a f ul l r e a d i n g o f w h i c h c a n o n l yb e s k e t c h e d h e r e :

There was a t im e when m ead ow, g rove , and s t r eam ,The ear th , and every com m on s ight ,

T o m e d i d s e e mApparel led in celes t ia l l ight ,The g lory and the f reshness of a dream.I t i s not now as i t hath been of yore;-Tu rn wheresoe 'er I m ay ,

By night or day,T h e th ings which I have seen I no w can see no m o re .

T h e R a i n b o w c o m e s a n d g o e s ,And lovely i s the Rose,T h e M o o n d o t h w i t h d e l i g h tLook rou nd her when the heavens a re bare ;

Waters on a s tarry nightAre beaut i fu l and fa ir ;

T h e su nsh ine i s a g lor iou s b i r th ;But yet I know, where'er I go ,

That there hath past away a g lory f rom the ear th .N ow , whi le the B i rd s thu s s ing a joyou s so ng ,A n d w h i l e t h e y o u n g L a m b s b o u n d

As to the t abor ' s sou nd ,To m e a lone there cam e a thou ght o f grief:

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A t imely utterance gave that thought relief,A nd I aga in am s tro ng.The Cataracts b low their trumpets f rom the s teep ,N o m ore shall gr ie f o f mi ne rhe season wr ong ;I hear the Echo es thro ugh the mo unta ins thro ng ,The Winds come to me f rom rhe f ie lds o f s leep ,And all the earth is gay,Land and s ea

Give themselves up to jo l l i ty ,A nd wi th the hear t o f May

Doth every Beas t keep hol iday,T h o u C h i l d o f J o yS ho ut ro un d me , le t m e hear thy s ho uts , tho u hap p y S hep herd -bo y

A t h r e e - s t e p d i a l e c t i c o f r e m e m b e r e d j o y , i t s l o s s , a n d it s s u b s e q u e n tr e t r ie v a l i s b e i n g a r t i c u l a t e d . T h e m o v e m e n t b e g i n s b y r e c a l l i n g a s t a t e o fp l e n i t u d e a n d j o y e x p e r i e n c e d i n c h i l d h o o d ( " T h e g l o r y a n d t h e f r e s h n e s s o fa d r e a m " ) . B u t t h i s p l e n i t u d e is r e g i s t e r e d a s p a s t a n d l o s t ( " t h e r e h a t h p a s ta w a y a g l o r y f r o m t h e e a r t h " ) . T h i s l o s s l e a d s t o , y e t i s n o t p r e s e n t e d a s t h ed i r e c t c a u s e o f , t h e s p e a k e r ' s t h o u g h t o f g r i e f , w h i c h m a r k s t h e c l i m a x o ft h e s p e a k e r ' s c r i si s ( " T o m e alone t h e r e c a m e a t h o u g h t o f g r i e f ) . I n t h ef i n a l m o v e m e n t s t r e n g t h i s r e g a i n e d d e s p i t e ir r e t r i e v a b l e l o s s , g r i e f fin dsrelief, a n d t h e c r i s i s i s o v e r c o m e . T h e p o e t , a s M i l l p u t s it , h a s " s o u g h t f o rc o m p e n s a t i o n , a n d [ h as ] f o u n d i t " . T h e m e a n s t o o v e r c o m e t h e c r i si s , m o s tr e a d e r s r e c o g n i s e , is p o e t i c u t t e r a n c e ( " t i m e l y u t t e r a n c e " ) . T h i s u t t e r a n c ey i e l d s " E c h o e s " t h a t s i g n a l a r e - e s t a b l is h e d p o s i t i v e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e nt h e s u b j e c t a n d t h e o b j e c t w h i c h c o u n t e r s t h e n e g a t i v e s t a t e o f b e i n g i s o l a t e di n t h o u g h t ; " N o m o r e sh a l l g r i e f o f m i n e t h e s e a s o n w r o n g ; / I h e a r t h eE c h o e s t h r o u g h t h e m o u n t a i n s t h r o n g " .

P o e t i c u t t e r a n c e i s w h a t fin ally a l l o w s t h e s p e a k e r t o f e e l a n d s e n s et h a t " a l l t h e e a r t h is g a y " a n d t o p a r t i c i p a t e , a l t h o u g h v i c a r i o u s l y , i n t h i sr e j u v e n a t e d li fe . T h i s m o v e m e n t c a p t u r e s t h e l a r g er a n d h i g h l y c o m p l e xm o v e m e n t o f t h e p o e m f r o m l o ss t o w a r d t h e p o s s i b il i t y o f c o m p e n s a t i o n .T o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e p o e m , i n l in e s a l l u d e d to b y M c G a n n i n " T h eF a i l u r e s o f R o m a n t i c i s m " , W o r d s w o r t h a c k n o w l e d g e s h is l o ss , b u tp r e s e n t s t h e t h o u g h t s o f s u f f e r i n g , w h i c h a r e e v o k e d b y l o s s , a s a d e q u a t er e c o m p e n s e f o r w h a t i s l o s t :

T ho ugh no rhing can br ing back the ho urO f splen do ur in the grass , o f glory in the f lower;

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W e will grieve no t, rather f indSt reng th in what r em ains beh ind ;I n the pr im al sym p athyWhich hav ing been m u s t ever be ,In the soothing thoughts that spr ingO u t o f hu m an su ff ering ;

In rhe fa i th that looks through death,In years that br ing the philosophic mind. (Gil l : 3 0 2 , 1 1 . 1 8 0 - 1 8 9 )

T h i s a ff i rm a t i ve s t a t e m e n t th a t c o m p e n s a t o r y " s t r e n g t h " c a n " s p r i n g " o u to f " s o o t h i n g t h o u g h t s " o f " s u f f e r i n g " ( t h e f o r m a l r h y m e s p r i n g / s u f f e r i n gw h i c h is u n d e r s c o r e d b y e n j a m b m e n t a l m o s t e n a c t s t h e s e m a n t i c m e s s a g et o s u g g e s t b o t h t h e s e n s e o f ' t o o r i g i n a t e o u t ' o f a n d ' to e s c a p e f r o m 's u f f e r i n g ) m a y b e r e a d i n t h e l i g h t o f w h a t w a s s a i d e a r l i e r i n s t a n z a t h r e e ,i n p a r t i c u l a r i n t h e s e l i n e s :

To m e a lone rhere cam e a thou ght o f grief:A t imely ut terance gave that thought relief,

And I aga in am s t rong .

I n t h e s a m e m o m e n t t h a t t h e t h o u g h t o f g r i e f i s n o t e d , W o r d s w o r t h g o e so n t o s t a t e t h a t h e h a s f o u n d r e l i e f a n d r e g a i n e d h i s s t r e n g t h t h r o u g h w h a th e c a l l s " t i m e l y u t t e r a n c e " .

" I a g a i n a m s t r o n g " s e e m s a n u n n a t u r a l w o r d o r d e r c o m p a r e d t o t h em o r e s tr a i g h t f o r w a r d ' I a m s t r o n g a g a i n ' . T h e in v e r s i o n o f t h e m o r es t r a i g h t f o r w a r d w o r d o r d e r m a y b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e n e e d t o f ind a r h y m e -w o r d t o c h i m e w i t h t h e s t a n z a ' s f irst r h y m e - w o r d , ' s o n g ' . T h e f a c t t h a t' s o n g ' a n d ' s t r o n g ' r h y m e i n d i c a t e s t h a t u t t e r i n g t h i s r h y m e d s o n g i s w h a tm a k e s W o r d s w o r t h s tr o n g . I n The Verbal Icon, W i l l i a m K . W i m s a t tp o i n t s o u t t h a t r h y m e s " i m p o s e u p o n t h e l o g i c a l p a t t e r n o f e x p r e s s e da r g u m e n t a k i n d o f f ix a ti v e c o u n t e r p a t t e r n o f a l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n " ( 1 5 3 ) .A n d as R o m a n J a k o b s o n e x p l a i n s, " R h y m e n e ce s sa r il y i n v o l v es t h es e m a n t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r h y m i n g u n i t s . . . . W h a t e v e r t h e r e l a t i o nb e t w e e n s o u n d a n d m e a n i n g i n d i f fe r e n t r h y m e t e c h n i q u e s , b o t h s p h e r e sa r e n e c e s sa r il y i n v o l v e d " ( 4 5 - 6 ) . T h u s , M i c h a e l O ' N e i l l c o n c l u d e s a b o u tt h e s e t e x tu a l m o v e m e n t s i n W o r d s w o r t h ' s p o e m , " T h e r h y m e k e p ta p a r t f o r f i v e l i n e s , s u g g e s t s t h a t s t r e n g t h l i e s i n s o n g , a n d W o r d s w o r t h ' s' t i m e l y u t t e r a n c e ' s u g g e s t s t h e c u r a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s o f e x p r e s s i o n " ( 4 8 ) . T h er h y m e s o n g ri e f / r e li e f a n d s p r i n g / s u f f e r i n g a c c o m p l i s h t h e s a m e t h i n g :

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g i v i n g r h y t h m i c u t t e r a n c e t o s o m e t h i n g p a i n f u l i s a w a y t o w a r d s r e l ie v i n gt h e m i n d a n d o v e r c o m i n g c r is i s. T h e s o n g m a k e s t h e s p e a k e r s t r o n g , g iv e sr e l i e f f r o m grief. T h e m a k i n g o r u t t e r i n g o f t h e p o e m c o m p e n s a t e s f or t h el o s s e s i t i s a b o u t . I n e s s e n c e , t h i s i s w h a t t h e p o e m i s a b o u t f or J o h n S t u a r tM i l l , H e l e n V e n d l e r , J e r o m e M c G a n n a n d M i c h a e l O ' N e i l l , d e s p i t e t h e irs i g n i f i c a n t i d e o l o g i c a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d if f er e n c e s . H o w e v e r , w es h o u l d n o t t a k e l e a v e o f t h e p o e m c a r r y i n g o n l y a n a f f i r m a t i v eu n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t a s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s s e r t i n g a n d a f f i r m i n g a" t h e r a p e u t i c s u c c e s s " ( V e n d l e r : 7 9 ) t h r o u g h " t h e c u r a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s o fe x p r e s s i o n " e x e m p l i f i e d a n d i n s t a n c e d b y t h e m a g i c o f r h y m e .

I f w h a t h a s b e e n s a i d c o n c e r n i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r h y m e o f' s t r o n g ' a n d ' s o n g ' a n d ' g r i e f a n d 'r e l i e f i s g r a n t e d , w h a t a r e w e t o m a k eo f t h e f a c t , w h i c h O ' N e i l l a n d a ll o t h e r r e a d e r s o f t h e O d e n e g l e c t t om e n t i o n , t h a t ' s o n g ' a n d ' s t r o n g ' a l s o r h y m e w i t h ' w r o n g ' ? I s t h i s t h ep o e m ' s s u b t l y ' a lo g i c a l ' ( W i m s a t t ) w a y o f i m p l y i n g t h a t it s o v e r t a s s e r t i o n so f " t h e c u r a t i v e p r o p e r t i e s o f e x p r e s s i o n " m a y b e ' w r o n g ' ? T h a t i t iss o m e h o w ' w r o n g ' to s e a rc h fo r c o n s o l a t i o n , relief, a n d s t r e n g t h in p o e t i cu t t e r a n c e ? I s t h e s o n g i n o t h e r w o r d s s a y i n g t h a t i t i s w r o n g t o s e e kc o m p e n s a t i o n i n " t h o u g h t s th a t s p r i n g / O u t o f h u m a n s u f fe r i n g "? O n as t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e a d i n g t h e l i n e " N o m o r e s h a ll g r i e f o f m i n e t h e s e a s o nw r o n g " c o u l d n o t b e c l e a r e r i n i t s r e j e c t i o n o f d e s p a i r . Y e t t h e r h y m en o n e t h e l e s s i m p a r t s e n o u g h o f a q u e s t i o n i n g n o t e o f s c e p t i c i s m i n t o t h i sr e s o l u t e a f f i r m a t i o n t o s u g g e s t t h a t e v e n a s t h e p o e m i s s a y i n g o n e t h i n g i na n a f f ir m a t i v e m o d e it is d o i n g a n o t h e r t h i n g i n a n e g a t i v e m o d e .

D e s p i t e t h e fa c t t h a t i t r e l a t e s t o t h e F r e n c h c o n t e x t , w h i c h w a s n e v e re x a c t l y p a r a l l e l t o t h e E n g l i s h w h e n i t c o m e s t o t h e f o r c e o f N e o c l a s s i c a ld o c t r i n e s o f d e c o r u m a n d p o s i t i o n s o n r h y m e ( b e c a u s e t h e E n g l i s h h a d t ot a k e a c c o u n t o f a n a t i v e b l a n k v e r s e t r a d i t i o n m u c h s t r o n g e r t h a na n y w h e r e o n t h e c o n t i n e n t ) , t h e f o l l o w i n g m a y b e r e a d a s a n a c c o u n t o ft h e a p p a r e n t l y i r r at i o n a l a n d i n e x p l i c a b l e u s e o f r h y m e in th e O d e :

In up ho ld ing the e s s ent i a l ly Ca t te s i an v iew tha t T ruth exp re s s edirself as clear an d distinc t ideas , neoclass ical Fre nc h theorist s o fp o e t i c l anguage , o f who m B o i leau i s rhe bes t kno wn,recommended the suppress ion or , a t leas t , the s tr ict contro l o fl anguage ' s mo re i r ra t io na l p o tent i a l i t i e s . One o f the ch ie f p ro b lemshere was dec id ing o n the f unct io n and s ta tus o f rhyme. Rhyme wasa necessary feature of regular French verse: it provided essentialph on etic re inforcemen r to the verse l ine an d guar antee d formalunity. But a t the same t ime rhyme was , f rom a semantic po int o f

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view, potent ia l ly a subvers ive agent . I f not s t r ict ly d iscipl ined , i tcould neglect i t s duty as an element in a log ical ly s t ructureddiscourse and assert itself as a feature in its own right, establishingthrough phonet ic s imilar i ty with other words ( rhyme or otherwise) ,an obl ique or ir rat ional connect ion which might run counter to theprop os i t ion o f which i t was , in theory , par t . . . . W ith theRom ant ics , word s were perm it t ed to r ega in som e o f the i r opac i fywhich had been ref ined out of them by the demands of rat ionald iscourse in the seventeenth and eighteenth centur ies . (Scot t : 15)

T o t r a n s p o s e t h e s e i n s i g h t s t o t h e E n g l i s h c o n t e x t , r e f e r e n c e m i g h t b em a d e to J o h n D r y d e n ' s Essay on Dramatic Poesy ( 1 6 6 8 ) . B e f o r e t h e e s s a y ' st r u l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e u s e a n d r e l a t i v e m e r i t s o f r h y m e a n db l a n k v e r se i n d r a m a , D r y d e n s u m s u p r e c e iv e d w i s d o m c o n c e r n i n g " t h es w e e t n e s s o f E n g l i s h v e r s e " . T h i s , h e s a y s ,

i s improved by the happiness of some writers yet l iv ing ; who f ir s tt au ght u s to m ou ld ou r thou ght s into easy and s igni f icant word s ,an d to r e trench su per flu i tie s o f ex pre s s ion , and to m a ke ou r r im eso properly a part of the verse, rhat it should never mislead rhesense, but i t sel f be led and govern ed by i t . (Arn old : 16)

D r y d e n h e r e r e c o g n i s e s , e v e n a s h e r e s i s t s , t h e p o t e n t i a l o f r h y m e t om i s l e a d t h e s e n s e , t o u n d e r m i n e t h e l o g i c o f s e n s e m a k i n g . C o n s i d e r i n gt h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Essay o n s u b s e q u e n t E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e a n d t a s t e , t h i ss t a t e m e n t n o t o n l y r ef le c ts r e c e iv e d w i s d o m c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n o fr h y m e t o s e n s e , i t c e r t a i n l y g e n e r a t e s t h e i d e a t h a t t h e t w o a r e , a s P o p e w a sl a t e r t o p u t i t , t o e c h o o n e a n o t h e r w i t h s e n s e o r ' r e a s o n ' b e i n g t h e s o u r c e ,a n d r h y m e o r ' l a n g u a g e ' b e i n g t h e f a it h fu l , m i m e t i c e c h o . T h i sc o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e N e o c l a s s i c a l i d e a t h a t l a n g u a g e is a d r e s s f o r t h o u g h t ,s o m e t h i n g w h i c h f its m o r e o r l e s s a d e q u a t e l y , b u t w h i c h i s u l t i m a t e l y am e r e o r n a m e n t t o t h e s e n s e a n d n o t , a s t h e R o m a n t i c s w i l l c o m e t ob e l i e v e , s o m e t h i n g t h a t e m b o d i e s t h o u g h t , a n d c r u c i a l l y , s o m e t h i n g w h i c hn e e d n o t a l w a y s m a k e s e n s e i n th e s a m e w a y P o p e d e s ir e s . A s P o p e w r i t e st o i n t r o d u c e d Essay on Criticism ( 1 7 1 1 ) ,

'T is ha rd to say , i f greater W an t o f Ski l lAppear in Writing or inJudging ill;Bur , of the two, less dang 'rous i s th ' Offence,T o t i re ou r Patience, than m is - lead ou r Sense. ( Au d ra and Wil l i am s :2 3 9 , 1 1 . 1-4)

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O n e w a y o f k e e p i n g " W r i t i n g " f r o m " m i s - l e a d [ i n g ] o u r S e n s e " , a n d t h u so f c o n t r o l l i n g t h e a u t o n o m o u s f o r c e o f l a n g u a g e w h i l e s ti ll r e t a i n i n gr h y m e , is t o p r o m o t e a n d u s e c l o s e d c o u p l e t s . I n c o u p l e t s t h e d i s t a n c eb e t w e e n r h y m e - w o r d s a n d t h u s l a n g u a g e ' s p o t e n t i a l t o p r o d u c e a b e r r a n tm e a n i n g s is k e p t t o a n a b s o l u t e m i n i m u m t o m e e t t h e P o p e a n dictum:" T h e Sound m u s t s e e m a n Eccho t o t h e Sense" ( A u d r a a n d W i l l ia m s : 2 8 1 ,1 . 3 6 5 ) .

R o m a n t i c i s m ' s r e si s t a n c e t o a n d d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e c l o s e d c o u p l e tm a y b e a d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e d e s i r e t o c o n t r o l t h e p o t e n t i a l o f r h y m e t op r o d u c e ' u n i n t e n d e d ' m e a n i n g s a n d a m o v e t o l ib e r a te w h a t D a v i d S c o t tc a l ls " l a n g u a g e ' s m o r e i r r a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l i t i e s " . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i t m a y b es a i d t h a t t h e r e i s a p a r a d o x i c a l i n t e n t t o p r o d u c e u n i n t e n d e d m e a n i n g s t ob e l o c a t e d in c e r t a i n R o m a n t i c p o e m s s u c h a s t h e O d e r a t h e r t h a n w h a tM c G a n n p o s t u l a t e s w h e n h e a c c o u n t s f or W o r d s w o r t h ' s f ew " b e s tm o m e n t s " w h e n t h e p o e t r y b e t ra y s its " c o n s c i o u s c o m m i t m e n t s " a n da p p a r e n t l y s a y s m o r e t h a n i t m e a n s .

I f o n l y w e k n e w w h a t W o r d s w o r t h ' s t h o u g h t s , i n t e n t i o n s ,c o m m i t m e n t s w e r e w h e n h e a l l o w e d h i s l a n g u a g e t o i n d u l g e i n s u c ha p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y a n d m i n d - b a f f l i n g l y i rr a t i o n al r h y m e s T h e n w em i g h t h a v e s a i d w i t h M c G a n n t h a t t h e r h y m e o f s o n g a n d w r o n g is a nu n i n t e n t i o n a l a c c i d e n t o f l a n g u a g e a n d n o t s o m e t h i n g w e s h o u l d t a k e a se s s e n t i al l y W o r d s w o r t h i a n . B u t w e d o n o t k n o w w h y h e m a d e t h a t f a ta lr h y m e . I n d e e d , t h e o d d s a r e t h a t t h e s e r h y m e s a r e f ar f r o m a c c i d e n t a l . I nh i s d i a r y , T h o m a s M o o r e p a r a p h r a s e s W o r d s w o r t h ' s c o n v e r s a t i o n o n t h er e l a t i v e m e r i t s o f E n g l i s h a n d I t a l i a n w i t h r e g a r d t o r h y m i n g : " I ns t r u g g l i n g w i t h w o r d s o n e [ i s ] l e d t o g i v e b i r t h t o a n d d w e l l u p o nt h o u g h t s , w h i l e , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , a n e a s y a n d m e l l i f l u o u s l a n g u a g e [ l ik eI t a l i a n i s ] a p t t o t e m p t , b y i t s f a c i l i t y , i n t o n e g l i g e n c e , a n d t o l e a d t h e p o e tt o s u b s t i t u t e m u s i c fo r t h o u g h t " ( O ' D o n n e l l : 4 1 - 2 ) . I n t h e s a m e p l a c e ,M o o r e r e p o r ts W o r d s w o r t h s p e a k i n g o f " t h e i m m e n s e t i m e it t o o k h i m t ow r i t e e v e n t h e s h o r t e st c o p y o f v e r s e s , s o m e t i m e s w h o l e w e e k s e m p l o y e di n s h a p i n g t w o o r t h r e e l i n e s , b e f o r e h e c a n s a t is f y h i m s e l f w i t h t h e i rs t r u c t u r e " ( O ' D o n n e l l : 2 5 6 n 3 5 ) . S ur e ly W o r d s w o r t h w a s c o n s c i o u s a n dc o m m i t t e d w h e n h e u t i l i se d t h e i r r a ti o n a l p o w e r s o f l a n g u a g e i n r h y m i n gs o n g , s t r o n g , a n d w r o n g i n t h e O d e . Y e t w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e r h y m e isf i n a l l y s e e n a s a n a c c i d e n t , i t i s t h e r e o n t h e o p e n p a g e , a n d t h u ss u s c e p t i b l e to b e i n g in t e r p r e t e d a s a n u n t i m e l y s ig n o f t h e p o e m ' s o w ns u b v e r s i o n o f t h e n a i v e l y a f f i r m a t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t a s m e r e l ym e d i c i n e f or a d e p r e s s e d s t a t e o f m i n d .

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T h e d o u b l e p u l l o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e O d e c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d i nt e r m s o f a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n R o m a n t i c ' i d e o l o g y ' a n d R o m a n t i c ' w o r k ' ,w h i c h M c G a n n i n t r o d u ce s i n Romantic Ideology. " T h e g r a n d i l l u si o n o fR o m a n t i c ideology i s t h a t o n e m a y e s c a p e . . . a w o r l d [ i n w h i c h , a s S h e l l e yw r i t e s i n t h e Defence, ' m a n , h a v i n g e n s l a v e d t h e e l e m e n t s , r e m a i n s h i m s e l fa s l a v e '] t h r o u g h i m a g i n a t i o n a n d p o e t r y . T h e g r e a t t r u t h o f R o m a n t i cwork i s t h a t t h e r e i s n o e s c a p e , t h a t t h e r e i s o n l y r e v e l a t i o n ( i n a w h o l l ys e c u l a r s e n s e ) " ( 1 3 1 ) . T h e p r e s e n c e o f a c e r t a i n n e g a t i v i t y a t t h e c o r e o ft h e l a n g u a g e o f w h a t h a s b e e n r e a d a s o n e o f t h e m o s t a f f i r m a t i v e p o e m sb y W o r d s w o r t h s u g g e s t s t h a t w e s h o u l d n o t u n c r i t i c a l ly r e p e a t t h et h e r a p e u t i c r e a d i n g o f W o r d s w o r t h . T h i s m o m e n t o f n e g a t i v i t y i n t h eO d e r es o n at e s w i t h M c G a n n ' s d e s c r i p ti o n in Romantic Ideology o fR o m a n t i c p o e t ry ' s "g r e a t e s t m o m e n t s o f a r ti s ti c s u c c e s s " , w h i c h , h ec o n t i n u e s , " a r e a l m o s t a lw a y s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h lo s s , f a i lu r e , a n d d e f e a t i np a r t i c u l a r t h e l o s s e s w h i c h s t r i k e m o s t c l o s e l y t o t h o s e I d e a l s ( a n dI d e o l o g i e s ) c h e r i s h e d b y t h e p o e t s in t h e ir w o r k s " ( 1 3 2 ) . Y e t M c G a n ni n s i s t s o n p r o b l e m a t i s i n g t h e i d e a t h a t t h e g r e a t n e s s o f R o m a n t i c p o e t r y i sc o n n e c t e d w i t h i t s c a p a c i t y t o l e a d t o a n a u t h e n t i c c r i t i q u e o f i t s o w nd o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y . H e w r i te s t h a t R o m a n t i c p o e tr y ' s " g r e a t e s t m o m e n t su s u a l l y o c c u r w h e n i t p u r s u e s i t s l a s t a n d fin al i l l u s i o n : t h a t i t c a n e x p o s eo r e v e n t h a t i t h a s u n c o v e r e d i t s i l l u s i o n s a n d fa l s e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h a t i th a s fin ally a r r i v e d a t t h e T r u t h " . T h i s i s e s s e n t i a l l y w h a t t h e O d e h a s b e e nt a k e n t o a c h i e v e i n t h e k e y - r h y m e d w e l l e d u p o n a b o v e . Y e t , M c G a n nc o n t i n u e s as h e t u r n s th e t a b l e s u p o n s u c h a n a r g u m e n t : " T h e n e e d t ob e l i e v e i n s u c h a n a c h i e v e m e n t , e i t h e r i m m e d i a t e o r e v e n t u a l , i s d e e p l yR o m a n t i c ( a n d t h e r e f o r e i l lu s i ve ) b e c a u s e i t l o c a t e s t h e g o a l o f h u m a np u r s u i t s , n e e d s , a n d d e s i r e s i n I d e a l s p a c e " ( 1 3 4 ) . H o w e v e r , n o t h i n g s e e m sf u r t h e r r e m o v e d f r o m t h e t r u t h t h a n t h i s c o n f u s i o n o f r e a l , m a t e r i a lt e x t u a l s p a c e , t h e s p a c e o f t h e p o e t i c work, w i t h a n I d e a l s p a c e , t h e s p a c eo f R o m a n t i c I d e o l o g y . W o r d s w o r t h ' s i m p l i e d c r i ti q u e o f t h ec o m p e n s a t o r y p o t e n t i a l o f p o e t i c l a n g u a g e m a y n o t q u a l if y a s t h e T r u t h ,b u t i t i s c e r t a i n l y n o t a c r i t i q u e t h a t h a p p e n s i n a n I d e a l a n d t h e r e f o r ei l l u s o r y s p a c e , i t h a p p e n s r i g h t b e f o r e o u r e y e s .

W o r d s w o r t h is n o t s i m p l y t h e a f f i r m a ti v e p o e t M c G a n n t u r n s h i mi n t o , n o r is h e t h e o p p o s i t e . H e i s b o t h a n d in a s e n s e n e i t h e r . T h i s d u a l i t yi s r e f le c t e d i n W o r d s w o r t h ' s f u n d a m e n t a l a m b i v a l e n c e r e g a r d i n g t h e f o r c eo f p o e t i c l a n g u a g e . I n o n e o f t h e Essays upon Epitaphs f r o m 1 8 1 0 , f o ri n s t a n c e , W o r d s w o r t h f a m o u s l y p r e s e n t s w o r d s as i n p o s s e s s i o n o f a p o w e rt o g i v e o r t o t a k e a w a y l i f e :

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If wo rds be nor . . . an incarn ation o f the tho ugh t but only aclothing for it , then surely will rhey prove an i l l gif t [which has] thepower to consume and to a l ienate [ the reader] f rom his r ight mind.La ng ua ge , i f i t do[es ] not up hol d, an d feed, and leave in quiet , l ikethe power o f grav i ta t ion or the a ir we breathe, i s a counter-sp ir i t ,unremitt ingly and noise les s ly a t work to derange, to subvert , to laywaste , to v i t ia te , and to dis so lve . (Owen and Smyser : I I I , 84-5)

L i k e w i s e , in a l e t t e r f r o m 1 8 2 9 h e w r i t e s , " w o r d s a r e n o t a m e r e vehicle,b u t t h e y a r e powers e i t h e r t o k il l o r t o a n i m a t e " ( D e S e l i n c o u r t 1 9 7 9 :1 8 5 ) .A s h e p u t s i t i n B o o k F i v e o f The Prelude ( 1 8 0 5 ) ,

. . . . V i s io nary p o werA ttends up o n the mo t io ns o f the windsEmbo died in the mys tery o f wo rds ;T here da rknes s makes abo de , and a l l the ho s tO f s hado w y th ings do wo rk the ir changes there ,As in a mans ion l ike rheir proper home;Ev en f o rms and s ubs tances a te c i rcumf us edBy that transparent vei l with l ight div ine ;A nd thro ugh the turn ings in t r i ca te o f Vers e ,Present themselves as ob jects recognised,In f lashes , and wirh a glory scarce their own. (Gill : 4 5 0 , 1 1 . 6 1 9 -6 2 9 )

W o r d s a r e a m y s t e r y p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a t o n c e t h e lo c i o f d a r k n e s sa n d s h a d o w s a n d t h e m e d i a o f d i v i n e e n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d m o m e n t a r yi n s i g h t s . W o r d s w o r t h c o n t a i n s a n d e n c o m p a s s e s , in a r a d i c a l l y u n s t a b l ec o n j u n c t i o n , b o t h w h a t M c G a n n i d e nt if ie s a s t h e s e n t i m e n t a l - m a t e r i a l i s ts t r a i n i n R o m a n t i c p e r i o d w r i t i n g , a n d t h e o p p o s i t e , m o r e i d e a l is t -t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s t r ai n o f w h a t is m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y u n d e r s t o o d a sR o m a n t i c i s m . T h e in t e r p l a y a n d t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e s u r e l y n e e d s t o b ec o n s i d e r e d i f w e a r e t o a c c o u n t fo r t h e f u ll f o r c e o f h i s w o r k .

F r o m t h e F r e u d i a n p e r s p e ct i v e o f m y e p i g r a p h w e k n o w t h a tm i s t a k e s , sl i p s a n d e r r o rs a r e n e v e r j u s t t h a t . T h e y a r e t r e m e n d o u s l yi m p o r t a n t d e t a i l s t h a t o p e n a l m o s t l i m i t l e s s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .A s F r e u d w a r n s , " l e t u s n o t u n d e r - v a l u e s m a l l s i g n s : p e r h a p s f r o m t h e m i tm a y b e p o s s i b l e t o c o m e u p o n t h e t r a c k s o f g r e a t e r t h i n g s " . W o r d s w o r t h ' sr h y m e s a r e s u c h " s m a l l s i g n s " th a t m a y l e a d t o " g r e a t e r t h i n g s " s u c h a s t h en a t u r e a n d v a l u e o f R o m a n t i c p o e t r y , a n d t o t h e c l a i m t h a t i n o r d e r t or e a d t h e O d e in t h e r i g h t m a n n e r a n d n o t o n l y t h is p o e m , b u t a n y

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R o m a n t i c p o e m a c o n s t a n t a w a r e n e s s o f t h e d u p l i c i t y o f l a n g u a g e ,l a n g u a g e a s b o t h , a t o n c e , a n i m a t i n g a n d k i l l i n g , m e d i c i n e a n d p o i s o n ,m u s t b e p r e s e n t in t h e m i n d o f t h e r e a d e r . I n W o r d s w o r t h a n d i nR o m a n t i c p o e t r y , e v e ry a f f ir m a t i o n o f " a b u n d a n t r e c o m p e n c e " c a r r ie sw i t h i n i t s e l f t h e s e e d s o f i ts o w n u n d o i n g i n t h e s h a p e o f a s c e p t i c a l a n dh e s i t a n t " I w o u l d b e l i e v e " .

University of Southern Denmark

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