24458915 Organisational Change and Development

8/8/2019 24458915 Organisational Change and Development

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Change is inevitableChange offers

New Opportunities

& Poses Formidable Challenges

Change is Making Things Different

Change can bePlanned (Deliberate)- Internal or Goal-Oriented

Unplanned (accidental)

Fast or slowFirst Order (Incremental)

Second Order (Fundamental or Radical)


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Acts as a catalyst and assumes responsibilityfor Managing change Process/Activities inarea:Changing structure

Changing technology

Changing physical setting

Changing people


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Individual level

Group level

Organisation level


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External causes Government policies Changes in the economy Competition

Increase in raw materials cost Technology push

Internal change Change in leadership Implementation of new technology Decline in profitability Union actions Low morale & motivation


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Change basically results from stimuli from both outside &inside the enterprise. Organisational change refers toalteration of structural relationship and roles of people inthe organisation.

Change takes place in all organisations but at varying ratesof speed and degree of significance.

Change takes place in all parts of the organisation but atvarying rates of speed & degree of significance

Finally, the enterprise can be changed in several ways i.e.its technology can be changed, its people, its structure &other elements can be changed.


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To improve ability of the organisation toadapt to changes in its environment

It seeks to change employee behaviour

(Individual & Groups)


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First order changeLinear & continuous

No fundamental shift in assumptions

Second order changeMulti-dimensional, multi-level, discontinuous,

radical change

Reframing of assumptions about the organisationand the world in which it operates

e.g. Boeing company in view of slump andaggressive competition from airbus


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What can a change agent can change?Changing structureWork specifications Span of control

Organisational redesign Centralization/De-centralization Simple structure to team-based structure Flexible work hours Introducing performance bonuses or profit sharing

Changing Technology Introduction of new equipment/tools, methods,(improve quality/cut costs)

Automation Computerization


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Changing the physical settingConsidering work demands, interaction

requirements, interior design, equipment

placement, etc.

Changing peopleChanging attitudes & behaviours of

organisational members through process of

communication, decision-making & problem-

solving. Various types of interventions areneeded to change people & quality of their work

relationships known as Organisational

Development (O.D.)


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Overt/ implicit Immediate/ Deferred

Overt/ implicit: Easiest to Deal

Threaten to strike Slow Down

Immediate/ Deferred Loss of loyalty to organisation

Loss of motivation to work

Increased errors/ mistakes (deliberate) Increased absenteeism due to Sickness

Increased Turn-over of labour


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Individual resistance

Organisational resistance

Resistance in a sense is positiveProvides degree of stability and predictability

Avoids chaotic randomness

Stimulates healthy debate


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Organisations by their very nature, are conservative

and actively resist change.


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HabitAs human beings, we are creatures of habit. Life

is complex enough and we do not need toconsider the full range of options for the

hundreds of decisions we have to makeeveryday. To cope with this complexity, we allrely on habits or Programmed Responses butwhen confronted with change, this tendency torespond in our accustomed ways becomes asource of resistance. e.g. Shifting of office tonew location.


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SecurityPeople with a high need for security are likely to

resist change because it threatens their feeling ofsafety. e.g. when a company introduces a new roboticequipment, many employees may fear that their jobsare in danger.

Economic factorsAnother source of individual resistance is concern that

changes will lower ones income. Changes in job tasksor established work routines if people are concernedthat they would not be able to perform the new tasksor routines to their previous standards, especiallywhen pay is closely tied to productivity.


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Fear of the unknownThe rate at which knowledge is exploding is

incredible. As a result, knowledge in anyparticular field quickly becomes obsolete. e.g.

introduction of word processors.Selective Information Processing Individuals shape their world through their

perceptions. Once, they have created this world,it resists change. So individuals are guilty of

selectively processing information in order tokeep what they want to hear. They ignoreinformation that challenges the world they havecreated.


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Organisations by their very nature areconservative. They actively resist change.Government agencies want to continue doingwhat they have been doing for years.Whether the need for their services changesor remain the same.


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Structural inertia Organisations have built-in mechanisms to produce stability.

The people who are hired into an organisation are chosenfor fit, they are then shaped and directed to behave incertain ways. When an organisation is confronted with

change, this structural inertia acts as a counter balance tosustain stability.

Limited focus of change Organisations are made up of a number of independent sub

systems . You cannot change one without affecting the

others. For example, if management changes thetechnological process without simultaneously modifying theorganisations structure to match, the change in technologyis not likely to be accepted. So limited change in subsystemstend to get nullified by larger system.


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Group inertia Even if individuals want to change their behaviour,

group norms may act as a constraint. An individual union

member may be willing to accept changes in the job

suggested by management but since he has to follow therules of the union, he is likely to resist such a change

brought in by the management.

Threat to Expertise Changes in organisational patterns may threaten the

expertise of specialized groups. The introduction ofdecentralised PCs which allow managers to gain access

directly from companys mainframe is strongly resisted

by information specialists (IT Specialists)


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Threat to established power relationships Any re-distribution of decision-making authority can

threaten long-established power relationships within the

organisation. The introduction of participative decision-

making or self-managed work-teams is the kind ofchange that is often seen as threatening by supervisors

& middle managers.

Threat to established resources allocations Those in the organisation that control sizable resources

often see change as a threat. Those that most benefitfrom the current allocation of resources often feel

threatened by chances that may affect future

allocations.


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Disturbance in existing equilibrium

Imbalance in need satisfaction

Change affects emotions & Sentiments

Disturbance of social relationshipOpposition only for sake of opposition


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Increase in responsibility

Change proposed by government & labourunion

Change on experimental basis


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Imbalance in need satisfaction It is assumed that prior to change, people

existed in an environment where their need

satisfaction was at a higher degree of stability.

Change may prevent or decrease needsatisfaction

Change affects emotions & sentimentsApart from fears & apprehensions - real or

imaginary about what will happen after thechange, people are emotionally & sentimentally

disturbed.


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Disturbance of social relationship Some people are very loyal to the group. Changes may affect

groups norms, customs etc. or even the composition itself. In

case of transferable job due to changes, family life, etc. is

disturbed & he is to start in a new environment.

Lack of clarification Resistance can be expected if the nature of change is not

made clear to persons who are going to be affected by the

change. Different people will see different meaning and

interpretations in the proposed change. Some people may

interpret that the change as an indication of their poorperformance in the job while some others may assume that

their office would be soon abolished. Thus, lack of

clarification regarding the nature of change invites resistance

from the workers.


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Opposition only for the sake of opposition Sometimes, resistance to change is illogical and

is only for the sake of opposition. Some people

will oppose it only for the sake of opposition

without having any reason or withoutunderstanding its pros & cons.


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Employers and management resist the change onthe following grounds

Increase in responsibility Management has to retrain the workers according to

proposed changes and this in turn increases theresponsibility of management.

Changes proposed by government & labour union Sometimes changes are proposed by labour union and

because the management takes it as an insulting matter to

implement the change proposed by union, they oppose anyproposal of change. Some changes are forced by governmentfor the industries to implement such changes, though mgt./employers have to implement it, are resisted by thembecause they are not mentally prepared to implement.


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Change on experimental basis In few cases, changes are introduced on

experimental basis viz. if it is proved beneficial,

it will be extended further and be made

permanent otherwise it will be abolished. Somemen in the mgt. do not favour such temporary

phase and oppose it if change does not suit

them.


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Six tactics have been suggested for use bychange agents in dealing with resistance tochange.

Education & communicationResistance can be reduced through communicating

with employees to help them see the logic of change.This tactic basically assumes that the source ofresistance lies in misinformation and poorcommunication. If employees receive the full facts

and get misunderstandings cleared up, resistance willsubside. Communication can be achieved throughone-to-one discussions, memos, group presentationsor reports etc.


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Participation It is difficult for individuals to resist a change

decision in which they participated. Prior to

making a change, those opposed can be brought

into decision process. Assuming that theparticipants have the expertise to make a

meaningful contribution, their involvement can

reduce resistance, obtain commitment and

increase the quality of the change decision.


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Facilitation and SupportChange agents can offer a range of supportive

efforts to reduce resistance. When employees

fear & anxiety are high, employee counseling

and therapy, new skills training or a short periodleave of absence may facilitate adjustment. The

drawback of this tactic is that, as with the

others, it is time consuming. Additionally it is

expensive and its implementation offers noassurance of success.


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NegotiationsOffering incentive to resistors is another fruitful

way of overcoming resistance to change where

some people in a group clearly lose out in a

change and where groups have considerablepower to resist, negotiations and agreements are

helpful. It becomes relatively easy to avoid

major resistance through negotiations but it can

be too expensive or costly.


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Manipulation & co-optation Manipulation refers to twisting & distorting facts to make

them appear more attractive, withholding undesirable

information and creating fake rumours to get employees to

accept a change.

Co-operation, on the other hand, is a form of both

manipulation and participation. It seeks to Buy off the

leaders of a resistance group by giving them a key role in

the change decision. The leaders advice is sought not to

seek a better decision, but to get their endorsement. Both

manipulation & co-operation are relatively inexpensive andeasy ways to win the support of adversaries, but the tactics

can backfire if the targets become aware that they are

being tricked or used once discovered, the change agents

credibility may drop to zero.


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CoercionCoercion is application of direct threats or force

upon the people who resist change. Examples of

coercion are: Threat of transfer, loss of

promotion, negative performance evaluation anda poor letter of recommendation. The

advantages & disadvantages of coercion are

approximately the same as mentioned for

manipulation and co-optation.


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Effects of change on the organisation &individual can be positive or negative


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Social scientists have pointed out that thereis no direct connection between change onone hand and response on the other. Theyhave successfully introduced an intervening

variable called Employee Attitude.

X-Chart


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A persons attitude depends onPsychological factors

Personal factors

Social factors


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Change almost always produces responses.

These responses may be positive or negative

but are largely conditioned by the attitudes

of the employees. If we think of changes a

stimulus, numerous responses can be made

by personnel, with varied outcomes & effect

on the organisation.


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Kurt Lewin: Two TheoriesStatus QUO/ Equilibrium Point Resultant of

opposing forces

Three step model:

Unfreezing (The status Quo)

Movement (To new status/ Changing)

Refreezing (The new change)


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Time

Desired

State

Status

Quo

(Resistance to Change)

Restraining Forces

Driving Forces (Forces for change)


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Time

Phase I Phase II Phase III

Low

HighOld Social

SystemUnfreeze

Change

Agent

Changing

Social

System

Transition Management

Change

Agent

Refreeze New Social

System

Change


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Make aware that present behaviour is Inappropriate

Irrelevant

Inadequate

Unsuitable

Steps TakenPhysical removal from routines, sources of

information & social relationships

Demeaning & Humiliating Experience

Consistent linking to reward/ punishment forwillingness to change


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New learning/ways Individuals providedwith alternatives

Steps takenCompliance Forced to change by

rewards/punishment

Internalisation situation calling for newbehaviour

Identification Role models most suitable to

their personality


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Individuals Stabilize new beliefs/ feelings/behaviour learned in movement stage

Accepts new behaviour as a permanent partof his personality

Continue to practice & experiment newmethod of behaviour to blend with his otherbehavioural attitudes


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Throughout the change process, transitionmanagement keeps the organisation functioning.Transition management is the process of systematicallyplanning, organising and implementing change, fromthe disassembly of current state to the realisation of a

fully functional future state in the organisation. Oncethe change begins the organisation is neither in the oldstate nor in the new state. Transition mgt. shouldbegin before change occurs. In interim managementstructure or interim position may be created to ensure

continuity & control of the business during transition.Communication of changes to all involved fromemployees to customers & suppliers play a key role intransition management.


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Following steps are required to make the changestick otherwise there is the danger of peoplereverting to pre-change position

Use of group forces -

The behaviour, attitude, beliefs and values of theindividual are all firmly grounded in the groups towhich he belongs. How aggressive or co-operative aperson is, what he believes to be true or good, whatbeliefs & prejudices he holds- all these

characteristics are highly determined by theindividuals group membership. Whether they resistor accept change largely depends on the groups. Thechange agent must make use of the groups to bringabout change.


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Change of change agentThe change agent must himself change. It is only then

that he will be able to reinforce a psychological climate

of support for change. Unwillingness of mangers to give

up traditional managerial practices and theirunpreparedness to accept new methods are the most

serious barriers to the introduction of change and to

make it permanent in organisations.

Shared rewards

Another way to build support for change is to ensurethat the people affected derive benefit out of the

change. Benefits include increased pay, promotion,

training, recognition and the like


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Co-operation of the unionsTaken into confidence, unions themselves can

act as change agents, though they are generally

considered to be anti-change. Many union

leaders are accepting computerisation though itmay result in some displacement of work force.

This has been possible because of their

participation before, during and after the change

has been introduced. A change introducedwithout support of unions may not last for long.


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Concern for employeesA change should not be introduced for the sake

of it. Change need to be introduced only when

necessary and it must be by evolution and not by

revolution. Any change must ultimately benefitemployees. In the short run, the needs &

requirements of employees should not be

affected. Any problem that has taken place

because of change needs to be looked into and

corrected immediately.


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Most often, the planned organisationalchange involves more than one of thefollowing targets.

Targets Possible Change Methods

Purpose &Objective

Clarify overall mission, modify existing objectives, use MBO

Strategy Modify strategic plans, modify operational plans, modifypolicies & procedures

Tasks Modify job designs, use job enrichment

Technology Improve equipment & facilities, improve methods & workflows

People Modify selection criteria, training, development activitiesetc.

Structure Modify job description, modify organisational design, adjustco-ordination mechanisms, modify distribution of authority,

span of control, etc.


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Planning is the most crucial phase in themanagement of change. It involves three vitalquestions what, how & when to change

Steps in planning change

A change agent must consider following:1. Make clear the need for change or provide a

climate in which group members feel free toidentify such needs.

2. Permit & encourage relevant group participation inclarifying the need changes

3. State the objectives to be achieved by proposedchanges.


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4. Establish broad guidelines for achieving the

objectives.

5. Leave details of implementation of proposed

changes to the group affected by change

6. Indicate benefits or rewards to individuals thataccrue from change

7. Benefits / rewards must be passed on to those

who made the change - keep the promises.


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Growth is a narrow concept that isapplicable to short term whereas,

Development is a much broader termreferring long run.


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Organisations develop only when it can grow.Development creates potential for new growth & new

innovations.According to Larry E. Greiner, a growing organisation

passes through five phases of evolution, each of which

ends with a period of crisis & revolution. In his model,

Greiner makes use of five key dimensions.

Age of organisation

size of organisation

Stages of evolution

Stages of revolution

Growth rate of the industryEach stage of evolution breeds its own revolution.


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Griener model makes use of five key

dimensions viz.Age of the organisation This is represented by

the horizontal axis in the Grieners model of

organisational growth.Size of the organisation With the increasing

size, the problems of an organisation tend to

multiply. The problems of communication and

coordination magnify, jobs become moreinterrelated and levels of management hierarchy

get multiplied.


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Stages of evolution the organisation thatsurvives a crises usually enjoy four to eight years

of continuous growth without setback or severe

internal disruption.

Stages of revolution Periods of substantialturbulence space between the smooth periods of

evolution

Growth rate of industry The speed at which an

organisation experiences the above phases ofevolution and revolution also depends on the

market environment of industry.


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Phases of growth

Phase I: CreativityPhase II: Direction

Phase III: DelegationPhase IV: Co-ordination

Phase V: Collaboration

Crises of ? = Psychological saturation ofemployees

(Emotionally & Physically exhausted dueinnovations)


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It is important to remember that each stageof evolution breeds its own revolution

Phase I: CreativityDuring the first phase, the emphasis is on the

creation of both product and market: Thecompany founders are usually technically orentreneurially-oriented and they disdainmanagement activities; the physical and mental

energies are absorbed entirely in making andselling a new product. The communicationamong the employees is informal.


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Phase II: DirectionDuring this evolutionary phase, a functional

structure of organisation is introduced, a

systematic accounting procedures and incentives

are followed, budgets and work standards areadopted. Formal communication is another

notable characteristic of this phase. The lower-

level managers demand more autonomy and as a

result a crisis of autonomy develops during this

phase.


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Phase III: DelegationThe crisis of autonomy is resolved through the

delegation of authority. The delegation stage

helps in gaining expansion through heightened

motivation at lower rungs. But one seriousproblem that eventually evolves is the crisis of

control. Thus a greater delegation no doubt

recognizes the importance of lower-level

managers but results in a greater problem called

control.


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Phase IV: Co-ordinationThe problem of control is effectively solved

through coordination. The coordination system

aim at achieving more efficient allocation of

organisations limited resources. Thus to achievecoordination, a more formal system is used and

rules and regulations are imposed by the top

management. But when the organisation

becomes large, the formal authority and rigid

systems eventually result in the crisis of red

tape.


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Phase V: Collaboration The crises of red tape and the conflicts between line and staff

are overcome by strong interpersonal collaboration. One

notable feature of this phase is that social control and self-

discipline take over from formal control. This phase is,

therefore built around a more flexible and behaviouralapproach to management.

But surprisingly Griener expressed his inability to define the

next period of crisis in concrete terms. He, however,

anticipates a psychological saturation of employees.

The above model is typical for the companies in industrieswith moderate growth over a long period of time. Companies

in fastly growing industries tend to experience all five phases

more rapidly; while those in slowly growing industry

encounter only two or at the most three phases over many

years.


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Planned effort

Long range/long term

Organisation wide

Managed from top

To achieve

Increased organisation effectiveness & health

Through

Planned interventions in organisationsprocesses using behavioural sciences


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Organisation development is a long term

effort, led & supported by top management,

to improve organisations visioning,

empowerment, learning and problem solving

processes, through an ongoing, collaborativemanagement of organisation culture with

special emphasis on the culture of intact

work teams & other team configuration

utilising the consultant facilitator role andthe theory and technology of applied

behavioural science, including action

research.


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Beyond the Quick fiximprovement as a never ending journey of

continuous change

Higher to higher plateau

Led & supported by top management

Org change is hard & serious business

O.D. programmes fail because top mgt. lostcommitment


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Members develop viable, coherent & sharedpicture of nature of products/ Services(Desired Picture)

How these products would be produced &

delivered to customers

Empowerment Processes

Org. members to develop & utilize theirtalents as fully as possible towards the goalsof individual growth & organisational success


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People continually expand their capacity to createthe results

New patterns of thinking are nurtured

Avoid defensive routines that prevent

embarrassment but also prevent learningProblem Solving processes

Take actions in relation toProblems

OpportunitiesChallenges

In relation to organisation environment & its internalfunctioning


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Culture: Prevailing pattern of basics:Values

Attitudes

Believes

AssumptionsExpectations

Norms

Sentiments.etc.

Collaborative: Widespread ParticipationProcesses are relatively easy to change but change

becomes permanent only when culture changes & thenew ways are accepted as Right ways


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Teams are building blocks of organisations Intact work teams consist of superior & subordinates with

specific job

Intact work teams do not have a boss in traditional sense teams manage themselves

These self directed teams assume complete responsibilityfor planning & execution

Ad-hoc teams

Cross functional teams for complex tasks

Old method in serial/sequential fashion results in wastageof time, rework, loss of synergy etc.

Work of tomorrow (Brain Work) will be done by ad-hocteams, rigid hierarchies wrong in fast-paced marketplace.


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Third party Role: Professional helpPowerful

Brings objectivity, neutrality

Expertise

Not captive to the culture

Third party can be member of theorganisation but not of the particular unit to be encouraged.


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Psychological, social psychology, sociology,anthropology, political science & applieddiscipline

Study of complex change dynamics

Action ResearchParticipative model in which leader, org.

members & O.D. parctioner work together todefine and resolve problems and avail

opportunities.Org. improvement through participant action

research.


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Is the process of systematically collecting researchdata about an on-going system relative to someobjective, goal or need of that system, feedingthese data back into the system, taking actions by

altering selected variables within the system basedboth on the data and on hypothesis and evaluatingthe results of actions by collecting more data.

Steps Static Picture of what exists

Actions manipulating variables

Second static picture to examine effects of actiontaken


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Key aspectsDiagnosis

Data gathering

Feed back to client group

Data discussions

Action planning

Action

Evaluation

Action Research is a process in two different ways

Sequence of events/ activities

Cycle of iterations - same problem/different problems


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Action Research model


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Action research was the conceptual modelfor an early organisation improvement

programme in a group of oil refineries

It is problem focused.

Heavily involves employees, hence resistance

to change is minimized.


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Action Research model


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O. D. process is complicated and it takes longtime to complete the process. Following stepsare involved.

I. Initial diagnosis If inadequacies are observed in the organisation which

can be corrected through O. D. activities,competent/professional people within the org. can beasked to plan & execute O. D. activities. Alternativelyoutside consultants can be hired to diagnose the problem

& develop O. D. activities. The consultants adopt various methods including

interviews, questionnaires, direct observation, analysisof documents/reports for diagnosing the problem.

II. Data collection


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Survey method is used to collect data &information for determining org. Climate &

identifying behavioural problem.III. Data feed-back & confrontation

Data collected is analysed and reviewed by

various work groups formed for this propose in

order to mediate in the areas of disagreementor confrontation of ideas/opinions & to

establish priorities.

IV. Selection & design of interventions

The interventions are planned activities thatare introduced into the system to accomplish

desired changes/improvements. Suitable

interventions are selected & designed.

V. Implementation of intervention


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The selected intervention should be Implemented which may take the form of

workshops, feed-back of data toparticipants, group discussions, written

exercises, on the job activities, re-design of

control system etc.

Interventions are to be implemented steadilyas the process is not a one-shot, quick cure

for organisational malady. But it achieves

real & lasting change in the attitudes &

behaviour of employees.

VI. Action planning & problem solving


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p g p g

Groups prepare recommendations & specific

action planning to solve the specific and

identified problems by using data collected.VII. Team building

The consultants encourage the employees

throughout the process to form into groups &

teams by explaining the advantages of teams

In O. D. process, by arranging joint meetings

with the managers, subordinates, etc.

VIII. Inter-group developmentThe consultants encourage intergroup

meetings, interaction, etc. after the

formation of groups/ teams.


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IX. Evaluation & follow-up

The organisation evaluates the O. D.

programmes, find out their utility, developsthe programmes further for correcting the

deviations and/or improved results. The

consultants help the organisation in this

respect.All the steps in the O. D. processes should be

followed by the organisation in order to

derive full range of O. D. benefits.


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1. Long Range Effort

O. D. is not designed to solve short term, temporary orisolated problems. It is a long-term approach meant toelevate the org. to a higher level of functioning byimproving the performance and satisfaction of org.members. O.D. programmes generally cover a period of

three to five years.2. Broad-basedO.D. is used to describe a variety of change programmes.

It essentially deals with a big picture- An organisation. Itis a sophisticated attempt to bring about acomprehensive change in the entire org. in other words,it is concerned not only with changes in org.philosophies, skills of individuals & groups.

3. Dynamic process

O D i l d th ff t t id d di t h


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O.D. includes the effort to guide and direct change aswell as to cope with or adapt to imposed change. O.D.

recognises the fact that goals of the org. change &

hence methods of attaining them should also change.O.D. is thus a dynamic process involving considerable

investment of time & money. It is not a one-shot deal

but an on-going, interactive & cyclic process.

4. System viewO.D. is based on open, adaptive systems concept. It

recognises that org. structure and managerial

performance are mutually inter-dependent. The org. is

treated as an inter-related whole & no part of the org.

can be changed without affecting other parts.

5. Research based


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Most O.D. interventions are research based changeagents conduct surveys, collect data & then take

decisions. O.D. programmes are generallyconducted by special task force & utilize outside

consultants behavioural faculties.

6. Goal setting & planning

Since O.D. is concerned with entire org. changeagent defines goals of the groups & ensures they all

work to achieve them. Beckhard contends that

healthy org. tend to have goal setting at all levels.

7. Normative re-educative strategy


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O.D. is based on principle that norms form thebasis for behaviour and change is a re-educative

process of replacing old by new once. O.D.programmes signify major departures from

bureaucratic structure & call for changes in

leadership styles based on well-established

principles.

8. Feed-back & learning by experienceParticipants learn by experience & O.D. provides

feed-back data/information to participants


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O.D. interventions are sets of structuredactivities in which selected organisational units(target groups or individuals) engage in a taskwhere the task goals are related directly or

indirectly to organisation improvement. Interventions constitute the action thrust of O.D.

and are designed to improve the organisationsfunctioning by helping organisation membersbetter manage their team & organisationcultures & processes. Interventions are vehiclesfor causing change.


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1. Maximize diagnostic data Interventions that provide data to make subsequent

interventions should come first.

2. Maximize effectiveness

Early interventions should enhance the effectivenessof subsequent interventions. For example,interventions that develop readiness, motivation,knowledge or skills required by other interventionsshould come first.

3. Maximize efficiency

Interventions should be sequenced to conserveorganisational resources such as time, energy &money.

4. Maximize speed


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Interventions should be sequenced to maximize the

speed with which ultimate organisational

improvement is attained.

5. Maximize relevance Interventions that are most relevant to immediate

problems should come first. Interventions that

have impact on organisations performance or task

should come before those having impact on

individuals or culture.

6. Minimize psychological & organisationalstrain

Sequence chosen should minimize anxiety,

insecurity, distrust, unwanted effect on org.

performance, psychological damage to people,

etc.


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These interventions are techniques & methodsdesigned to change the culture of theorganization, move it from where it is towhere organization members want it to be and

generally enable them to improve their practicesso that they may better accomplish individual,team and organisational goals.

Much of organizations work is accomplished

directly or indirectly through teams and theassumption is that work team culture exerts asignificant influence on individual behaviour

A work group is a number of persons usually


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A work group is a number of persons, usuallyreporting to a common superior and having face

to face interaction, who have some degree ofinter-dependence in carrying out tasks for thepurpose of achieving organization goals.

A team is a form of group, but has some

characteristics in greater degree than ordinarygroups including a higher commitment tocommon goals and a higher degree ofinterdependency and interaction, Rensis Likert

suggested that organizations are bestconcentualised by systems of interlocking groupsconnected by linking pins.

Individuals in organizations function not so muchas individuals alone but as members of groups or


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g pteams. For an individual to function effectively,frequently a pre requisite is that the team must

function effectively.Characteristics of effective teams

Clear purpose

Informality

Listening

Civilised disagreement

Consensus decision making

Open communications. Clear roles & work assignments.

Shared leadership

External relations Style diversity (broad spectrum of task skills &


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Style diversity (broad spectrum of task skills &process)

Self assessment

High performance teams have the samecharacteristics but to a higher degree

Extra sense of commitment

High performance with a deeper sense of purpose More ambitious performance goals

More complete approaches

Fuller mutual accountability

Interchangeable as well as complementary skills

Strong personal commitment to each other.

Team building interventionsTeam building interventions are directed towards four


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gmajor areas

Diagnosis

Task accomplishments

Team relationships

Team & organisation processes

Team building activities

Formal groups special groups

(intact work teams) (start up teams, special

Project teams , functional teams, parallel learning

Teams) structures, etc.

Formal groups:A. Diagnostic meeting


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A. Diagnostic meeting

B. Team building focused on

Task accomplishment including problem solving,decision making, role clarification, goal setting,etc.

Building & maintaining effective inter-personal

relationships and peer relationships. Understanding & managing group processes &

culture

Role analysis technique for role clarification &

definition Role negotiation techniques.

Formal groups diagnostic meeting:The purpose of meeting is to identify problem


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p p g y pand not solving problems

Several ways:

i. A total group discussion involving every onemaking individual contributions.

ii. Sub-grouping for more intense discussions &then sub-groups reporting back to totalgroup.

iii. Pairing of two individuals each who discusstheir ideas and each pair reporting back tothe total group.

When data is shared throughout the group, issues


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When data is shared throughout the group, issuesare grouped into themes. The next would beaction steps calling a team building meeting& assigning different persons as task groupsto work on the problems.

Diagnostic meetings for newly constituted groupsresulting from mergers/acquisitions are to beheld more frequently to stay ahead of theproblems

Role analysis technique (RAT)


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The role analysis technique intervention is designed toclarify role expectations and obligations of team

members to improve team effectiveness.- Division of labour to discharge functions

- role clarity not understood.

- Determination of role requirements of team membersconsisting of joint building leading to more mutually

satisfactory and productive behaviour.- Role incumbents in conjunction with team members

define role requirements. The role defined is focalrole.

- In a new organization, desirable to conductrole analysis for each of major roles.


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1. Analysis of focal role initiated by focal roleindividual, discussions with entire team,

behaviours added or deleted until group androle incumbent satisfied.

2. Examination of focal role incumbentsexpectations of others.

3. Others expectations and desired behavioursof focal role

In conclusion, the focal role person assumesresponsibility & makes a written summary of

role profile, which is briefly reviewed at nextmeeting before another focal role isanalyzed.

- Collaborative role analysis and definition bythe entire work group not only clarifies whoi d h b i h


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is to do what but ensures commitment to therole once it has been clarified.

- Example of a meeting of board, presidentand senior management team if board orpresident were operating in an optimallyeffective way, what would they or he be

doingAttempts at consensus in team building sessions.

- Helps to clarify role expectations andobligations & leads to shifts in network of

activities.

A Role Negotiation Technique- When the causes of team ineffectiveness are based


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on peoples behaviours that they are unwilling tochange because it would mean a loss of power or

influence to the individual, a technique developedby Roger Harrison called role negotiation canoften be used to great advantage.

- The technique is basically an imposed structure forparties in which each party agrees in writing tochange certain behaviours in return for changes inbehaviour by the other. Behaviour relate to the job(quid pro quo) most people prefer a fair negotiated settlement to unresolved conflict.

Steps1. Contract setting


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g

2. Issue diagnosis

3. Influence trade (negotiation)4. Follow up meeting.

1. Contract setting

Consultant sets climate & ground rules It is to change work behaviours & not feelings

with quid pro-quo

Session consists of individuals negotiate witheach other to arrive at Written contract ofwhat behaviours each one will change.

2. Issue diagnosisEach person fills out an issue diagnosis form


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p gfor every other person in the group statingwhat other should do more/ less/unchanged. These messages are exchanged.

3. Influence trade (negotiation period)

Each person must give something to get

something. This step once demonstrated bytwo individuals with rest of the groupwatching, the group breaks into negotiatingpairs. All agreements are written with each

Party having a copy.

4. Follow up meetingIt is best to have a follow up meeting to


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determine whether the contracts have beenhonoured and to assess the effects of the

contracts on effectiveness.

Role negotiation technique is an effective way ofbringing about positive improvement in a

situation where power and influence issues areworking to maintain an unsatisfactory statusquo. This intervention leads to improved teamfunctioning with individuals changing their work

behaviours.

Inter group and third party peace makinginterventions


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When there is tension, conflict or competition

among groups:-

-Each group sees other as enemy

-Each group describes others in negatives-Interaction & communication decreases

-Feed back & data input cut off

-Communication is distorted & inaccurate

-Each group prizes itself positively and denigratesothers & their products

-Other groups can do nothing right & we can do nowrong.

There is considerable inter group conflict inorganizations and known patterns of


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behaviour of groups in conflict

How to resolve conflict?

Common enemy

Increased interaction & communication

Finding a superordinate goal Rotating the members of the group &

instituting some forms of training

Inter group team building interventions Increase communications & inter-actions

between work related groups

Reduce amount of dysfunctional competition Replace a parochial independent point of


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p p p pview with best efforts of both groups.

Activities developed by Blake, Shepard &Mounton six steps.

i. Discussions by group leaders (or whole group)with consultant - willingness & take steps toimprove is established.

ii. Two groups meet separately & draw up two lists

A. What the other group is like?

B. What the other group thinks about them?

iii. Two groups meet and read out lists. Nodiscussions & only clarification on any point

d l


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contained in list.

iv. Two groups return to separate meetingplaces. Differences may not be as great asimagined. They make a list of priority issuesto be resolved.

v. Two groups share their lists and togethermake one list of problems & issues thatshould be resolved. Generate action steps who will do what when

vi. Follow - up to determine whether actionsteps have in fact occurred. This ensuresmomentum is not lost.

Slightly modified version of above procedurepresented by Fordyce & Weil in this

d h li d b h


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procedure, three lists drawn by each group.

1. A positive feed back list containing thingsthe group values and likes about the othergroup.

2. A bug list containing things the group does not

like about the other group.3. An empathy list containing a prediction of

what the other group is saying in its list.

Third party peace making interventionsR.E. Walton third party interventions into


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conflict situations have the potential tocontrol (contain) the conflict or resolve it.

Basic feature

- Two principals must be willing to confront

the fact that conflict exists and it hasconsequences for effectiveness of twoparties.

- Third party must be able to diagnose conflictsituations (conflict is a cyclic process findsource of conflict)

Diagnostic model of inter personal conflict hasfour basic elements.


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A.

Conflict issuesB.Precipitating circumstances

C.Conflict relevant acts of principals

D.Consequences of the conflict

Substantive (policies, practice, etc.)

Issues

Emotional (negative feelings

between parties)

Third party will intervene directly or indirectlyin facilitating dialogue between principals.


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Direct interventions- Interviewing principals before the confrontation

meeting

- Helping to set agenda.

- Attending to pace of the dialogue

- Refereeing the interaction

More subtle interventions

- Setting the meeting on neutral turf.

-

Setting time boundaries on the interventionsetc.

- Third party intervention requires a highly skilledprofessional who understands the dynamics of

conflict.

Organization mirror interventions(Organization mirroring)


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- It is a set of activities in which a particulars

organization group, the host group, gets feedback from several other groups about how itis perceived & regarded

- intervention between three or more groups;

work related groups & not with all groups (orfull membership) i.e. only with grouprepresentatives)

Focus is to assist host group that requested themeeting


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- Host group experiencing difficulties withother work related units, calls for a meetingto get a feed back as to how they see thehost unit.

- Consultant often interviews the people

attending the meeting in order to get a senseof problems & their magnitude, prepareparticipants & answer any questions

- Manager of host group states the purpose &

consultant gives feed back to the total groupfrom interviews.

- The outsider fish bowl to discuss andexplore the data presented by the

lt t


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consultant.

- The fish bowl allows the invitedparticipants to talk about the host unit in anatural, uninterrupted way while host groupmembers listen & learn.

-

Host group fish bowls clarification,general discussions

- For working on problems, sub- groups,consisting of host group members & invited

participants, formed- Total group meets to identify key problems

based on feed back from sub-groups

- Action plans firmed up. People assigned tasks& target dates for completion agreed upon.


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- A follow up meeting to assess progress &review action steps.

- Thus in a short period , an organizational unitgets the feed back it needs to improve itsrelationship with significant work related

groups. However, the host group mustimplement the action plans that weredeveloped during the meeting.

PartneringAn intervention called partnering can be

d i f b h i i i i i


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productive for both parties in situations inwhich two or more organizations are likely toincur unnecessary conflict & cost over runs.

e.g. Owner- contractor relationship in a largeconstruction project

Partnering is an effective problem finding/problem solving technique. Managementteam composed of personnel from bothparties, are formed thus creating a single

culture with one set of goals & objectives forthe project.

Partnering involves all the functions in theconstruction project including engineering &design site management home office


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design, site management, home officesupport.

Steps:

- Selection of consultants

- Prior to beginning of construction, meeting

of key managers of organization, contractor& the consultants at neutral site.

- Several exercises for group decision making.Listing strengths & problems of

organization & contractor. Mixed groupsformed to diagnose & evaluate courses ofaction & make recommendations.

- At Workshop, mutual commitment to teamwork, equitable problem - solving & opencommunication was made


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communication was made.

- Follow up workshop - three months afterconstruction began.

- Further follow up, after say six months afteron site data gathering visits, involving all

key players.- While partnering did not solve all problems

but high success rates have been reported.

Better results than on previous non-

partnered projects

The Appreciations & Concerns exerciseIt may be appropriate if interview data suggest


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that one of the deficiencies in theinteractions of members of a group is lack ofexpression of appreciation and anotherdeficiency is the avoidance of confrontingconcerns & irritations.

- In instances in which lack of appreciation is amuch more serious deficiency than concerns,focusing solely on appreciations can be apowerful and positive intervention in the life

of the group.- When the concerns segment is used, a Mini

lecture from facilitator on the nature ofconstructive feed back is desirable.

- If there is substantial conflict in the group, amore structured exercise such as the rolenegotiation technique is likely to be more


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negotiation technique, is likely to be moreappropriate.

Steps in appreciations & concerns exercise

1. Facilitator asks each member of group to jot

down one to three appreciations for eachmember of group.

2. Each member to jot down one or two minorirritations/ concerns relative to each person

interfering with communications, gettingwork done effectively, etc.

3. Some one is asked to volunteer to be the firstperson to listen to members of the group

Each group member mentions both theappreciations & concerns about the volunteerwho hears from all the group members


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who hears from all the group membersbefore responding.

5. Each group member listens in turn, eitherthrough volunteering to be the next orthrough the simple procedure of rotatingclock wise or counter clockwise from thefirst person.


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Usefulness of getting all of the key actors of a complexorganization or system together in a team building,future planning session.

Examples of whole system

-Managers of all functional areas in a business.

-Representatives of top management, a Cross sectionof employees from all levels, and supplier & customerrepresentatives.

-The directors of all social services agencies in a

community.-All of the librarians in a state or region plus theDirector and staff of state library system.

Future Search ConferencesWeisbords future search conference model

i t f f ll i g t


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consists of following steps.

1. The consultants (or conference managers) meet witha voluntary committee of four to six potentialparticipants.

2. Upton 50 to 60 persons invited depending uponnature of focus, people from

a. All functional areasb. Levels of the organization

c. All racial, sex & age

d. Customers & suppliers

e. Union Leaders.

People asked to bring newspaper & magazine

clippings that can have influence on organizationsfuture.

3. Six to eight people sit at one table. Conference isnot to solve problems but to generate awareness,understanding. All ideas are valid and recorded.


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g

4. The conference has four or five segments each

lasting half a day. Each one requires that peoplea. Build a data base

b. Look at it together

c. Interpret what they find

d. Draw conclusions for action5. The first major activity focuses on the past.

Each person asked to make notes on significantevents, milestones during past three decades from

three perspectives Self Company (or town or industry) Society

The group at each table then analyzes onetheme (self, company or society) and extractpatterns and meanings


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patterns and meanings.

6. Sub- groups report to total group & total

conference interprets good & bad trendsand the direction of movement of each

7. The second major activity focuses on present

factors internal & external that are shapingthe future of the organization

- Newspapers & magazine cuttings discussed

- priorities finalized

- lists of Prouds & Sorries Currentgoings on.

Conference managers note & summarize keystatements.

8 The third major activity focuses on the future


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8. The third major activity focuses on the future.

- New groups formed to prepare a preferred future

scenario the most desirable & attainable futurefive years hence.

- The groups then report to the total conference.

9. The fourth major activity focuses on next actionsteps.

- Groups are asked to make three lists ofsuggested action steps for

a. Themselves

b. Their functionc. Total organization

Action proposals for functional areas are shared by


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Action proposals for functional areas are shared bymembers of the same department.

10. Members of top management or the steeringcommittee discuss proposals for the totalorganization, prioritize themes and developaction plans. They then present action plans to

total conference.

11. Before the conference ends, entire proceedingsare drawn up and volunteers carry forward thenext actions steps.

Such conferences offer a unique spring boardfor planning & goal setting.

Beckhards Confrontation Meeting- A one day meeting of entire management in

which they take stock of own organizational


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which they take stock of own organizationalhealth, in a series of activities. The

management group generates informationabout

a. Its major problems

b. Analyze underlying causesc. Develop action plans to correct problems

d. Set a schedule for completion of remedialwork.

- It is a quick, simple & reliable way togenerate data about an organization & to setaction plans for organizational improvement.

a. It is appropriate where there is need for totalmgt. team to examine its own working.

b Limited time available


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b. Limited time available

c. Top mgt. wants to improve conditions quickly

d. Enough cohesion in top team to ensure followup.

e. Real commitment on part of top mgt. to

resolve issues.f. Org. is experiencing or recently experienced

some major change.

Steps involved in confrontation meeting

Step 1. Climate setting (45 to 60 minutes)

- Top mgt. states the goals for the meeting,free & open discussions of issues & problems

- Consultant stresses the importance ofcommunication, desirability of organizationsproblem solving


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problem solving

Step 2. Information collecting (1 hour)

- Small groups of seven or eight members fromvarious disciplines & work situations.

- Boss & subordinates not to be together

- Top mgt. group meets separately- All groups to discuss

What are obstacles, de-motivators, poorprocedures or policies, unclear goals orattitudes

- What conditions would make organizationmore effective?

- The reporters record results of discussions.Step 3. Information sharing (1hour)

R t f h t t t t l


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- Reporters from each group report to totalgroup.

- Total list categorized into few majorcategories based on type of problem

- Communication problem

- Relationship Problem (with top mgt.)- Functional Problem (With accounts Dept. etc)

Step 4. Priority setting & group action planning

( 1 hour 15 minutes)- Each one is given a list of categorized items

- Next participants form into functional, naturalwork teams reflecting the way they

are organized in the organization- Each group is headed by top manager in the

group


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group.

- Each group asked to do three tasks

a. Identify & discuss problems related to theirarea, decide on prioties and determine earlyaction steps for remedy which they are ready

to take themselves.b. Asked to identify problems which should be

priority issues for top mgt.

c. Determine how will they communicate

results of confrontation meeting to theirsubordinates.

Step 5 Immediate follow up by top team- Top mgt team meets to decide first follow up

action steps and also to determine what actions


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action steps and also to determine what actionsshould be taken on the basis of what they learnt

during the days conference.- Follow up action plans are communicated to rest

of mgt. group within next few days.

Step 6 Progress Review (2 hours)

A follow up meeting with the total mgt. groupis held after 4-6 weeks to report progress & toreview actions.

- A quick & accurate means for diagnosingorganizational health.

- Enhances upward communication within theorganization.

- Increases involvement & commitment toaction on the part of entire managerialgroup.


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group.

Systems 1 4 TRensis Likert using a 105- item questionnaire called

survey of organizations found that survey


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survey of organizations found that surveybased on following measures could be used to

track changes over time.- Leadership

- Organizational Climate

-

Job satisfactionIn Likert model, each type of organization(systems 1-4) as having internally consistentcharacteristics of which org. climate is a major

part.In Systems 1 type of organization

- Control, Goal setting & Decision making areconcentrated at the top.

- No seeking of subordinates ideas- Subordinates not involved in decisions

related to their work


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related to their work

- Extensive use is made of threats, punishment& fear.

- Cost & productivity data are used for policing& punishment

- Communication is largely downward- Lateral & upward communication is minimal

& distorted.

- Teamwork is essentially non- existent

Systems 2 type of organization- There is some delegation of decision-making

to implement policies


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to implement policies.

- Subordinates are sometimes consulted beforedecisions are made about their work.

- There is some lateral communication &upward communication (filtered).

- Extensive use of monetary award.- Threats and punishment less than system 1.

- Motivation low but higher than system 1

-

Little team work

Systems 3 type of organization

- More participative than systems 1 & 2


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More participative than systems 1 & 2

- Substantial delegation of decision making

- Goals by top mgt. after consultation

- Moderate delegation

- Subordinates generally consulted about their

work- Substantial confidence shown in subordinates

- Communication downward & upward without

much distortion- Cost & productivity data for rewards

- Most individuals feel responsible.

Systems 4 type of organization- Most participative & highly group process oriented.

- Goals established through participation


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Goals established through participation

- Decisions made by consensus.

- Subordinates fully involved in decisions related totheir work.

- High level of confidence shown in subordinates

- Communication flow is upward, downward & lateral

without distortion- No Coercion

- High Motivation

- Cost, productivity data for problem solving

- Team work evident throughout org.

Systems 4 T- When variables such as The levels of performance

goals & The level of Technical Competence are


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g padded the system becomes 4 T (T stands for total

model)System 1 Orgs usually have employee resistance ofall kinds & low morale & Commitment, Orgs shouldshift to systems 3 or 4 (or 4T)

Survey Feed-BackIt is a well-organized & Systematic approach to assist

organisation in diagnosing problems & developingl f bl l l


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action plans for problem solving. It also assistsgroup members to improve the relationships throughdiscussions of common problems.

The survey feed-back starts by obtaining commitment andendorsement of top management. The survey may beconducted with or without the help of outside

consultant. Four distinct steps are involved:

1. Collection of Data

Information gathered through comprehensivequestionnaire to focus on issues:

a. Employee satisfaction (Individual attitudes)

b. Quality and styles of leadership

a. Organisational climate (like decision making, co-ordination , etc)

b General health of the enterprise


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b. General health of the enterprise.

2.

Feed Back the Information- Survey results fed directly to participants

rather than to top mgt. Group discussions &

problem solving sessions.

3. Develop an action plan

Mgt. to develop an action plan which is

workable based on recommendations of

participants for solving problems discoveredin the survey.

ii Follow-upAfter few months, a check is made to determinewhether the action plans are implemented or not


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Necessary Conditions for successi. Questionnaire should be valid & reliable

ii. Employees willing to report honestly

iii. Top mgt. willing to use information

iv. Sessions conducted are Task-oriented

v. Each group has enough discretion to consider & actupon its findings/analysis

vi. Org. members trust each other

vii. Participants do not feel manipulated.

EvaluationIt is more effective change technique than many other

types.


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i. It can yield a great amount of information

ii. Decision making & problem solving ability of org.improved since competence & knowledge of entireorg. used.

iii. Emphasizes two way communication

iv. Can increase influence of lower level managersv. Broad coverage including all members of the org.

vi. Information provided can help to work out concreteplan for org. effectiveness.

vii. Flexible and can be applied to many different orgs.& different problems.

Six Phase programme lasting about 3 5 years bywhich organisation can move systematically from the


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which organisation can move systematically from thestage of examining managerial behavior & style to the

development & implementation of an Ideal StrategicCorporate Model.

The Programme utilizes a Considerable number ofinstruments enabling individuals & groups to assess

their own strengths and weaknesses. It focuses onskills, knowledge & processes necessary foreffectiveness at the individual, group, inter- group andtotal organization levels.

As used in managerial grid diagnostic questionnaire,

grid O.D. process becomes one vehicle for individuals &groups to examine & explore their styles & modifyprevailing practices

Phase I The managerial grid seminar conducted byIn company managers (who are pre - trained) isgiven to all managers Focus of trg Is on individuals


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given to all managers. Focus of trg. Is on individual smanagerial styles, problem solving &

communication skills. Managers learn to become 9 -9managers


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Concern for production

Concern

for

people

(Low) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

(High)

(High)

(1,1) Impoverished Mgt. (9,1) Task Mgt.

(5,5 Middle of Road Mgt.

(1,9) Country Club Mgt. (9,9) Team Mgt.

Phase 2 Team work developmentGoal is perfecting team work culture,

traditions & developing skills in planning,


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traditions & developing skills in planning,

setting objectives & problem - solving. The

problems & issues dealt are real ones.

Phase 3 Inter-Group Development

The focus of this phase is inter-group

relations and the goal is to move groups fromtheir in-effective often win-lose actual ways

to ideal model of inter-group relations. It

includes building operational plans for

moving to ideal state

Only teams which have important inter- facerelationships do so (meeting in twos)

Phase 4 Developing an ideal corporatestrategic model


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strategic model

Top management engages in strategy planningactivities of this phase and corporate members test& evaluate the plans / ideas. Fact finding, technicalinputs & so on are contributed from all persons ofthe org.

The top executives build ideal strategic corporatemodel for their particular org. may take upto oneyear.

Phase 5 Implementing the ideal strategic modelTo execute the conversion to ideal strategic model,the org. must be re-organized - profit centers,geographical locations product lines etc ) A


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geographical locations, product lines, etc.) Aplanning team for each component to examine howthe business be moved more in line with idealmodel . A phase 5 Co-ordinator is appointed as aresource to the planning teams.

After planning & assessment steps completed, orgs

movement to ideal condition implemented.Phase 6 Systematic critique

Systematic critiquing, measuring & evaluating isdone to find progress made. Taking stock of how far

the org. has moved to current position whichbecomes a New beginning from which to continuestriving towards corp. excellence.

Blake & Mouton studied results on a large multi-plant

Co. (800 mgrs & 4000 staff) Given grid conceptsSignificant org. improvement showed up on Bottom-line greater profits, lower costs, less waste.Managers also reported that changes for the better


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Managers also reported that changes for the betterhad resulted.


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T Groups (sensitivity training)

Behaviour modeling

Life & career planning including use of careeranchors.

Behaviour modeling

A training technique designed to improve inter-personal competence.

An excellent way to make first line supervisorsmore effective & to improve organisationaleffectiveness.

It is a social learning theory which emphasizes that

person

1 Must perceive a link between the behaviour & certain


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1. Must perceive a link between the behaviour & certain

outcomes

2. Must desire those outcomes

3. Must believe they can do it

For example, many first line supervisors find it

difficult to discipline employees. To learn this

behaviour, they must1. See a link between discipline and desired outcomes

2. Believe they can do it

The methodology of behaviour modeling is

1. Select a model similar to them being successful bydiscovering special behavioural skills that led to

success.

2. Practicing skills until proficient


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1. Determine most pressing problems facing atarget group say first line supervisors.

Counseling poor performer

Correcting absenteeism

Encouraging average performer Correcting unsafe work behaviour

1. Training modules for about 10 problemsdeveloped through video tapes showing a

model correctly handling each situation.2. Specific behaviours exhibited by model

highlighted as learning points.

4. Trainees discuss behavioural skills & role play

the situation receiving feed back from the

( 10) d th t i th i


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group (say 10) and the trainer on their

performances.5. Role playing continues until each participant

successfully masters all specific skills.

6. Participants practice new skills on the job.

7. In next session, participants report how their

new skills worked on the job.

8. New problem is addressed on video tape, role

playing and feed back till participants learn.

Behaviour modeling works to teach the skills &behaviours needed to deal with inter-personal

problems.


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Change behaviour of people through unstructured &agendlaless group interaction ( 10-12 people assisted bya behavioural scientist (catalyst)).

Focus of discussion: Individual personalities

Group interaction

Processes Relationships

Specific results aimed: Increased ability to understand others

Improved listening skills

Greater openness

Increased tolerance of individual differences

Improved conflict resolution skills

Critics feel that all positive effects are felt onlyduring training.

Controversial technique & research reveals both


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Controversial technique & research reveals both

positive & negative sides

Criticism of T-group training

Lays heavy concentration on individuals & its

utility to total org. is limitedCan cause behaviuoral change (+ve or ve) but

changes may not be related to org. performance.

It may result in psychological damage to some

employees who do not take well to criticism.

Impractical since not consistent with the

business 7 economic world.


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It is a continuous quality improvementthrough a combination of organisationimprovement techniques and approachesincluding use of:

Quality circles Statistical quality control

Statistical process control

Self managed teams

Task forcesExtensive employee participation

Need to compete is the compulsion

Primary emphasis on customers


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Daily operational use of the concept of internal customers

Emphasis on measurement using both statistical qualitycontrol and statistical process control techniques

Competitive bench marking

Continuous search for sources of defects with a goal of

eliminating these entirely.Participative management

An emphasis on teams & team work

A major emphasis on continuous training.

Top management support on an on-going basis.Some version of TQM is being used in virtually all

organisations.

General accounting office, USA report


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1. Companies that adopted quality managementpractices experienced an overall improvement

in corporate performance. In nearly all cases,

companies achieved

Better employee relations Higher productivity

Greater customer satisfaction

Increased market share

Greater profitability

1. TQM is relevant to small as well as large

companies.

3. Sufficient time needed for gains to appear

say two and a half years.


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say two a d a al yea s.

Other authors said

Greatest success was achieved when

organisations pursued simultaneously both

TQM & employee involvement programmes.

Team & work groups


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Team & work groups

Characteristics of effective team

Broad team building interventions

Process consultation interventions

Techniques used in team building

Role analysis technique

Interdependency exercise

A role negotiation technique

The appreciations & concerns exercise

Appreciative inquiry

Responsibility chartingVisioning

Force-field analysis.


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Inter-group team building interventionsThird-party peace-making interventions

Organisation mirror interventions

Partnering


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Getting the whole system in the roomFuture search conferences

Beckhards confrontation meeting.

Survey feed-back

Strategic mgt. activities.

System 1-4T

Grid organisation development

Scheins cultural analysisTransorganisational development


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Socio-technical systems (STS)Self-managed teams

Work re-design

MBO & appraisal

Quality circles

Parallel learning structuresPhysical setting & O.D.

Total quality management (TQM)

Re-engineering

Large-scale systems change & organisational transformation


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T-groupBehaviour modeling

Life & career planning

Career anchors

Life goals exercise


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Although O.D. is a source of inspiration forthose who feel the need for human-basedapproach to organisational change yet it(O.D.) suffers from lack of research &

documentation. O.D. programmes have beensubject to criticism by managers &researchers. People are of the view thatdiagnostic interventions are stirring updiscontent in the organisations.

Most frequently observed criticism arefollowing:

1. Discrepancy between ideal & real

O.D. programmes should begin at the top of

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24458915 Organisational Change and Development