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2222 Sustaining Wild Species Sustaining Wild Species
Miller’s - Living in the EnvironmentMiller’s - Living in the Environment
1313thth Edition Edition
Factors Affecting BiodiversityFactors Affecting Biodiversity
Factors that increase Factors that increase biodiversitybiodiversity
1)1) Physically diverse habitatPhysically diverse habitat2)2) Moderate environmental Moderate environmental
disturbancedisturbance3)3) Small variation in Small variation in
environmental conditionsenvironmental conditions4)4) Middle stages of Middle stages of
successionsuccession5)5) EvolutionEvolution
Factors that decrease Factors that decrease biodiversitybiodiversity
1)1) Environmental stressEnvironmental stress2)2) Large environmental Large environmental
disturbancedisturbance3)3) Extreme environmental Extreme environmental
conditionsconditions4)4) Severe limitations of an Severe limitations of an
essential resourceessential resource5)5) Introduction of a non-Introduction of a non-
native speciesnative species6)6) Geographic isolationGeographic isolation
Strategies for Strategies for Protecting Protecting BiodiversityBiodiversity
Species Species approachapproach
Ecosystem Ecosystem approachapproach
Species ExtinctionSpecies Extinction
• Local extinctionLocal extinction– a species is a species is no longer found in an area no longer found in an area
it once inhabitedit once inhabited, but is still found , but is still found elsewhere in the worldelsewhere in the world
• Ecological extinctionEcological extinction– so few members of a species are left so few members of a species are left
that it that it can no longer play its ecological can no longer play its ecological rolesroles in the biological communities in the biological communities where it is foundwhere it is found
Species ExtinctionSpecies Extinction
• Biological extinctionBiological extinction– a species is a species is no longer found anywhere no longer found anywhere
on the earthon the earth..
Biological extinction is forever!Biological extinction is forever!
Passenger Passenger pigeonpigeon
Great aukGreat auk DodoDodo Dusky seaside Dusky seaside sparrowsparrow
AepyornisAepyornis(Madagascar)(Madagascar)
Animal species that have become prematurely extinct
‘‘Endangered’ and ‘Threatened’ SpeciesEndangered’ and ‘Threatened’ Species
• Endangered speciesEndangered species– species with species with so few individual survivorsso few individual survivors
that the species could that the species could soon become soon become extinctextinct over all or most of its natural over all or most of its natural range.range.
Florida manatee
Northern spotted owl (threatened)
Gray wolf Florida panther
Bannerman's turaco (Africa)© 2004 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning
Endangered and Threatened SpeciesEndangered and Threatened Species
• Threatened (vulnerable) speciesThreatened (vulnerable) species– species that is species that is still abundantstill abundant in its in its
natural range but because of natural range but because of declining declining numbersnumbers is is likely to become likely to become endangeredendangered in the near future. in the near future.
Florida manatee
Northern spotted owl (threatened)
Gray wolf Florida panther
Bannerman's turaco (Africa)© 2004 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning
Extinction RateExtinction Rate
Background (natural) rate of extinctionBackground (natural) rate of extinction– 0.0001% per year (1/10,000)0.0001% per year (1/10,000)
MassMassextinctionsextinctions
Adaptive radiationsAdaptive radiations- recovery after - recovery after mass extinctionsmass extinctions
Extinction RisksExtinction Risks
• Factors: population size, habitat, and Factors: population size, habitat, and genetics genetics
• Population viability analysisPopulation viability analysis
• Minimum viable populationMinimum viable population
• Minimum dynamic areaMinimum dynamic area
What are some characteristics What are some characteristics of extinction-prone species?of extinction-prone species?
CharacteristicCharacteristic ExamplesExamples
Low reproductive rateLow reproductive rate(K-strategist)(K-strategist)
Specialized nicheSpecialized niche
Narrow distributionNarrow distribution
Feeds at high trophic Feeds at high trophic levellevel
Fixed migratory patternsFixed migratory patterns
RareRare
Commercially valuableCommercially valuable
Large territoriesLarge territories
Blue whale, giant panda,Blue whale, giant panda,rhinocerosrhinoceros
Blue whale, giant panda,Blue whale, giant panda,Everglades kiteEverglades kite
Many island species,Many island species,elephant seal, desert pupfishelephant seal, desert pupfish
Bengal tiger, bald eagle,Bengal tiger, bald eagle,grizzly beargrizzly bear
Blue whale, whooping crane,Blue whale, whooping crane,sea turtlessea turtles
Many island species,Many island species,African violet, some orchidsAfrican violet, some orchids
Snow leopard, tiger, Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birdsrare plants and birds
California condor, grizzly California condor, grizzly bear, Florida pantherbear, Florida panther
Effects of Human Activities on Effects of Human Activities on Extinction RatesExtinction Rates
• Before humans, extinction rate was Before humans, extinction rate was one one species per million annuallyspecies per million annually
• Current rate of extinction is estimated at Current rate of extinction is estimated at 100 to 1000 times100 to 1000 times the rate before humans the rate before humans
• Speciation CrisisSpeciation Crisis - - limiting long-term limiting long-term recovery of biodiversity by reducing the recovery of biodiversity by reducing the rate of speciation for some types of rate of speciation for some types of species.species.
Why Should We Care About Why Should We Care About Biodiversity?Biodiversity?
Instrumental valueInstrumental value– their usefulness their usefulness to usto us
Intrinsic valueIntrinsic value– they exist, they exist, regard-less of regard-less of whether they whether they have any have any usefulness to ususefulness to us
Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity
1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)A.A. Economic GoodsEconomic Goods
Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, other useful productsother useful products
90% of food crops were domesticated 90% of food crops were domesticated from wild plantsfrom wild plants
A majority of our medicines were derived A majority of our medicines were derived from plants.from plants.
Bioprospecting – evaluating species for Bioprospecting – evaluating species for their economic potentialtheir economic potential
Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity
1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)A.A. Economic GoodsEconomic Goods
Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, other useful productsother useful products
90% of food crops were domesticated 90% of food crops were domesticated from wild plantsfrom wild plants
A majority of our medicines were derived A majority of our medicines were derived from plants.from plants.
Bioprospecting – evaluating species for Bioprospecting – evaluating species for their economic potentialtheir economic potential
Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity
1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)B.B. Ecological ServicesEcological Services
Flow of materials, energy, and information Flow of materials, energy, and information from the biospherefrom the biosphere PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis PollinationPollination Soil formationSoil formation Nutrient recyclingNutrient recycling Pest controlPest control Climate regulationClimate regulation Flood controlFlood control Waste decompositionWaste decomposition
Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity
1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)C.C. InformationInformation
Genetic informationGenetic information Scientific informationScientific information Educational informationEducational information
Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity
1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)D.D. OptionsOptions
• People are willing to ‘pay’ for the People are willing to ‘pay’ for the option of using resources directlyoption of using resources directly
Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity
1.1. Utilitarian (use)Utilitarian (use)E.E. RecreationRecreation
• We value recreational pleasure.We value recreational pleasure.• Eco-tourismEco-tourism
– Should not cause ecological damage.Should not cause ecological damage.– Should provide income to preserve wildlife.Should provide income to preserve wildlife.– Should provide funds for the purchase and Should provide funds for the purchase and
maintenance of wildlife preserves and maintenance of wildlife preserves and conservation programs.conservation programs.
Instrumental Values of BiodiversityInstrumental Values of Biodiversity
2.2. Non-utilitarian (no use) ValuesNon-utilitarian (no use) Values• ExistenceExistence – value in knowing a thing – value in knowing a thing
existsexists• AestheticAesthetic – value in the beauty – value in the beauty • BequestBequest – willingness to pay to protect – willingness to pay to protect
natural capital for future generationsnatural capital for future generations
Intrinsic Value of BiodiversityIntrinsic Value of Biodiversity
• Each species has an Each species has an inherent valueinherent value and right to exist that is and right to exist that is unrelated to unrelated to their usefulnesstheir usefulness to humans to humans
• Biodiversity mattersBiodiversity matters and should not and should not be depleted or degraded by our be depleted or degraded by our activitiesactivities
Overfishing
Habitatloss
Habitatdegradation
Introducingnonnativespecies
Commercialhunting
andpoaching
Sale ofexotic pets
anddecorative
plants
Predatorand
pest control
Pollution
Climatechange
Basic CausesBasic Causes
• Population growthPopulation growth• Rising resource useRising resource use• No environmental No environmental
accountingaccounting• PovertyPoverty
HIPPOHIPPO
Major types of habitat disturbancesMajor types of habitat disturbances
• AgricultureAgriculture
• Commercial developmentCommercial development
• Water developmentWater development
• Outdoor recreationOutdoor recreation
• Livestock grazingLivestock grazing
• PollutionPollution
Habitat FragmentationHabitat Fragmentation
When a large continuous area of habitat isWhen a large continuous area of habitat is– reduced in areareduced in area– divided into a patchwork of isolated divided into a patchwork of isolated
areas or fragmentsareas or fragments
HABITAT FRAGMENTATIONHABITAT FRAGMENTATION
• Reduction in Reduction in ranges of four ranges of four wildlife wildlife species, species, mostly due to mostly due to habitat loss habitat loss and and overharvest.overharvest.
Figure 22-15Figure 22-15Page 574Page 574Figure 22-15Figure 22-15Page 574Page 574
Florida scrub jay
Sprague’s pipit Bichnell’s thrush Blacked-capped vireo Golden-cheekedwarbler
Cerulean warbler
California gnatcatcher Kirtland’s warbler Henslow’s sparrow Bachman’s warbler
Ten most threatened species of U.S. songbirds. Habitat loss and fragmentation most common threat.
Biome % of Area Disturbed
Temperate broadleaf forests
Temperate evergreen forests
Temperate grasslands
Mixed mountain systems
Tropical dry forests
Subtropical and temperate rain forests
Cold deserts and semideserts
Mixed island systems
Warm deserts and semideserts
Tropical humid forests
Tropical grasslands
Temperate boreal forests
Tundra
94%
94%
72%
71%
70%
67%
55%
53%
44%
37%
26%
18%
0.7%
Extinction Threats fromExtinction Threats from Non-native Species Non-native Species
• After habitat loss and degradation, After habitat loss and degradation, non-native speciesnon-native species are the biggest are the biggest cause of animal and plant extinctions.cause of animal and plant extinctions.
• Deliberately or accidentally introducedDeliberately or accidentally introduced
Type of Nonnative OrganismType of Nonnative Organism Annual Losses and DamagesAnnual Losses and DamagesCrop disease
Crop weeds
Rats
Feral cats and outdoor pet cats
Crop insects
Livestock diseases
Forest insects and diseases
Zebra mussels
Common pigeon
Formosan termite
Fishes
Asian clam
Feral pigs
Starlings
Fire ant
$23.5 billion
$23.4 billion
$19 billion
$17 billion
$14 billion
$9 billion
$4.8 billion
$3 billion
$1.1 billion
$1.1 billion
$1.1 billion
$1.1 billion
$0.8 billion
$0.8 billion
$0.6 billion
Figure 22-17 (1)Figure 22-17 (1)Page 576Page 576Figure 22-17 (1)Figure 22-17 (1)Page 576Page 576
Purple loosestrife European starling African honeybee(“Killer bee”)
Nutria Salt cedar(Tamarisk)
Marine toad Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar(Feral pig)
Deliberately Introduced Species
Figure 22-17 (2)Figure 22-17 (2)Page 576Page 576Figure 22-17 (2)Figure 22-17 (2)Page 576Page 576
Sea lamprey(attached to lake trout)
Argentina fire ant Eurasian muffleBrown tree snake Common pigeon(Rock dove)
Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-hornedbeetle
Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae
Accidentally Introduced Species
INVASIVE SPECIESINVASIVE SPECIES
• The The Argentina Argentina fire antfire ant was was introduced to introduced to Mobile, Mobile, Alabama in Alabama in 1932 from 1932 from South America.South America.– Most probably Most probably
from ships.from ships.– No natural No natural
predators.predators.
Characteristics ofSuccessful
Invader Species
• High reproductive rate, short generation time (r-selected species)
• Pioneer species
• Long lived
• High dispersal rate
• Release growth- inhibiting chemicals into soil
• Generalists
• High genetic variability
Characteristics ofEcosystems Vulnerable
to Invader Species
• Similar climate to habitat of invader
• Absence of predators on invading species
• Early successional species
• Low diversity of native species
• Absence of fire
• Disturbed by human activities
Overfishing
Habitatloss
Habitatdegradation
Introducingnonnativespecies
Commercialhunting
andpoaching
Sale ofexotic pets
anddecorative
plants
Predatorand
pest control
Pollution
Climatechange
Basic CausesBasic Causes
• Population growthPopulation growth• Rising resource useRising resource use• No environmental No environmental
accountingaccounting• PovertyPoverty
HIPPOHIPPO
International trade in wild International trade in wild plants and animalsplants and animals
• Live mountain gorilla ($150,000)Live mountain gorilla ($150,000)• Panda pelt ($100,000)Panda pelt ($100,000)• Chimpanzee ($50,000)Chimpanzee ($50,000)• Imperial Amazon Macaw ($30,000)Imperial Amazon Macaw ($30,000)• Rhino horn ($13,000 per pound)Rhino horn ($13,000 per pound)• As commercially valuable species As commercially valuable species
become endangered, the black become endangered, the black market demand soarsmarket demand soars
Other Extinction ThreatsOther Extinction Threats
• Predators and Pest ControlPredators and Pest Control– Gray WolfGray Wolf– Carolina parakeetCarolina parakeet– Prairie dogPrairie dog
• Market for Exotic Pets andMarket for Exotic Pets and Decorative PlantsDecorative Plants
• Climate ChangeClimate Change– Alters wildlife habitatsAlters wildlife habitats– Not enough time to adaptNot enough time to adapt
Protecting Wild SpeciesProtecting Wild Species
• Research ApproachResearch Approach–BioinformaticsBioinformatics
• Building computer databasesBuilding computer databases
• Developing computer tool to Developing computer tool to find, visualize and analyze find, visualize and analyze informationinformation
• Communicating informationCommunicating information
Protecting Wild SpeciesProtecting Wild Species• Legal ApproachLegal Approach
– International TreatiesInternational Treaties• Convention on International Trade in Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES)Endangered Species (CITES)– Forbids trade of 900 different live Forbids trade of 900 different live
specimens or wildlife productsspecimens or wildlife products– Restricts trade of 29,000 other Restricts trade of 29,000 other
threatened speciesthreatened species
• Convention on Biological Diversity Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)(CBD)
– Legally binds signatory governments to Legally binds signatory governments to reversing the global decline in reversing the global decline in biodiversitybiodiversity
Protecting Wild SpeciesProtecting Wild Species
• Legal ApproachLegal Approach–The Lacy Act of 1900The Lacy Act of 1900
• Prohibits movement of live or Prohibits movement of live or dead wild animals across state dead wild animals across state lines w/o a permitlines w/o a permit
–The Endangered Species Act The Endangered Species Act of 1973of 1973• Illegal for Americans to import or Illegal for Americans to import or
trade in any product made from trade in any product made from an endangered speciesan endangered species
Endangered Species ActEndangered Species Act
• National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)– Identify and listIdentify and list endangered ocean species endangered ocean species
• US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)– Identify and listIdentify and list all other endangered or all other endangered or
threatened speciesthreatened species
• Species cannot be Species cannot be huntedhunted, , killedkilled, , collectedcollected, or , or injuredinjured in the US in the US
• 1250 species listed today1250 species listed today• Designate and protect the Designate and protect the critical habitatcritical habitat
– Private lands subject to restrictionsPrivate lands subject to restrictions
• Prepare a Prepare a recovery planrecovery plan
Concentration of rare species
Low Moderate High
Top Six Hot Spots
1 Hawaii2 San Francisco Bay area3 Southern Appalachians4 Death Valley5 Southern California6 Florida Panhandle
4
5
2
6
3
1
Sanctuary Approach to Sanctuary Approach to Protecting Wild SpeciesProtecting Wild Species
• Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected AreasAreas
• Gene Bank, Botanical Gardens, and Gene Bank, Botanical Gardens, and FarmsFarms
• Zoos and AquariumsZoos and Aquariums– Captive breedingCaptive breeding– CloningCloning
• The U.S. has set aside The U.S. has set aside 544 544 federal refuges for federal refuges for wildlifewildlife, but many , but many refuges are suffering refuges are suffering from environmental from environmental degradation.degradation.
Pelican Island was the Pelican Island was the nation’s first wildlife refuge.nation’s first wildlife refuge.
• Gene banks, botanical gardens and using Gene banks, botanical gardens and using farmsfarms to raise threatened plant species to raise threatened plant species can help prevent extinction, but these can help prevent extinction, but these options lack funding and storage space.options lack funding and storage space.
• Zoos and aquariumsZoos and aquariums can help protect can help protect endangered animal species by preserving endangered animal species by preserving some individuals with the long-term goal some individuals with the long-term goal of reintroduction, but suffer from lack of of reintroduction, but suffer from lack of space and money.space and money.– captive breedingcaptive breeding– cloning cloning
RECONCILIATION ECOLOGYRECONCILIATION ECOLOGY
• Reconciliation ecology involves Reconciliation ecology involves finding ways finding ways to share places we to share places we dominate with other speciesdominate with other species..– Replacing monoculture grasses with Replacing monoculture grasses with
native species.native species.– Maintaining habitats for insect eating Maintaining habitats for insect eating
bats can keep down unwanted insects.bats can keep down unwanted insects.– Reduction and elimination of pesticides Reduction and elimination of pesticides
to protect non-target organisms (such to protect non-target organisms (such as vital insect pollinators).as vital insect pollinators).
Using Reconciliation Ecology Using Reconciliation Ecology to Protect Bluebirdsto Protect Bluebirds
• Putting up bluebird Putting up bluebird boxes with holes boxes with holes too small for too small for (nonnative) (nonnative) competitors in competitors in areas where trees areas where trees have been cut have been cut down have helped down have helped reestablish reestablish populations.populations.
• Do not buy furs, ivory products, and other materials made from endangered or threatened animal species.
• Do not buy wood and paper products produced by cutting remaining old-growth forests in the tropics.
• Do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish, and other animals that are taken from the wild.
• Do not buy orchids, cacti, and other plants that are taken from the wild.
• Spread the word. Talk to your friends and relatives about this problem and what they can do about it.
What Can You Do?
Protecting Species
Wildlife ManagementWildlife Management• Manipulating wildlife populations and their Manipulating wildlife populations and their
habitats habitats for their welfare and for human for their welfare and for human benefitbenefit..
– enacting hunting and fishing lawsenacting hunting and fishing laws– establishing harvest quotasestablishing harvest quotas– implementing population management implementing population management
programsprograms– improving wildlife habitatimproving wildlife habitat– using international treaties to protect using international treaties to protect
migrating game species such as waterfowl.migrating game species such as waterfowl.