21_Cargo and Packaging.pdf

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Cargo and PackagingUNESCAPTrainingModule

Introduction

he two principle challengesfacing shippers are to satisfyboth the customer and theshipper. The customer requires

a secure and reliable method of carriage whilst the shipper requires that the spaceon his vehicle of carriage is fully utilisedin order to receive maximum freight.

To achieve compatibility between cargoowners and the owners of the means of

transport requires knowledge of thecargo-handling procedures in transport.

These procedures are described withreference to major characteristics ofcommodities and cargoes.

The methods of cargo carriage and packaging must be considered at the very outsetof the shipping process. The size and quality of packages must be compatible with thetransport technology contemplated, e.g. utilisation of containers depends onpositioning packages to avoid empty space. Hence, the considered transformation ofcommodity to cargo carries significant commercial, operational and economic impact.

Space with a container is not just loss of revenue but poses the danger of goodsshifting during transit and so sustaining damage.

Basically, packaging performs the following three basic functions, which we may callthe three P’s of packaging, namely: protection, preservation and presentation .

A package should protect and preserve the contents during storage and transitfrom the harvesting (for agricultural products), manufacturing (for manufacturedgoods) or mining (for ore or other mineral products), to the consuming centre.Protection is required not only against loss, damage and pilferage, but also,depending on the nature of the contents, against moisture entering or leaving the

package, high or low temperatures, light, gases, insect infestation, contaminationand other natural hazards.


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In this chapter, we shall look at the transformation from commodity to cargo andthe packaging requirements for the various types of cargo, including itsimplications on shippers of unitised cargo.

Chapter objectives

On completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

Understand the transformation from cargo to commodity.

Describe the packaging requirement of the different types of cargo.

List the guidelines on the choice of packaging.

Know the principles of packing cargo in container.

From commodity to cargo

Commodities and cargoes may be in solid dry form, or they may be liquids or gases. The physical state has clear implications for storing, handling and movement ofcommodities. Different forms require different transport modes, means andpackaging.

Gases and liquids have to be contained insome form. They may be packed intocontainers or flasks, or alternatively bemoved without packaging in pipelines andspecial carriers. When gas is moved in tanksonboard ships, it is often liquefied by lowtemperature. This is a highly specialised formof transport requiring not only expensive,purpose built carriers, but also specialterminals and handling equipment. There aretwo forms of gas which are shipped by sea,liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquefiedpetroleum gas (LPG). The advantages ofcooling gases can be evidenced in the simplearithmetic that liquid gasses can be reducedby about 600%.

A Typical LNG Vessel

The traditional liquid cargoes are mainlycrude oil and its refined products, vegetableoils, wines, latex, various chemicals and even

water. In bigger lots liquid cargoes are carriedloose in ships, i.e. they are pumped fromtanks on shore through pipelines to tanksonboard the ship and vice versa. This is thepractice for very large crude carriers (VLCC).

A Typical VLCC Vessel


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In smaller lots liquids and gases are stored and moved in containers or flasks. Whenpacked in this way, the commodities may be regarded as dry cargo from a transportpoint of view.

The dry cargoes embrace raw materials,

semi-finished or finished goods. They do notrequire the same containment as gases andliquids. The number of dry cargo types isalmost endless. The type of commodity, thelevel of finishing, and the transport method

will determine the need for packaging andstorage requirements. Detailedrecommendations of methods of cargocarriage, cargo handling, and transportrequirements for various types of goods arefound in many literatures1.

Storage requirements will tend to determinethe choice of transport method. Somecommodities have to be kept frozen (e.g.meat) while others need refrigeration (e.g.fruit). Flowers need to reach the customers

quickly, while other cargoes need adequate ventilation to avoid combustion (e.g. grain,coal and copra). The shipper must choose a transport method which secures properstorage and speed of delivery. There are several international conventions as well ascommon practices shipowners will have to follow to secure proper handling ofdifferent cargoes onboard a ships.

Loading of dry bulk cargo at dedicatedbulk terminal.

Packaging will also have to be considered relative to the transport method chosen.Some raw materials, like ores, need not be packaged at all. If finished goods aremoved in containers, the packaging required is much less than if the goods aretransported in individual cases.

Methods of cargo carriage2

In general, commodities are either moved in bulk or as general cargo. Bulk andgeneral cargoes are defined relative to their means of transport and the cargo mixonboard. If, for example, a ship carries a homogeneous cargo lot which is not packedin any form, this is a bulk cargo: oil carried directly in tanks, grain carried directly in

holds or pig iron loaded directly, in holds.

When cargoes are packed and mixed onboard, it is referred to as general cargo. Mostfinished goods are shipped as general cargo, while raw materials in bigger lots areusually bulk cargoes.

1 Example: Branch, A.E., Elements of Shipping, Chapman and Hall Ltd., London and New York, 1996.

2 Use of Maritime Transport. A Guide for Shippers, Freight Forwarders and Ship Operators, Volume 1,

United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, ST/ESCAP/516, p. 50-51.


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The distinction between bulk cargoes and general cargoes is not strict. There areexamples of more than one bulk cargo being carried onboard the same ship, indifferent holds or sections. Similarly, there are general cargoes which fill up the wholecarrier, e.g. shiploads of sugar in bags. This is referred to as unit loads of generalcargoes (which does not necessarily involve pallets or containers). The opposite,

where the ship carries different cargoes packed differently is referred to as generalbreak bulk cargoes. Such cargoes may consist of pallets, unpacked machinery, drums,crates and so on.

The table below clarifies the difference between the physical form of a cargo and the way it is shipped. Commodities, dry as well as liquid, may be shipped in unit loads, inbreak bulk or as bulk cargo. It should be noted that terminology with regard to theabove is not fully consequent, and that additional terms are in use. The term "parcelbulk" in chemical carriers is one example of this; up to 30 different chemicals may betransported simultaneously onboard the same ship.

Table 2.1: Cargo physical forms and ways shipped

The ways Dry cargo is shipped

Physical form Unit load Break bulk Bulk cargo

Dry cargoes e.g. bagged rice in whole load

e.g. machineryparts in crates andboxes

e.g. loose grain inholds

Liquid cargoes e.g. whole load ofoil in drums

e.g. part loads of e.g. crude oil in wine in cases tank vessels

There exists a third; “hybrid” form of movingcargoes, involving slurry techniques. Dry bulkcargoes may be transformed into slurries and movedin a form similar to that of liquid bulk. This has beenapplied to coal and iron ores, where the ores or thecoal are mixed with water and transported by meansof pipelines.

On a world wide basis, almost all the liquidcommodities, measured in tons, are moved in bulk.Important dry goods, like grain, coal, ores, tapioca,

copra and salt are similarly moved in homogeneous unpackaged lots. Such bulkcargoes can be handled in many different ways. Liquids are moved in pipelines, grainare mostly loaded by conveyors or chutes and unloaded pneumatically, while ores andcoal are mostly moved with conveyors or grabs.

Bulk coal loader incorporatingcentralised dust control system

The cargo characteristics will influence the choice of ship needed for a specific job.Different ships are constructed to carry different bulk cargoes.

Similarly, the cargo access equipment have been constructed to cater for different

commodities. The equipment available for cargo handling at the intended ports of


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loading and discharge will also be reflected in the type of ship needed for a specificjob. If, for example, no cranes are available in the discharging port, a ship equipped

with cranes will have to be chosen for the transport task.

Cargo in its different forms

General Cargo

General cargo is a term that covers a great variety of goods. In regard to moderncargo handling it refers to loose cargo that has not been consolidated for handling

with mechanical means such as unitised or containerised cargo. It refers to individualitems of any type of cargo, bagged or baled items, cases or crates, individual drums orbarrels pieces of machinery or small items of steel construction.

If general cargo is to be loaded on a ship in general stow it is usually man handled intoplace. Hence the reason why general cargo is rarely seen in developed countries today,the cost of handling such items is prohibitive and the time taken is unacceptable for

most maritime operations.

In stow, general cargo issusceptible to crushing damagefrom other items of cargo ordamage from the ship's steel

work, general handlingdamage, sweat damage andfrom pilferage. Hence cargostowed in this state must beprotected with suitable

dunnage depending on thetype of cargo and the risk ofsuch cargo in stow. Forexample, bagged cargo ifsusceptible to moisturedamage should never bestowed against the steel in thecargo compartment, some typeof dunnage or cargo battensmust be placed between thecargo and the steel work.

Cargo susceptible to crushing

General cargo must be appropriately labelled. Usually with the port of destination and

Sling here Fragile – handle with care

Do not use hooks This way up

Keep away from heat Centre of Gravity

The International Marking Symbols

must be placed in top stow. Food stuff can often taint other cargoes so must bestowed apart. Some cargoes need ventilation and must be stowed accordingly. Cargothat has a value to any individual must be protected from pilferage, examples of thisare shoes and clothing, beer and spirits, grocery items and electrical goods.

the consignee's identification, this is called the ‘cargo mark’. And it is this mark that isalso shown on the Bill of Lading and the Cargo Manifest.


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It is the responsibility of theshipper to ensure that generalcargo is presented for shipmentsuitably packaged to preventdamage in handling. If there is any

risk in handling damage then theitems should be clearly marked with the international symbols asshown above.

Due to the numerous small parcelsmaking up general cargo, it is usualto tally such cargo onto the vessel

while loading and in someinstances discharge tallies are also conducted. Cargo quantity on board is confirmedby the ship's officers signing a Mate's Receipt, details from the Mate's Receipt then

make up the information on the Bill of Lading.

Cargo handling operations at a conventional cargoberth.

Tallies, Mates Receipts and thence Bill of Ladings must accurately record the quantityand condition of the cargo. The ship is then obliged to discharge the cargo at itsdestination in the same quantity and condition as stated on the Bill of Lading. If itdoes not then the carrier (the shipowner) is liable.

It is important therefore, that any defects, damage, lack of suitable packaging, or anydeterioration whatsoever to general cargo sighted by the ship during or prior toloading is outlined on the Mates Receipt. The Bill of Lading must then be suitablyclaused prior to signing by the ship's Master or his agent.

Obviously the usual type of ship carrying general cargo are general cargo vessels,although it is not unusual for bulk carriers to carry certain types of general cargo suchas forest or steel products. In addition it is fairly common for bulk carriers to alsocarry large quantities of bagged cargo, although this is often referred to a specialised orparticular bulk cargo.

Further knowledge of general cargo, types, characteristics, stowagefactors and usual packaging can be gleaned from the publication by

THOMAS et al entitled “Thomas' stowage : The properties and stowageof cargoes” 4th ed. Glasgow (UK), Brown, Son & Ferguson, 2002.

(ISBN 0-85714-694-2) this is the only comprehensive text book written on the

subject and also includes text on operational matters of working a general cargo vessel.

Containerised Cargo

General cargo moving between developed countries today is usually containerised andcarried on cellular container or Ro/Ro vessels. So just what is the difference when werefer to containerised cargo?

Almost any commodity can be containerised. The great advantages to the industry with containerisation is that the cargo is not man handled on and off the ship, instead

the container is handled with fast and sophisticated handing equipment. Naturally in


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developed countries where labour is expensive significant savings can be made, less soinitially for developing countries but over time as they become developed this willchange.

The cargo itself therefore needs less

protective packaging. The cargo can bestowed in the container away from the wharf, often by the shipper himself. The containers fit into predeterminedpositions on board ship, complicatedstowage planning is not necessary.Documentation and identification ofcargo is simplified as the containernumber replaces the cargo mark.Computers and electronic datainterchange now play a large part in

ensuring the correct cargo movement,there is no need to tally the cargo.

A general purpose container.

The containers themselves are ownedor leased by the shipping companiesand are responsible in ensuring thatsufficient empty units are available forshippers at the load ports. To achievethis often large quantities of emptyunits are carried at the shipownersexpense to high demand areas.

A refrigerated (reefer) container.

The containers themselves were originally designed to fit international standards ofspecific sizes. However, ship owners have pushed the actual dimensions of the unitsto their absolute limits, consequently there are a variety of heights, widths and evenlengths of units in the system today.

There are of course many specialised, or special purpose containers in use. The full listis endless but some of the more common are listed below:

Type Typical Cargo

Insulated Used for frozen or cool cargocontainers

Half height units Steel or other heavy items

Flat racks Timber, vehicles and odd shapes

Open top Over height itemscontainers

Bulk boxes Bulk cargo such as grain or fertilisers

Open sided Ventilated cargo such as onions

Tank containers Liquids and chemicals in bulk


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A typical dry box was 20 x 8 x 8 feet (L x B x H) but it is not unusual to find units inthe system today measuring 20' x 8' x 8' - 9' 6". Forty foot (40’) units, were, untilrecently the maximum length of containers but 44' and 48' units have been introducedon the American coast and many are now finding their way into international trades.

Forty-five foot (45’) units have also gained worldwide acceptance today.

Compared with general cargo carried break bulk, cargo damage in containers isconsiderably reduced, however, it still exists. Some of the more common forms ofdamage are explained below.

Cargo not properly secured or trimmed-off within the container will damageeither due to heavy rolling of the ship or from shunting if transported by rail. Thefurther a container is stowed away from the ship's centre of motion the greater

will be the acceleration forces on the cargo and therefore the greater risk ofdamage in heavy weather.

Water damage can be expected if the container has a leaking roof, although themajority of water damage sustained by a substandard box is caused at the terminal

while the container is waiting in the stacks. Water damage on board is usuallycaused by a flooded hold due to blocked bilges or a leaking ballast tank. Anothersource of water damage is often caused when a container is stowed outside ondeck where the seas can reach the underside of the unit.

Refrigerated cargo damage can occur due to a malfunction of refrigerationmachinery, or through a hot spot within the container due to insufficient cold aircirculation in the stow caused by poor packing or lack of adequate separationthrough the stow.

Container and cargo within the containercan be damaged due to inappropriate orinadequate securing arrangements whencontainers are stowed on deck.

Despite cargo being stowed in containers itis still possible for some products to taintdue to being stowed in close proximity ofbadly smelling cargoes. Foodstuff stowedclose to wet salted hides is a classic example.

Some cargoes can spoil in the closeconfines of a container due to lack of

ventilation. Sweat damage is as much of aproblem with some containerised cargoesas it is with some general cargoes in anopen hold.

To prevent damage to container roof top,accurate positioning of quay crane’sspreader is very important.

Pilferage can still take place with containerised cargo. Despite the fact that thedoor leaves are sealed it is still possible for the doors to be sprung open with theuse of heavy machinery, individual items within the container can then be stolen

and the doors sprung shut without the door seal being broken. Although in most


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cases of container pilferage the entire container is hijacked and box and contentsdisappear without a trace!

Before packing a container

Packing a container should always be done on level plane either on the ground,on a railcar, or on a trailer. In the case of a trailer, care should be taken to ensure the

trailer cannot tip whilst being packed especially if a forklift truck is being used. Ifnecessary the trailer should be propped. Brakes should be securely applied and wheelschoked.

Stowage should be planned before packing is commenced. This should make itpossible to produce either a tight or a secured stow, in which the compatibility of allitems of cargo and the nature i.e. Type and strength of any packages or packaginginvolved are taken into account. The possibility of cross-contamination by odour or

dust as well as physical or chemical compatibility should be considered.

The planned load should not weight more than the payload of the container which is marked upon it. This ensures that the permitted maximum gross weight ofthe container on the CSC Safety Approval Plate (which includes the payload) willnever be exceeded. A picture of the rear end of a typical container is shown below:

A Rear View of a Container

Notwithstanding the load limitations on a container mentioned above, any limitationalong the projected route that may be dictated by regulations or other circumstances(such as lifting and handling equipment or road restrictions on height and weight)should be complied with. Such limit may be considerably less that the permitted gross

weight already referred to. In case of doubt, the container operator should beconsulted.


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Stowage planning should take account of the fact that containers are generallydesigned assuming the load to be evenly distributed over the entire floor area. Wheresubstantial deviations from uniform packing could occur, specialist advice should besought.

When a heavy indivisible load is to be shipped in a container or vehicle, due regardshould be given to the localised weight bearing capability of the container. If necessary,the weight should be spread over a larger area than the actual bearing surface of theload, for example, by use of timber bulks.

In such a case the method of securing the load should be planned before packingoccurs and any necessary preparations made.

If the planned load of an open-topped or open-sided container is to project beyondthe container overall dimensions, special arrangements should be made.

When heavy cargo is to be shipped, if it is impracticable to place the centre of gravity

in or near the centre of the horizontal plane of the container, or if it will be above thehalf height, the container operator should be consulted.

When planning the packing of a container, consideration should be given to potentialproblems which may be created for those who will unpack it.

Packing and Securing

It is essential to make the cargo in a container or vehicle secure against any reasonablyforeseeable movement. At the same time, the method of securing the cargo shouldnot itself cause damage or deterioration either to the cargo or the container or vehicle.

Where goods of regular shape and size are concerned, a tight stow from wall to wallshould be sought. However, in many instances some void spaces will occur. Thesecan be tolerated if security is obtained by the frictional effect between adjacentpackages. If there is an insufficient frictional effect, or if the spaces between thepackages are tool large, then the stow should be completed by using dunnage, foldedcardboard, air bags or other suitable means.

If airbags are used, the manufacturer's instructions as to filling pressure should bescrupulously observed. Allowance should be made for the possibility of a considerablerise in the internal temperature of the container above the temperature at the time of

packing which might cause the bags to expand and burst, thereby making themineffectual as a means of securing the cargo. Air bags should be not be used as ameans of filing space at the doorway unless precautions are taken to ensure that theycannot cause the door to open violently when the locking bars are released.

The cargo weight should be evenly distributed over the floor of a container or vehicle. Where cargo items of a varying weight are to be packed into a container or vehicle or where a container or vehicle will not be full (either because of insufficient cargo orbecause the maximum weight allowed will be reached before the container or vehicleis full), the stow should be so arranged and secured that the approximate centre of the

weight of the cargo is close to the mid-length of the container or vehicle. In no case


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should more than 60 per cent of the load be concentrated in less than half of thelength of a container measured from one end.

Heavy goods should not be placed on top of lighter goods and liquids should not beplaced on top of solids. The centre of gravity should be below the half height of a

container.

In order to avoid cargo damage from moisture, wet cargoes, moisture inherentcargoes or cargoes liable to leak should not be packed with goods susceptible todamage by moisture. Wet dunnage, pallets or packaging should not be used. In

certain cases, damage to equipment and cargo can be prevented by the use ofprotective material such as polythene sheeting.

Damaged packages should not be packed into container or vehicle unless precautionshave been taken against harm from spillage or leakage.

Permanent securing equipment incorporated in the design of a container should beused wherever necessary to prevent cargo movement.

Where open-sided vehicles are concerned, particular care should be taken to securecargo the forces likely to arise from the rolling of the ship. In order words, a checkshould be made to ensure that all side battens are fitted or other adequate precautionsare taken.

Special packing instructions shown on packages or otherwise available, should befollowed. E.g.:

Goods marked "protect from frost" should be packed away from

the walls ofa container;

Goods marked "this way up" should be packed accordingly.

On completion of packing a container

During the final stages of packing a container, care should be taken, so far aspracticable, to build a secure face of the cargo so as to prevent "fall out" when thedoors are opened. Where there is any doubt as to the security of the cargo, furthersteps should be taken to ensure security by weaving strapping between securing pointsor placing timber between the rear posts. Two factors should be borne in mind:

that a container on a trailer usually inclines towards the door;

that a cargo may move against the doors due to jolts etc. during the transit.

If a container is destined for a country with wood treatment quarantine regulations,care should be taken that all wood in the container, packaging and cargo complies

with the regulations. It is useful to place a copy of the wood treatment certificate in aconspicuous place in the container.


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After closing the doors, ensure that all closures are properly engaged and secure.Usually a seal should be applied. Care should be taken that sealing procedures arecarried out properly and transport documents/receipts bear the correct seal numberbefore the container leaves the premise.

When a container, or its contents, has been fumigated and is to be shipped underfumigation, then a warning label should be placed on the outside of the doors so thatit is clearly visible to any person operating the doors. The label should state themethod of fumigation employed and the date and time on which it took place.

As containers offered for shipment under fumigation may require special precautions,they should only be accepted with the agreement of the carrier and they should beidentified to him prior to loading. Note: point 4 and 5 do not apply to containers

which have been fumigated, ventilated thereafter and certified as safe.

Dry bulk cargo

The loading, carriage and finally the discharge of dry bulkcargo is not as simple or straight forward as most people

would imagine. Many bulk cargoes have hazardousproperties, or can change their properties on passage.

The ship can be easily damaged by incorrect loading e.g.loading a forward hold to it maximum can cause the shipto bend. This ‘stress’ can have life threatening results atsea in rough weather. Residues from previous cargoescan also seriously effect latter cargoes. Water damage canalso have devastating effect on some bulk cargoes e.g.cement power. It is not easy to verify true weights or

quantities of cargoes loaded or discharged. All thesefactors have a serious consequence on the methods ofoperation for the safe carriage of bulk cargoes.

Discharging bulk cargo using“grab”

Consider some of the more common bulk cargoes and their properties:

Coal – Coal is transported on all types of bulk carriers from handy size to VLCBs.However, it is not an easy or straight forward cargo to handle. It can emit methanegas and it is self-heating. In addition coal contains sulphur which causes severecorrosion when in contact with the ship's steelwork. In most ports the cargo is loaded

wet to reduce dust. Much of this moisture settles on passage and is pumped out

through the ship's hold bilges which means that less weight is discharged than isloaded.

Iron Ore - This cargo is loaded very fast, 10,000 tonnes an hour is not unusual. Theloading and de-ballasting of the ship must be meticulously planned to ensure that the

vessel is not overstressed. There is very little chance of damaging the cargo but theship can receive extensive damage during the discharge operation from the equipmentused.

Mineral Concentrates - Many different types of concentrates are handled in variousparts of the world and in varying quantities. Most of these cargoes are extremely

heavy and have a low transportable moisture limit (TML). This means that if the


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moisture content of the cargo become greater than the TML the cargo can liquefy andturn into a slurry. When this happens on board, the cargo moves from side to side asthe ship rolls which reduces the ship's righting lever. It does not require much cargo

weight to capsize the vessel when this happens, it a loss of stability due to free surfaceeffect. Some of the most dangerous cargoes where this can happen are copper, lead or

zinc concentrates, magnetite, limonite and most pyrites.

Grain - One of the most difficult and dangerous cargoesto carry in bulk are grain cargoes. Most grains have anangle of repose (slip angle) of about 20° from thehorizontal, which means that if the ship rolls more than20° the cargo will shift. Then this happens the ship willdevelop a large list, lying on her side and still rolling willobviously cause a greater shift of cargo which in turn willcapsize the vessel. Most authorities therefore request thatthe master proves that his ship is capable of remaining

stable even if the grain cargo shifts. This is done by thecompiling of the Grain Loading Form which fullyoutlines the ships stability at the worse condition onpassage.

Naturally grain cargoes, like any foodstuff, are susceptibleto claims with contamination from a previous cargo and in addition can easily bedamaged by water.

Loading of grain usingmovable loader fitted with“chute”

Vermin can also be a problem. Cargo holds must be clean and dry prior to the loadingof any grain cargo and most grain charters demand a survey of the ship's hold prior toloading for this reason.

Cement - Obviously any moisture is going to ruin a cargo of cement but probably agreater danger to the vessel is the dust that can be produced during the loading anddischarge of the cargo. If it is not removed promptly or gets into the ship's air intakesit can cause some long term problems to the vessel.

Salt- Salt, strangely enough, is not damaged from water, in fact the cargo can beloaded slightly moist. However, it can get rust stained from the ship's steelwork,therefore the ship must cover all the steel within the cargo hold with a lime washsolution thereby keeping the salt off the steelwork.

Woodchips - Again a supposedly harmless cargo that does have some hiddendangers. Some shipments many be subject to oxidation leading to depletion of oxygenand an increase of carbon dioxide in the cargo hold and adjacent spaces. In addition,

woodchips can be easily ignited by external sources, it is readily combustible and canalso ignite by friction. The stowage factor can vary greatly with this cargo dependingon the wood type, the moisture content and the type of loading head used. Evendifferent loading operators can achieve varying stowage factors with the same cargo.


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Liquid cargo

Even liquid cargoes have their difficulties.Outlined below are some problems associated

with various cargo systems found in tankers.

There is a high risk of contamination when acommon pump is used for several cargo tanks,if the system is not properly drained betweendifferent cargoes. Modern tankers are oftenequipped with individual submersible cargopumps but if these are connected to commonor shared lines there is still a risk ofcontamination. There will normally be a drain cock near or on the cargo pump itself,this drain cock should be opened to verify that the line has been properly drainedbefore pumping a different cargo. In addition most of these pumps are hydraulicallydriven, damage oil seals can lead to hydraulic oil leakage into the cargo tankcontaminating sensitive cargoes.

Connecting shore loading arm to theship’s manifold onboard a tanker.

On oil tankers it is normal to have a common cargo tank ventilation system. The vapours from one cargo tanks can easily enter a different tank in the system. This mayresult in cargo contamination or change the flash point of the product. Petroleumproducts are classified into volatile and non-volatile cargoes. A cargo with a flashpoint below 60°C is a volatile product and a cargo with a flash point above 60°C is anon-volatile cargo (different rules apply to the handling of volatile and non-volatilecargoes). Diesel oil has a flash point of around 63°C and vapours from a volatile cargocan easily change the flash point to below 60°C, causing the cargo to be re-classified.

Many lube oils and lube additives are heated during transport. Steam coils arenormally used for this purpose. A leaking heating coil can lead to water entering thecargo tank and consequently contaminating the cargo. Laboratory tests should becarried out on cargoes contaminated by water. It should be established whether the

water is fresh or salt water. Contamination caused by fresh water is most likely to becaused by a leaking heating coil whereas salt water contamination would probably becaused by a leaking tank hatch, in which case the hatch packing should be checked.

Chemical tankers are normallyconstructed with completelyindependent cargo systems. Each cargo

tank will have an independent pumpingand venting system. Cargocontamination in chemical tankers areoften caused by poor cleaning of cargotanks or pipe lines. Unfortunately manychemicals are extremely sensitive tocontamination, just a few parts permillion of a previous cargo cancontaminate an entire shipment. Many

cargo samples are taken during the loading of chemicals. When a cargo iscontaminated it must be established whether the cargo was effected prior to loading;

or during its transportation on board. Cargo transfer hoses may also contribute to

A typical chemical tanker.


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cargo contamination, therefore hoses should be properly cleaned in between differentcargoes.

Cargo Handling

The techniques of cargo handling have, at least in ocean transport, developedconsiderably over the last decades. This is particularly due to:

(a) Technological advances in ship design and lifting equipment

(b) Rapid development and increase in the tonnages of bulk cargo

(c) The impact of unitisation, and

(d) The new and modern techniques of refrigeration, particularly with containercarriage.

It is shippers, as a group, which have been influencing these developments. Therequirements for efficient transport have led the transport industry, port authorities,shipowners etc., to develop new concepts for ship technology and cargo handling. Itis up to the individual shipper to utilise the available methods of transport and cargohandling, in order to be competitive in the international markets. As a minimum,requirements must be properly defined by shippers so that the most appropriateservices may be made available by the carrier.

The shipper will have to prepare consignments for transport. The handling andstorage of cargo is not his immediate responsibility, but as it will influence the totaltransport cost and quality, shippers' will have to ascertain that the best available

methods are provided and used. While in transit, commodities are represented bydocuments. It is in the shipper's interest to see to that the paper work is handledefficiently.

Cargo preparations

Some sort of packaging will normally be a prerequisite for carrying commodities asgeneral cargo, especially in break bulk. Packaging has at least three functions:

(a) To protect the goods;

(b) To keep a consignment together;

(c) To prevent the goods from damaging the environment.

Transport usually subjects the cargo to mechanical forces (shocks, vibrations,pressures) and/or climatical forces (temperature, moisture). At least for aconventional shipment, the packaging needs to be strong enough to withstand therigours of stowage and multiple handling. Goods which are not packed properly maydamage other goods in the same transport. In such cases the shipper may be liable.Paper and carton are traditionally mostly used in local transport, where the risk ofdamage is usually smaller. Plastic and especially jute are used to produce bags. Bags arecommonly used to pack traditional bulk commodities in small quantities, like cement,


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sugar or grain. Wood is still commonto make cases or crates. Drums andbarrels are made of metal or plasticsand are used for transport of liquidsin small lots.

The shipper has to followprocedures laid down by publicauthorities as well as commercialpractice with regard to packaging,marking and declarations ofcontents.

Unstuffing bagged rice from a container.

The marking should embrace at leastthe following:

(a) Destination: Address of the end receiver, transhipment, order-number.

(b) Handling instructions: Especially with fragile commodities it is important tomark the package with handling directions to avoid breakage and other damages. Toavoid language difficulties a set of internationally recognised signs are developed forcargo marking.

(c) Dangerous goods: Some goods are classified as dangerous. In general, goods areregarded as dangerous if they have chemical or physical properties which can damageother goods, materials or the environment. Examples are explosives, flammableliquids or gases and poisons.

IMO, the International Maritime Organisation, has worked out rules for the handlingof dangerous goods at sea in conventions which have been ratified by most membercountries. These rules contain regulations regarding packaging, marking and labelling,stowage requirements, etc. for various types of explosives, gases, and various types ofinflammable materials. This is discussed later in detail.

Cargo loading and discharging

The use of quay cranes in moderncontainer terminal help in reducingvessel’s turn around time.

The rate at which cargo is loaded aboard ordischarged from a ship has a significant bearingupon the overall cost of transport. Excessive

time in port deprives consignees of the use oftheir goods, and ship operators of the use of their

vessels. Therefore, the improvement of cargohandling methods has been a constant aim ofmany of those concerned in the operation ofships.

Every cargo handling or transfer system consists of a number of identifiable elements.Goods are moved from one place to another, such as a quayside storage area and aship's hold. Then there is the commodity itself, which may take many forms, asalready described. Finally, there is the medium by which the cargo is transferred,

which may be manual labour, specially designed equipment or some combination of


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the two. In an efficient system, these four elements must be properly matched. Thisimplies a certain cooperation between the port authority, the shipowner, the shipper,and the possible stevedoring company engaging the port labour.

The earliest efforts to increase cargo

handling rates were concentrated mainlyon the transfer medium, and led to thedevelopment of a wide range ofmechanical equipment, such as cranes,conveyors etc., which has substantiallyimproved loading and discharging rates,especially for bulk cargoes.

General cargo handling has, however,not benefited to such a great extentfrom such developments. In linershipping, the principal restriction tohigh handling rates has always been thelarge variety of packagings used forgeneral cargo, so that significantimprovements have only become possible by reducing the number of different formsin which goods are presented for shipment.

The use of modern handling equipment in bulkhandling operations such as mobile unloaderconnected to a conveyor system shown here will

facilitate the smooth movement of cargo at theport interface.

Thus it is only with the adoption of unitisation that general cargo carriers haveachieved high transfer rates and been able to take advantage of handling techniquessimilar to those which have been developed for homogeneous cargoes.

It is customary to distinguish between vertical and horizontal loading of ships as well

as other means of transport. With vertical loading, the cargo must pass over the rail ofthe ship and into holds through hatches inthe deck. Derricks, cranes and conveyor beltsare commonly used for the transfer of drycommodities. Liquids and gases are movedthrough pipelines. This traditional method is

very useful for the handling of bulk cargoes.

Horizontal loading of cargo is done throughopenings in the bow, side or stern of a ship.

These ships are commonly referred to as

roll-on/roll-off (Ro/Ro) ships as the cargocan be accepted on wheeled vehicles.

Flexibility and fast port turnarounds are the essential feature of Ro-Ro operations, andcargo handling rates can be significantly increased.

Discharging of a train coach via the stern

door of a Ro/Ro ship.

Not all horizontal loading ships are strictly Ro-Ro ships. Pallet carriers may, forexample, have side doors only and the cargo is loaded or discharged by fork-lift trucksoperating on the quayside.


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Cargo stowage

The shipowner is generallyresponsible for the stowage of cargoonboard the vessel. In the handling of

stowage and carriage of cargo, thefollowing general principles willapply:

Systematic and efficient stowage of cargo will helpprevent cargo damage and ensure maximumutilisation of hold space.

The safety of ship and crew

The safety of the cargo

The highest possible port speed

The most efficient use of space

When loading a general cargo at a variety of ports for a variety of ports, the problemof where to place the individual cargoes must be solved to secure minimum time inport. The cargo must be stowed in reverse order of the intended discharge to avoidrearrangements of the consignments. At the same time the amount of unused spaceshould be kept as low as possible to obtain the best economical use of the vessel.

It is common to distinguish between horizontal and vertical stowage of general cargoin a ship. With horizontal stowage the cargo is spread over a relatively large area, whilein vertical loading the consignments are stacked on top of each other so that spacecan be better utilised. Bulk cargoes present little difficulty in stowage, as they can fillup the holds as appropriate. In some cases the cargo needs to be trimmed, i.e.shovelled by hand from high piles in the centre of the hold to the perimeter so thatthe vessel can be filled up and best utilised.

The given stowage factor of a particular cargo will normally take what is called brokenstowage into account. Broken stowage is space lost because of the shape of thecargo and/or particular requirements in regard to stowing it in the cargo holds. Forexample, there may be limitations on how many units or consignments which may beplaced on top of each other. For homogeneous bulk commodities, broken stowage isusually small. For irregular packages, as often found in typical general cargo lot, it maybe substantial.

Rolls of Newsprint paper stowed on its end

Plan view of the cargo hold (cargo compartment)

Broken stowage

A s imple sketch show ing the concept ofBroken Stowage.


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The stowage factor of any cargo is the volume which a certain amount in weight ofthat cargo occupies. It is usually measures in cubic feet per long ton or alternatively incubic metres per metric ton. If the stowage factor is 20, it indicates a heavy cargo. If itis 100, it indicates that the cargo is light.

The stowage factor is important for the loading of cargo in the various means oftransport, as it indicates the amount of the cargo which can go into the holds. Eitherthe volume or the weight will be the limiting factor. The stowage factors of variousproducts are given in published stowage tables.

While stowage of goods is important for the utilisation of space in containers andholds, packaging and stowage must also be carefully considered in relation tomarketing and the needs and specifications of the customers as well as in relation tominimising damage.

Cargo documents

Goods are carried by sea under a contract of carriagebetween the shipper and the shipowner. The shippermay employ a forwarding agent to arrange thetransport, while the Shipowner may employ aloading broker to control the allocation of space andadvertise the service, and to make the loadingarrangements and prepare documents on theshipowner's behalf .

When a shipper wants to send a particular cargo witha particular ship on a scheduled service, a "shipping

note" for the consignment is completed by the shipper and forwarded to theshipowner or his agent. This note will have to contain a brief description of thecommodity. The loading broker then compiles a list of the consignments intended forshipment, the booking list. This is sent to the ship to enable the Master to plan thestow and to the stevedore to arrange the loading. The shipper may receive a "bookingnote", which specifies that the carrier reserves space for a specified volume and kindof cargo in a named vessel between named ports. The broker may also issue a "callingforward notice" to the shipper, advising him of the time and place at which he is todeliver the goods.

When the cargo is delivered to the warehouse or to the ship, a receipt for that cargo

must be obtained by the shipper. When the cargo is placed onboard, this is called a"mate's receipt". This receipt acknowledges that the goods ha ve been loaded andhave been properly and carefully handled, loaded and stowed. If there are anydamages to the goods before loading, this will be recorded on the receipt, and it is nolonger "clean".

In some trades, it is customary for the shippers to have a "boat note" following thecargo. When the "boat note" is signed by the cargo officer aboard the ship, it becomes a "mate's receipt". With many shipping companies it is the practice to give an official"mate's receipt" irrespective of the fact that a boat note may be provided by theshipper. Modern practice is to present a copy of the shipping note as the boat note,

which when endorsed, become the "mate's receipt".


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Special tally companies are engaged by the shipowner to check or keep record of allcargo loaded into and discharged from a vessel. This is an essential part of cargo workin order to prevent claims upon the ship for so-called "short" discharge, i.e. whensome of the cargo is missing. It is sometimes customary for the shipper or consigneeto provide his own tally clerks, particularly with cargoes of a straight nature, such as

bags, bales etc.

A copy of the "mate's receipt" will be returned to the shipowner, so that a "bill oflading" can be issued to the shipper. The "bill of lading" acknowledges that the goodshave been "shipped in apparent good order and condition" if the "mate's receipt" isclean. Otherwise, comments are transferred to the "bill of lading". This document isissued under all forms of shipping, scheduled or not. The complete list of cargoloaded, as compiled from the "bills of lading" form the "manifest" of the ship.Customs regulations at most ports require at least one copy of the manifest andcopies are also required for stevedores at discharging ports.

While cargoes are in transit, they may be sold so that the goods change ownership.Such a sale will be represented by the "bill of lading" changing hands. At the port ofdischarge, the consignment will be handed over to the party presenting the original"bill of lading".

Packaging of Cargo

As mentioned earlier, packaging perform the following three basic functions, which we may call the three P’s of packaging , namely: protection, preservation and presentation .

Guidelines on the choice of packaging

Some broad guidelines to be followed in the choiceof packaging technique include the considerations

which follow.

Goods should be well stowed within the package,evenly distributed and properly secured. Itemscompletely filling the case or carton contribute tothe strength of the whole package. Items which donot completely fill the package must be cushionedagainst shock or vibration. There must be adequate internal bracing or securing using

battens (bars of wood) or dunnage (mats, wood shavings, etc.).

Where the consignment consists of a number of small packages, it is preferable toconsolidate them into one load by strapping and securing them to a wooden palletbase (a portable platform for storing loads). The assembly of cargo into the largestpractical unit consistent with the handling, weight and dimension requirementsreduces the danger of theft to a minimum. There is also the advantage of reducedhandling stresses, as larger units require the use of mechanical handling equipmentrather than crude manual techniques.


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Pallet packing is quite suitable for goods carried in containers although they may alsobe carried by conventional methods. In this case, however, there is the risk ofbreakage during transfer, or on forwarding and handling operations.

In selecting the appropriate type of package, account should be taken of the

probability of cargo being "overstowed" by other packages in warehouses and cargoholds.

Appropriate strapping and banding techniques should be used for all packages.

The regulations of the destination country as well as those of any transit countriesshould be checked in order to ensure that they do not prohibit certain types ofpacking material, particularly material which is harmful to the environment.

The re-use of second-hand cartons or cases should be avoided as they are more liableto collapse or and may invite pilferage (stealing in small quantities) if the contentsbecome exposed.

To improve the handling of bigger volumes of cargo, the design of the packageshould match the dimensions of the product so as to save packaging and freight costs.From the shipper's point of view, it is desirable that the following considerationsshould be borne in mind in order to minimize the cost of freight:

in respect of measurement of the cargo, the package should be of minimumdimension;

there should be optimum utilization of space within the package; and

goods attracting different freight rates should not be packed together in one

package, in case the carrier charges freight for the whole package at the rateapplicable to the highest-rated commodity.

It is essential that waterproof wrapping for the contents and waterproof lining forpackages should be provided, particularly when the packages are likely to remain in anunprotected area, such as the customs area.

Over-packaging in the name of protectivepackaging should be avoided, in order to make

optimum use of the carrying capacity. This isparticularly important in air transport wherepackages are consolidated into pallets, igloos

An aircraft “igloo”

3 orcontainers.

Powdered or granular material should be packedpreferably in flexible multiwall bags which areadapted to the requirements of the material,taking into account its chemical and physical

3 Igloo: An open front, bottomless, rigid shell made of fiberglass, metal or other suitable materials. Theslope conforms to the contours of the cargo aircraft envelope, i.e. the interior cabin cross-section.


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characteristics.

In the case of pressed bales (canvas packages of merchandise), it is advisable to use aninner wrap of waterproof paper below an outer or primary cover of fiberboardmaterial, over which heavy jute or a similar cover can be provided before strapping.

In designing or choosing a suitable package, it may be useful to consult, whereverpossible, the consignee and obtain reports from his end about the packaging ofspecific products moving on specific routes. It would also be advisable to ascertainfrom consignees to what extent handling gear, port equipment, etc., are available atthe port of destination, what inland transportation facilities are available and if thegoods have to be moved to inland centres.

In export packing, consideration should be given to the "presentation" aspect of thepackage: the design; colour, embellishment of the packages, which could produce afavourable reaction in the export market and improve the competitiveness of theproduct.

Information required for packaging

The type of packaging required depends on the:

Nature and type of goods

Volume

Weight

Number of packages

Types of packages

Mode of transport

Final destination

Types of packaging for break bulk cargo

The exporter or seller is usually responsible for packing the goods for break bulkcargo, whereby a consolidated consignment is broken down on delivery fordistribution to individual consignees. The type of packaging required for any product

varies with the nature and volume of the product as well as the method of transport itis carried over. Generally the following types of packaging are used:

Bagged cargo

The commodity itself has to be robust to withstand outsidepressure and compression, for the bags will only hold thecontents in one place and will not provide protection againstexternal damage. Such commodities might typically befertilizers, grain (rice, maize, wheat, etc.), seeds, dried fruit,

sugar, coconut, coffee, fresh vegetables, frozen offal (meat


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from carcasses), flour, copra, small items such as shells, raisins, etc., mail, salt, mineralsands and ores, meal (fish, seed, copra, etc.), dried blood, dried milk etc..

Fibreboard boxes and cartons

Fibreboard boxes and cartons are very widely usedfor the sake of economy and efficiency. Althoughcomparatively cheap, they are able to withstandnormal transport hazards and protect the contentsagainst loss or damage. They may be particularlysuitable in the case of goods carried in containersfrom the point of origin to the destination providedthe goods are not fragile. But if the containers haveto be unloaded at the port of discharge for furthertransport to their final destination, they may have to be placed on pallets and securelystrapped in order to protect them from pilferage and damage. Depending upon thenature of the commodities, cartons of the right type of suitable strength and sizesshould be used.

Wooden cases

These have stood the test of time and their mainadvantage is that they have the wall strength to supportsuperimposed loads. They are more expensive than thecarton-type packing due to the cost of wood. Woodencases are particularly suitable when the goods arecarried by conventional methods and, when they aresensitive to heat, dampness, etc. The goods may

require protection by way of packing with layers ofinsulating material, tar paper, sealed plastic coveringetc. There are different types of wooden cases,

including those made of plywood, which are being increasingly used by exporters.

Wooden crates

These are suitable for wooden packages built like askeleton. The open crate can be used when thecontents are sufficiently resilient to require aminimal form of packing to facilitate handling and

stowage. Sometimes, it is used as an outer packageto consolidate fibreboard boxes or give cartons extraprotection. The skeleton crate is often used for thecarriage of large pieces of machinery.

Bales

For certain trades, the use of hessian-wrapped bales is suitable, particularly when theproduct permits pressure baling or compression by banding. It is, however, vulnerableto pilferage, damage by handling using looks, etc..


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Drums, barrels, casks

These are generally used for liquids such as latex, chemicals, whisky, detergents, oil, molasses, casings, paints, powders,granules and other solids such as chemicals, cement, some

ores and scrap metal.

Shrink wrapping

Dry chemicals, granular and powdered substances in bags cannot be easily strappedon to a pallet. When these items have to be unitised, bags are stowed on the pallet andinterlocked; a polythene sheet of suitable gauge is then draped over the bags. This unitis then passed through a tunnel oven where polythene is heat-sealed tight, binding thebags to the pallet to form a good unit load.

Lift vans

When household goods such as tables, chairs, cupboards, glassware, brassware, etc.,have to be moved, especially from one country to another, they have to be packed in"lift vans" which are unit loads specially built for the purpose. They are generally madeof wood, lined with waterproof material on all sides and additional metallic proofingon the roof to prevent damage by rain and sun. These units are made to be handledby forklift trucks and packed in ISO 20 foot containers.

Preservation against corrosion

Machinery when being packed for export by sea has to be preserved against humidityand corrosion. All the open parts are chemically treated and sometimes greased. The

best preservation is to vacuum-seal the machine. The machine is covered by highdensity polythene which is draped aver the unit and heat-sealed. A vacuum pumpthen draws the air out of the polythene and the machine is preserved for as long asone year under vacuum. In lift vans and other packaging, silica gel in sufficientquantity is used, depending on the volume of the package.

Special cargo

There are also various other types of packagesdesigned for special commodities moving bydifferent forms of transport. For example, there are

special types of packages for air shipments ofcommodities like fresh vegetables, meat etc. Againthe unit load device (ULD) system adopted for airtransport includes containers of metal andfibre-glass as well as lightweight pallets. In regard toshipments of ready-made clothes, the latestdevelopment, garments on hangers (GOH), is that

they are carried on hangers inside containers for delivery in the same condition as theyleft to the consignees' premises or to the department stores at their destination.


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Special cargoes fall into the following categories:

(a) Bulk commodities - heavy equipment, machinery, etc.

Bulk commodities like ore and food grains, heavy equipment and machinery,locomotives and structures, do not require packing. They require suitable vessels withsuitable handling gear and the like.

(b) Goods of high value

Goods of high value such as gold and platinum in all forms, coins,jewellery, live animals, legal banknotes, securities, at present aremostly moved by air. They need special care and protection. Directdelivery to the vessel and direct collection upon arrival of the vessel isadvisable.

(c) Perishables and refrigerated cargo

Perishables and refrigerated cargo like fruits, fresh vegetables, cheese and meat, are usually carried in suitable ventilated packages in temperature-controlled holds or inthermal containers. Loading or unloading operations inrespect of such cargoes have to be carried out quickly or ona priority basis when the vessel calls at the port, and this isan aspect to which freight forwarders need to pay special attention.

(d) Live animals

The carriage of live animals requires special arrangements,

such as the erection of cages, the provision of necessaryattendants as well as the right type and amount of animalfood. Possible quarantine regulations in the countries oforigin and destination must be taken into consideration.

(e) Dangerous/Hazardous cargo

This kind of cargo requires special packing, marking and labelling, which is a taskundertaken by the shippers themselves. There is a separate section on the carriage ofdangerous goods later in this manual.

Packing principles relating to cargo in containers

The principles below are applicable to cargo stowage in containers carried by sea, air,road or rail. This topic will be further discussed and illustrated in the relevant moduleson the carriage of goods by sea, by air and by road and rail.

There are a number of basic principles applicable to the stowage of ALL cargo intocontainers. The maxim which summarises this set of principles is: safe containertransport depends chiefly on a correct and immovable stow and an even

weight distribution.


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Either the container must be stowed tightly so that lateral and longitudinalmovement of the cargo within it is impossible;

or else the cargo must be effectively restrained.

Tight stowage

This can be achieved by making the shape and the dimensions of the package anoptimum module of the container or making the base of a unit load a module of thecontainer.

Restraint

It is always necessary to restrain the cargo for one or more of the following reasons:

To prevent. collapse of the stow while packing, unpacking, or during transit(e.g., rolls of linoleum on end);

To stop any movement during transit of part-loads or of single heavy items(e.g., large pieces of machinery) - the heavier the item the more damage it willdo if allowed to move; and

To prevent the "face" of the stow collapsing and leaning against the containerdoors to fall out when the doors are opened at the final destination or forcustoms inspection.

Cartons strapped onpallet

Methods of securing cargo

The more common methods of securing cargo are:

Shoring - bars, struts and spars located in the cargo voids tokeep the cargo pressed against the walls or other cargo.

Lashing - ropes, wire, chains, strapping or netting securedto proper anchoring points and tensioned against the cargo.

Wedging - wooden distance pieces, pads of synthetic material, inflatable dunnage tofill voids in the cargo and keep it immobile against the container walls.

Locking - cargo built up to give a three-dimensional brick wall effect.

Aids to good securing

There is no simple formula to follow when securing cargo. Each stow must be treatedon its own merits - the type of cargo, the way it is stowed, the equipment available, orthe permanent fittings in the container. But the following points should be borne inmind when applying restraint:

Always use the built-in securing points which are provided. For obvious reasonscomply with the safe loading limitation on the securing points.


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Any timber used - i.e., dunnage or filler pieces - should be dry. It may also have tocomply with certain quarantine regulations in force.

If nails have to be used to secure cargo to a wooden floor, they should onlypenetrate about two-thirds the thickness of the floor to achieve adequate grip

without total penetration. Holes must not be drilled in walls or floor. Never usenails in a reefer container (a refrigerated container).

Any shoring which presses against the container wall should have extra timberlaid longitudinally between the wall and point of support to spread the weightover two or more side posts.

Useful filler pieces for wedging or preventing rubbing, sometimes called chafe,are old tyres, paper pads softened by soaking (macerated) or, for light packages,rolled-up cardboard.

Unless an identical stow is anticipated on the return journey (known as a closedcircuit operation) it is best if, when the lashing equipment is chosen, it isconsidered re-usable.

How to restrain certain types of cargo

Top-heavy articles should be wedged, shored and lashed to prevent toppling.

Heavy weights should be secured to stout ring-bolts (sited in the container floorand side walls) and/or be shored with timber. They should be chained or wired

with bottle-screws (e.g., 1/2 in chain; 11/4 inch bottle-screws; three ton “D”

shackles are adequate for lashing cargo up to 18 tons in weight).

Resilient loads can cause lashings to slacken - this may sometimes be overcomeby introducing elasticity (e.g. rubber rope) into the lashing pattern.

No securing of pallets is necessary (provided the load is properly secured to thepallet) if the distance between pallets and container walls is 4in (100mm) or less.Pallets must not be allowed any longitudinal movement. If it is necessary tosecure them, stow the pallets against the container walls and wedge wood blocksbetween the pallets. It may be necessary to insert sheets of board between thepallet loads to protect them against chafing and prevent bags, cartons; etc.,interweaving and jamming the stowage.

Stowage precautions

In the majority of cases, there is a space (1" to 24") left between the face of the cargoand the container doors. It is important that the cargo does not collapse into thisspace. It can be prevented in a variety of ways, such as:

(a) Using suitably positioned lashing points with wire, rope, strapping, etc., wovenacross

(b) Inserting a simple wooden gate for the wider gaps and heavier cargo


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(c) Providing filler pieces i.e., macerated (water-softened) paper pads, wood-woolpads made of fine shavings and used for packing, etc., for narrower gaps andlighter cargoes (like cartons of biscuits).

It is also important to ensure that the cargo does not fall out when the container

doors are opened. This is particularly relevant to a container which has beencompletely packed (as with cartons or sacks). Although this can sometimes beachieved by interlocking tiers of packages, it is better to use the fixing points locatedin the door posts of general cargo container. Nylon strapping in polypropylene cordor wire ( 1/4" diameter or less) threaded through these points forms an effectivebarrier.

Other stowage precautions to be taken are:

Securing the goods in their packages and making the pack itself as full as possibleso as to resist external pressures.

Making packages sufficiently rigid to withstand the weight imposed upon them when stacked to a minimum height of 8ft.

Making sure, if more than one type of cargo is stowed in a container, that they arecompatible and cannot cause contamination or become contaminated.

Placing heavy items and liquids at the bottom, with light and dry items on the top.

Within practical physical limitations of handling, the unit package should be as large aspossible, since this can reduce costs by up to 20 percent and increase theefficiency in volume by up to 10 percent.

Where relevant, stowing should be carried out in a sequence which will permitrapid checking and storage operations during and after unloading. Should theconsignment include cargo subject to customs pre-entry procedures, customsexamination would be made easier and unloading avoided if the cargo werestowed at the end of the container by the door.

One should try to arrange for any unavoidable gap in the stowage to be along thecentre line of the container and not at the sides. It is much easier and cheaper torestrain the shifting of cargo in this way.

A lighted cigarette end can destroy the contents of a container and even endanger

the ship. When stowing a container the rule should therefore be NOSMOKING .

Load factors

Heavy loads must be assessed according to their shape, dimension and weight. How-ever, as a guide, the weight or loads should be distributed over the container floor bymeans of suitable bearers or dunnage as follows:

(a) Width: distribution should be over the entire width of the container;


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(b) Length: each ton weight of cargo should be spread over at least two floormembers, which run transversely under the container floor at 1 foot centres (e.g.,a 13 ton integral load would require to be distributed over 14 floor members i.e.,14 foot run of container floor).

The total load should be distributed as evenly as possible, but in certain circumstancesthe closed end half of the container can carry more than 65 per cent, or conversely thedoor end half more than 60 per cent, of the total load.


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