21 Revolutionary Changes in the Atlantic World

Revolutionary Changes in the Atlantic World, 1750-1850

Prelude to Revolution: the Eighteenth-Century Crisis

The American Revolution, 1775-1800

The French Revolution, 1789-1815

Revolution Spreads, Conservatives Respond,

1789-1850Monday, February 20, 12

Learning Objectives:

After reading and studying this chapter you should be able to discuss:

1. Be able to discuss the causes, course, and importance of the French and American revolutions.

2. Be able compare and contrast early independence movements in Spanish South America, Mexico, and Portuguese Brazil.

3. Be able to describe late eighteenth- and nineteenth-century efforts to end slavery and achieve equal rights for women and blacks.

Monday, February 20, 12

Focus Questions:

How did the costs of imperial wars and the Enlightenment challenge the established authority of monarchs and religion in Europe and the American colonies?

What were the direct causes of the American Revolution?

What were the origins and accomplishments of the French Revolution?

How did revolution in one country help incite revolution elsewhere?


Prelude to Revolution: The Eighteenth-Century Crisis


Path to the Enlightenment

18th century philosophical movement of

intellectuals who were greatly impressed

with achievements of the Scientific Revolutions

Isaac Newton and John Locke


Newton: the world-machine

Locke: theory of knowledge and “tabula

rasa”

People believed that they could discover the natural laws to produce

an ideal society


Philosophes and Their Ideas

The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were called

*philosophes

Writers, professors, journalists, economists, etc.

Most were French with a few important English thinkers

Three key thinkers: Montesquieu, Voltaire, and

DiderotMonday, February 20, 12

Montesquieu

Came from French nobility, writing The Spirit of the Laws

Tried to use the scientific method to find the natural laws that

govern the social and political relationships of human beings

Wrote on governments: republics, despotism, and

monarchies

*separation of powerMonday, February 20, 12

Voltaire

Came from prosperous middle-class

wrote pamphlets, novels, plays, letters, essays, and

histories

especially well known for his criticism of

Christianity

*deism


DiderotAuthor of the first

Encyclopedia

He wrote the text to “change the general way

of thinking”

Many articles attacked religious superstition

and supported religious toleration

Consumed by doctors, clergy, teachers, and

lawyersMonday, February 20, 12

Toward A New Social Science

EconomicsThe Physocrats, a French

group interested in identifying the natural economic laws that

govern human society

*Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations

wrote on *laissez-faire, “let it be” — the state should not

interfere in economic matters


The Later Enlightenment

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind

People adopted laws and governments to preserve

private property

The Social Contract

Entire societies agree to be governed by its general will


The Growth of ReadingThe number of published titles issued each year by

French publishers rose from 300 in 1750 to about

1,600 in the 1780s

Along with magazines came daily newspapers—a relatively cheap and even

free publication at coffeehouses

Social World of the Enlightenment


The Growth of ReadingThe number of published titles issued each year by

French publishers rose from 300 in 1750 to about

1,600 in the 1780s

Along with magazines came daily newspapers—a relatively cheap and even

free publication at coffeehouses

Social World of the Enlightenment


The Salon

Salons were elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy upper class in

which writers and artists gathered together with aristocrats, government

officials, and wealthy middle-class people


The cost of wars fought among

Europe’s major powers over colonies and

trade precipitated the revolutionary era

Unpopular and costly wars funded by new

taxes, fueled by changes in Western intellectual thought,

led to revolution


Colonial Wars and Fiscal Crisis

As Dutch power ebbed, Britain and France began

a long struggle for political preeminence in

western Europe

Territory and trade outlets in the Americas and Asia precipitated

massive wars


War of the Austrian Succession

In 1740, a major war broke out in connection with the succession to the Austrian

throne

Maria Theresa took the throne when her father,

Charles V, died

Prussia invaded because a women ruled Austria. France

allied with Prussia.

Austria allied itself with Great Britain


The War expanded and was fought in other parts of the world, the far east, India, and North America


The Seven Years’ WarNew Allies

A great reversal occurred in alliances

France allied with Austria

Russia allied with FranceBritain allied with

Prussia

The reversal was precipitated by colonial rivalries between Britain

and France Monday, February 20, 12

The War in Europe

Europe witnessed the clash of the two major alliances: the British

and prussians against the Austrians,

Russians, and French

This conflict spread, creating a global war


The War in India and North America

The struggle between Britain and France in the rest of the

world had more decisive results

The greatest conflicts arose in the North America

French North America was run by the French government as a vast trading area: fur, leather,

fish, and timber


The British and French fought over two primary

areas in North America: the water ways of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Ohio River

valley

The French were able to gain the support of the Indians. As

traders and not settler, the French viewed by the Indians

with less hostility than the British


The American Revolution, 1775-1800


Britain and British North America

A new dynasty came to power—the *Hanoverians

George I, from the German state of Hanover, became

king

*Robert Walpole served a s head of cabinet (Prime

Minister) pursued a peaceful foreign policy


The American Revolution

After the Seven Years’ War, British leaders wanted to get

new revenues from the colonies—a source to fund the cost of

war and defense of the colonies

1765, Stamp Act, required on all printed materials,

newspapers, etc.

Rebellion erupted


The War BeginsThe colonies organized the

First Continental Congress of 1774 to consider to “take up arms and organize militias”

War erupted in 1775 at Lexington and Concord,

Massachusetts

1776, Second Continental Congress approved a

declaration of independence written by Thomas Jefferson,

an “Enlightened” thinker Monday, February 20, 12

Foreign Support and British Defeat

Of great importance to the colonies’ cause was

support from foreign countries during their

rebellion

The French supplied arms and money to the rebels

from the beginning of the war


Spain and the Dutch Republic also entered the

war against Great Britain

The Treaty of Paris, signed in

1783, recognized the independence of the American

colonies


The Birth of a New Nation

The states feared concentrated power and each one was primarily concerned

for its own interests

The Articles of Confederation did little to provide for a

strong central government

The Constitutional convention in 1787 drafted a

new national government


The ConstitutionThe new system created a federal system in which power would be shared

between the national government and the state

governments

The federal government’s powers were broken into three separate branches to prevent a monarchy:

executive, legislative, and Judicial


The Bill of Rights

The new congress created a “Bill of Rights”—10

amendments (changes) to the constitution granting

freedom of religion, speech, press, etc.

Many of these rights directly derived from the

European intellectual during the Enlightenment


The French Revolution, 1789-1815





Background to the Revolution

1789: the beginning of a new United States of

America and the beginning of the French Revolution

The French Revolution was more complex, more violent, and far more

radical

It created both a new political and social order


The causes of the French Revolution include both long-

range problems and immediate forces

French society was based on inequality:

the three estates


The Three Estates

The First Estate consisted of the clergy and

numbered about 130,000 people and were exempt from the taille (France’s

chief tax)

Parish priests were often poor and from the class

of commoners

Higher clergy came from aristocratic families


The Second Estate, the nobility included about

350,000 people

They held many of the leading positions in the

government, the military, the law courts, and the higher church

offices

They were exempt from the taille


The Third Estate, or the commoners of

society, made up the overwhelming

majority of the French population

This estate was divided by vast differences in

occupation, level of education, and wealth


Peasants, (75 to 80 percent of the total

population)

Serfdom no longer existed on any large scale in France, but

obligations were owed—”relics of feudalism”

Skilled craftspeople, shopkeepers, and wage

earners


The *bourgeoisie, or middle class, was another part of the

Third Estate; merchants, bankers,

and industrialists, and professional people—lawyers, doctors, and

writers

8 percent of the population


Members of the middle class were unhappy with

the privileges held by nobles

Aristocrats and members of the

bourgeoisie were drawn to the new political ideas

of the Enlightenment

Many were upset with the abuses by the

monarchical system


Financial Crisis

The immediate cause of the revolution was the

near collapse of government finances

Bad harvests in 1787 and 1788 and a slowdown in

manufacturing led to food shortages, rising prices for food, and

unemployment


In spite of these economic problems, the French

government continued to spend enormous sums on

costly wars and court luxuries

The government had also spent large amounts to help

the American colonists against Britain

Louis XVI was forced to call a meeting of the Estates-General to raise new taxes—the French

parliamentMonday, February 20, 12

From Estates-General to National Assembly

The Estates-General was composed of representatives from the three orders of French society:

the first and second held the majority despite the third estate

holding the majority

The 3rd wanted to establish a constitutional government and

equal taxes

The king and the 1st and 2nd maintained the traditional system


The 3rd estate rebelled and held a meeting in the

Tennis Court, having been locked out of the assembly

The storming of the Bastille

Royal authority soon collapsed

Popular rebellions emerged

“The Great Fear”


The Destruction of the Old Regime

The establishment of the “National

Assembly”

One of the assembly’s first acts was to

destroy the relics of feudalism, or

aristocratic privileges


The Declaration of the Rights of Man

The National Assembly adopted the *Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen—inspired by the American Declaration,

Constitution, and English Bill of Rights

Reflecting the Enlightenment, equal

freedom was declared for all men


*Olympe de Gouges saw this as an

incomplete declaration and penned the

Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female

Citizen—women should have all the same rights as men

The National Assembly ignored her demands


The King Concedes

He refused to accept the National Assembly’s decrees on the abolition of feudalism and the

Declaration of Rights


Church Reforms

The National Assembly seized and sold the lands

of the Church

The Church was secularized: bishops and priests were elected by

the people

The French government now controlled the

Church


A New Constitution and New Fears

The National Assembly set up a limited monarchy but the Legislative Assembly

would make the laws

Affluent members of society were still elected

and controlled France

Many claimed the “old order” had been destroyed


War with Austria

The rulers of Austria and Prussia threatened to use force to restore

Louis XVI to full power

Legislative Assembly declared war on

Austria in the spiring of 1792


Rise of the Paris Commune

Defeats in war and economic shortages resulted in new political demonstrations

Radical political groups in paris organized a mob attack

on the royal palace and Legislative Assembly

They forced the Legislative Assembly to suspend the

monarchy


A radical phase in the French Revolution

emerged

The *sans-culottes (without breeches)—patriots without fine

clothes took the lead in the radical movements

Power was transferred from the Assembly to the Paris Commune


The Move to Radicalism

The sans-culottes sought revenge on those who had aided the king and resisted

the popular will

*Jean-Paul Marat, a revolutionary, published a

radical journal called Friend of the People

This publication, read by many, encouraged the

rebellion furtherMonday, February 20, 12

The Fate of the KingThe newly elected National

Convention acted as the sovereign ruling body of France

Lawyers, professors, and property owners

National Convention’s first major act was the abolishment of the

monarchy and establishment of a republic

Factions split the Convention: All were members of the *Jacobin

clubMonday, February 20, 12

*Girondins represented the provinces and outside the city,

fearing and supported the king

*The Mountain represented the interests of the radicals,

largely from Paris

The latter condemned Louis XVI and sentenced him to

death

This execution created many enemies abroad


Crisis and Response

The Commune, another fraction, favored radical change and put constant pressure on the National

Conventions to adopt ever more radical positions

A foreign crisis also loomed—an informal coalition of Austria, Prussia, Spain,

Portugal, Britain, and the Dutch Republic took arms

against FranceMonday, February 20, 12

The National Convention gave broad powers to a

special committee of 12 known as the *Committee of

Public safety—later run by *Maximilien

Robespierre


The Reign of Terror

The Committee acted to defend France from foreign

and domestic threats

*Reign of Terror

During the course of the Reign of Terror, close to

40,000 people were killed

16,000 people died under the blade of the guillotine


Crushing Rebellion

Revolutionary armies were set up to bring

rebellious cities under the control of the National

government

Robespierre enacted harsh punishments to control the “radical elements”

People from all classes were killed during the

TerrorMonday, February 20, 12

The Republic of Virtue

Under Robespierre, the title “republic of virtue” was

given to the state

Slavery was abolished in French colonies

Price limits on goods considered necessities were established—but ultimately

failed


A new order that reflected reason, the National Convention pursued

a policy of dechristianization

The priests were encouraged to marry

Notre Dame was converted to the “temple of reason”

New Calender, 10-day weeks (the elimination of Sunday) and

months were renamed

France remained overwhelmingly Catholic


A Nation in Arms

To save the republic from its foreign

enemies, the Committee of Public

Safety declared for the mobilization of the

nation

The French raised a huge army, conquered

the *Austrian Netherlands


The End of the Terror

Robespierre, who had become very powerful,

was obsessed with ridding France of all its

corrupt elements

Robespierre was guillotined in 1794, the result of the National

Conventions condemnation

Jacobins lost powerMonday, February 20, 12

The DirectoryThe National Convention reduced

the power of the Committee of Public Safety

A new constitution was established, 500 leaders were

elected

The new centralized power, the Directory, ruled with the

legislature

In 1799, a *coup d’etat led by a popular general, Napoleon

Bonaparte, overthrew the DirectoryMonday, February 20, 12

The Rise of Napoleon

*Napoleon Bonaparte dominated French and European history from

1799 to 1815

“I am the revolution”


Early Life

Napoleon was born in 1769 in *Corsica, an

island in the Mediterranean Sea

Received a royal scholarship to study

at a military school in France

Student of the French Enlightenment


Military Successes

Napoleon rose quickly through the ranks of the

French army

Made commander of the French armies in Italy, where he used speed,

deception, and surprise to win a series of victories

He attacked Britain indirectly by invading its

colony in EgyptMonday, February 20, 12




Consul and EmperorNapoleon aided the coup that

overthrew the Directory

The new government—the *consulate—was proclaimed

Napoleon held absolute power, controlling the entire government

1802, he named himself ruler for life

1804, he crowned himself Emperor


Napoleon’s Domestic Policies

The idea of republican liberty

had been destroyed by Napoleon’s

takeover of power


Peace with the Church

Napoleon himself had no personal religious faith, but made an agreement

with the pope

He recognized Catholicism as the religion of a

majority of the French people

The Catholic Church was no longer an enemy of the

French governmentMonday, February 20, 12

Codification of the Laws

Napoleon’s most famous domestic achievement was his codification of the laws

The *civil code, or Napoleonic code preserved

most of the gains of the revolution—equality under

the law, choose a profession, religious

toleration, abolition of serfdom


A New Bureaucracy

Development a bureaucracy of capable

officials

Promotion was based on ability, not rank or birth

Napoleon also created a new aristocracy based on merit in the state service


Preserver of the Revolution?

In his domestic policies, Napoleon did preserve

aspects of the revolution

Napoleon shut down 60 of France’s 73

newspapers—all manuscripts must be

subjected to government scrutiny


Napoleon’s EmpireBuilding the Empire

When Napoleon became consul in 1799, France was at war with

the coalition of Russia, Great Britain, and Austria

Napoleon’s Grand Army defeated the Austrian, Prussian,

and Russian armies, trying to create a new European order

French Empire created dependent states and allied

statesMonday, February 20, 12

Spreading the Principles of the Revolution

Napoleon sought to spread some of the principles of

the French Revolution

He tried to destroy the old order of other nations

The spread of French revolutionary principles

was an important factor in the development of liberal

traditions in these countriesMonday, February 20, 12

The European Response

Napoleon hoped that his Grand Empire would last for centuries

The British navy’s decisive defeat of a combined French-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in

1805

Economic blockade

The Allied States resented Napoleon’s economic

regulations

Britain’s Survival


Nationalism

*Nationalism is the unique cultural identity

of a people based on common language,

religion, and national symbols

Napoleon established Nationalism in France and to other regions: They were hated as oppressors, stirring

patriotismMonday, February 20, 12

The Fall of Napoleon

Disaster in RussiaThe Spanish debacle

The Grand Army and Russia

Russian forces retreated for hundreds of miles, burning

their own villages

The Grand Army discovered Moscow ablaze, lacking food

and supplies

“Great Retreat”Monday, February 20, 12


This military disaster led other European states to rise up and attack the crippled

French Army

Exile on the island of Elba

The Bourbon monarchy was

restored to France under Louis XVIII


The Final Defeat

Napoleon escaped from Elba, rallying France to

his side again

Mustering another army, Napoleon was defeated at

Waterloo, Belgium

He was exiled to the island of St. Helena, a

small island in the South Atlantic



Revolution Spreads, Conservatives Respond, 1789-1850


News of revolutionary events

in France destabilized the

colonial regime in Saint Domingue

(present-day Haiti), a small French colony

on the western half—resulting in the first

successful slave rebellion


The Haitian Revolution, 1789-1804

The colony’s high mortality and low fertility rates created

an insatiable demand for African slaves

The gens de couleur, the free mixed-race population sought an end to race discrimination,

not for slaves but for themselves

Open conflict between the white elite and gens de couleur

led to destabilizationMonday, February 20, 12

A slave rebellion began on the

plantations of the north and spread

throughout the colony

In 1802, Napoleon sent a large military

force to Saint Dominque to

reestablish both French colonial

authority and slavery


The Congress of Vienna and Conservative Retrenchment,

1815-1820*Congress of Vienna, a convention to reestablish political order in Europe

The French Revolution and Napoleon’s imperial ambitions had

threatened the very survival of Europe’s old order

French monarchy was reestablished

Liberal and Conservative Nationalism contested for

dominanceMonday, February 20, 12

Nationalism, Reform, and Revolution,

1821-1850

Greece had been under Ottoman control until patriots launched and

independence movement

After years of struggle, Russia, France, and Great

Britain forced the Ottoman Empire to

recognize Greek independence in 1830


*Revolutions of 1848

The desire for democratic reform and national self-

determination and the frustrations or urban

workers

Reforms swept through France, Hungary, Italy, Bohemia, and Russia

Class conflict erupted


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21 Revolutionary Changes in the Atlantic World