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Stonemasonry tools

ContentsArticles

Stonemasonry 1Bush hammer 7Chalk line 8Chisel 9Compass (drafting) 13Dimension stone 15Lewis (lifting appliance) 23Mallet 27Plug and feather 30Ruler 32Set square 34Steel square 35Stonemason's hammer 41Straightedge 41

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 42Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 43

Article LicensesLicense 45

Stonemasonry 1

Stonemasonry

Stonemason working on a fountain with pneumatic tools

The craft of stonemasonry has existed since the dawn ofcivilization - creating buildings, structures, and sculptureusing stone from the earth. These materials have beenused to construct many of the long-lasting, ancientmonuments, artifacts, cathedrals, and cities in a widevariety of cultures. Famous products of stonemasonryinclude the Taj Mahal, Cusco's Incan Wall, EasterIsland's statues, the Egyptian Pyramids, Angkor Wat,Tihuanaco, Tenochtitlan the Iranian Persepolis, theGreek Parthenon, Stonehenge, and Chartres Cathedral.

Definition

Typical Aberdeen city street showing thewidespread use of local granite

Stonemasonry is the craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurategeometrical shapes, mostly simple, but some of considerablecomplexity, and then arranging the resulting stones, often together withmortar, to form structures.

• Quarrymen split the rock, and extract the resulting blocks of stonefrom the ground.

• Sawyers cut these rough blocks into cubes, to required size withdiamond-tipped saws.

• Banker masons are workshop based, and specialize in carvingstones into intricate geometrical shapes required by a building'sdesign. They can produce anything from stones with simplechamfers to tracery windows, detailed mouldings and the more classical architectural building masonry. Whenworking a stone from a sawn block, the mason ensures that the stone is bedded in the

Stonemasonry 2

19th Century Colonial Secretary's Office inSydney, Australia constructed of typical Sydney

sandstone

right way, so the finished work sits in the building in the sameorientation as it was formed on the ground. The basic tools, methodsand skills of the banker mason has existed as a trade for thousandsof years.

• Carvers cross the line from craft to art, and use their artistic abilityto carve stone into foliage, figures, animals or abstract designs.

• Fixer masons specialize in the fixing of stones onto buildings,using lifting tackle, and traditional lime mortars and grouts,sometimes modern cements, mastics and epoxy resins are usedusually on specialist applications such as stone cladding, metalfixings from simple dowels and cramps to specialised singleapplication fixings are also used. The precise tolerances necessarymake this a highly skilled job.

• Memorial masons or monumental masons carve gravestones andinscriptions.

The modern stonemason undergoes comprehensive training, both in theclassroom and in the working environment, hands on skill iscomplimented by intimate knowledge of each stone type, itsapplication and best uses, and how to work and fix each stone in place, he may be skilled and competent to carry outone or all of the various branches of stonemasonry. In some areas the trend is towards specialization, in other areastowards adaptability.

Types of stone

A stonemason at Eglinton Tournament bridgewith a selection of tools of the trade

Stonemasons use all types of natural stone: igneous, metamorphic andsedimentary; while some also use artificial stone as well.

Igneous stones

Granite is one of the hardest stones, and requires such differenttechniques to sedimentary stones that it is virtually a separate trade.With great persistence, simple mouldings can and have been carvedinto granite, for example in many Cornish churches and the city ofAberdeen. Generally, however, it is used for purposes that require itsstrength and durability, such as kerbstones, countertops, flooring, andbreakwaters. Igneous stone ranges from very soft rocks such as pumiceand scoria to somewhat harder rocks such as tuff and hard rocks suchas obsidian, granite and basalt.

Metamorphic

Marble has traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facingmany Byzantine and Renaissance Italian buildings. The traditionalhome of the marble industry is the area around Carrara in Italy, from where a bright white marble is extracted in vastquantities.

Stonemasonry 3

A stonemason's stone workbench from the 1845Eglinton Tournament bridge construction

Slate is a popular choice of stone for memorials and inscriptions, as itsfine grain and hardness means it leaves details very sharp. Meanwhile,its tendency to split into thin plates has made it a popular roofingmaterial.

Sedimentary

Many of the world's most famous buildings have been built ofsedimentary stone, from Durham Cathedral to St Peter's in Rome.There are two main types of sedimentary stone used in masonry work,limestones and sandstones. Examples of limestones include Bath andPortland stone. Yorkstone and Sydney sandstone are well-knownsandstones.

Types of stonemasonryTypes of stonemasonry are:• Rubble MasonryWhen roughly dressed stones are laid in a mortar the result is a stone rubble masonry.• Ashlar Masonrywell arranged and cut stones put in cement mortar.

TrainingTraditionally medieval stonemasons served a seven-year apprenticeship. A similar system still operates today.A modern apprenticeship lasts four years. This combines on-site learning through personal experience, theexperience of the tradesmen and college work where apprentices are given an overall experience of the building,hewing and theory work involved in masonry. In some areas colleges offer courses which teach not only the manualskills but also related fields such as drafting and blueprint reading or construction conservationism. ElectronicStonemasonry training resources enhance traditional delivery techniques 1 [1]. Hands-on workshops are a good wayto learn about stonemasonry also 2 [2]. Those wishing to become stonemasons should have little problem working atheights, possess reasonable hand-eye co-ordination, be moderately physically fit, and have basic mathematicalability. Most of these things can be developed while learning.

Stonemasonry 4

Tools

The foreground tool with serrated blades is acockscomb, cock's comb or stonemason's drag,

used on soft limestone

Stonemasons use a wide variety of tools to handle and shape stoneblocks (ashlar) and slabs into finished articles. The basic tools forshaping the stone are a → mallet, → chisels, and a metal → straightedge. With these one can make a flat surface - the basis of all stonemasonry.

Chisels come in a variety of sizes and shapes, dependent upon thefunction for which they are being used. There are different chisels fordifferent materials and sizes of material being worked, for removinglarge amounts of material and for putting a fine finish on the stone.Mixing mortar is normally done today with mortar mixers whichusually use a rotating drum or rotating paddles to mix the mortar.

The masonry trowel is used for the application of the mortar between and around the stones as they are set into place.Filling in the gaps (joints) with mortar is referred to as pointing. Pointing in smaller joints can be accomplished usingtuck pointers, pointing trowels, and margin trowels, among other tools.At least one tool bears the name of the tradesmen that use it, and that is the → Stonemason's hammer. This hammercan be used in place of a chisel in certain circumstances. The hammer can also be used to make shims and chinkswhile holding a small stone in one hand and striking it with the hammer.Stonemasons use a Lewis together with a crane or winch to hoist building stones into place.Today power tools such as compressed-air chisels, abrasive spinners and angle grinders are much used: these savetime and money, but are hazardous and require just as much skill as the hand tools that they augment. But many ofthe basic tools of stonemasonry have remained virtually the same throughout vast amounts of time, even thousandsof years.

HistoryStonemasonry is one of the earliest trades in civilisation's history. During the time of the Neolithic Revolution anddomestication of animals, people learned how to use fire to create quicklime, plasters, and mortars. They used theseto fashion homes for themselves with mud, straw, or stone, and masonry was born.The Ancients heavily relied on the stonemason to build the most impressive and long lasting monuments to theircivilisations. The Egyptians built their pyramids, the civilizations of Central American had their step pyramids, thePersians their palaces, the Greeks their temples, and the Romans their public works and wonders (See RomanArchitecture). Among the famous ancient stonemasons is Sophroniscus, the father of Socrates, who was astone-cutter.Castle building was an entire industry for the medieval stonemasons. When the Western Roman Empire fell,building in dressed stone decreased in much of Western Europe, and there was a resulting increase in timber-basedconstruction. Stone work experienced a resurgence in the 9th and 10th centuries in Europe, and by the 12th centuryreligious fervour resulted in the construction of thousands of impressive churches and cathedrals in stone acrossWestern Europe.Medieval stonemasons' skills were in high demand, and members of the guild, gave rise to three classes of stonemasons: apprentices, journeymen, and master masons. Apprentices were indentured to their masters as the price for their training, journeymen had a higher level of skill and could go on journeys to assist their masters, and master masons were considered freemen who could travel as they wished to work on the projects of the patrons. During the Renaissance, the stonemason's guild admitted members who were not stonemasons, and eventually evolved into the

Stonemasonry 5

Society of Freemasonry; fraternal groups which observe the traditional culture of stonemasons, but are not typicallyinvolved in modern construction projects.A medieval stonemason would often carve a personal symbol onto their block to differentiate their work from that ofother stonemasons. This also provided a simple ‘quality assurance’ system.The Renaissance saw stonemasonry return to the prominence and sophistication of the Classical age. The rise of theHumanist philosophy gave people the ambition to create marvelous works of art. The centre stage for theRenaissance would prove to be Italy, where city-states such as Florence erected great structures, including theCathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, the Fountain of Neptune, and the Laurentian Library which was planned andbuilt by Michelangelo Buonarroti, a famous stonemason of the Renaissance.When Europeans settled the Americas, they brought the stonemasonry techniques of their respective homelands withthem. Settlers used what materials were available, and in some areas stone was the material of choice. In the firstwaves, building mimicked that of Europe, to eventually be replaced by unique architecture later on.In the 20th century, stonemasonry saw its most radical changes in the way the work is accomplished. Prior to thefirst half of the century, most heavy work was executed by draft animals or human muscle power. With the arrival ofthe internal combustion engine, many of these hard aspects of the trade have been made simpler and easier. Cranesand forklifts have made moving and laying heavy stones relatively easy for the stonemasons. Motor powered mortarmixers have saved much in time and energy as well. Compressed-air powered tools have made working of stone lesstime-intensive. Petrol and electric powered abrasive saws can cut through stone much faster and with more precisionthan chiseling alone. Carbide-tipped chisels can stand up to much more abuse than the steel and iron chisels made byblacksmiths of old.

Gallery

An apprentice carving a block Three different stonemason's marks, whichcan be seen in the Chapter House of

Fountains Abbey

A modern stonemason's workbench with ablock of limestone

Stonemasonry 6

Typical French → chisels with wooden hilt,used for soft limestone

A French stonemason using a → straightedgeand chisels

A left-handed stonemason with → mallet andchisel

Splitting a block of marble with → plug andfeathers

Stonemason's → mallets of plastic,beechwood and steel

A stonemason and his tools.

See also• Stone Mortars lectures, notes and ebooks [3]

• NIST stone test wall• Stone wall• Dry-stone wall• Castle• Defensive wall• Masonry• Architecture• [[:Category:Stonemasonry tools|Stonemasonry tools

Stonemasonry 7

External links• Stonemason occupation information [4]

• The Stone Foundation [5]

• About Stone [6]

• DIY stoneworks infomation site [7]

• Michelle de Bruin - Stonecarver [8]

• Peninsula Stonemasons - Building Masons, Victoria, Australia [9]

• Details of church based stonemasonry projects in the West of England. [10]

References[1] http:/ / trades. flexiblelearning. net. au/[2] http:/ / stonegatemanor. org/[3] http:/ / www. aboutcivil. com/ Stone-Mortars. html[4] http:/ / www. myfuture. edu. au/ services/ default. asp?FunctionID=5050& ASCO=441613A[5] http:/ / www. stonefoundation. org/[6] http:/ / aboutstone. org/[7] http:/ / hammerheadstoneworks. com/[8] http:/ / www. artist. org. uk/[9] http:/ / www. peninsulastonemasons. com/[10] http:/ / www. minervaconservation. com/

Bush hammer

A bush hammer

A bush hammer is a masonry tool used to texturize stone andconcrete. Bush hammers exist in many forms, from simple hand-heldhammers to large electric machines, but the basic functional propertyof the tool is always the same - a grid of conical or pyramidal points atthe end of a large metal slug. The repeated impact of these points intostone or concrete creates a rough, pockmarked texture that resemblesnaturally weathered rock. The hammer was created by the Frenchsculptor Henri Bouchard.

Chalk line 8

Chalk line

Chalk line tool.

A chalk line is a tool for marking long, straight lines on relatively flatsurfaces, much farther than is practical by hand or with a →straightedge.

It is an important tool in construction and carpentry, the working oftimber in a rough and unplaned state, as it does not require the timberto have a straight or squared edge formed onto it beforehand.

History

Blue chalk line on concrete walls as level reference.

Chalk lines have been in use since ancientEgypt, and used continuously by builders invarious cultures since.

Continuing development of this simple buteffective tool focuses on the coloration forthe chalk or marking compound,[1] as wellas the outer case and method of handling.[2]

Use

A chalk line draws straight lines by theaction of a taut nylon or similar string.Specifically, the string (previouslyimpregnated or coated with a loose dye suchas chalk) is laid across the surface to bemarked and pulled tight. The string is then plucked or snapped sharply to cause the string to strike the surface,leaving a straight line. The primary problems associated with improper maintenance of a chalk line are stringbreakage due to excessive tension on the line, and degradation of the line associated with moisture contamination.[3]

Chalk lines and plumb-bobs are often sold as a single tool.[4]

Ink lines

Sumitsubo and bamboo marking pens

In Japan, an ink line is used in preference to a chalk line. This is asilken cord, stored on a combined reel and inkpot called a sumitsubo.Alongside the line reel is a cavity filled with ink-soaked cotton fibres,which the line is drawn through as it is unreeled. These sumitsubo arehighly decorated and much-prized by their owners.[5] As with manysuch tools, they're often made by their users whilst apprentices.[6]

On the completion of a major building, such as a temple, a largecelebration or topping-out ceremony is held. As part of this event, a setof symbolic carpenter's tools are freshly made and presented to the newbuilding. A sumitsubo is a traditional tool included with them.[7]

Chalk line 9

See also• Measuring tape

References[1] Water proof chalk line compositions for use with chalk line devices - US Patent 6203602 (http:/ / www. patentstorm. us/ patents/ 6203602/

claims. html)[2] Chalk line dispenser holder system - US Patent 6044568 (http:/ / www. patentstorm. us/ patents/ 6044568/ claims. html)[3] HowStuffWorks "Chalk Line" (http:/ / home. howstuffworks. com/ chalk-line. htm)[4] http:/ / www. google. com/ products?hl=en& safe=off& rls=en-us& q=chalk+ plumb+ line& um=1& ie=UTF-8 (Fetched 2009-04-12)[5] " Gallery of Sumitsubo (http:/ / www. daikudojo. org/ Archive/ gallery_misc_tools/ sumitsubo/ )". .[6] Toshio Odate. Japanese Woodworking Tools. ISBN 0854420754.[7] Azby Brown. The Genius of Japanese Carpentry. Kodansha America. ISBN 0870118978.

Chisel

Steel woodworking chisel.

A chisel is a tool with a characteristically shaped cutting edge (suchthat wood chisels have lent part of their name to a particular grind) ofblade on its end, for carving or cutting a hard material such as wood,stone, or metal. The handle and blade of some types of chisel are madeof metal or wood with a sharp edge in it.

In use, the chisel is forced into the material to cut the material. Thedriving force may be manually applied or applied using a → mallet orhammer. In industrial use, a hydraulic ram or falling weight ('triphammer') drives the chisel into the material to be cut.

A gouge, one type of chisel, is used, particularly in woodworking,woodturning and sculpture, to carve small pieces from the material.Gouges are most often used in creating concave surfaces. A gougetypically has a 'U'-shaped cross-section.

Types of Chisels

Chisels have a wide variety of uses. Many types of chisels have beendevised, each specially suited to its intended use. Different types of chisels may be constructed quite differently, interms of blade width or length, as well as shape and hardness of blade. They may have wooden handles attached ormay be made entirely of one piece of metal.

Chisel 10

Woodworking chisels

A sharp wood chisel in combination with aforstner wood drill bit is used to form this mortise

for a half-lap joint in a timber frame.

A worker uses a chisel to put the finishingtouches on a Dovetail joint for a timber frame.

Woodworking chisels range from quite small hand tools for tinydetails, to large chisels used remove big sections of wood, in 'roughingout' the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in woodcarving, onestarts with a larger tool, and gradually progresses to smaller tools tofinish the detail. One of the largest types of chisel is the slick, used intimber frame construction and wooden shipbuilding. According to theirfunction there are many names given to woodworking chisels, such as:

• butt chisel: short chisel with beveled sides and straight edge forcreating joints.

• carving chisels: used for intricate designs and sculpting; cuttingedges are many; such as gouge, skew, parting, straight, paring, andV-groove.

• corner chisel: resembles a punch and has an L-shaped cutting edge.Cleans out square holes, mortises and corners with 90 degreeangles.

• flooring chisel: cuts and lifts flooring materials for removal andrepair; ideal for tongue-and-groove flooring.

• framing chisel: usually used with → mallet; similar to a butt chisel,except it has a longer, slightly flexible blade.

• slick: a large chisel driven by manual pressure, never struck.• mortise chisel: thick, rigid blade with straight cutting edge and

square sides to make mortises and similar joints.• paring chisel: has a long blade which is ideal for cleaning grooves

and accessing tight spaces.• skew chisel: has a 60 degree cutting angle and is used for trimming

and finishing.• dovetail chisel: Made specifically for cutting dovetail joints. The

difference being the thickness of the body of the chisel, as well asthe angle of the edges, permitting easier access to the joint.

Japanese woodworking chiselsThe better quality Japanese wood chisels are made from laminated steel. There are different types of metals used ineach chisel. The better ones are laminated by hand, over a charcoal fire. The combination of the metals makes achisel that takes a very sharp edge, and is hard enough to maintain the edge for a long time. This technique producesa tools that have a harder edge, usually a hardness rating of Rockwell 64, compared to their western counterparts ofaround 62 on the Rockwell scale. There are two basic metals used in these chisels, white steel and blue steel. Thenames come from the color of the paper the steels are wrapped in. White and blue steel come in vary grades, thatvary in carbon content. Both have low levels of impurities. White steel is a simple carbon steel. Blue steel containsalloying elements, and sacrifices some sharpness for edge retention, toughness, and corrosion resistance, although itis not stainless.Many makers are descendants of the samurai sword makers, once highly respected members of their country, untilthese swords were outlawed. The chisel makers often turned their attention to chisel and plane makers. Expensivesets have a decorative wood grain look to them which is actually the thin layers of steel being hammered together.The neck of the chisel can be twisted to add to the decorative look of the tool. The handles are often made from an

Chisel 11

exotic hardwood, such as ebony. The sets usually come in a wooden box, signed by the maker.Japanese chisels have hollows in the back side, the wider ones having as many as four hollows. These are intended tohelp in the flattening of the back of the chisels, which is the first step in sharpening a chisel. Once the back side isperfectly flat, and polished to the required degree, the front and side edges need to be addressed. A general rule isany chisel with a hoop, or metal ring at the end of the handle, is it's designed to be struck with mallet. If it does nothave a hoop, it is a paring tool, designed not to be struck with another tool.

Lathe toolsA lathe tool is a woodworking chisel designed to cut wood as it is spun on a lathe. These tools have longer handlesfor more leverage, needed to counteract the tendency of the tool to react to the downward force of the spinning woodbeing cut or carved. In addition, the angle and method of sharpening is different, a secondary bevel would not beground on the tool. Woodworking chisels range from quite small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels usedremove big sections of wood, in 'roughing out' the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in woodcarving, one startswith a larger tool, and gradually progresses to smaller tools to finish the detail. One of the largest types of chisel isthe slick, used in timber frame construction and wooden shipbuilding.

Metalworking chiselsChisels used in metal work can be divided into two main categories, hot chisels, and cold chisels. A hot chisel isused to cut metal that has been heated in a forge to soften the metal.

Cold chisel

Bull Point & Cold Chisel

A cold chisel is a tool made of tempered steel used for cutting'cold' metals, meaning that they are not used in conjunction withheating torches, forges, etc. Cold chisels are used to remove wastemetal when a very smooth finish is not required or when the workcannot be done easily with other tools, such as a hacksaw, file,bench shears or power tools.

The name cold chisel comes from its use by blacksmiths to cutmetal while it was cold as compared to other tools they used to cuthot metal. This tool is also commonly referred to by the misnomer'coal chisel'. Because cold chisels are used to form metal, theyhave a less-acute angle to the sharp portion of the blade than awoodworking chisel. This gives the cutting edge greater strengthat the expense of sharpness.

Cold chisels come in a variety of sizes, from fine engraving tools that are tapped with very light hammers, tomassive tools that are driven with sledgehammers. Cold chisels are forged to shape and hardened and tempered (to abrown colour) at the cutting edge.

The head of the chisel is chamfered to slow down the formation of the mushroom shape caused by hammering and isleft soft to withstand hammer blows.The are four common types of cold chisel. These are the flat chisel, the most widely known type, which is used to cut bars and rods to reduce surfaces and to cut sheet metal which is too thick or difficult to cut with tin snips. The cross cut chisel is used for cutting grooves and slots. The blade narrows behind the cutting edge to provide clearance. The round nose chisel is used for cutting semi-circular grooves for oil ways in bearings. The diamond point chisel is used for cleaning out corners or difficult places and pulling over centre punch marks wrongly placed for drilling. Although the vast majority of cold chisels are made of steel, a few are manufactured from beryllium copper, for use

Chisel 12

in special situations where non-sparking tools are required.

Hardy chisel

A toothed stonechisel, used by stone

sculptors and →stonemasons

A hardy chisel is a type of hot chisel with a square shank, which is held in place with thecutting edge facing upwards by placing it in an anvil's Hardy hole. The hot workpiece cut isthen placed over the hardy, and struck with a hammer. The hammer drives the chisel into thehot metal, allowing it to be snapped off with a pair of tongs.

Stone chisels

Stone chisels are used to carve or cut stone, bricks or concrete slabs. To cut, as opposed tocarve, a brick bolster is used; this has a wide, flat blade that is tapped along the cut line toproduce a groove, then hit hard in the centre to crack the stone. Sculptors use a spoon chisel,which is bent, with the bezel (cutting edge) on both sides. To increase the force, stone chiselsare often hit with club hammers, a heavier type of hammer.

Masonry chisels

bolster chisel

Masonry chisels are typically heavy, with a relativelydull head that wedges and breaks, rather than cuts.Normally used as a demolition tool, they may bemounted on a hammer drill, jack hammer, or hammeredmanually, usually with a heavy hammer of threepounds or more.

Plugging chisel

A Plugging chisel has a tapered edge for cleaning out hardened mortar. The chisel is held with one hand and struckwith a hammer. The direction of the taper in the blade determines if the chisel cuts deep or runs shallow along thejoint.

See also• Broach• Burin• Spud bar• Gouge

Further reading• Reader's Digest Book of Skills & Tools ISBN 0-89577-469-0

Compass (drafting) 13

Compass (drafting)

A beam compass and a regular compass

In some medieval illustrations, the compass wasused as a symbol of God's act of creation

A compass or, more properly, pair of compasses is a technicaldrawing instrument that can be used for inscribing circles or arcs. Asdividers, they can also be used as a tool to measure distances, inparticular on maps. Compasses can be used for mathematics, drafting,navigation, and other purposes.

Compasses are usually made of metal, and consist of two partsconnected by a hinge which can be adjusted. Typically one part has aspike at its end, and the other part a pencil, or sometimes a pen. Circlescan be made by fastening one leg of the compasses into the paper withthe spike, putting the pencil on the paper, and moving the pencilaround while keeping the hinge on the same angle. The radius of thecircle can be adjusted by changing the angle of the hinge.

Distances can be measured on a map using compasses with two spikes,also called a dividing compass. The hinge is set in such a way that thedistance between the spikes on the map represents a certain distance inreality, and by measuring how many times the compasses fit betweentwo points on the map the distance between those points can becalculated.

Compass and straightedge construction is used to illustrate principlesof plane geometry. Although a real pair of compasses is used to draftvisible illustrations, the ideal compass used in proofs is an abstractcreator of perfect circles. The most rigorous definition of this abstracttool is the "collapsing compass"; having drawn a circle from a givenpoint with a given radius, it disappears; it cannot simply be moved toanother point and used to draw another circle of equal radius (unlike areal pair of compasses). Euclid showed in his second proposition(Book I of the Elements) that such a collapsing compass could be usedto transfer a distance, proving that a collapsing compass could doanything a real compass can do.

Variants

Beam compass is an instrument with a wooden or brass beam and sliding sockets, or cursors, for drawing anddividing circles larger than those made by a regular pair of compasses. [1]

Scribe-compass [2] is an instrument used by carpenters and other tradesmen. Some compasses can be used to scribecircles, bisect angles and in this case to trace a line. It is the compass in the most simple form. Both branches arecrimped metal. One branch has a pencil sleeve while the other branch is crimped with a fine point protruding fromthe end. The wing nut serves two purposes, first it tightens the pencil and secondly it locks in the desired distancewhen the wing nut is turned clockwise.

Compass (drafting) 14

A thumbscrew compass for setting andmaintaining a precise turkey radius

Loose leg wing dividers [3] are made of all forged steel. The pencilholder, thumb screws, brass pivot and branches are all well built. Theyare used for scribing circles and stepping off repetitive measurements[4] with some accuracy.

As a symbol

A computer drawncompass, used tosymbolize precise

designing ofapplications.

A compass is often used as a symbol of precision and discernment. As such it finds a place inlogos and symbols such as the Freemasons' Square and Compasses and in various computericons. John Donne uses the compass as a conceit in "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning"(1611).

Compass for tracing a line. Flat branch, pivot wing nut,pencil sleeve branch of the

scribe-compass.

6”Dividers made from forgedsteel

A compass on the Coat of Armsof East Germany (German

Democratic Republic)

Compass (drafting) 15

See also• Masonic Square and Compasses• Dividers

External links• beam or trammel compass [5] (variant form)

References[1] This article incorporates content from the 1728 Cyclopaedia, a publication in the public domain.[2] Fine Woodworking, Build a Fireplace Mantel, Mario Rodriquez, pgs. 73, 75, The Taunton Press, No. 184, June 2006[3] The Carpenter's Manifesto, Jeffrey Ehrlich & Marc Mannheimer, Holt, Rhinehart & Winston, pg. 64, 1977[4] Fine Woodworking, Laying out dovetails, Chris Gochnour, pg. 31, The Taunton Press, No. 190, April 2007[5] http:/ / museum. nist. gov/ object. asp?ObjID=9

Dimension stone

Large blocks of granite dimension stone being loaded at Teignmouth in 1827.

Dimension stone is natural stone or rock thathas been selected and fabricated (i.e., trimmed,cut, drilled, ground, or other) to specific sizes orshapes. Color, texture and pattern, and surfacefinish of the stone are also normal requirements.Another important selection criterion isdurability, the time measure of the ability ofdimension stone to endure and to maintain itsessential and distinctive characteristics ofstrength, resistance to decay, and appearance. [1]

Quarries that produce dimension stone orcrushed stone (used as construction aggregate)are interconvertible. Since most quarries canproduce either one, a crushed stone quarry canbe converted to dimension stone production.However, first the stone shattered by heavy andindiscriminate blasting must be removed.Dimension stone is separated by more preciseand delicate techniques, such as diamond wire saws, diamond belt saws, burners (jet-piercers), or light and selectiveblasting with Primacord, a weak explosive.

Although a variety of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks are used as dimension stone, the principal rocktypes are granite, limestone, marble, travertine, quartz-based stone (sandstone, quartzite) and slate. Other varieties ofdimension stone that are normally considered to be special minor types include alabaster (massive gypsum),soapstone (massive talc), serpentine and various products fashioned from natural stone. [2]

The commonest finish mentioned below is polished. A polished finish is one having a surface with high luster and strong reflection of incident light (almost mirror-like). The rougher finishes are bush-hammered, honed, sandblasted, and thermal. A bush-hammered finish is one with a rough uniformly patterned surface produced by an impact tool. A honed finish is one with a superfine, smooth, satinlike, nonreflective surface. A sandblasted surface is one with an irregular pitted surface produced by impacting sand particles at high velocity against a stone surface. A thermal (or

Dimension stone 16

flamed) finish is one with a rough nonreflective surface with only a few reflections from cleavage faces, produced byapplying a high-temperature flame. This finish may change the natural color of the stone. [3]

The most easily-accessible general references are the latest (2007) Minerals Yearbook Chapter (production andforeign trade, with statistics), and the latest (Issue 31) Dimension Stone Advocate News (new "building green"developments and demand statistics); see below.

Major applications

Rough cut slabs of granite dimension stone.

While common colors used in some of the majorapplications are listed below, there is an extraordinarilywide range of colours, available in thousands of patterns.These patterns are created by geological phenomena suchas mineral grains, inclusions, veins, cavity fillings, blebs,and streaks. In addition, rocks and stones not normallyclassed as dimension stone are sometimes selected forthese applications. These can included tiles made of jade,agate, and jasper.

Stone (usually granite) countertops and bathroom vanities both involve a finished slab of stone, usually polished butsometimes with another finish (such as honed or sandblasted). Industry standard thicknesses in the United States are3/4" (2 cm) and 1.25" (3 cm). Often 2 cm slabs will be lamintated at the edge to create the appearance of a thickeredge profile. The slabs are cut to fit the top of the kitchen or bathroom cabinet, by measuring, templating or digitaltemplating. Countertop slabs are commonly sawn from rough blocks of stone by reciprocating gangsaws using steelshot as abrasive. More modern technology utilizes diamond wire saws which use less water and energy. Multi-wiresaws with as many as 60 wires can slab a block in less than two hours. The slabs are finished (i.e., polished, honed),then sealed with resin to fill micro-fissures and surface imperfections typically due to the loss of poorly bondedelements such as biotite. The fabricators shop cuts these slabs down to final size and finishes the edges withequipment such as hand-held routers, grinders, CNC equipment, or polishers. There has been a recent (2008) hubbubabout radon emission from granite countertops; the National Safety Council states that the contributions of radon toinside air come from the soil and rock around the residence (69%), the outdoor air and the water supply (28%), andonly 2.5% from all building materials-including granite countertops. A concerned homeowner can employ ASTMradon mitigation and removal techniques.[4] The stone for countertops or vanities is usually granite, but often ismarble (especially for vanity tops), and sometimes limestone or slate. The majority of the stone for this application isproduced in Brazil, Italy, and China.

Dimension stone 17

Slate tile covers this entire structure in Germany.

Tile is a thin modular stone unit, commonly 12 in. square(30.5 cm) and 3/8 in. (10 mm) thick. Other popular sizesare 15 in. square (38 cm), 18 in. square (46 cm), and 24in. square (61 cm); these will usually be thicker than the12 in. square. The majority of tile has a polished finish,but other finishes such as honed are becoming morecommon. Almost all stone tile is mass-produced byautomated tile lines to identical size, finish, and closetolerances. Exceptions include slate flooring tile andspecial orders: tile with odd sizes or shapes, unusualfinishes, or inlay work. In summary, the automated tileline is a complicated complex of cutting and calibratingmachines, honing-polishing machines, edging machinesthat put on flat or rounded edges, and interconnectingconveyors to move the stone from the slab input to thefinal tile product. The stone for tiles is most commonlymarble, but often is granite, and sometimes limestone,slate, or quartz-based stone. Common colors are whiteand light earth colors. Much of the stone for thisapplication is produced in Italy and China.

Stone monuments include tombstones, grave markers oras mausoleums. After being gangsawed into big thick (up to 10 ft (3.0 m). long and over 6 in. thick) slabs, smallersaws or guillotines (they break the granite and make the rough edges commonly seen on monuments) shape themonuments. The fronts and backs are usually polished. The individual monuments are then carved, shaped, andfurther defined by hand tools and sandblasting equipment. At this time, the stone for monuments is most commonlygranite, sometimes marble (as in military cemeteries), and rarely others. An old rose quartz tombstone stands in aHarpers Ferry cemetery. Sandstone was common in the nineteenth century but is no longer used due to rapid rates oferosion. Most common monument colors for granite are gray, then black, then mahoghany; for marble it is white.Today, the majority of the stone used in North America in this application is imported from such countries as Indiaand China. This has depressed traditional North American monument centres such as Georgia and Quebec.

Dimension stone has been used in the construction of buildings forcenturies. Due to costs, today stone veneers are usually used in

place of solid stone blocks. This courthouse was built ofdimension stone quarried in Berea, Ohio.

There are a number of smaller applications for buildingsand traffic-related uses. Building components includestone used as veneer (exterior), ashlar, or other shapes.Veneer is a nonload-bearing facing of stone attached to abacking, of an ornamental nature though it protects andinsulates. Ashlar is a square block of stone, oftenbrick-sized, for facing of walls (primarily exterior). Theother shapes are rectangular blocks used for stair treads,sills, and coping (coping is sometimes nonrectangular).The shapes subject to foot traffic will usually have anabrasive finish such as honed or sandblasted. The stone ismostly limestone, but often is quartz-based stone(sandstone), or even marble or granite. Roofing slate is athin-split shingle-sized piece of slate, and when in place

Dimension stone 18

forms the most permanent kind of roof; slate is also used as countertops and flooring tile. Traffic-related stone is thatwhich is used for curbing (vehicular) and flagstone (pedestrian). Curbing is thin stone slabs used along streets orhighways to maintain the integrity of sidewalks and borders. Flagstone is a thin naturally irregular-edged slab ofstone, sometimes sawed into a rectangular shape, used as paving (almost always pedestrian). For curbing, the stone isalmost always granite, and for flagstone the stone is almost always quartz-based stone (sandstone or quartzite).[5]

There are several other applications resembling flagstone in using rough dimension (or crushed) stone, usually asquarried, sometimes made smaller (i.e. by a jackhammer), often simply put in place: dry stone and riprap.The stone used in these applications usually has to have certain properties, or meet a standard specification. TheAmerican Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has such specifications for granite, marble, limestone,quartz-based dimension stone (C616), slate (C629), travertine (C1527), and serpentine (C1526). [6] [7] [8]

Production

Marble quarry in Carrara, Italy.

The major producers of dimension stone include Brazil,China, India, Italy, and Spain, and each have annualproduction levels of nine to over twenty-two million tons.Portugal produces 3 million tons of dimension stone eachyear.According to the USGS, 2007 U.S. dimension stoneproduction was 1.39 million tons valued at $275 million,compared to 1.33 million tons (revised) valued at $265million in 2006. Of these, granite production was 453,000tons valued at $106 million in 2007 and 428,000 tonsvalued at $105 million in 2006, and limestone was493,000 tons valued at $93.3 million in 2007 and 559,000tons valued at $96.1 million in 2006. The United States is at best a mid-level dimension stone producer on the worldscene; Portugal produces twice as much dimension stone annually.[9] [10]

World comparison for dimension stone demand: The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Granite Index showed agrowth of 14% annually for the 2000-2007 period, compared to 15% annually for the 2000-2006 period. The DSANWorld Demand for (finished) Marble Index showed a growth of 13.7% annually for the 2000-2007 period, comparedto 12% annually for the 2000-2006 period. Other DSAN indexes for 2008 (semifinal) indicate that the 2000-2008growth probably will be down from the 2000-2007 growth.[11] [11]

The DSAN U.S. Ceramic Tile Demand Index shows a drop of 4.8% annually for the 2000-2007 period, compared togrowth of 5.0% annually for the 2000-2006 period. The "traditional" major ceramic tile suppliers, Italy and Spain,have been losing markets to new entrants Brazil and China. The same thing has been happening with dimensionstone with increasing supplies from Brazil, China and India.[11]

In early 2009, the Chinese Government has a hands-off policy towards its dimension stone industry.

Dimension stone 19

"Building green" with dimension stone

Marble cladding on a building.

Green building or environmentally friendly constructionwith natural materials, is an idea that has been around forseveral decades. Energy price increases and the need forenergy conservation when heating or cooling buildingshave recently brought it to the fore. This resulted in theformation in 1993 of the U.S. Green Building Council(USGBC), which has developed a building rating systemcalled Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design(LEED). Educational institutions (colleges, universities,grade, and high schools) are often requiring newbuildings to be green, and a few jurisdictions (i.e., somecities) have some rules pushing green building. When"building green", dimension stone has a big advantageover concrete, aluminum, and steel, whose productions are all highly energy intensive and create much air and waterpollution. As an entirely natural product, dimension stone also has an advantage over quartz surface artificial stone(resin-agglomerated stone) made from mixed quartz sand or ground stone and a resin (i.e., acrylic). One LEEDrequirement provides that the dimension stone used in a green building be quarried within a 500-mile (800 km)radius of the building being constructed. This gives a clear advantage to domestic dimension stone, plus somequarried near the U.S. borders with Canada and Mexico. A current problem is how to consider stone quarrieddomestically, sent to China or Italy for finishing, and shipped back to be used in a project. Dimension stone also hasthe advantage from a green perspective of being recyclable and can often be recycled and not sent to a landfill. Thereare also "green" ways of cleaning stone being developed; for example, removing the black gypsum crusts that formon marble and limestone by applying sulfate-reducing bacteria to the crust to gasify most of it, breaking up the crust.See DSAN for updates on "building green" and dimension stone recycling. [11]

The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is reexamining and will probably update its "Green Guides" which it uses toregulate green advertising claims. The FTC's updating will emphasize green building, including the products itinvolves, such as dimension stone. When the new requirements are finalized, the FTC will go after firms that violatethe new requirements, in order to establish legal precedents.The Natural Stone Council has an extensive amount of information on building green with dimension stone,including a life-cycle inventory for each major dimension stone (i.e. granite, limestone), giving the amount ofenergy, water, and other inputs required per ton of stone extracted and produced, plus the amount of emissions to theair and water that occur during processing. Some best practice studies are available, for example, on waterconsumption, treatment, and reuse while extracting and processing dimension stone, including dust mitigation,sludge management, and maximizing water recycling. [12]

Sustainability of dimension stoneDimension stone is one of the most sustainable of the industrial minerals since it is created by separating it from the natural bedrock underlying all land on every continent. Dimension stone rates very well in terms of the criteria on the ASTM checklist for sustainability of building products: there are no toxic materials used in its processing, there are no direct greenhouse gas emissions during processing, the dust created is controlled, the water used is almost completely recycled (per OSHA/MSHA regulation), and it is a perpetual resource (virtually inexhaustible in a human time scale). Dimension stone in use can last many generations, even centuries, so the dimension stone manufacturers haven't needed a product recycling program. [13] However, there are practical qualifications to and constraints on that sustainability. The dimension stone color and pattern can be changed by weathering when it is very near the surface.

Dimension stone 20

The color and pattern can also be changed by proximity to an igneous rock body or by the presence of circulatinggroundwater charged with carbon dioxide (i.e., limestone, travertine, marble). On the other hand, changes in colorand/or pattern can be positive. For example, there are at least 14 separately trade-named varieties of Carrara Marblewith many patterns (or no patterns) ranging in shade from white to gray. The presence of faults or closely-spacedjoints can render the stone unusable. These faults and joints do not have to be at odd angles in the stone mass.Closely-spaced, wrongly-spaced, or nonparallel bedding planes can make the stone unusable, particularly if thebedding planes are planes of weakness. If part of the stone in one area is unusable, there will be another usable partof the stone elsewhere in the formation. A quarry is not a short-term project unless it encounters one of theseconstraints. Examples of big, old quarries operating for more than a century include the Barre (VT) granite quarry,the Georgia Marble quarry at Tate, several of the Carrara (Italy) marble quarries, and the Penrhyn (Wales) slatequarry. A quarry will produce dust, noise, and some water pollution, but these can be remedied without too muchtrouble. The landscape may also have to be restored if quarry waste is temporarily or permanently placed on adjacentland.[14]

Stone recycling and reuse

Reconstruction of the Charles Bridge in Prague showingnumbered dimension blocks.

Recycling dimension stone can occur when structures aredemolished, along with recycling timber and recyclingconstruction aggregate in the form of concrete. Thematerial most likely to be recycled is concrete, and thisrepresents the largest volume of recycled constructionmaterial. Not too many structures incorporate dimensionstone, and even less of them have dimension stone worthsaving. Stone recycling is usually done by specialists thatmonitor local demolition activity, looking forstone-containing houses, buildings, bridge abutments, andother dimension stone structures scheduled fordemolition. Particularly treasured are old hand-carvedstone pieces with the chisel marks still on them, localstones no longer quarried or that are quarried in adifferent shade of color or appearance. There is nonational or regional trade in reclaimed stone, so a largestorage yard is required, since the recovered stone maynot be quickly sold and reused. The recycled dimension

stone is used in old stone buildings being renovated (to replace deteriorated stone pieces), in fireplace mantels,benches, veneer, or for landscaping (like for retaining walls).

Dimension stone 21

The Parthenon in Athens underwent a major reconstruction priorto the 2004 Olympics.

Related to stone recycling and stone reuse is thedeconstruction and reconstruction of a stone building.The building is taken apart stone block by stone blockand the location and orientation of each block is carefullynoted. Any roofing slate and interior stone in place iscatalogued and moved in the same fashion. Aftertransporting the blocks, slate, and other stone used to thenew location, they are put back in place where and howthey were originally, thus reassembling the building. Thishas been a very uncommon occurrence, but will probablybecome more common in the future.

Dimension stone is also reused. Buildings immediatelyspring to mind, but such things as the ornate stone walls,arches, stairways and balustrades alongside a boulevardcan also be renovated and reused. Sometimes the old interior of the building is kept as is, after repair. Sometimes theold building is gutted, leaving only a shell or facade and the space inside reconfigured and modernized. The stonework will usually need attention too. [15]

The old stone work may only need cleaning or sandblasting, but it may need more. Firstly, the building exterior(facade) needs to be inspected for unsafe conditions.[16] Next, the building walls need to be inspected for waterleakages.[17] The most likely needs are mortar restoration (repointing), applying consolidants to the old stone, orreplacing pieces of stone that are deteriorated (damaged) beyond the point of any repair. The repointing is theremoval of existing damaged mortar from the outer portion of the joint between stone units and its replacement bynew mortar matching the appearance of the old.[18] The consolidants re-establish the original natural bondingbetween the stone particles that weathering has removed.[19] Deteriorated pieces of stone work are replaced withpieces of stone that match the original as much as possible. Exterior dimension stone will often change color afterexposure to weather over time. For example, Indiana Limestone will weather from a tan to an attractive light yellow.Interior dimension stone can sometimes change its shade a little over time too. For both, it may not be possible tofind an exact match, even from the original quarry. Stone will often change its appearance from location to locationin the same quarry. If the dimension stone renovationist is truly fortunate, the original builder put aside some sparepieces of the stone for future need.

Stone selection and cleaningThe selector of dimension stone begins by considering stone color and appearance, and how the stone will match itssurroundings. The selector has literally thousands of options to choose from, and should examine many options. Inaddition to many hundreds of different stones with different colors and patterns, each stone can change radically incolor and appearance when a different finish is put on it. A polished finish accentuates the color and makes anypattern more vivid, and the rougher finishes (i.e. honed, thermal) lighten the color and make the patterns moresubdued. With thousands of possibilities, the selector must start by looking at many stones in many differentfinishes, or photos of them. Such photos can be found on some dimension stone websites, and on DSAN's ArchitectsStone Selection Helper.In addition to selecting a stone color and pattern, the suitability of its properties for the intended use must be considered. Stone being chosen for countertops or vanities should be nonabsorptive, resist stains, and be heat and impact resistant. Stone being used in tiles should be sealed in order to resist staining by spilled liquids. Stone being used for flooring, paving, or surfaces subject to foot or vehicular traffic ought to have a semiabrasive finish for slip resistance, such as bush-hammered or thermal. A glossy polished finish will be slick. Most flagstone surfaces are rough enough to be naturally slip-resistant. The ASTM document C1528 Standard Guide for Stone Selection is very

Dimension stone 22

helpful, and covers topics not mentioned here. [20]

Dimension stone requires some specialized methods for cleaning and maintenance. Abrasive cleaners should not beused on a polished stone finish because it will wear the polish off. Acidic cleaners can not be used on marble orlimestone because it will remove (i.e. dissolve) the finish. Textured finishes (thermal, bush-hammered) can betreated with some mildly abrasive cleaners but not bleach or an acidic cleaner (if marble or limestone). Stains areanother consideration; stains can be organic (food, grease, or oil) or metallic (iron, copper). Stains require somespecial removal techniques, such as the poultice method. A new method of cleaning stone on ancient buildings(midaeval and renaissance) has been developed in Europe: sulfur-reducing bacteria are used on the blackgypsum-containing crusts that form on such buildings to convert the sulfur to a gas that dissipates, thus destroyingthe crust while leaving the patina produced by aging on the underlying stone. This method is still in development andnot commercially available yet. The ASTM document C1515 Standard Guide for Cleaning of Exterior DimensionStone is also very helpful, and covers problems and remedies not mentioned here [21] ; if masonry, concrete or stuccowalls are also involved, see [22]

See also• Construction aggregate• Deconstruction (building)• Green building• Marble• Stones of India• Limestone• Stone carving• Stone Cutting and Quarrying Companies

External links and references

General• USGS 2007 Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Dimension [23]

• Dimension Stone Advocate News (DSAN) Issue 31 [24]

• Dimension Stone Statistics and Information [25] - United States Geological Survey minerals information fordimension stone

References[1] ASTM, C18, C119-08 Standard Terminology Relating to Dimension Stone", ASTM, 2008, p.8 ISBN 0-8031-4118-1[2] ASTM, C18 "C119-06 Standard Terminology Relating to Dimension Stone", ASTM, 2007, pp. 11-13 ISBN 0-8031-4104-1| Types of Stones

by Group|[3] ASTM, C18 "C119-06 Standard Terminology Relating to Dimension Stone", ASTM, 2007, pp. 9-10 ISBN 0-8031-4104-1|Types of Stone

Finishes|[4] ASTM, E06, "E2121-08 Standard Practice for Installing Radon Mitigation Systems in Existing Low-Rise Residential Buildings", ASTM,

2008, pp. 644-656 ISBN 978-0-8031-5768-2[5] L. Mead and G.S. Austin "Dimension Stone", Industrial Minerals and Rocks, 7th Edition, Littleton CO: AIME-Society of Mining Engineers,

2005, pp. 907-923 ISBN 0-87335-233-5[6] ASTM, C18, "C615-03 Standard Specification for Granite Dimension Stone" , ASTM, 2007, pp. 49-50 ISBN 0-8031-4104-1[7] ASTM, C18, "C503-05 Standard Specification for Marble Dimension Stone", ASTM, 2007, pp. 30-31 ISBN 0-8031-4104-1[8] ASTM, C18, "C568-03 Standard Specification for Limestone Dimension Stone", ASTM, 2007, pp. 45-46 ISBN 0-8031-4104-1[9] [|http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ stone_dimension/ myb1-2007-stond. pdf][10] [|http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ stone_dimension/ myb1-2006-stond. pdf][11] " Dimension Stone Advocate News-Outlook Reexamined 2008 No. 31 November 2008 (http:/ / www. basicsmines. com/ dimensionstone/

index. html)". . Retrieved March 18 2009.

Dimension stone 23

[12] [|http:/ / www. genuinestone. com/ env_researchandresults. php][13] ASTM, E06, "E2129-05 Standard Practice for Data Collection for Sustainability Assessment of Building Products", ASTM, 2008, pp.

710-719 ISBN 978-0-8031-5768-2[14] Billings, Marland P. "Structural Geology" 2nd ed. Prentice-Hall, NJ, 1954, pp. 124-163, 263-320, and 336-382[15] ASTM, C18, "C1496-01 Standard Guide for Assessment and Maintenance of Exterior Dimension Stone Masonry Walls and Facades",

ASTM, 2007, pp. 519-523 ISBN 0-8031-4104-1[16] ASTM, E06, "Standard Practice for Periodic Inspection of Building Facades for Unsafe Conditions", ASTM, 2008, pp.1015-1020 ISBN

978-8031-5768-2[17] ASTM, E06, "Standard Guide for Evaluating Water Leakage of Building Walls", ASTM, 2008, pp.675-709 ISBN 978-0-8031-5768-2[18] ASTM, E06, "E2260-03 Standard Guide for Repointing (Tuckpointing Historic Masonry", ASTM, 2008 pp. 959-962 ISBN

978-0-8031-5768-2[19] ASTM, E06, "Standard Guide for Selection and Use of Stone Consolidants", ASTM, 2008, pp. 847-853 ISBN 978-0-8031-5768-2[20] ASTM, C18, "C1528-02 Standard Guide for Selection of Dimension Stone for Exterior Use", ASTM, 2007, pp. 563-575 ISBN

0-8031-4104-1[21] ASTM, C18, "C1515-01 Standard Guide for Cleaning of Exterior Dimension Stone, Vertical and Horizontal Surfaces, New or Existing",

ASTM, 2007, pp. 530-534 ISBN 0-8031-4104-1[22] ASTM, E06, "E1857-97 Standard Guide for Selection of Cleaning Techniques for Masonry, Concrete, and Stucco Surfaces" ASTM, 2008,

pp. 675-709 ISBN 978-0-8031-5768-2[23] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ stone_dimension/ myb1-2007-stond. pdf[24] http:/ / www. basicsmines. com/ dimensionstone/ index. html[25] http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ stone_dimension/

Lewis (lifting appliance)

Lewises in a stonemasonry workshop

A Lewis is a category of lifting devices used byStonemasons to lift large stones into place with a crane,chain block or winch. It is inserted into a speciallyprepared hole or "seating" in the top of a stone, directlyabove its centre of mass. It works by applying principlesof the lever and utilises the weight of the stone to act onthe long lever-arms which in turn results in a very highreaction force and friction where the short lever-armsmake contact with the stone inside the hole and therebyprevents slipping.

A Lewis is most useful when it is not possible to lift thestone with chains or slings, because of either the locationor shape of the stone, or delicate projections e.g. theclosing stone in a string course; cylindrical columndrums; decorated column capitals; coping stones in apediment. Heavy ashlar stones are also bedded using aLewis.

The name Lewis probably came from the Latin leuismeaning ‘to levitate’—the Romans used the lewis. Thespecially shaped hole that is shaped to fit the device isknown as a ‘Lewis hole’. Lewis holes in the uppermostmasonry coursings are neatly repaired with matching indented plugs after the stone has been set in place.

Lewis (lifting appliance) 24

Chain Lewis

Split Pin Lewis

Safety caution The Lewis is liable to slip out of theseating if some of the weight of the stone is subtractedfrom the appliance, such as when the stone bumps on thescaffolding on its way up to its final location. For thisreason, a safety sling should always be used together withthe Lewis until the stone is reasonably close to its finalposition. Lifting the stone a small distance from theground before hoisting is the best way to test a Lewis.Any sign of looseness or damage should be put right byadjusting the Lewis hole or packing the Lewis with metalshims.

Bedding a stone using a Lewis: The stone is placed ondunnage laid flat with enough clearance for a mortar bedto be placed beneath it. The safety straps are removed, thestone is lifted using the Lewis alone, and the dunnageremoved with fingers clear. The stone is then loweredonto the mortar bed, and positioned with sharp taps froma rubber → mallet.

There are a number of different types of Lewis used in theStonemasonry trade:

Chain-linked Lewis

A Chain-linked Lewis or Chain Lewis is made from twocurved steel legs, linked by three steel rings. The legs fitinto a seating cut in the top of the stone, above the centreof mass. When the top of the curved legs are pulledtogether by the rings, the bottom portions are forced intothe lower part of the seating, thereby providing enoughfriction to lift the stone.

Split-pin Lewis

The Split-pin Lewis is similar to the Chain-linked Lewisin that it uses a scissor-like action to produce frictionagainst the inside of the Lewis hole. The two legs,semicircular in section, lie side-by-side, and fit inside a32mm diameter hole drilled to a minimum depth of82mm. This type of Lewis seating is the simplest toprepare, requiring a single drilled hole.

Two-pinned Lewis

Lewis (lifting appliance) 25

A Two-pinned Lewis consists of two 13 mm diameter steel pins, linked by a short chain. The pins are inserted intoopposing holes that are drilled into the top of the stone at about 15 degrees from vertical, and at least 75 mm deep. Itoperates by gripping the stone (like two fingers lifting a tenpin bowling ball) as the weight of the stone is taken up bya crane or winch. The advantage of using this type of Lewis is that it is simple to prepare - two angled drill holes areall that is necessary. Like other types of Lewis, it is susceptible to pulling out as the stone is lifted. It should alwaysbe tested before hoisting, and used in conjunction with safety slings.

Three-legged LewisA Three-legged Lewis, also known as a Dovetailed Lewis, St Peter's Keys or a Wilson bolt fits into a dovetailedseating in the top of a building stone. It is made from three pieces of rectangular-section 13 mm-thick steel (legs)held together with a shackle, allowing connection to a lifting hook. The middle leg is square throughout its length.The outer legs are thinner at the top, flaring towards the bottom. Held together, the three legs form a dovetail shape.The Lewis hole seating is undercut (similar to a Chain-linked Lewis hole) to match its profile.The first outer leg is inserted into the Lewis hole, followed by the second outer leg. The inner (parallel) leg isinserted last, pushing the outer legs into contact with the inside of the Lewis hole. The shackle is unbolted, placedover the legs, and the bolt fastened through both the shackle eyes and the eye in the top of each leg.This type of Lewis is the safest to use because it relies on its dovetailed shape for security instead of friction alone,however the seating is time-consuming to prepare.Their resemblance, once assembled, to a bunch of keys gave rise to an alternative name for them of "St Peter's keys".This has frequently been represented allegorically, drawing the name of "St Peter" as "the Rock on which I shallfound my Church" into an allegory between the fabric of a church building and the community of the church itself.Some illustrations of St Peter even show him carrying a bunch of keys which appear to have no wards. These aren'tkeys in the lock-making sense, but in this sense of stonemasonry.

External LewisThe External Lewis, Kerb Lifter or Slab Lifter is a type of lifting device used in the → Stonemasonry trade sinceMedieval times. The External Lewis was originally shaped like a pair of scissor-tongs, and swung from a treadwheelcrane. Gunther Binding published this example of an External Lewis hanging from a tripod in "Medieval BuildingTechniques" (Tempus Publishing).The External Lewis has been modified to handle kerbstones and large slabs of polished stone in contemporary stoneyards.A Manual Kerb Lifter is a large, adjustable pair of tongs, made with a pair of handles so that two men canmanoeuvre heavy blocks of stone into position. A Mechanical Kerb Lifter can also be made to fit mechanical lifterslike forklifts or crane-trucks so that larger stones can be placed.In stone yards, a Slab Lifter is hung from a shed gantry or forklift to transport slabs of stone between storage racksand stone processing machines. It consists of two hinged, weighted friction pads that close astride the top of a slab,and are pulled tightly together by the weight of the slab itself.The slab lifter uses two safety devices. Safety chains and a support bracket allow safe lifting of large slabs. Thislifting appliance also has a safety locking device that is engaged when the gripping pads are activated by the weightof the stone. This prevents any jerking movement from releasing the stone. It is easily disengaged once the slab issecured at its destination.[1]

Lewis (lifting appliance) 26

Gallery

Indented Lewis holes A split pin Lewis placed in the top of an altarstone

a French type chain-linked Lewis

St Peter's keys in the Duomo, Florence

The principle of the three-legged Lewis or St.Peter's keys

External Lewis: Gravity-clamp Slab Lifter

Slab lifter

Slab lifter safety lock

A German kerb lifter and St Peter's keys

Lewis (lifting appliance) 27

External links• The Postgraduate Forum [2] Ted Morgan investigates connections between ancient Roman technology and recent

British engineering practices.

References[1] http:/ / www. freemasonry. bcy. ca/ texts/ gmd2007/ vgmd26. pdf[2] http:/ / www. ncl. ac. uk/ historical/ postgrad_forum/ ed_1/ ed_1_morgan. pdf

MalletA mallet is a kind of hammer, usually of wood, smaller than a maul or beetle and usually with a relatively largehead.

Tools

A rubber mallet, used in construction,woodworking, and auto-body work.

A wooden mallet.

Stonemason's mallets of plastic, wood and steel

Tool mallets come in different types, the most common of which are:• Rubber mallets are used when a softer blow is called for than that

delivered by a metal hammer. They are typically used to form sheetmetal, since they don't leave marks, as well as for forcingtight-fitting parts together, for shifting plasterboard into place, inupholstery, and a variety of other general purposes, including sometoys. It is the most commonly used mallet.

• Wooden mallet, usually used in carpentry to knock wooden piecestogether, or to drive dowels or → chisels. A wooden mallet will notdeform the striking end of a metal tool, as most metal hammerswould, but it also reduces the force available to drive the cuttingedge of a chisel. Hardwood mallet is also used to knock in a cricketbat.

• Copper and leaden mallets are typically used on machinery toapply force to parts with a reduced risk of damaging them and toavoid sparks. As copper is softer than steel, the mallet is deformedrather than any steel object it is hitting.

• Meat mallets tenderise or flatten meat. Made from wood or metal,they are typically two-sided, one flat with slight bumps, and theother with more pronounced protrusions. Meat mallets can be madefrom wood, plastic, or steel, but their use has lessened with theinvention of cube steak machines and other electrictenderisers.[1][2]. Meat mallets can also be used to crush ice. This isdone by wrapping the ice in a fabric (usually a tea towel) andcrushing the ice with the mallet until the desired size of the ice isachieved. Meat mallets can also be used to crush granola bars tomix with yogurt. This is done by placing granola bars in a plastic resealable bag and whacking multiple timeswith the mallet until desired texture is achieved.

Less common mallets include:

Mallet 28

A round-headed copper mallet. Copper malletsare also produced with a "square" head.

An aluminum meat mallet, for tenderizing meat

• Rawhide mallets, which may employ rawhide covering a steelhead, or simply consist of rolled-up rawhide, are used forleatherwork, jewellery, and assembling electric motors and delicatemachinery.

• Plastic mallets, made of nylon, polycarbonate, or polystyrene areused especially in leatherwork and jewellery.

• Split head mallets, which have removable faces which can bechanged to an appropriate material for the job.

• Beedle mallet, a large wooden mallet with a circular pine head,with rounded ends about 18 inches to 15 inched in diameter, with ahandle about 3 feet (0.91 m) long. It was used by paviours forpunning paving stones into position when bedding. An illustrationof the mallet can be found in Charles F. Mitchell's BuildingConstruction,11th edition, printed in 1930 by B.T. Batford, Ltd, 94High Holborn, London.

Beedles are also used in jobs such as timber framing to shift the bases of large wooden posts, fit joints, and drive inpegs.• Dead blow mallets, which have an internal cavity filled with steel or lead shot. This addition evens out the

time-impulse curve of the impact, enabling a more powerful blow to be delivered without risk of marring thetarget.

Mallets of various types are some of the oldest forms of tools, and have been found in stone age gravesites.

Musical instrumentsMallets used as drumsticks are often used to strike a marimba, xylophone, glockenspiel, metallophone, orvibraphone, collectively referred to as mallet percussion. They usually have shafts made of rattan, birch, orfiberglass. Rattan shafts are more flexible than the other materials. Heads vary in size, shape, and material. They maybe made of metal, plastic, rubber, or wood, and some are wrapped with felt, cord, or yarn. Heavier heads producelouder sounds. Harder heads produce sharper and louder sounds and generate more overtones.

ToysMallets are commonly used as children's toys. Lightweight wooden mallets are used for peg toys. Toy mallets arealso used in games such as Whack-a-Mole. Another type of toy mallet is a plastic mallet made of soft, hollow vinyl,with bellows and a built-in whistle, so that when the mallet is struck, it produces a sharp, chirping sound.

Sport• croquet mallets• polo mallets• mallets used in courts by judges, known as gavels

Mallet 29

CartoonsThe accidents received from mistreatment of wooden mallets in the workplace became a classic gag in the LooneyTunes and Disney cartoons. Characters like Bugs Bunny, Donald Duck, Daffy Duck and Roger Rabbit made use ofmallets as part of their arsenal in the Golden Age of animation.In anime and Manga it is very common for an angry character to pull out a large mallet, via hammerspace, and attackthe person or thing that is angering him/her.

References[1] http:/ / missvickie. com/ howto/ meat/ cubesteak. htm[2] http:/ / www. abtelectronics. com/ product/ 12468. html

Plug and feather 30

Plug and feather

Plug and feather

Various examples of plug and feathers.

Other names Feathers andwedgesWedges and shimsPlugs and wedges

The working principle of the plug and feathers

Plug and feather, also known as plugs and wedges,feather and wedges, wedges and shims and featherand tare refers to a technique and a three-piece tool setused to split stone.

Description

Each set consists of a metal wedge (the plug), and twoshims (the feathers). The feathers are wide at thebottom, and tapered and curved at the top. When thetwo feathers are placed on either side of the plug, thecombined width of the set is the same at both ends.

Technique

Multiple sets of plug and feathers are typically used tosplit a single, large piece of stone. The stone is firstexamined to determine the direction of the grain. Afterthe location of the intended split is chosen, a line is scored on the surface of the stone. A number of holes are thencut or drilled into the stone face along the scored line approximately 10 - 20 cm apart. Plug and feather sets are theninserted in the holes with the "ears" of the feathers facing the direction of the desired split. The plugs are then struckwith a small stone maul in sequence. An audible tone from the wedges changes to a 'ringing sound' when the wedgesare tight. Between each series of strikes, a pause of several minutes allows the stone to react to the pressure.Eventually a crack appears along the line that was scored on the surface and the stone splits apart.[1] [2] [3]

Plug and feather 31

HistoryVariations of the plug and feather method have been used since ancient Egyptian times. With this simple mechanicaltechnique, the stone was first measured and marked. Bronze plugs and feathers were then driven into grooves whichhad been previously cut with a → chisel and → mallet.This was the most common method used by the Egyptians forquarrying limestone and sandstone. Evidence of this method for cutting obelisks in the quarries of Aswan can clearlybe seen. [4] The technique was also used by the Romans.[5]

On Dartmoor, Devon, England, the process is known as feather and tare and it was used from around 1800 to splitthe large blocks of granite found on the ground there.[6] It was, for instance, used to make the rails for the HaytorGranite Tramway in 1820.In New England, prior to 1830, a similar technique for splitting stone entailed cutting slots in a shallow line into thestone using a cape → chisel struck with a large hammer. Small, flat metal wedges were then driven between shimsmade of sheet iron. The method of feathers and plugs began to be employed around this time, and spread rapidlythroughout the region. Evidence of stone split with both methods indicate the evolution of this technique. Themethod using the cape chisel created long rectangular slots, whereas the newer method, using a plug drill, left roundholes.[7]

The plug and feather method is still widely[8] in use today.[9] [10]

Gallery

Plug and feathers with stone showing fractureline

Five sets of plug and feathers in theirrespective holes

Pneumatic drilling as a preparation forsplitting gabbro in a Norwegian quarry

Tell-tale signs of splitting techniques used ona block of black granite

Plug and feather 32

See also• Masonry• → Stonemasonry

References[1] http:/ / www. granitecitytool. com/ howtosplitwedgeshim. cfm[2] http:/ / unturned. net/ stone-cutting/[3] Stone by Design, The Artistry of Lew French., Lew French, ISBN 9781586854430[4] Engineering in History, Richard Shelton Kirby, Sidney Withington, Arthur Burr Darling, Frederick Gridley Kilgour., p.23, Dover

Publications 1990., ISBN 0486264122, ISBN 978-0486264127[5] Sticks, stones, and shadows., p. 231., Martin Isler, University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 0-8061-3342-2, ISBN 978-0-8061-3342-3[6] " Industrial Dartmoor (http:/ / www. dartmoor-npa. gov. uk/ au-archpt4. pdf)". Dartmoor National Park Authority. p. 56. . Retrieved

2009-07-14.[7] http:/ / www. nh. gov/ nhdhr/ publications/ documents/ StoneSplittingHandout. pdf[8] http:/ / www. english-heritage. org. uk/ upload/ pdf/ building_in_stone. pdf[9] www.sslg.co.uk/NSInews6.html[10] http:/ / www. minetrainquarry. co. uk/ traditional. html

Ruler

A variety of rulers

A 2 metre carpenter's rule

A ruler, or rule, is an instrument used in geometry, technical drawingand engineering/building to measure distances and/or to rule straightlines. Strictly speaking, the ruler is essentially a → straightedge used torule lines and the calibrated instrument used for determiningmeasurement is called a "measure". However, common usage is that aruler is a calibrated straightedge that can be used for makingmeasurements.

Types

A rule has the measurements start from the end, whereas a ruler has agap between the end and the measurements. Rulers have long beenmade of wood in a wide range of sizes. Plastics have been used sincethey were invented; they can be moulded with length markings insteadof being scribed. Metal is used for more durable rulers for use in theworkshop; sometimes a metal edge is embedded into a wooden deskruler to preserve the edge when used for straight-line cutting. 12 inchesor 30 cm in length is useful for a ruler to be kept on a desk to help indrawing. Shorter rulers are convenient for keeping in a pocket. Longerrulers, e.g., 18 inches (45 cm) are necessary in some cases. Rigidwooden or plastic yardsticks, 1 yard long and metre sticks, 1 metrelong, are also used.

Desk rulers are used for three main purposes: to measure, to aid in drawing straight lines and as a straight guide forcutting and scoring with a blade. Practical rulers have distance markings along their edges.

Ruler 33

Retractable flexible rule or tape measure

A closeup of a steel rule

Measuring instruments similar in function to rulers are made portableby folding (carpenter's folding rule) or retracting into a coil (metal tapemeasure) when not in use. When extended for use they are straight,like a ruler. The illustrations on this page show a 2-meter carpenter'srule which folds down to a length of 24 cm to easily fit in a pocket, anda 5-meter-long tape which retracts into a small housing.

A flexible length measuring instrument which is not necessarilystraight in use is the tailor's fabric tape measure, a length of tapecalibrated in inches and centimetres. It is used to measure around asolid body, e.g., a person's waist measurement, as well as linearmeasurement, e.g., inside leg. It is rolled up when not in use, taking uplittle space.

Ruler applications in geometry

In geometry, a ruler without any marks on it (a → straightedge) may beused only for drawing straight lines between points, not measuring.

A ruler and compass construction refers to constructions using anunmarked ruler and a compass. It is possible to bisect an angle into twoequal parts with ruler and compass. It can be proved, though, that it isimpossible to divide an angle into three equal parts using only acompass and straightedge — the problem of angle trisection. However, should a single mark be allowed on the ruler,the problem becomes solvable.

HistoryRulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization period prior to 1500 BC.[1] Excavations atLothal (2400 BC) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about 1⁄16 in (1.6 mm).[1] Ian Whitelaw holds that theMohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 in (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimalsubdivisions with amazing accuracy, to within 0.005 in (0.13 mm). Ancient bricks found throughout the region havedimensions that correspond to these units.[2]

Anton Ullrich invented the folding ruler in 1851.

See also• Dividing engine• Geometry template• Golomb ruler• Measuring rod• Online ruler• Rolling ruler• Scale rulers: architect's scale and engineer's scale

Ruler 34

References

Bibliography• Whitelaw, Ian (2007). A Measure of All Things: The Story of Man and Measurement. Macmillan. ISBN

0312370261.

References[1] Whitelaw, p. 14.[2] Whitelaw, p. 15.

Set square

triangle, set square

In American English, a set square is an alternative name for aT-square.

A set square or triangle (American English) is an object used in engineeringand technical drawing, with the aim of providing a → straightedge at a rightangle or other particular planar angle to a baseline.

The most simple form of set square is a triangular piece of transparent plastic(or formerly of polished wood) with the centre removed. More commonly theset square combines this with a → ruler and a half circle protractor, like on the picture. The outer edges are typicallybevelled. These set squares come in two usual forms, both right triangles: one with 90-45-45 degree angles, the otherwith 30-60-90 degree angles. Combining the two forms by placing the hypotenuses together will also yield 15° and75° angles. They are often purchased in packs with protractors and → compasses.

Less commonly found is the adjustable set square. Here, the body of the object is cut in half and rejoined with ahinge marked with angles. Adjustment to the marked angle will produce any desired angle up to a maximum of 180°.

See also• Polydrafter• Special right triangles

Steel square 35

Steel square

Steel square

The steel square is a tool that carpenters use. They use many tools tolay out a "square" or right-angle, many of which are made of steel, butthe title steel square refers to a specific long-armed square that hasadditional uses for measurement, especially of angles, as well assimple right-angles. Today the steel square is more commonly referredto as the framing square. It consists of a large arm and a smaller one,which meet at an angle of 90 degrees (a right angle). It can also bemade of metals like aluminum, which is light and resistant to rust.

The wider arm, two inches wide, is called the blade; the narrower arm,one and a half inches wide, the tongue. The square has many uses,including laying out common rafters, hip rafters and stairs. It has a diagonal scale, board foot scale and an octagonalscale. On the newer framing squares there are degree conversions for different pitches and fractional equivalents.

Carpenters squares are very like steel squares.

Use in stair framing

Theoretical rise and run of stringer, placement of square, marking oftread and rise, dropping the stringer, ABC=90°, total rise of stringer

= 2R-T, total run of stringer = 2AB.

Stairs usually consist of three components. They are thestringer, the tread and the riser. The stringer is thestructural member that carries the load of the staircase,the tread is the horizontal part that is stepped on, andthe riser board is the vertical part which runs the widthof the structure. There are many types of stairs: open,closed, fully housed, winding, and so on, to mention afew of them.Laying out a staircase requires rudimentary math.There are numerous building codes to which staircasesmust conform. In an open area the designer canincorporate a more desirable staircase. In a confinedarea this becomes more challenging. In most staircasesthere is one more rise than there are treads.1. The rise (vertical measurement), and the run

(horizontal measurement). Note that the stringer willrest partially on the horizontal surface.

2. This is a two-by-twelve piece of lumber. A framingsquare is placed on the lumber so that the desiredrise and tread marks meet the edge of the board. Theoutline of the square is traced. The square is slid upthe board until the tread is placed on the mark andthe process is repeated.

3. The board is cut along the dotted lines, and the topplumb cut and the bottom level cut are traced by holding the square on the opposite side.

4. The stringer in this example has two pieces of tread stock. This allows for a slight overhang. There is also a space in between the boards. The bottom of the stringer must be cut to the thickness of the tread. This step is called

Steel square 36

dropping the stringer. After one stringer is cut this piece becomes the pattern that is traced onto the remainingstringers.

Use in roof framingThere is a table of numbers on the face side of the steel square; this is called the rafter table. The rafter table allowsthe carpenter to make quick calculations based on the Pythagorean theorem. The table is organized by columns thatcorrespond to various slopes of the roof. Each column describes a different roof inclination (pitch) and contains thefollowing information

This table shows five different types of rafter calculations and onetable for marking an angle called the side cut or cheek cut

This is a common rafter with the two different cuts. The plumb cutfits in the ridge board and the Bird's mouth fits on the wall plate.

1. Common rafter per foot of run The common rafterconnects the peak of a roof (the ridge) to the base ofa roof (the plate). This number gives the length(hypotenuse) of the common rafter per twelve unitsof horizontal distance (run).

2. Hip or valley rafter per foot of run The hip or valleyrafter also connects the ridge to the plate, but lies ata 45-degree angle to the common rafter. Thisnumber gives the length of the hip or valley rafterper seventeen units of run.

3. Difference in lengths jacks The jack rafters lie in thesame plane as the common rafter but connect the topplate (the wall) or ridge board to the hip or valleyrafter respectively. Since the hip or valley raftermeets the ridge board and the common rafter atangles of 45 degrees, the jack rafters will havevarying lengths when they intersect the hip orvalley. Depending on the spacing of the rafters, theirlengths will vary by a constant factor—this numberis the common difference.

4. This angle can be cut on the fly by aligning thisgiven number on the blade of the steel square andthe twelve-inch mark on the tongue, and drawing aline along the tongue.

5. Cutting hip and valley criple rafters are all cut in asimilar way.

Steel square 37

The relationship between hip,jack and common rafters, andhow they tie into the ridge andbottom plate. The rafters are

fastened to the horizontal ridgeboard at the peak of the roof.

The side cut is the beveled angleof the hip or valley rafter that fitsinto the ridge board in this image.

Common and jack rafters all usetwelve as the common reference

to mark the plumb cut.

Hip and jack rafters use twelve asa common reference while

aligning the desired pitch in theside cut column.

Hip and valley rafters useseventeen as the common

reference for marking the plumbcut of a rafter.

Use of the octagon scale

Octagon Table located on the front side of theSteel square.

Octagon table viewed from an aluminumsquare.

Octagon made from the Octagon scale. Aprotractor can accomplish the same task.

Steel square 38

Use of the Diagonal scale

This is the location of the diagonal scale on the square.

The diagonal scale gives the diagonal, or the hypotenuse, for thedifferent legs of the triangle for which a brace is to be cut.

Using calculators in roof framing

There is good reason to use calculators that have verified calculations. Constructioncalculators use rise and run to calculate lengths and angles. Some are programmed tocalculate all side cuts for hip, valley and jack regular rafters to be exactly 45° for all rafterpitches. The rafter table is expressed in inches, and the higher the numerical value of thepitch, the greater the difference between side cut angles within a given pitch. Only a levelroof, or a 0 pitch will require a 45° angle side cut (cheek cut) for hip and jack rafters.

Side cut hip/valley rafter tableIf a right triangle has two angles that equal 45° then the two sides are equidistant. The rafter is the hypotenuse andthe legs or catheti of the triangle are the top wall plates of the structure. The side cut is located at the intersection ofthe given pitch column and the side cut of the hip/valley row. The regular hip/valley rafter runs at a 45° angle to themain roof and the unit of measurement is 12 inches of run. Regular hip/valley and jack rafters have different bevelangles within any given pitch and the angle decreases as the pitch increases.

Steel square 39

Legend

c= hypotenuse

P= pitch

L= rafter length

Z= difference in L of jack rafter 16"OC

The side cut of the hip/valley rafter = (Tangent)(12) = side cut in inches. The side cuts in the rafter table are all in abase 12. The arc tan can be determined from any given pitch. Most power tools and angle measuring devises use 90°as 0° in construction. The complementary angles of the arc tan are used with tools like the speed square.

Side cut of jack raftersThe side cut is located at the intersection of the side cut of jack rafters row and the pitch column on the Steel square.There is a row for the difference in length of jacks, 16 and 24 inch centers on the blade. The tangents are directlyproportional for both centers.

The tangent is in a base 12. The tangent x 12 = side cut of jack rafters. This corresponds to the side cut on the Steelsquare. The complementary angles of the arc tan are used on most angle measuring devises in construction. Thetangent of hip, valley, and jack rafters are less than 1.00 in all pitches above 0°. An eighteen pitch has a side cutangle of 29.07° and a two pitch has a side cut angle of 44.56° for jack rafters. This is a variation of 15.5° betweenpitches.

Plumb cut of jack & common raftersThe plumb cut for jack and common rafters are the same angles. The level cut or seat cut is the complimentary angleof the plumb cut. The notch formed at the intersection of the level and plumb cut Is commonly referred to as thebird’s mouth .

Plumb cut of hip/valley raftersThe plumb cut of the hip/valley rafter is expressed in the formula. The level cut is the complimentary angle or 90°minus the arc tan.

Steel square 40

Irregular hip/valley raftersIrregular hip valley rafters run at random angles to the ridge except 45°. The top plates can be 90° at the outsidecorners or various other angles. There are numerous irregular h/v roof plans. The Steel square is applicable forregular hip/valley and jack rafters and not for irregular roofs.

irregular hip/valley gable roof plan. irregular roof plan. Intersecting irregular hip/valley gable roofplan.

Carpenter's squareIn carpentry, a square or set square is a guide for establishing right angles (90° angles), usually made of metal andin the shape of a right triangle.

See also• Try square• Combination square• Speed square• → Steel square• Hip Roof

Bibliography• Siegele, H.H. (1981). The Steel Square. Sterling Publishing. ISBN 0-8069-8854-1.• Ulrey, Harry F. (1972). Carpenters and Builders Library. No.3. Theodore Audel.• Schuttner, Scott (1990). Basic Stairbuilding,. Taunton Press. ISBN 0-942391-44-6.• Spence, William P. (2000). Constructing Staircases Balustrades & Landings. Sterling Publishing.• Gochnour, Chris (February 2006). "11 Essential Measuring and Woodworking Tools". Fine Woodworking

(Taunton Press) (182): 75.• Lanham, Wm.. The Steel Square. Bath: E. A. Lovell.• Falconer, John (1925). Ednie, John (editor). ed. The Steel Square. Carpentry and Joinery. Vol. V. Gresham.

Stonemason's hammer 41

Stonemason's hammerA Stonemason's hammer has one flat traditional face and a short or long → chisel-shaped blade. It can thus be usedto chip off edges or small pieces of stone without using a separate → chisel. The chisel blade can also be used torapidly cut bricks or cinder blocks.This type of hammer is also used by geologists when collecting rock and mineral samples and is one of several typesof Geologist's hammer.

StraightedgeA straightedge is a tool with an accurately straight edge used for drawing or cutting straight lines, or checking thestraightness of lines. If it has equally spaced markings along its length it is usually called a → ruler.True straightness can in some cases be checked by using a laser line level as an optical straightedge: it can illuminatean accurately straight line on a flat surface such as the edge of a plank or shelf.It is possible to do all compass and straightedge constructions without the straightedge. That is, it is possible, usingonly a → compass, to find the intersection of two lines given two points on each, and to find the tangent points tocircles. It is not, however, possible to do all constructions using only a straightedge. It is possible to do them withstraightedge alone given one circle and its center. The straightedges used in these constructions do not have lengthmarkings.

References• Wayne R. Moore, Foundations of Mechanical Accuracy, Moore Special Tool Company, Bridgeport, CT (1970)

External links• Making Accurate Straight-Edges from Scratch [1]

References[1] http:/ / home. comcast. net/ ~jaswensen/ machines/ straight_edge/ straight_edge. html

Article Sources and Contributors 42

Article Sources and ContributorsStonemasonry  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=316527097  Contributors: Adamjennison111, Alphachimp, Andy Dingley, Anna Frodesiak, Argyriou, Baldy217,Balthazarduju, Blellum, Brandonoftulsaok, Cantonhost, Cathetus, Charles Matthews, Cmdrjameson, CommonsDelinker, Cptjimmy, Cub 08, D6, David Gale, Deville, Dogears, DuncanHill,Durova, Ebyabe, Ekabhishek, ElfMage, Empirecontact, Epbr123, Evrik, Firien, Firststone, Fourdee, GerardusS, GraemeL, Gregorydavid, Heron, Hodsha, IceCreamAntisocial, Imasleepviking,Iridescent, Jamie C, January2007, Jon Jonasson, Julia Rossi, Kerry Raymond, Kjkolb, Laimtoe, LtNOWIS, Lwalt, MERCY DANIELS, Mainehcky45, Matt Gies, Mincan, MisfitToys, Mkcmkc,Mlouns, Myrabella, Natalie Erin, Neilbeach, Olivier, Omniarch, Opie, Otisjimmy1, Peruvianllama, Petrus4, Ping, Portia327, Portlandbill, RedWolf, Resister, Riffle, Rigadoun, Rj1020,Rosser1954, Sam Francis, Satrughna02, Scottmsg, Septegram, SheffieldSteel, Signalhead, Sloane, SpuriousQ, SteinAlive, Stonemad GB, Stuart.midgley, Tomaxer, Triglyph, Triglyph2, Tyrenius,User1983, Username not found, WereSpielChequers, Wik, Wikidenizen, Wwwillly, YUL89YYZ, 102 ,הרישבבוח anonymous edits

Bush hammer  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=314660088  Contributors: Crystallina, MarylandArtLover, RockMFR, Satrughna02, TFNorman, 1 anonymous edits

Chalk line  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=309612472  Contributors: Andy Dingley, Brighterorange, HatlessAtlas, Hixie, Mankash, Sonett72, Wizard191, 3 anonymous edits

Chisel  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=316555691  Contributors: 16@r, 5349U11, Adamrush, Ahoerstemeier, Al Silonov, Aminullah, AnakngAraw, Anaxial, Animum,Antandrus, Askari Mark, Aspects, Atlant, Balthazarduju, Baskholm, Blehfu, Brat32, Bryancpark, Bushytails, Cedo44, Cfpops, ChrisHamburg, CieloEstrellado, Citicat, Crazytales, D-Kuru,Danski14, Darth Panda, David Gale, Dflock, Eazy-beat, Ellywa, Epbr123, Exir Kamalabadi, Farkingheuer, Fbarw, Firststone, Fishdecoy, Furrykef, Glorytoad, Graham87, Graibeard,Gregorydavid, Gwguffey, Harald Hansen, Harmil, Hasek is the best, Heimstern, Hetar, Hydrargyrum, JBazuzi, JFreeman, Jason127, Jayschooley, Joe Rodgers, Joe1011010, Katalaveno, Kate,LeaveSleaves, LeeJesberger, Linnell, Luigizanasi, Maddie!, Malcolm Morley, Mandarax, Martin451, Mentality, Mercury, Merphant, Nabokov, Nneonneo, Nv8200p, PJM, Pedant, Piano nontroppo, Pjbflynn, Plrk, Postrach, Prodego, Proofreader77, RedWolf, Riffle, Robmonk, Robofish, RonBeeCNC, Rutterpaul, Saberwyn, Satrughna02, Scharks, Securiger, SheffieldSteel, SilentC,Slawojarek, Sonett72, Svenboatbuilder, TKD, Thehelpfulone, TkdApe, Vermont.timber, Voice of All, Waerloeg, Wiki Raja, Wiki alf, Wizard191, Xerocs, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yuriybrisk, Zfr,Zvar, 147 ,ينام anonymous edits

Compass (drafting)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=315159063  Contributors: Alexander the Drake, Alexander.stohr, AnakngAraw, Andrei Stroe, Ankor, Arthena,Atropos235, Avia, Balsa10, Ben Tillman, Bogey97, Brian0918, Bryan Derksen, Ciphers, Collegebookworm, Cyfal, David Shay, Dead3y3, Dodgy Rodge, Drf5n, Dysprosia, Dzordzm, Ed g2s,Elektron, Fabartus, Feeeshboy, Giftlite, Gregorydavid, Han Solar de Harmonics, Haus, HereToHelp, Imjustmatthew, Joffeloff, John Reid, Johnalden, Jonrock, Kiwichipster, Kwantus,Kymacpherson, Leinad-Z, Liftarn, Mani1, Michael Hardy, Michael Kuter, Mintleaf, Mr guy666, Nekura, Nfu-peng, Nordeide, Richard D. LeCour, Riwnodennyk, Sanders muc, SebastianHelm,Seberle, Secretlondon, Silverfish, Simetrical, Siroxo, Spiritia, Stuart Wimbush, Suwatest, Tavilis, ThePlaz, Thinboy00, Thumperward, Trödel, WAvegetarian, Warden, Warofdreams,WojciechSwiderski, Zsinj, 30 anonymous edits

Dimension stone  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=314660727  Contributors: Aaronmlondon, Alansohn, Badagnani, Banana04131, Blanchardb, Bmhtayl, Boongoman,Davehi1, Dick Kimball, El C, Fatsamsgrandslam, Fredgoat, HollyAm, Hooperbloob, Ivanlul, Johan Lont, Jrsnbarn, Knife Knut, Kulveer, Mannafredo, Normandiefawn, Pboyd04, Phydend,Pkravchenko, Rich257, Skikool, Steve carlson, Storm Rider, Verne Equinox, VoxLuna, Vsmith, Yvwv, Zzuuzz, 22 anonymous edits

Lewis (lifting appliance)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=303182322  Contributors: Alynna Kasmira, Andy Dingley, Anna Frodesiak, Athaenara, Cathetus, Gregorydavid,JHunterJ, JohnI, JustAGal, Lee-Anne, MarSch, Mortice, Pjbflynn, Pol098, Satrughna02, 3 anonymous edits

Mallet  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=315517772  Contributors: AnakngAraw, Andrewa, Bastique, BigrTex, Bikinibomb, Bryan Derksen, CatherineMunro, Centrx,Coralmizu, Cosmic Latte, Crablogger, DaGizza, Dewet, Discospinster, Duneslug, Dungodung, EarthPerson, EddEdmondson, Entheta, Fergalconnolly, Fungrified, Furrykef, Gogo Dodo,Gregorydavid, Hohum, Hooperbloob, Hotspot, I need a mallet, I need a name, Joedeshon, Knife Knut, Korg, Kyorosuke, Longhair, Luigizanasi, Lupo, Mboverload, Mendaliv, Monkeydoodle,Nbarth, Oldkentuckyshark, Papyrus688, Petruza, Pillsberry, Pinothyj, Pro crast in a tor, Remuel, Rettetast, Rigadoun, Rjwilmsi, SMcCandlish, Satrughna02, Securiger, Shawnjohn94, Slambo,Slashme, Slowking Man, Sluzzelin, Snowboarderline, Squirepants101, Str1977, SuperLuigi31, The undertow, Ulric1313, Walkerma, Wizard191, Xilofonista, Yekrats, ZooFari, 65 anonymousedits

Plug and feather  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=303703409  Contributors: Anna Frodesiak, BorgQueen, Drbreznjev, EdJogg, EncycloPetey, Malleus Fatuorum,Satrughna02, Smalljim, 1 anonymous edits

Ruler  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=316394815  Contributors: 16@r, Aapo Laitinen, Abd, Acroterion, Aiiya, Alex earlier account, AlexiusHoratius, Altermike,AndrewKepert, Antandrus, Anubis3, Arcadie, Ary29, AssistantX, Astral, Barneca, Bensderbest, Bluemoose, Bobo192, Bryan Derksen, Bryancpark, Burn, Bushytails, ByroDaMan, ByronVickers, CHJL, Calvin 1998, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Catgut, ChildofMidnight, Chyky50, CryptoDerk, Daniel C. Boyer, Dave, DeadEyeArrow, Delldot, Discospinster, Drini, Dynaflow,Dysprosia, EastwickEducation, Ejay, El Caro, Epbr123, EscapingLife, Etxrge, Everyking, FaerieInGrey, Faradayplank, Fastifex, Femto, Ferengi, Flowerpotman, Floydrox, Garyzx, Geary, GeneNygaard, Giftlite, Gimmetrow, Gjd001, God of War, Graibeard, Gregorydavid, Hede2000, Helpbymewiki, Hobart, Hooperbloob, Husond, Hydrargyrum, Icseaturtles, Ike9898, It Is Me Here,Itsmine, J.delanoy, JForget, JHunterJ, JSR, Jackfork, JeffUK, Jmanigold, John Reid, Joshisted, Kuru, La Pianista, Lcarscad, LeilaniLad, Levent, LittleDan, Luigizanasi, Marcika, Marino-slo,Markaci, Matmex, Michael Angelkovich, Michael Daly, Micru, Moriori, Mrwojo, Mxn, NewEnglandYankee, Noah Salzman, Ohnoitsjamie, OilyFry, Omgers, PS11, Poccil, Pol098, Ptboro53,Quarl, Quentar, Qwfp, Random832, Reinhardheydt, Richi, Rindis, Rising*From*Ashes, Salgueiro, Sam Korn, Samohyl Jan, Sandis23, Scientizzle, Shattonbury, Shirulashem, Skomorokh,Slammer 13, Snek01, Soccerking1391, Startstop123, Superborsuk, Sysy, TakuyaMurata, The Anome, The Rambling Man, Theresa knott, Thingg, ThomasPusch, Thorney¿?, Thzadhjnfmfgvx,Tingrin87, Tobias Bergemann, Tsemii, Until It Sleeps, Versus22, WJBscribe, Wap, Wavelength, Wirbelwind, Wizard191, WojPob, Wtmitchell, Xgt, ZooFari, Zzyzx11, 285 anonymous edits

Set square  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=314853366  Contributors: 16@r, Angr, Fasten, Gregorydavid, Haus, Jezzabr, Luigizanasi, Magnius, OHFM, Quuxplusone,Warofdreams, Zsinj, 12 anonymous edits

Steel square  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=315181345  Contributors: Alphachimp, Andy Dingley, Bkell, Bobblewik, CatherineMunro, Dlarrivee, Fujsmith, Garas,Gcwhitten, Highspeed, Jac16888, Johnalden, Jonsmad.jon, LilHelpa, Luigizanasi, MacGyverMagic, Moverton, Nathalw, Nv8200p, Sfan00 IMG, Sligocki, Wizard191, Yamamoto Ichiro, 49anonymous edits

Stonemason's hammer  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=311273845  Contributors: Firststone, Gregorydavid, Jaranda, Joe1011010, Luigizanasi, SheffieldSteel, Snurks,Stepp-Wulf, Uncle G, Wetman, Wizard191, 8 anonymous edits

Straightedge  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=303007413  Contributors: Archiveltd, B4hand, Blahma, Breakdancejesusplease, Brighterorange, BryanG, Bryancpark,Bushytails, Calvin 1998, Dennis Valeev, Graibeard, Gregorydavid, Gzkn, Hadal, John Reid, Lambiam, Lizzysama, Ludde23, Luigizanasi, Math Champion, Michael Devore, Michael Slone,Müslimix, PierreAbbat, Pol098, Ponder, PrestonH, Siroxo, The Anome, Warofdreams, Wes52353, 18 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 43

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsImage:Steinmetz-brunnen.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steinmetz-brunnen.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Originaluploader was Flassig Reiner at de.wikipedia (Original text : Reiner Flassig)Image:Aberdeen Streets.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aberdeen_Streets.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Cyr, JeremyAImage:ChiefSecBldgMacqEnt231.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChiefSecBldgMacqEnt231.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: User:OlivierCottonFile:Eglinton Masons.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eglinton_Masons.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Rosser1954File:Stone Mason's Bench - Eglinton.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stone_Mason's_Bench_-_Eglinton.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:Rosser1954Image:Cockscomb-detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cockscomb-detail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: TyreniusFile:Steinmetz.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steinmetz.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Original uploader was FlassigReiner at de.wikipedia (Original text : Reiner)File:Stone Mason marks as seen in the Chapter House of Fountains Abbey.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stone_Mason_marks_as_seen_in_the_Chapter_House_of_Fountains_Abbey.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader wasAdamjennison111 at en.wikipediaFile:Taile de pierre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taile_de_pierre.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:AntoinetavFile:Taille depierre 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taille_depierre_2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:AntoinetavFile:Trace la pointe.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trace_la_pointe.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Original uploaderwas So Leblanc at fr.wikipediaFile:Fotothek df roe-neg 0000431 004 Steinmetz auf dem Seitenschiffdach der Hofkirche.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fotothek_df_roe-neg_0000431_004_Steinmetz_auf_dem_Seitenschiffdach_der_Hofkirche.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: SatrughnaFile:Marmor-spalten.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marmor-spalten.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Reiner FlassigOriginal uploader was Flassig Reiner at de.wikipediaFile:Knüpfel retouched.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Knüpfel_retouched.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:AlMareFile:Tailleur de pierre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tailleur_de_pierre.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:MyrabellaImage:Stockhammer.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stockhammer.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Reiner FlassigOriginal uploader was Flassig Reiner at de.wikipediaImage:snoreslag.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Snoreslag.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Andy Dingley, B. Askholm, Juiced lemon, Koba-chan, W!B:Image:Chalk-line.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chalk-line.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Sonett72Image:Sumitsubo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sumitsubo.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: ModehaImage:Chisel.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chisel.jpeg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Dflock at en.wikipediaImage:Wood chisel.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wood_chisel.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Fishdecoy at en.wikipediaImage:CHISEL.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CHISEL.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Vermont Timber Works Inc.Image:ColdChisels.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ColdChisels.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:graibeardImage:Flat chisel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flat_chisel.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Eazy-beatFile:Tandijzer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tandijzer.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:SatrughnaImage:62351-copy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:62351-copy.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: FarkingheuerImage:Zirkel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zirkel.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:PengImage:God the Geometer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:God_the_Geometer.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Dsmdgold, Gryffindor, Leinad-Z, Mdd,Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Ragesoss, Shakko, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, 3 anonymous editsImage:Compass (drafting).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Compass_(drafting).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Deep silence, Niki K, W!B:Image:Nuvola apps designer.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nuvola_apps_designer.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Alphax, CyberSkull, Joelholdsworth,Rocket000Image:Scribe line A.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scribe_line_A.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Johnalden, StifleImage:Scribe compass A.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scribe_compass_A.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Johnalden, StifleImage:Loose leg wing dividers.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loose_leg_wing_dividers.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Johnalden, StifleImage:Coat of arms of East Germany.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_arms_of_East_Germany.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Akhristov,B1mbo, Fred75009, Grandy02, Jwnabd, Ludger1961, R-41, 6 anonymous editsImage:Teignmouthquay1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Teignmouthquay1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Rosser1954, SmalljimImage:20080502 14955 DSC01227.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:20080502_14955_DSC01227.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:MarbotImage:Heimatmuseum Eversberg.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heimatmuseum_Eversberg.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Ies, Kurpfalzbilder.de, St-fl,Verne EquinoxImage:Wapakoneta-ohio-courthouse.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wapakoneta-ohio-courthouse.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:TystoImage:Cararra-Steinbruch retouched.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cararra-Steinbruch_retouched.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Reiner FlassigImage:Ekebergsmarmor Folksam01.JPG.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ekebergsmarmor_Folksam01.JPG.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: bobergerImage:Karlův most - rekonstrukce 2007 - 3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Karlův_most_-_rekonstrukce_2007_-_3.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:user:JedudedekImage:Parthenon-scaffolding.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parthenon-scaffolding.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Michael ShieldsFile:CWO (16).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CWO_(16).jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:CathetusImage:Chain Lewis.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chain_Lewis.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Cathetus at en.wikipediaImage:Split Pin Lewis.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Split_Pin_Lewis.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Cathetus at en.wikipediaImage:Lewis Hole Indents.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lewis_Hole_Indents.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Cathetus, Nv8200pImage:CWO (3).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CWO_(3).JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: CathetusFile:Louve de carrier.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louve_de_carrier.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Originaluploader was So Leblanc at fr.wikipediaImage:Wilson bolt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wilson_bolt.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Andy DingleyFile:Wolf2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wolf2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Satrughna02Image:Slab Lifter1.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slab_Lifter1.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Cathetus, The JPSImage:P1061991.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P1061991.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: CathetusImage:P1061985.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P1061985.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: CathetusFile:Maulbronn - Steinzange.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maulbronn_-_Steinzange.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:EcelanImage:Mallet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mallet.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Cav at it.wikipedia

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 44

Image:Wooden mallet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wooden_mallet.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader wasSecuriger at en.wikipediaImage:Round copper mallet.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Round_copper_mallet.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: SecurigerImage:Meat mallet on cutting board.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meat_mallet_on_cutting_board.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:BastiqueImage:Keile.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Keile.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Reiner Flassig Original uploader wasFlassig Reiner at de.wikipediaImage:Feathers and wedges 2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Feathers_and_wedges_2.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Anna FrodesiakImage:Plug and feathers 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plug_and_feathers_001.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Anna FrodesiakImage:Marmor-spalten.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marmor-spalten.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Reiner FlassigOriginal uploader was Flassig Reiner at de.wikipediaImage:Vistdalitt-gabbro-2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vistdalitt-gabbro-2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Halvard, Halvard : from Norway.Image:F-blokk.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:F-blokk.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: HalvardImage:Lineale.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lineale.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:PengImage:CarpentersRule.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CarpentersRule.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CarolSpears, Maksim, 1 anonymous editsImage:TapeMeasure.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TapeMeasure.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User Moriori on en.wikipediaImage:Steel ruler closeup.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steel_ruler_closeup.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: MyselfImage:ARISTO-GEO DREIECK 1550 indiziert transparent.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ARISTO-GEO_DREIECK_1550_indiziert_transparent.svg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: User:GarganImage:Steel Square-1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steel_Square-1.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Shakespeare at en.wikipediaImage:Stringer revised.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stringer_revised.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Johnalden, StifleImage:Rafter Table.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rafter_Table.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Johnalden, Psychonaut, StifleImage:Common rafter 12 pitch A.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Common_rafter_12_pitch_A.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:JohnaldenImage:hip jack and common rafter.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hip_jack_and_common_rafter.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Johnalden, StifleImage:Hip Rafter Side and Level Cut.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hip_Rafter_Side_and_Level_Cut.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Johnalden, StifleImage:Common rafter layout.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Common_rafter_layout.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Johnalden,StifleImage:Side cut jack rafter revised.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Side_cut_jack_rafter_revised.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:JohnaldenImage:Plumbcuts new.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plumbcuts_new.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Johnalden, Stifle, 1 anonymous editsImage:Octagon Table.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Octagon_Table.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Johnalden, StifleImage:Calculation Table A.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Calculation_Table_A.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Johnalden, StifleImage:Scribe an Octagon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scribe_an_Octagon.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Johnalden, Mailer diabloImage:Diagonal calculations A.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diagonal_calculations_A.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Johnalden, StifleImage:Diagonal Scale revised.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diagonal_Scale_revised.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Johnalden,StifleImage:flat hip roof.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flat_hip_roof.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Johnalden, StifleImage: Irregular roof plan rev.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Irregular_roof_plan_rev.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:JohnaldenImage:Irregular roof plan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Irregular_roof_plan.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:JohnaldenImage:Irregular roof plan d.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Irregular_roof_plan_d.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Johnalden

License 45

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/