yogayoganounnoun  

1. 1. A Hindu spiritual and aA Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline, a part scetic discipline, a part of which, including of which, including breath control, simplebreath control, simplemeditation, and the adoption of specific bodily postures, is widely practised for healthmeditation, and the adoption of specific bodily postures, is widely practised for healthand relaxation.and relaxation."yoga classes""yoga classes"

 Yoga YogaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the umbrella term yoga which includes both religion, philosophy, and practices.This article is about the umbrella term yoga which includes both religion, philosophy, and practices.For one of the six Hindu philosophy schools, seeFor one of the six Hindu philosophy schools, see  Rāja yogaRāja yoga.. For the popular yoga that explains and For the popular yoga that explains andemphasizemphasizes the physical es the physical practices or disciplines, seepractices or disciplines, see  Hatha YogaHatha Yoga..  

For other uses, seeFor other uses, see  Yoga (disambiguation)Yoga (disambiguation)..  

  

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 Yoga Yoga  ((//ˈ̍ j joʊɡəoʊɡə//;;  SanskritSanskrit::    ,,   Sanskrit pronunciationSanskrit pronunciation  ((helphelp··infoinfo))) are the) are the  physicalphysical,,  mentalmental,,  andand  spiritualspiritual  practices or disciplines that aim to transform body and mind. The term denotes a varietypractices or disciplines that aim to transform body and mind. The term denotes a varietyof schools, practices and goalof schools, practices and goalss[1][1]  ininHinduismHinduism,,  BuddhismBuddhism  (including(including  VajrayanaVajrayana  andand  TibetanTibetanBuddhismBuddhism[2][3[2][3][4]][4])) and and  JainismJainism,,[5][6[5][6][7][6]][7][6]  the best-known beingthe best-known beingHatha yogaHatha yoga  andand  Raja yogaRaja yoga.. The term yoga The term yogais derived from the literal meaning of "yoking together" a span of horses or oxesis derived from the literal meaning of "yoking together" a span of horses or oxes,,[1][1]  but came to bebut came to beapplied to the "yoking" of mind and bodyapplied to the "yoking" of mind and body..[1][1]  

The origins of Yoga may date back to pre-vedicThe origins of Yoga may date back to pre-vedic  IndianIndian  traditions. The earliest accounts of yoga-traditions. The earliest accounts of yoga-practices are to be found in the Buddhist Nikayaspractices are to be found in the Buddhist Nikayas..[8][8]  Parallel developments were recorded aroundParallel developments were recorded around400 CE in the400 CE in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Yoga Sutras of Patanjali ,,[9][9]which combines prewhich combines pre – –philosophical speculations and diversephilosophical speculations and diverseascetic practices of the ascetic practices of the first millennium BCE first millennium BCE with Samkhya-philosowith Samkhya-philosophy.phy.  Hatha yogaHatha yoga  emergedemergedfromfrom  tantratantra  by the turn of by the turn of the first millenniumthe first millennium..[10][11][10][11]  

Gurus from India later introduced yoga to the westGurus from India later introduced yoga to the west,,[12][12]  following the success offollowing the success ofSwamiSwami  VivekanandaVivekananda  in the late 19th and early 20th centuryin the late 19th and early 20th century..[12][12]  In the 1980s, yoga became popularIn the 1980s, yoga became popular

as aas a  system of physical exercisesystem of physical exercise  across the Western world. This form of across the Western world. This form of yoga is often calledyoga is often called  HathaHathayogayoga..  

  

Yoga physiologyYoga physiology  described humans as existing of described humans as existing of   three bodiesthree bodies  andand  five sheetsfive sheets  which cover thewhich cover theatmman, and energy flowing throughatmman, and energy flowing through  energy channelsenergy channels  and concentrated inand concentrated in  chakraschakras..  

Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary intervention forMany studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary intervention forcancer, schizophrenia, asthma, and heart diseasecancer, schizophrenia, asthma, and heart disease..[13][14[13][14][15][16]][15][16]  

  

ContentsContents

[[hidehide]]  

   1 Terminology1 Terminology  

   2 Goal of Yoga2 Goal of Yoga  

   3 Schools of Yoga3 Schools of Yoga  

oo   3.1 Jainism3.1 Jainism  

oo   3.2 Buddhism3.2 Buddhism  

oo   3.3 Hinduism3.3 Hinduism  

   3.3.1 Raja Yoga3.3.1 Raja Yoga  

   3.3.2 Tantra3.3.2 Tantra  

   3.3.3 Hatha yoga3.3.3 Hatha yoga  

   3.3.4 Shaivism3.3.4 Shaivism  

oo   3.4 Modern wellness3.4 Modern wellness  

   4 History4 History  

oo   4.1 Origins (before 500 BCE)4.1 Origins (before 500 BCE)  

   4.1.1 Vedic period4.1.1 Vedic period  

   4.1.1.1 Textual references4.1.1.1 Textual references  

   4.1.1.2 Ascetic practices4.1.1.2 Ascetic practices  

oo   4.2 Preclassical era (500-200 BCE)4.2 Preclassical era (500-200 BCE)  

   4.2.1 Early Buddhist texts4.2.1 Early Buddhist texts  

   4.2.2 Upanishads4.2.2 Upanishads  

   4.2.3 Bhagavad Gita4.2.3 Bhagavad Gita  

   4.2.4 Mahabharata4.2.4 Mahabharata  

oo   4.3 Classical era (200 BCE4.3 Classical era (200 BCE – – 500 CE) 500 CE)  

   4.3.1 Raja yoga4.3.1 Raja yoga  

   4.3.1.1 Samkhya4.3.1.1 Samkhya  

   4.3.1.2 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali4.3.1.2 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali  

   4.3.2 Yoga Yajnavalkya4.3.2 Yoga Yajnavalkya  

   4.3.3 Jainism4.3.3 Jainism  

   4.3.4 Yogacara school4.3.4 Yogacara school  

oo   4.4 Middle Ages (5004.4 Middle Ages (500 – –1500 CE)1500 CE)  

   4.4.1 Bhakti movement4.4.1 Bhakti movement  

   4.4.2 Tantra4.4.2 Tantra  

   4.4.3 Vajrayana4.4.3 Vajrayana  

   4.4.4 Hatha Yoga4.4.4 Hatha Yoga  

   4.4.5 Sikhism4.4.5 Sikhism  

oo   4.5 Modern history4.5 Modern history  

   4.5.1 Reception in the West4.5.1 Reception in the West  

   4.5.2 Medicine4.5.2 Medicine  

   4.5.2.1 Potential benefits for adults4.5.2.1 Potential benefits for adults  

   4.5.2.2 Physical injuries4.5.2.2 Physical injuries  

   4.5.2.3 Pediatrics4.5.2.3 Pediatrics  

   5 Yoga physiology5 Yoga physiology  

   6 Yoga compared with other systems of m6 Yoga compared with other systems of meditationeditation  

oo   6.1 Zen Buddhism6.1 Zen Buddhism  

oo   6.2 Tibetan Buddhism6.2 Tibetan Buddhism  

oo   6.3 Christian meditation6.3 Christian meditation  

oo   6.4 Islam6.4 Islam  

   7 See also7 See also  

  

   8 Notes8 Notes  

   9 References9 References  

   10 Sources10 Sources  

   11 External links11 External links  

Terminology Terminology [[editedit]]  

  

Statue oStatue off ShivaShiva i inn  BangaloreBangalore,, IndiaIndia,, performing yogic meditation in thperforming yogic meditation in theePadmasanaPadmasana  posture.posture.

InIn  Vedic SanskritVedic Sanskrit,, the more commonly used, literal meaning of the the more commonly used, literal meaning of the  SanskritSanskrit  wordword  yogayoga  which is "towhich is "toadd", "to join", "to unite", or "to attach" from the rootadd", "to join", "to unite", or "to attach" from the root yuj yuj , already had a much more figurative sense,, already had a much more figurative sense,where the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses takes on broader meanings such as "employment,where the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses takes on broader meanings such as "employment,use, application, performance" (compare the figurative uses of "tuse, application, performance" (compare the figurative uses of "tooharnessharness"" as in "to put something to as in "to put something tosome use"). All further developments of the sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moodssome use"). All further developments of the sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moodssuch as "exertion", "endeavour", "zeal", and "diligence" are also found insuch as "exertion", "endeavour", "zeal", and "diligence" are also found in  Epic SanskritEpic Sanskrit..[[citation needed citation needed ]]  

There are very manyThere are very many  compound wordscompound words  containingcontaining yog yog  in Sanskrit. in Sanskrit. YogaYoga can take on meanings such can take on meanings suchas "connection", "contact", "method", "application", "addition", and "performance". In simpler words,as "connection", "contact", "method", "application", "addition", and "performance". In simpler words,Yoga also means "Yoga also means "combinedcombined". For example,". For example, guṇáguṇá-yoga-yoga means "contact with a cord"; means "contact with a cord"; chakrá-chakrá-yogayoga has a medical sense of "applying a splint or similar instrument by means of pulleys (in case of has a medical sense of "applying a splint or similar instrument by means of pulleys (in case ofdislocation of the thigh)";dislocation of the thigh)"; chandrá-yogachandrá-yoga has the astronomical sense of "conjunction of the moon with has the astronomical sense of "conjunction of the moon witha a constellatioconstellation";n"; puṃ puṃ-yoga-yoga is a grammatical term expressing "connection or relation with a man", etc. is a grammatical term expressing "connection or relation with a man", etc.Thus,Thus, bhakti-yogabhakti-yoga means "devoted attachment" in the means "devoted attachment" in the  monotheisticmonotheistic  Bhakti movementBhakti movement.. The Thetermterm  kriyākriyā-yoga-yoga  has a grammatical sense, meaning "connection with a verb". But the samehas a grammatical sense, meaning "connection with a verb". But the samecompound is also given a technical meaning in thecompound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga SutrasYoga Sutras (2.1), designating the "practical" (2.1), designating the "practical"aspects of the philosophy, i.e. the "union with the Supreme" due to performance of duties inaspects of the philosophy, i.e. the "union with the Supreme" due to performance of duties ineveryday lif everyday lif ee[17][17]  

 According t According too  PāṇiniPāṇini,, a 6th-century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be derived from a 6th-century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be derived fromeither of two roots,either of two roots, yujir yogayujir yoga (to yoke) or (to yoke) or yuj samādhauyuj samādhau (to concentrate) (to concentrate)..[18][18]  In the context ofIn the context ofthethe Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Yoga Sutras of Patanjali , the root, the root yuj samādhauyuj samādhau (to  (to concentrateconcentrate) is ) is considered by traditionalconsidered by traditionalcommentators as the correct etymologycommentators as the correct etymology..[19][19]  In accordance withIn accordance with  PāṇiniPāṇini,,  VyasaVyasa  (c. 4th or 5th century(c. 4th or 5th centuryCE), who wrote the first commentary on theCE), who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga SutrasYoga Sutras,,[20][20]  states that yogastates that yogameansmeans  samādhi samādhi ((concentration)concentration)..[21][21]  In other texts and contexts, such as theIn other texts and contexts, such as the  Bhagavad GītāBhagavad Gītā  andandthethe  Hatha Yoga PradipikaHatha Yoga Pradipika,, the word yoga has been used in conformity with the word yoga has been used in conformity with yujir yogeyujir yoge(to yoke)(to yoke)..[22][22]  

 According t According to Dasgupo Dasgupta, the ta, the term yoga term yoga can be dcan be derived froerived from either om either of two roof two roots,ts, yujir yogayujir yoga (to yoke) (to yoke)oror yuj samādhauyuj samādhau (to concentrate) (to concentrate)..[18][18]  Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophySomeone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy

with a high level of commitment is called awith a high level of commitment is called a  yogiyogi  (may be applied to a male or a female)(may be applied to a male or a female)or or   yoginiyogini  (traditionally denoting a female)(traditionally denoting a female)..[23][23]  

  

Goal of YogaGoal of Yoga[[editedit]]  

The ultimate goal of Yoga isThe ultimate goal of Yoga is  mokshamoksha  (liberation) though the exact definition of what form this takes(liberation) though the exact definition of what form this takesdepends on the philosophical or theological system with which it is conjugated.depends on the philosophical or theological system with which it is conjugated.

 According t According to Jacobseo Jacobsen, "Yoga n, "Yoga has five has five principal meaprincipal meaningsnings::[24][24]  

1. 1. yoga as yoga as a disciplined method for a disciplined method for attaining a goal;attaining a goal;

2. 2. yoga as yoga as techniques of controlling the techniques of controlling the body and body and the mind;the mind;3. 3. yoga as a yoga as a name of one name of one of the schools or systems of of the schools or systems of philosophy (philosophy (darśanadarśana););

4. 4. yoga in connection with yoga in connection with other words, such other words, such as "hatha-, mantra-, and as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-," referring tolaya-," referring totraditions specialising in particular techniques of yoga;traditions specialising in particular techniques of yoga;

5. 5. yoga as yoga as the goal the goal of yoga of yoga practice.practice.""[24][24]  

 According t According to David Go David Gordon ordon White, from tWhite, from the 5th cehe 5th century CE ntury CE onward, onward, the meanthe meanings of things of the term "yoe term "yoga"ga"became more or less fixed, but having various meaningsbecame more or less fixed, but having various meanings::[25][25]  

1. 1. Yoga as Yoga as an analysis oan analysis of perception and f perception and cognitioncognition;;[25][25]  

2. 2. Yoga as Yoga as the rising the rising and expansion and expansion of of consciousnessconsciousness;;[26][26]  

3. 3. Yoga as Yoga as a a path to path to omniscienceomniscience;;[27][27]  

4. 4. Yoga as a Yoga as a technique for entering into technique for entering into other bodies, generating multile bodies, and other bodies, generating multile bodies, and thetheattainment of other supernatural accomplishmentsattainment of other supernatural accomplishments;;[28][28]  

Schools of YogaSchools of Yoga[[editedit]]  

The term "yoga" has been applied to a variety of practices, the best-known Hindu practices beingThe term "yoga" has been applied to a variety of practices, the best-known Hindu practices beingRaj Yoga and Hatha Yoga, but also including Jain and Buddhist practices.Raj Yoga and Hatha Yoga, but also including Jain and Buddhist practices.

JainismJainism[[editedit]]  Main article:Main article:  Jain meditationJain meditation  

Jain meditation has been the central practice of spirituality inJain meditation has been the central practice of spirituality in  JainismJainism  along with thealong with the  ThreeThreeJewelsJewels..[29][29]  Meditation in Jainism aims at Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self, attain salvation, take the soul to completerealizing the self, attain salvation, take the soul to completefreedomfreedom..[30][30]  It aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pureIt aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pureconscious, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seerconscious, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer((Gyata-DrashtaGyata-Drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized to the auspicious). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized to the auspicious DharmyaDharmyaDhyanaDhyana and andShukla DhyanaShukla Dhyana and inauspicious and inauspicious Artta Artta and and RaudraRaudra Dhyana. Dhyana.

  

  

MahaviraMahavira,, 24th 24th  TirthankaraTirthankara  

BuddhismBuddhism[[editedit]]  Main articles:Main articles:  Buddhist meditationBuddhist meditation,,  Dhyāna in BuddhismDhyāna in Buddhism,,  YogacaraYogacara  and and   VajrayanaVajrayana  

Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of   meditationmeditation  techniques that aim totechniques that aim todevelopdevelop  mindfulnessmindfulness,,  concentrationconcentration,,supramundane powerssupramundane powers,,  tranquilitytranquility,, and and  insightinsight..  

Core techniques have been preserved in ancientCore techniques have been preserved in ancient  Buddhist textsBuddhist texts  and have proliferated and diversifiedand have proliferated and diversifiedthrough teacher-student transmissions.through teacher-student transmissions.  BuddhistsBuddhists  pursue meditation as part of the pathpursue meditation as part of the pathtowardtoward  EnlightenmentEnlightenment  andand  NirvanaNirvana..[note 1][note 1]  The closest words for meditation in the clThe closest words for meditation in the classical languageassical languagessof Buddhism areof Buddhism are  bhāvanābhāvanā[note 2][note 2]  andand   jhāna/dhyāna jhāna/dhyāna..[note 3][note 3]  Buddhist meditation techniques haveBuddhist meditation techniques havebecome increasingly popular in the wider world, with many non-Buddhists taking them up for abecome increasingly popular in the wider world, with many non-Buddhists taking them up for avariety of reasons.variety of reasons.

HinduismHinduism[[editedit]]  

Raja YogaRaja Yoga[[editedit]]  Main articles:Main articles:  Rāja yogaRāja yoga  and and   Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Yoga Sutras of Patanjali   

TheThe Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Yoga Sutras of Patanjali  are often labelled as are often labelled as  Rāja yogaRāja yoga..[31][31]  It defines yoga asIt defines yoga as  cittacitta--vṛtti vṛtti --nirodhaḥnirodhaḥ  (the cessation of the perturbations of the mind)(the cessation of the perturbations of the mind)..[24][24]  The aim is to still The aim is to still the mind in order tothe mind in order toreachreach  KaivalyaKaivalya,, the  the "isolation" of purusha (the motionless consciousness "essence") from prakriti"isolation" of purusha (the motionless consciousness "essence") from prakriti(the primordial matter from which everything is made, including mind and emotions)(the primordial matter from which everything is made, including mind and emotions)..[32][33][32][33]  InInHinduism, Raja yoga is considered as one of the sixHinduism, Raja yoga is considered as one of the six  āstikaāstika  schools (those which accept the authorityschools (those which accept the authorityof the Vedasof the Vedas))[34][34]  of of   Hindu philosophyHindu philosophy..[35][35].. Meditation is one of the keys for Raja Yoga Meditation is one of the keys for Raja Yoga

TantraTantra[[editedit]]  Main articles:Main articles:  TantraTantra,,  Yogi Yogi   and and   Siddhi Siddhi   

Tantra is the name given by scholars to a style of meditation and ritual which arose inTantra is the name given by scholars to a style of meditation and ritual which arose in  IndiaIndia  no laterno laterthan the 5th century CEthan the 5th century CE..[36][36]  The earliest documented use of the word "Tantra" is inThe earliest documented use of the word "Tantra" is inthethe  RigvedaRigveda  (X.71.9)(X.71.9)..[37][37]  Tantra has influenced theTantra has influenced the  HinduHindu,,  BonBon,,  BuddhistBuddhist,, and and  JainJain  traditions andtraditions and  SilkSilk

Road transmission of BuddhismRoad transmission of Buddhism  that spread Buddhism tothat spread Buddhism to  EastEast  andand  SoutheaSoutheast Asist Asiaa..[38][38]  

  

Hatha yogaHatha yoga[[editedit]]  Main article:Main article:  Hatha yogaHatha yoga  

Hatha yoga, also called hathaHatha yoga, also called hatha  vidyāvidyā  ((  ), is a kind of yoga focusing on physical and mental), is a kind of yoga focusing on physical and mental

strength building exercises and postures described primarily in three strength building exercises and postures described primarily in three texts of texts of   HinduismHinduism::[39][40[39][40][41]][41]  

1.1. Hatha Yoga PradipikaHatha Yoga Pradipika,,  SvātmārāmaSvātmārāma  (15th century)(15th century)

2.2. Shiva SamhitaShiva Samhita,, author unknown (1500 C.E author unknown (1500 C.E  [42][42]  or late 17th century)or late 17th century)

3.3. Gheranda SamhitaGheranda Samhita  by Gheranda (late 17th century)by Gheranda (late 17th century)

Many scholars also Many scholars also include the precedinginclude the preceding Goraksha SamhitaGoraksha Samhita authored by authored by  GorakshanathGorakshanath  of the 11thof the 11thcentury in the above listcentury in the above list..[39][39]  Gorakshanath is widely considered to have been responsible forGorakshanath is widely considered to have been responsible forpopularizing hatha yoga as we know it todaypopularizing hatha yoga as we know it today..[43][44[43][44][45]][45]  

VajrayanaVajrayana  Buddhism, founded by the IndianBuddhism, founded by the Indian  MahasiddhasMahasiddhas,,[46][46]  has a series of asanas andhas a series of asanas andpranayamas, such aspranayamas, such as  tummotummo  (Sanskrit(Sanskrit caṇḍālī caṇḍālī ))[4][4]  andand  trul khor trul khor   which parallel hatha yoga.which parallel hatha yoga.

ShaivismShaivism[[editedit]]  Main articles:Main articles:  ShaivismShaivism,,  Shaiva SiddhantaShaiva Siddhanta  and and   NathNath  

InIn  ShaivismShaivism,, yoga is used to unite yoga is used to unite  kundalini kundalini   withwith  ShivaShiva..[47][47]  Mahabharata defines the purpose of yogaMahabharata defines the purpose of yogaas the experience of uniting the individualas the experience of uniting the individual  ātmanātman  with the universalwith the universal  BrahmanBrahman  that pervades allthat pervades allthingsthings..[48][48]  

Modern wellnessModern wellness[[editedit]]   Apart from t Apart from the spirituahe spiritual goals, the l goals, the physical pophysical postures of ystures of yoga are uoga are used to ased to alleviate helleviate health problealth problems,ms,reduce stress and make the spine supple in contemporary times. Yoga is also used as a completereduce stress and make the spine supple in contemporary times. Yoga is also used as a completeexercise program and physical therapy routineexercise program and physical therapy routine..[49][49]  

History History [[editedit]]  

The origins of yoga are a matter of debate. It may have pre-Vedic originsThe origins of yoga are a matter of debate. It may have pre-Vedic origins..[50][50]  SeveralSeveralsealsseals  discovered atdiscovered at  Indus Valley CivilizationIndus Valley Civilization  sites depict figures in positions resembling a commonsites depict figures in positions resembling a commonyoga or meditation poseyoga or meditation pose..[51][51]   Ascetic pract Ascetic practices, concenices, concentration antration and bodily d bodily postures usepostures useddbyby  VedasVedas  priests to conduct Vedic ritual of fire sacrifice may have been precursors to yoga.priests to conduct Vedic ritual of fire sacrifice may have been precursors to yoga.

Pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500Pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500 – –200 BCE. Between200 BCE. Between200 BCE200 BCE – –500 CE philosophical schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a500 CE philosophical schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and acoherent philosophical system of yoga began to emergecoherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge..[52][52]  The Middle Ages saw the developmentThe Middle Ages saw the development

of many satellite traditions of yoga. Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in theof many satellite traditions of yoga. Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in themid 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy.mid 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy.

Origins (before 500 BCE)Origins (before 500 BCE)[[editedit]]  

The origins of yoga are a matter of debateThe origins of yoga are a matter of debate..[53][53]   According to  According to Crangle, Crangle, Indian reIndian researchers hsearchers haveavegenerally favoured a linear theory, which attempts "to interpret the origin and early development ofgenerally favoured a linear theory, which attempts "to interpret the origin and early development ofIndian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis"Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis",,[54][note 4][54][note 4]   just like just liketraditional Hinduism regards the Vedas to be the source of all spiritual knowledgetraditional Hinduism regards the Vedas to be the source of all spiritual knowledge..[55][note 5][55][note 5]  OtherOtherscholars acknowledge the possibility of non-Aryan componentsscholars acknowledge the possibility of non-Aryan components..[54][54]  Some argue that yoga originatesSome argue that yoga originatesin the Indus Valley Civilizationin the Indus Valley Civilization..[58][58]   According to  According to Zimmer, YoZimmer, Yoga is part oga is part of the pref the pre-Vedic herita-Vedic heritage, whge, whichichalso includes Jainism, Samkhya and Buddhismalso includes Jainism, Samkhya and Buddhism..[59][note 6[59][note 6][note 7]][note 7]  Samuel argues that yoga derives fromSamuel argues that yoga derives fromthethe  śramanaśramana  traditiontradition..[63][note 8][63][note 8]  Gavin Flood notes that such "dichotomization is too simplistic"Gavin Flood notes that such "dichotomization is too simplistic"::[64][64]  

[T]his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between[T]his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found betweenrenunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions alsorenunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions alsoplayed an important part in the formation of the renunciate idealplayed an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal..[64][note 9][64][note 9]  

  

Vedic periodVedic period[[editedit]]  

Textual referencesTextual references[[editedit]]  

 According t According to White, o White, the first usthe first use of the we of the word "yogaord "yoga" is in the " is in the Rig VedaRig Veda, where , where it denoteit denotes a yoke, s a yoke, butbutalso a war chariotalso a war chariot..[66][66]  Yoga is discussed quite frequently in theYoga is discussed quite frequently in theUpanishadsUpanishads,, many of which predate many of which predatePatanjali's SutrasPatanjali's Sutras..[67][67]  The actual term "yoga" first occurs in The actual term "yoga" first occurs in thethe  Katha UpanishadKatha Upanishad[68][68]  and later in theand later in theShvetasvatara UpanishadShvetasvatara Upanishad..[69][69]  White states:White states:

The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the termThe earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the termis found in the Hindu Kathaka Upanisad(Ku), a scripture dating from about the third century BCE[...]is found in the Hindu Kathaka Upanisad(Ku), a scripture dating from about the third century BCE[...][I]t describes the hierarchy of mind-body constituents[I]t describes the hierarchy of mind-body constituents——the senses, mind, intellect, etc.the senses, mind, intellect, etc.——thatthatcomprise the foundational categories ofcomprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system groundsSāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system groundsthe yoga of the YS, Bhg, and other texts and schools (Ku3.10the yoga of the YS, Bhg, and other texts and schools (Ku3.10 – –11; 6.711; 6.7 – –8)8)..[70][70]  

 According t According too  David FrawleyDavid Frawley[[unreliable source?unreliable source?]], verses such as Rig Veda 5.81.1 which reads,, verses such as Rig Veda 5.81.1 which reads,

Seers of the vast iSeers of the vast illumined seer yogically [yunjante] controllumined seer yogically [yunjante] control their minds l their minds and their intelligencand their intelligencee[71][71]  

show that "at least the seed of the entire Yoga teaching is contained in this most ancient Aryanshow that "at least the seed of the entire Yoga teaching is contained in this most ancient Aryantext"text"..[72][72]  

 An early re An early reference to ference to meditation meditation is made inis made in  Brihadaranyaka UpanishadBrihadaranyaka Upanishad,, the earliest Upanishad (c. the earliest Upanishad (c.900 BCE)900 BCE)..[note 10][note 10]  In theIn the  MahabharataMahabharata  yoga comes to mean "a divine chariot, that carried him upwardyoga comes to mean "a divine chariot, that carried him upwardin a burst of light to and through the sun, and on to the heaven of gods and heroes.in a burst of light to and through the sun, and on to the heaven of gods and heroes.""[70][70]  

Ascetic practicesAscetic practices[[editedit]]   Ascetic pract Ascetic practicesices ((tapastapas)), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to, concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests toconductconduct  yajnayajna  (Vedic ritual of fire (Vedic ritual of fire sacrifice), might have been precursors to yogasacrifice), might have been precursors to yoga..[note 11][note 11]  VratyaVratya,, a agroup of ascetics mentioned in thegroup of ascetics mentioned in the   Atharvaved Atharvavedaa,, emphasized on bodily postures which probably emphasized on bodily postures which probablyevolved into yogicevolved into yogic  asanasasanas..[74][74]  Early VediEarly VediccSamhitasSamhitas  also contain references to other group asceticsalso contain references to other group asceticssuch as, Munis, thesuch as, Munis, the  KeśinKeśin,, and Vratyas and Vratyas..[76][76]  Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies areTechniques for controlling breath and vital energies arementioned in thementioned in the  BrahmanasBrahmanas  (ritualistic texts of the Vedic (ritualistic texts of the Vedic corpus, c. 1000corpus, c. 1000 – –800 BCE) and800 BCE) andthethe Atharvaved Atharvavedaa..[74][77][74][77]  Nasadiya SuktaNasadiya Sukta  of theof the Rig VedaRig Veda suggests the presence of an early suggests the presence of an earlycontemplative traditioncontemplative tradition..[note 12][note 12]  

The VedicThe Vedic  SamhitasSamhitas  contain references to ascetics, and ascetic practices known ascontain references to ascetics, and ascetic practices known as ((tapastapas)) are arereferencereferenced in d in thethe  BrāhmaṇasBrāhmaṇas  (900 BCE and 500 BCE), early commentaries on the(900 BCE and 500 BCE), early commentaries on theVedasVedas..[80][80]  TheThe  RigvedaRigveda,, the earliest of the the earliest of the  Hindu textsHindu texts  mentions the practicementions the practice..[81][81]  Robert SchneiderRobert Schneiderand Jeremy Fields write,and Jeremy Fields write,

Yoga asanas were first prescribed by the ancient Vedic texts thousands of years ago and are said toYoga asanas were first prescribed by the ancient Vedic texts thousands of years ago and are said todirectly enliven the body's inner directly enliven the body's inner intelligenceintelligence..[82[82]][[unreliable source?unreliable source?]]  

 According t According to Feuersteo Feuerstein, breatin, breath control ah control and curbinnd curbing the mind g the mind was practicewas practiced since td since the Vediche Vedictimes.times.,,[83][83]  and yoga was fundamental to Vedic ritual, especially to chanting the sacred hymnand yoga was fundamental to Vedic ritual, especially to chanting the sacred hymnss[84][84]  

Preclassical era (500-200 BCE)Preclassical era (500-200 BCE)[[editedit]]  

Diffused pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500Diffused pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500 – –200 BCE200 BCEsuch as the Buddhist Nikayas, the middle Upanishads, thesuch as the Buddhist Nikayas, the middle Upanishads, the Bhagavad GitaBhagavad Gita and Mokshadharma of and Mokshadharma ofthethe  MahabharataMahabharata.. The terms The terms samkhyasamkhya and and yogayoga in these texts refer to spiritual methodologies rather in these texts refer to spiritual methodologies ratherthan the philosophical systems which developed centuries later than the philosophical systems which developed centuries later ..[85][85]  

Early Buddhist textsEarly Buddhist texts[[editedit]]  

Werner notes that "only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon" do we have the oldestWerner notes that "only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon" do we have the oldestpreserved comprehensive yoga practice:preserved comprehensive yoga practice:

  

"But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a"But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about asystematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first andsystematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first andoldest to have been preserved for us in oldest to have been preserved for us in its entiretyits entirety""[8][8]  

 Another y Another yoga systeoga system that predm that predated thated the Buddhe Buddhist school is Jaist school is Jain yoga. Buin yoga. But since Jain sot since Jain sourcesurcespostdate Buddhist ones, it is difficult to distinguish between the nature of the early Jain school andpostdate Buddhist ones, it is difficult to distinguish between the nature of the early Jain school andelements derived from other schoolselements derived from other schools..[8][8]  

Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons areMost of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons are

lost to timelost to time..[86][87[86][87][note 13]][note 13]  

The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states, some of which the BuddhaThe early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states, some of which the Buddhaborrowed from the śramana traditionborrowed from the śramana tradition..

[89][90][89][90]  One key innovative teaching of the Buddha wasOne key innovative teaching of the Buddha wasthatthat  meditative absorptionmeditative absorption  must be combined with liberating cognitionmust be combined with liberating cognition..[91][91]  Meditative states alone areMeditative states alone arenot an end, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not liberating. Insteadnot an end, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not liberating. Insteadof attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must take place: aof attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must take place: aliberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful awarenessliberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful awareness..[92][92]  The Buddha also departed fromThe Buddha also departed fromearlier yogic thought in discarding the early Brahminic notion of liberation at deathearlier yogic thought in discarding the early Brahminic notion of liberation at death..[93][93]  While theWhile theUpanishads thought liberation to be a realization at death of a nondual meditative state where theUpanishads thought liberation to be a realization at death of a nondual meditative state where theontological duality between subject and object was abolished, Buddha's theory of liberationontological duality between subject and object was abolished, Buddha's theory of liberationdepended upon this duality because liberation to him was an insight into the subject's experiencedepended upon this duality because liberation to him was an insight into the subject's experience..[93][93]  

The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue againstThe Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue againstthe palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passagethe palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage..[94][94]  HoweverHoweverthere is no mention of the tongue being inserted into thethere is no mention of the tongue being inserted into the   nasopharynxnasopharynx  as in trueas in true  khecarī mudrākhecarī mudrā.. The TheBuddha used a posture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to even modernBuddha used a posture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to even modernpostures used to stimulate Kundalinipostures used to stimulate Kundalini..[95][95]  

UpanishadsUpanishads[[editedit]]  

 Alexander  Alexander Wynne, autWynne, author ofhor of The Origin of Buddhist MeditationThe Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes that formless meditation, observes that formless meditationand elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic traditionand elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition..[96][96]  The earliestThe earliestreference to meditation is in thereference to meditation is in the  Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Brihadaranyaka Upanishad ,, one of the oldest one of the oldestUpanishadsUpanishads..[76][76]  Chandogya Upanishad Chandogya Upanishad   describes the five kinds of vital describes the five kinds of vital energiesenergies (( prana prana)). Concepts. Conceptsused later in many yoga traditions such as internal sound and veinsused later in many yoga traditions such as internal sound and veins ((nadisnadis)) are also described in the are also described in theUpanishadUpanishad..[74][74]

Taittiriya Upanishad Taittiriya Upanishad   defines yoga as the mastery of body and sensesdefines yoga as the mastery of body and senses..[97][97]  

The term "yoga" first appears in the Hindu scriptureThe term "yoga" first appears in the Hindu scripture  Katha Upanishad Katha Upanishad   ((a primarya primary  Upanishad c. 400Upanishad c. 400BCE) where it is defined as the steady control of the senses, which along with cessation of mentalBCE) where it is defined as the steady control of the senses, which along with cessation of mentalactivity, leads to the supreme stateactivity, leads to the supreme state..[76][note 14][76][note 14]  Katha Upanishad Katha Upanishad  integrates the monism of early integrates the monism of early

Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines various levels of existence according toUpanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines various levels of existence according totheir proximity to the innermost beingtheir proximity to the innermost being Ātman Ātman. Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization. Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorizationor ascent of consciousnessor ascent of consciousness..[99][100][99][100]  It is It is the earliest literary work that highlights the fundamentals ofthe earliest literary work that highlights the fundamentals ofyoga.yoga.  Shvetashvatara Upanishad Shvetashvatara Upanishad   (c. 400-200 BCE) elaborates on the relationship between thought(c. 400-200 BCE) elaborates on the relationship between thoughtand breath, control of mind, and the benefits of yogaand breath, control of mind, and the benefits of yoga..[100][100]  Like theLike the Katha Upanishad Katha Upanishad  the transcendent the transcendentSelf is seen as the goal of yoga. This text also recommends meditation onSelf is seen as the goal of yoga. This text also recommends meditation on  OmOm  as a path toas a path toliberationliberation..[101][101]  Maitrayaniya Upanishad Maitrayaniya Upanishad   (c. 300 BCE) formalizes the sixfold form of(c. 300 BCE) formalizes the sixfold form ofyogayoga..[100][100]  Physiological theories of later yoga make an appearance in this textPhysiological theories of later yoga make an appearance in this text..[102][103][102][103]  

While breath channelsWhile breath channels ((nāḍisnāḍis)) of yogic practices had already been discussed in the classical of yogic practices had already been discussed in the classicalUpanishads, it was not until the eighth-century BuddhistUpanishads, it was not until the eighth-century Buddhist  HevajraHevajra  Tantra andTantra and Caryāgiti Caryāgiti , that, thathierarchies of chakras were introducedhierarchies of chakras were introduced..[104][105][104][105]  Further systematization of yoga is continued in theFurther systematization of yoga is continued in theYoga Upanishads of theYoga Upanishads of the Atharvave Atharvavedada (viz., (viz.,Śāṇḍilya, Pāśupata, MahāvākyaŚāṇḍilya, Pāśupata, Mahāvākya))[[clarification needed clarification needed ]]..[106][106]  

Bhagavad GitaBhagavad Gita[[editedit]]  

  

  

KrishnaKrishna  narrating thenarrating the  GitaGita t too   Arjuna Arjuna..

Main article:Main article:  Bhagavad GitaBhagavad Gita  

TheThe Bhagavad GitaBhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term "yoga" extensively in a variety of ways. In ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term "yoga" extensively in a variety of ways. Inaddition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditationaddition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation,,[107][107]  ititintroduces three prominent types of yogaintroduces three prominent types of yoga::[note 15][note 15]  

   Karma yogaKarma yoga:: The yoga of action The yoga of action..[note 16][note 16]  

   Bhakti yogaBhakti yoga:: The yoga of devotion The yoga of devotion..[note 17][note 17]  

   Jnana yogaJnana yoga:: The yoga of knowledge The yoga of knowledge..[note 18][note 18]  

In Chapter 2 of theIn Chapter 2 of the  Bhagavad GitaBhagavad Gita,,  KrishnaKrishna  explains toexplains to   Arjuna Arjuna  about the essence of yoga asabout the essence of yoga aspracticed in daily lives:practiced in daily lives:

  

  ::                          ।।  

  ::                       ।।।।  (yoga-(yoga-sthaḥ kuru karmani sanyugam tyaktvā dhananjay sthaḥ kuru karmani sanyugam tyaktvā dhananjay   siddhy-siddhy-asiddhyoḥ samo bhutvāasiddhyoḥ samo bhutvā samatvam yoga ucyate)samatvam yoga ucyate)  -- Bhagavad GitaBhagavad Gita 2.48 2.48

 A. C. Bhakt A. C. Bhaktivedanta ivedanta Swami PraSwami Prabhupadabhupada  translates it as "Be steadfast in yoga (translates it as "Be steadfast in yoga (yoga-yoga-sthaḥsthaḥ), O), O Arjuna. Per Arjuna. Perform your dform your duty (uty (kuru karmani kuru karmani ) and abandon all attachment () and abandon all attachment (sangamsangam) to success or failure) to success or failure((siddhy-siddhy-asiddhyoḥasiddhyoḥ). Such evenness of mind (). Such evenness of mind (samatvamsamatvam) is called ) is called yoga.yoga.""[112][112]  

Madhusūdana Sarasvatī Madhusūdana Sarasvatī   (b. circa 1490) divided the(b. circa 1490) divided the GitaGita into three sections, with the first six into three sections, with the first sixchapters dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with Bhakti chapters dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with Bhakti yoga, and the last six yoga, and the last six with Jnanawith Jnana(knowledge)(knowledge)..[113][113]  Other commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to each chapter, delineating eighteenOther commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to each chapter, delineating eighteen

different yogasdifferent yogas..

[114][114]

   Aurobindo Aurobindo,, a freedom fighter and philosopher, describes the yoga of the a freedom fighter and philosopher, describes the yoga of the GitaGita as as"a large, flexible and many-sided system with various elements, which are all successfully"a large, flexible and many-sided system with various elements, which are all successfullyharmonized by a sort of natural and living assimilation"harmonized by a sort of natural and living assimilation"..[115][115]  

MahabharataMahabharata[[editedit]]  

Description of an early form of yoga calledDescription of an early form of yoga called nirodhanirodha – –yogayoga (yoga of cessation) is contained in the (yoga of cessation) is contained in theMokshadharma section of the 12th chapterMokshadharma section of the 12th chapter ((Shanti ParvaShanti Parva)) of the of theMahabharataMahabharata epic. The verses of epic. The verses ofthe section are dated to c. 300the section are dated to c. 300 – –200 BCE.200 BCE. NirodhaNirodha – –yogayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from emphasizes progressive withdrawal fromthe contents of empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations etc. untilthe contents of empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations etc. until purusha purusha (Self) is (Self) isrealized. Terms likerealized. Terms like vicharavichara (subtle  (subtle reflection),reflection), vivekaviveka (discrimination) and others which are similar to (discrimination) and others which are similar toPatanjali's terminology are mentioned, but not describedPatanjali's terminology are mentioned, but not described..[116][116]  There is no uniform goal of yogaThere is no uniform goal of yogamentioned in thementioned in the MahabharataMahabharata. Separation of self from matter, perceiving. Separation of self from matter, perceiving  BrahmanBrahman  everywhere,everywhere,entering intoentering into BrahmanBrahman etc. are all described as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflated etc. are all described as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflatedtogether and some verses describe them as being identicaltogether and some verses describe them as being identical..[48][48]  Mokshadharma also describes anMokshadharma also describes anearly practice of elemental meditationearly practice of elemental meditation..[117][117]  

Classical era (200 BCEClassical era (200 BCE  – – 500 CE) 500 CE)[[editedit]]  

  

Raja yogaRaja yoga[[editedit]]  Main article:Main article:  Rāja yogaRāja yoga  

During the period between theDuring the period between the  MauryanMauryan  and theand the  Gupta eraGupta era  (c. 200 BCE(c. 200 BCE – –500 CE) philosophical500 CE) philosophicalschools of schools of   HinduismHinduism,,  BuddhismBuddhism  andand  JainismJainism  were taking form and a coherent philosophical systemwere taking form and a coherent philosophical systemof yoga began to emergeof yoga began to emerge..[52][52]  

SamkhyaSamkhya[[editedit]]  Further information:Further information:  SamkhyaSamkhya  

Samkhya emerged in the first century CESamkhya emerged in the first century CE..[118][118]  When Patanjali systematized the conceptions of yoga,When Patanjali systematized the conceptions of yoga,he set them forth on the background of the metaphysics of samkhya, which he assumed with slighthe set them forth on the background of the metaphysics of samkhya, which he assumed with slightvariations. In the early works, the yoga principles appear together with the samkhya ideas. Vyasa'svariations. In the early works, the yoga principles appear together with the samkhya ideas. Vyasa'scommentary on thecommentary on the Yoga SutrasYoga Sutras, also called the, also called the SamkhyapravacanabhasyaSamkhyapravacanabhasya ( (Commentary on theCommentary on theExposition of the Sankhya Philosophy Exposition of the Sankhya Philosophy ), brings out the intimate relation between the two), brings out the intimate relation between the twosystemssystems..[119][119]  Yoga agrees with the essential metaphysics of samkhya, but differs from it in that whileYoga agrees with the essential metaphysics of samkhya, but differs from it in that whilesamkhya holds that knowledge is the means of liberation, yoga is a samkhya holds that knowledge is the means of liberation, yoga is a system of active striving, mentalsystem of active striving, mentaldiscipline, and dutiful action. Yoga also introduces the conception of god. Sometimes Patanjali'sdiscipline, and dutiful action. Yoga also introduces the conception of god. Sometimes Patanjali'ssystem is referred to assystem is referred to asSeshvara SamkhyaSeshvara Samkhya in  in contradistincontradistinction to Kapila'sction to Kapila's Nirivara SamkhyaNirivara Samkhya..[120][120]  

 Yoga Sutras o Yoga Sutras of Patanjalif Patanjali[[editedit]]  Main articles:Main articles:  Raja YogaRaja Yoga  and and   Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Yoga Sutras of Patanjali   

  

Traditional Hindu depiction of Patanjali as an avatar Traditional Hindu depiction of Patanjali as an avatar of the divine serpentof the divine serpent  SheshaShesha..  

Yoga Sutras of PatanjalYoga Sutras of Patanjalii[121][121]

  

Pada Pada (Chapter) (Chapter) English English meaning meaning SutrasSutras

Samadhi Samadhi Pada Pada On On being being absorbed absorbed in in spirit spirit 5151

  

Sadhana Sadhana Pada Pada On On being being immersed immersed in in spirit spirit 5555

Vibhuti Vibhuti Pada Pada On On supernatural supernatural abilities abilities and and gifts gifts 5656

Kaivalya Kaivalya Pada Pada On On absolute absolute freedom freedom 3434

In Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the sixIn Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the six   orthodox orthodox   (which accept the testimony of(which accept the testimony ofVedas) philosophical schoolsVedas) philosophical schools..[122][123][122][123]  The yoga school was founded byThe yoga school was founded by  PatanjaliPatanjali.. Karel W Karel Werner,erner,author ofauthor of Yoga And Indian Philosophy Yoga And Indian Philosophy , believes that the process of systematization of yoga which, believes that the process of systematization of yoga whichbegan in the middle and Yoga Upanishads culminated with thebegan in the middle and Yoga Upanishads culminated with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Yoga Sutras of Patanjali ..[note[note

19]19]  Scholars also note the influence of Buddhist and Samkhyan ideas on theScholars also note the influence of Buddhist and Samkhyan ideas on the YogaYogaSutrasSutras..[124][125][124][125]Patanjali's Yoga Sutras reminds us of Buddhist formulations from thePatanjali's Yoga Sutras reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the  PāliPāliCanonCanon,,  SarvāstivādaSarvāstivāda   Abhidharma Abhidharma  andandSautrāntikaSautrāntika..[126][126]  The yoga school accepts the samkhyaThe yoga school accepts the samkhyapsychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the samkhya, as evidenced by the addition ofpsychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the samkhya, as evidenced by the addition ofa divine entity to the a divine entity to the samkhya's twenty-fivsamkhya's twenty-five elements of realitye elements of reality..[127][128][127][128]  The parallels between yogaThe parallels between yogaand samkhya were so close thatand samkhya were so close that  Max Müller Max Müller   says that "the two philosophies were in popularsays that "the two philosophies were in popularparlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord....parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord....""[129][129]  TheTheintimate relationship between samkhya and yoga is explained byintimate relationship between samkhya and yoga is explained by  Heinrich Zimmer Heinrich Zimmer ::  

These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline.These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. SāṅkhyaSāṅkhya provides a provides abasic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing theirbasic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing theirmanner of co-operation in a state of bondage (manner of co-operation in a state of bondage (""bandhabandha""), and describing their state of), and describing their state ofdisentanglement or separation in release (disentanglement or separation in release (""mokṣamokṣa""), while yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of), while yoga treats specifically of the dynamics ofthe process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, orthe process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or"isolation-int"isolation-integration" egration" ("kaivalya")("kaivalya")..

——[130][130]  

Patanjali is widely regarded as the compiler of the formal yoga philosophyPatanjali is widely regarded as the compiler of the formal yoga philosophy..[131][131]  The verses ofThe verses of YogaYogaSutrasSutras are terse and are therefore read together with the are terse and are therefore read together with the Vyasa BhashyaVyasa Bhashya (c. 350 (c. 350 – –450 CE), a450 CE), acommentary on thecommentary on the Yoga SutrasYoga Sutras..[132][132]  Patanjali's yoga is known as Raja yoga, which is a system forPatanjali's yoga is known as Raja yoga, which is a system forcontrol of the mindcontrol of the mind..[133][133]  Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra, which is the definitionalsecond sutra, which is the definitionalsutra for his entire work:sutra for his entire work:

  

  ::   --            ::  

(yogaś citta(yogaś citta--vṛtti vṛtti --nirodhaḥ)nirodhaḥ)  -- Yoga SutrasYoga Sutras 1.2 1.2

This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms.This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms.   I. K. TaimniI. K. Taimni  translates it astranslates it as"Yoga is the inhibition ("Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥnirodhaḥ) of the modifications () of the modifications (vṛtti vṛtti ) of the mind () of the mind (cittacitta)")"..[134][134]  The use of theThe use of thewordword nirodhaḥnirodhaḥ in the opening definition of yoga is an example of the important role that Buddhist in the opening definition of yoga is an example of the important role that Buddhisttechnical terminology and concepts play in thetechnical terminology and concepts play in the Yoga SutrasYoga Sutras; this role suggests that Patanjali was; this role suggests that Patanjali wasaware of Buddhist ideas and wove them into his systemaware of Buddhist ideas and wove them into his system..[135][135]  Swami Swami VivekanandVivekanandaa  translates the sutratranslates the sutraas "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (CittaCitta) from taking various forms () from taking various forms (VrittisVrittis).).""[136][136]  

  

  

 A sculpture of a Hindu A sculpture of a Hindu  yogiyogiiin then the  Birla Mandir Birla Mandir ,, DelhiDelhi  

Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-LimbedPatanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-LimbedYoga"). This eight-limbed concept derived from the 29th Sutra of the 2nd book, and is a coreYoga"). This eight-limbed concept derived from the 29th Sutra of the 2nd book, and is a corecharacteristic of practically every Raja yoga variation taught today. The Eight Limbs are:characteristic of practically every Raja yoga variation taught today. The Eight Limbs are:

1.1. YamaYama  (The five "abstentions"): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (Truth, non-lying), Asteya (non-(The five "abstentions"): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (Truth, non-lying), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (non-sensuality, celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).stealing), Brahmacharya (non-sensuality, celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).

2.2. NiyamaNiyama  (The five "observances"): Shaucha (purity), Santosha (contentment), Tapas(The five "observances"): Shaucha (purity), Santosha (contentment), Tapas(austerity), Svadhyaya (study of the Vedic scriptures to know about God and the soul), and(austerity), Svadhyaya (study of the Vedic scriptures to know about God and the soul), andIshvara-Pranidhana (surrender to God).Ishvara-Pranidhana (surrender to God).

3.3.  Asana Asana:: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used formeditation.meditation.

4.4. PranayamaPranayama  ("Suspending Breath"):("Suspending Breath"): PrānaPrāna, breath, "āyāma", to restrain or stop. Also, breath, "āyāma", to restrain or stop. Alsointerpreteinterpreted as control of d as control of the life force.the life force.

5.5. PratyaharaPratyahara  ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.

6.6. DharanaDharana  ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.

7.7. DhyanaDhyana  ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.

8.8. SamadhiSamadhi  ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

In the view of this school, the highest attainment does not reveal the experienced diversity of theIn the view of this school, the highest attainment does not reveal the experienced diversity of the

world to beworld to be  illusionillusion.. The everyday world is real. Furthermore, the highest attainment is the event of The everyday world is real. Furthermore, the highest attainment is the event ofone of many individualone of many individual  selvesselves  discovering itself; there is no single discovering itself; there is no single universal self shared by alluniversal self shared by allpersonspersons..[137][137]  

 Yoga Yajnavalky Yoga Yajnavalkyaa[[editedit]]  Main article:Main article:  Yoga YajnavalkyaYoga Yajnavalkya  

  

                    

saṁyogo yoga ityukto jīvātmasaṁyogo yoga ityukto jīvātma-- paramātmanoḥ paramātmanoḥ॥ ॥   

Union of the self (Union of the self ( jivātma jivātma) with the Divine () with the Divine ( paramātma paramātma) is said to be yoga.) is said to be yoga.

——Yoga YajnavalkyaYoga Yajnavalkya[138][138]  

TheThe  Yoga YajnavalkyaYoga Yajnavalkya  is a is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the Vedic sageclassical treatise on yoga attributed to the Vedic sage  YajnavalkyaYajnavalkya.. It Ittakes the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and his wifetakes the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and his wife  GargiGargi,, a renowned female a renowned femalephilosopher philosopher ..[139][139]  The text contains 12 chapters and its origin has been traced to the period betweenThe text contains 12 chapters and its origin has been traced to the period betweenthe second century BCE and fourth century CEthe second century BCE and fourth century CE..[140][140]  Many yoga texts like theMany yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga PradipikaHatha Yoga Pradipika,,

thethe Yoga Kundalini Yoga Kundalini  and the and the Yoga Tattva UpanishadsYoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed verses from or make frequent have borrowed verses from or make frequentreferences to thereferences to the Yoga YajnavalkyaYoga Yajnavalkya..[141][141]  In theIn theYoga YajnavalkyaYoga Yajnavalkya, yoga is defined, yoga is defined

  

asas jivatmap jivatmaparamatmaramatmasamyogahasamyogah, or the union between the individual self (, or the union between the individual self ( jivatma jivatma) and the Divine) and the Divine(( param paramatmaatma))..[138][138]  

JainismJainism[[editedit]]  Main article:Main article:  JainismJainism  

  

TirthankaraTirthankara  ParsvaParsva i in Yogic meditation in thn Yogic meditation in theeKayotsargaKayotsarga  posture.posture.

 According t According too  TattvarthasutraTattvarthasutra,, 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind, 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind,speech and bodyspeech and body..[7][7]  UmasvatiUmasvaticalls yoga the cause of calls yoga the cause of "asrava" or "asrava" or   karmic influxkarmic influx[142][142]  as well as one ofas well as one ofthe essentialsthe essentials——samyak caritrasamyak caritra——in the path to liberationin the path to liberation..[142][142]IIn hisn his NiyamasaraNiyamasara, Acarya, Acarya  KundakundaKundakunda,,  

describesdescribes yoga bhakti yoga bhakti ——devotion to the path to liberationdevotion to the path to liberation——as the highest form ofas the highest form ofdevotiondevotion..[143][143]   Acarya Acarya  HaribhadraHaribhadra  and Acaryaand Acarya  HemacandraHemacandra  mention the five major vows of asceticsmention the five major vows of asceticsand 12 minor vows of and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led laity under yoga. This has led certaincertain  IndologistsIndologists  like Prof.like Prof.  Robert J.Robert J.ZydenbosZydenbos  to call Jainism, essentially, a system to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledgedfull-fledgedreligionreligion..[144][144]  TheThe  five yamasfive yamas  or the constraints of theor the constraints of the  Yoga Sutras of Patanjali Yoga Sutras of Patanjali   bear a resemblance tobear a resemblance tothethe  five major vows of five major vows of JainismJainism,, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between thesetraditionstraditions..[145][note 20][145][note 20]  

Mainstream Hinduism's influence on Jain yoga is noticed asMainstream Hinduism's influence on Jain yoga is noticed as  HaribhadraHaribhadra  founded his eightfold yogafounded his eightfold yogaand aligned it with Patanjali's eightfold yogaand aligned it with Patanjali's eightfold yoga..[147][147]  

 Yogacara school Yogacara school[[editedit]]  Main article:Main article:  YogacaraYogacara  

In the late phase of Indian antiquity, on the eve of the development of In the late phase of Indian antiquity, on the eve of the development of   Classical HinduismClassical Hinduism,,  thethe  YogacaraYogacara  movement arises during thmovement arises during theeGupta periodGupta period  (4th to 5th centuries). Yogacara received the(4th to 5th centuries). Yogacara received the

name as it provided a "yoga," a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path ofname as it provided a "yoga," a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path ofthethe  bodhisattvabodhisattva..[148][148]  The yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a way to reach enlightenmentThe yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a way to reach enlightenment..[149][149]  

  

Middle Ages (500Middle Ages (500 – –1500 CE)1500 CE)[[editedit]]  

Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga. Hatha yoga emerged as aMiddle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga. Hatha yoga emerged as adominant practice of yoga in this perioddominant practice of yoga in this period..[150][150]  

Bhakti movementBhakti movement[[editedit]]  Main article:Main article:  Bhakti YogaBhakti Yoga  

TheThe  Bhakti movementBhakti movement  was a development in medieval Hinduism which advocated the concept ofwas a development in medieval Hinduism which advocated the concept of

aa  personal Godpersonal God  (or(or ""Supreme Personality of GodheadSupreme Personality of Godhead""). The movement was initiated by). The movement was initiated bythethe   Alvars Alvars  of South India in the 6th to 9th centuries, and it started gaining influence throughout Indiaof South India in the 6th to 9th centuries, and it started gaining influence throughout Indiaby the 12th to 15th centuriesby the 12th to 15th centuries..[151][151]  Shaiva andShaiva and  VaishnavaVaishnava  bhakti traditions integrated aspects ofbhakti traditions integrated aspects of YogaYogaSutrasSutras, such as , such as the practical meditative exercisethe practical meditative exercises, with devotions, with devotion..[152][152]

Bhagavata PuranaBhagavata Purana  elucidateselucidatesthe practice of a form of yoga calledthe practice of a form of yoga called virahaviraha (separation) (separation) bhakti bhakti .. Viraha bhakti Viraha bhakti  emphasizes one emphasizes onepointed concentration on Krishnapointed concentration on Krishna..[153][153]  

TantraTantra[[editedit]]  

By the turn of the first millennium,By the turn of the first millennium,  hatha yogahatha yoga  emerged fromemerged from  tantratantra..[10][11][10][11]  

TantrismTantrism  is a is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the ordinary social,its practitioners to the ordinary social,religious, and logical reality in which they lreligious, and logical reality in which they live. Throughive. Through  TantricTantricpractice, an individual practice, an individual perceivesperceivesreality asreality as  mayamaya,, illusion, and the  illusion, and the individual achieveindividual achieves liberation from its liberation from it..[154][154]  Both Tantra and yoga offerBoth Tantra and yoga offerpaths that relieve a person from depending on the world. Where yoga relies on progressivepaths that relieve a person from depending on the world. Where yoga relies on progressiverestriction of inputs from outside; Tantra relies on transmutation of all external inputs so restriction of inputs from outside; Tantra relies on transmutation of all external inputs so that one isthat one is

no longer dependent on them, but can take them or leave them at will. They both make a personno longer dependent on them, but can take them or leave them at will. They both make a personindependentindependent..[155][155]  This particular path to salvation among the several offered byThis particular path to salvation among the several offered by  HinduismHinduism,, links linksTantrism to those practices of Tantrism to those practices of   Indian religionsIndian religions,, such as yoga, meditation, and social such as yoga, meditation, and social  renunciationrenunciation,,  which are based on temporary or permanent withdrawal from social relationships and modeswhich are based on temporary or permanent withdrawal from social relationships and modes..[154][154]  

During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation technique,During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation technique,particularlyparticularly  chakra meditationchakra meditation.. This is often in  This is often in a limited form in comparison with the way this kind ofa limited form in comparison with the way this kind ofmeditation is known and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaboratemeditation is known and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaboratethan the initiate's previous meditation. It is considered to be a kind of than the initiate's previous meditation. It is considered to be a kind of   Kundalini yogaKundalini yoga  for the purposefor the purposeof moving the Goddess into the chakra located in the "heart", for meditation and worshipof moving the Goddess into the chakra located in the "heart", for meditation and worship..[156][156]  

VajrayanaVajrayana[[editedit]]  Main article:Main article:  VajrayanaVajrayana  

While breath channelsWhile breath channels ((nāḍisnāḍis)) of yogic practices had already been discussed in the of yogic practices had already been discussed in theclassicalclassical  UpanishadsUpanishads,, it was not until the eighth-century Buddhist it was not until the eighth-century Buddhist  Hevajra TantraHevajra Tantraandand Caryāgiti Caryāgiti , that, that

hierarchies of chakras were introducedhierarchies of chakras were introduced..[104][105][104][105]  

Hatha YogaHatha Yoga[[editedit]]  Main articles:Main articles:  Hatha yogaHatha yoga  and and   Hatha Yoga PradipikaHatha Yoga Pradipika  

The earliest references to hatha yoga are in Buddhist works dating from the eighth centuryThe earliest references to hatha yoga are in Buddhist works dating from the eighth century..[157][157]  TheTheearliest definition of hatha yoga is found in the 11th century Buddhist textearliest definition of hatha yoga is found in the 11th century Buddhist text VimalaprabhaVimalaprabha, which, whichdefines it in relation to the center channel, bindu etcdefines it in relation to the center channel, bindu etc..[158][158]  The basic tenets of Hatha yoga wereThe basic tenets of Hatha yoga wereformulated by Shaiva asceticsformulated by Shaiva asceticsMatsyendranathMatsyendranath  andand  GorakshanathGorakshanath  c. 900 CE. Hatha yogac. 900 CE. Hatha yogasynthesizes elements of Patanjali'ssynthesizes elements of Patanjali's Yoga SutrasYoga Sutras with posture and breathing exercises with posture and breathing exercises..[159][159]  HathaHathayoga, sometimes referred to as the "psychophysical yoga"yoga, sometimes referred to as the "psychophysical yoga",,[160][160]  was further elaborated bywas further elaborated by  YogiYogiSwatmaramaSwatmarama,, compiler of the compiler of the  Hatha Yoga PradipikaHatha Yoga Pradipika  in 15th century CE. This yoga differsin 15th century CE. This yoga differssubstantially from the Raja yoga of Patanjali in that it focuses onsubstantially from the Raja yoga of Patanjali in that it focuses on  shatkarmashatkarma,, the purification of the the purification of thephysical body as leading to the purification of the mind (physical body as leading to the purification of the mind (haha), and), and   prana prana,, or vital energy or vital energy((thatha))..[161][162][161][162]  Compared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of Patanjali's RajaCompared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of Patanjali's Raja

yogayoga,,[163][163]

  it marks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body 'postures' now in popularit marks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body 'postures' now in popular

  

usageusage[164][164]  and, along with its many modern variations, is the style that many people associate withand, along with its many modern variations, is the style that many people associate withthe wordthe word yogayoga today today..[165][165]  

It is similar to It is similar to a diving boarda diving board – – preparing the body for purification, so that it may be ready to receive preparing the body for purification, so that it may be ready to receivehigher techniques of meditation. The word "Hatha" comes from "Ha" which means Sun, and "Tha"higher techniques of meditation. The word "Hatha" comes from "Ha" which means Sun, and "Tha"which means Moonwhich means Moon..[166][166]  

SikhismSikhism[[editedit]]  

Various yogic groups had become prominent inVarious yogic groups had become prominent in  PunjabPunjab  in the 15th and 16th century,in the 15th and 16th century,whenwhen  SikhismSikhism  was in its nascent stage. Compositions of was in its nascent stage. Compositions of   Guru NanakGuru Nanak,, the founder of Sikhism, the founder of Sikhism,describe many dialogues he had withdescribe many dialogues he had with  JogisJogis,, a Hindu community which practiced yoga a Hindu community which practiced yoga..[167][167]  GuruGuruNanak rejected the austerities, rites and rituals connected with Hatha YogaNanak rejected the austerities, rites and rituals connected with Hatha Yoga..[168][168]  He propounded theHe propounded thepath of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga (meditation onpath of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga (meditation on the namethe name) instead) instead..[169][169]  TheThe  Guru GranthGuru GranthSahibSahib  states:states:

Listen "O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. The devotee mustListen "O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. The devotee mustmeditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. He understands, he alsomeditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. He understands, he alsosees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination."sees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination."

——[170][170]  

Modern historyModern history[[editedit]]  

Reception in the WestReception in the West[[editedit]]  

  

 An early illustration of Indians per An early illustration of Indians performingforming  Yoga asanaYoga asana i in 1688n 1688

Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid-19th century along with otherYoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid-19th century along with othertopics of Indian philosophy. In the context of this budding interest,topics of Indian philosophy. In the context of this budding interest,   N. C. PaulN. C. Paul  published hispublished his TreatiseTreatiseon Yoga Philosophy on Yoga Philosophy  in 1851. in 1851.

The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a westernThe first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western

audience,audience,  Swami VivekanandaSwami Vivekananda,, toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s..[171][171]  The receptionThe receptionwhich Swami Vivekananda received built on the active interest of intellectuals, in particular thewhich Swami Vivekananda received built on the active interest of intellectuals, in particular the  NewNewEngland TranscendentalistsEngland Transcendentalists,, among them among them  R. W. EmersonR. W. Emerson  (1803-1882), who drew on(1803-1882), who drew on  GermanGermanRomanticismRomanticism  and the interest of philosophers and scholars likeand the interest of philosophers and scholars like  G. F. W. HegelG. F. W. Hegel  (1770-1831), the(1770-1831), thebrother brother ss August  August Wilhelm SchlegeWilhelm Schlegell  (1767-1845) and(1767-1845) and  Karl Wilhelm Friedrich SchlegelKarl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel  (1772-(1772-1829),1829),  Max Mueller Max Mueller   (1823-1900),(1823-1900),   A. Schope A. Schopenhauer nhauer   (1788-1860) and others who had (to varying(1788-1860) and others who had (to varyingdegrees) interests in things Indiandegrees) interests in things Indian..[172][172]  

TheosophistsTheosophists  also had a large influence on the American public's view of Yogaalso had a large influence on the American public's view of Yoga..[173][173]  Esoteric viewsEsoteric viewscurrent at the end of the 19th century provided a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and ofcurrent at the end of the 19th century provided a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and ofYoga with its theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physicalYoga with its theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical ..[174][174]  TheThereception of Yoga and of Vedanta thus entwined with each other and with the (mostlyreception of Yoga and of Vedanta thus entwined with each other and with the (mostly   NeoplatonismNeoplatonism--based) currents of religious and philosophical reform andbased) currents of religious and philosophical reform and  transformationtransformation  throughout the 19th andthroughout the 19th andearly 20th centuries.early 20th centuries.  M. EliadeM. Eliade,, himself rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions, himself rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions, [[citationcitation

needed needed ]] brought a new element into the reception of Yoga with the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in brought a new element into the reception of Yoga with the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in

his seminal book:his seminal book: Yoga: Immortality and FreedomYoga: Immortality and Freedom..[note 21][note 21]  With the introduction of the Tantra traditionsWith the introduction of the Tantra traditionsand philosophy of Yoga, the conception of the "transcendent" to be attained by Yogic practice shiftedand philosophy of Yoga, the conception of the "transcendent" to be attained by Yogic practice shifted

  

from experiencing the "transcendent" ("Atman-Brahman" in Advaitic theory) in the mind to the bodyfrom experiencing the "transcendent" ("Atman-Brahman" in Advaitic theory) in the mind to the bodyitself itself ..[175][175]  

The modern scientific study of yoga began with the works of The modern scientific study of yoga began with the works of   N. C. PaulN. C. Paul  and Major D. Basu in the lateand Major D. Basu in the late19th century, and then continued in the 20th century with Sri Yogendra (1897-1989) and19th century, and then continued in the 20th century with Sri Yogendra (1897-1989) and  SwamiSwamiKuvalayanandaKuvalayananda..[176][176]  Western medical researchers came toWestern medical researchers came to  Swami KuvalayanandaSwami Kuvalayananda’’ss  KaivalyadhamaKaivalyadhamaHealth and Yoga Research Center Health and Yoga Research Center ,, starting in 1928, to study Yoga as a science starting in 1928, to study Yoga as a science..[177][177]  

The West,The West,[[clarification needed clarification needed ]] in  in the early 21st century typically associates the term "yoga" withthe early 21st century typically associates the term "yoga" with  HathaHatha

yogayoga  and itsand its  asanasasanas  (postures) or as a(postures) or as a  form of exerciseform of exercise..[178][178]During the 1910s and 1920s in the USA,During the 1910s and 1920s in the USA,yoga suffered a period of bad publicity due largely to the backlash against immigration, a rise inyoga suffered a period of bad publicity due largely to the backlash against immigration, a rise inpuritanical values, and a number of scandals. In the 1930s and 1940s yoga began to gain morepuritanical values, and a number of scandals. In the 1930s and 1940s yoga began to gain morepublic acceptance as a result of celebrity endorsement.public acceptance as a result of celebrity endorsement.[[citation needed citation needed ]] In the 1950s the United States In the 1950s the United Statessaw another period of paranoia against yogasaw another period of paranoia against yoga,,[173][173]  but by the 1960s, western interest in Hindubut by the 1960s, western interest in Hinduspirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a spirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a great number ogreat number of f Neo-HinduNeo-Hindu  schools specificallyschools specificallyadvocated to a western public. During this period, most of the influential Indian teachers of yogaadvocated to a western public. During this period, most of the influential Indian teachers of yogacame from two lineages, those ocame from two lineages, those of f Sivananda SaraswatiSivananda Saraswati  (1887(1887 – –1963) and of 1963) and of   TirumalaiTirumalaiKrishnamacharyaKrishnamacharya  (1888(1888 – –1989)1989)..[179][179]  Teachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the west in thisTeachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the west in thisperiod includeperiod includeddB.K.S. Iyengar B.K.S. Iyengar   (1918- ),(1918- ),  K. Pattabhi JoisK. Pattabhi Jois  (1915-2009),(1915-2009),  Swami Vishnu-Swami Vishnu-devanandadevananda  (1927-1993), and(1927-1993), and  Swami SatchidanandaSwami Satchidananda  (1914-2002)(1914-2002)..[180][181[180][181][182]][182]  YogiYogiBhajanBhajanbroughtbrought  Kundalini YogaKundalini Yoga  to the United States in 1969to the United States in 1969..[183][183]  

 A second "y A second "yoga boooga boom" followem" followed in the 1d in the 1980s, as980s, as  Dean OrnishDean Ornish,, a follower of  a follower of   Swami SatchidanandaSwami Satchidananda,,  connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercisesconnected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises

outside of outside of   counter-culturecounter-culture  or or   esotericismesotericism  circles, and unconnected to any religiouscircles, and unconnected to any religiousdenominationdenomination..[171][171]  Numerous asanas seemed modern in origin, and strongly overlapped with 19thNumerous asanas seemed modern in origin, and strongly overlapped with 19thand early-20th century Western exercise traditionsand early-20th century Western exercise traditions..[184][184]  

  

 A group of people practicing yog A group of people practicing yoga in 2012.a in 2012.

Since 2001, the popularity of yoga in the USA has risen constantly. The number of people whoSince 2001, the popularity of yoga in the USA has risen constantly. The number of people whopracticed some form of yoga has grown from 4 million (in 2001) to 20 million (in 2011).practiced some form of yoga has grown from 4 million (in 2001) to 20 million (in 2011).

““  Yoga has become a Yoga has become a universal language of spiritual exercuniversal language of spiritual exercise in the United States, crossing ise in the United States, crossing many lines of religion and cultures,... Every day,many lines of religion and cultures,... Every day,millions of people practice yoga to improve their health and overall well-being. That's why we're encouraging everyone to take part in millions of people practice yoga to improve their health and overall well-being. That's why we're encouraging everyone to take part in PALAPALA

(Presidentia(Presidential Active Lifestyle Award), so show your support for l Active Lifestyle Award), so show your support for yoga and answer the challenge.yoga and answer the challenge.  

President ObamaPresident Obama ””  [185][185]  

 As of 201 As of 2013 some sch3 some schools in thools in the United e United States opStates oppose thpose the practice oe practice of yoga inf yoga inside eduside educationalcationalfacilities, saying it facilities, saying it promotespromotesHinduismHinduism  in violation of thein violation of the  Establishment ClauseEstablishment Clause..[186][186]  

TheThe   American Co American College of Spllege of Sports Medicorts Medicineine  supports the integration of yoga into the exercisesupports the integration of yoga into the exerciseregimens of healthy individuals as long as properly-trained professionals deliver instruction. Theregimens of healthy individuals as long as properly-trained professionals deliver instruction. The

  

College cites yoga's promotion of "profound mental, physical and spiritual awareness" and itsCollege cites yoga's promotion of "profound mental, physical and spiritual awareness" and itsbenefits as a form of stretching, and as an enhancer of breath control and of core strengthbenefits as a form of stretching, and as an enhancer of breath control and of core strength..[187][187]  

MedicineMedicine[[editedit]]  Main article:Main article:  Yoga as exercise or alternative medicineYoga as exercise or alternative medicine  

Potential benefits for adultsPotential benefits for adults[[editedit]]  

While much of the medical community views the results While much of the medical community views the results of yoga research to be significant, othersof yoga research to be significant, others

argue that there were many flaws that undermine results. Much of the research on yoga has been inargue that there were many flaws that undermine results. Much of the research on yoga has been inthe form of preliminary studies or the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low clinical trials of low methodomethodological quality, including small samplelogical quality, including small samplesizes, inadequate blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of biassizes, inadequate blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of bias..[188][189[188][189][190]][190]  Long-term yogaLong-term yogausers in the United States have reported musculoskeletal and mental health improvements, as wellusers in the United States have reported musculoskeletal and mental health improvements, as wellas reduced symptoms of asthma in asthmaticsas reduced symptoms of asthma in asthmatics..[191][191]  There is evidence to suggest that regular yogaThere is evidence to suggest that regular yogapractice increases brainpractice increases brain  GABAGABA  levels and has been shown to improve mood and anxiety more thanlevels and has been shown to improve mood and anxiety more thansome other metabolically matched exercises, such as walkingsome other metabolically matched exercises, such as walking..[192][193][192][193]  The three main focuses ofThe three main focuses ofHatha yoga (exercise, breathing, and meditation) make it beneficial to those suffering from heartHatha yoga (exercise, breathing, and meditation) make it beneficial to those suffering from heartdisease. Overall, studies of the effects of yoga on heart disease suggest that yoga may reduce highdisease. Overall, studies of the effects of yoga on heart disease suggest that yoga may reduce highblood pressure, improve symptoms of heart failure, enhance cardiac rehabilitation, and lowerblood pressure, improve symptoms of heart failure, enhance cardiac rehabilitation, and lowercardiovascucardiovascular risk lar risk factorsfactors..[194][194]  For chronicFor chronic  low back painlow back pain,, specialist Yoga for  specialist Yoga for Healthy Lower BacksHealthy Lower Backshas been found 30% more beneficial than usual care alone in a UK clinical trialhas been found 30% more beneficial than usual care alone in a UK clinical trial..[195][195]  Other smallerOther smallerstudies support this findingstudies support this finding..[196][197][196][197]  TheThe Yoga for Healthy Lower BacksYoga for Healthy Lower Backs programme is the dominant programme is the dominanttreatment for society (both cheaper and more effective than usual care alone) due to 8.5 fewer daystreatment for society (both cheaper and more effective than usual care alone) due to 8.5 fewer daysoff work each year off work each year ..[198][198]   A research g A research group froroup from Boston Um Boston University Schoniversity School of Meol of Medicine also dicine also testedtestedyoga’s effects on lower back pain. Over twelve weeks, one group of volunteers practiced yoga whileyoga’s effects on lower back pain. Over twelve weeks, one group of volunteers practiced yoga whilethe control group continued with standard treatment for back pain. The reported pain for yogathe control group continued with standard treatment for back pain. The reported pain for yogaparticipants decreased by one third, while the standard treatment group had only a five percent drop.participants decreased by one third, while the standard treatment group had only a five percent drop.Yoga participants also had a drop of 80% in pain medication useYoga participants also had a drop of 80% in pain medication use..[199][199]  

There has been an emergence of studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention forThere has been an emergence of studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention forcancer patients. Yoga is used for treatment of cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia,cancer patients. Yoga is used for treatment of cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia,pain, and fatigue and increase anxiety controlpain, and fatigue and increase anxiety control..[200][200]  Mindfulness Based Stress ReductionMindfulness Based Stress Reduction(MBSR)(MBSR)  programs include yoga as a mind-body technique to reduce stress. A study found that afterprograms include yoga as a mind-body technique to reduce stress. A study found that afterseven weeks the group treated with yoga reported significantly less mood disturbance and reducedseven weeks the group treated with yoga reported significantly less mood disturbance and reducedstress compared to the control group. Another study found that MBSR had showed positive effectsstress compared to the control group. Another study found that MBSR had showed positive effectson sleep anxiety, quality of life, and spiritual growth in cancer patientson sleep anxiety, quality of life, and spiritual growth in cancer patients ..[201][201]  

Yoga has also been studied as a treatment for schizophreniaYoga has also been studied as a treatment for schizophrenia..[202][202]  Some encouraging, butSome encouraging, butinconclusive, evidence suggests that yoga as a complementary treatment may help alleviateinconclusive, evidence suggests that yoga as a complementary treatment may help alleviate

symptoms of schizophrenia and improve health-related quality of lifesymptoms of schizophrenia and improve health-related quality of life..[14][14]

  Implementation of the Kundalini Yoga Lifestyle has shown to help substance abuse addicts increaseImplementation of the Kundalini Yoga Lifestyle has shown to help substance abuse addicts increasetheir quality of life according to psychological questionnaires like the Behavior and Symptomtheir quality of life according to psychological questionnaires like the Behavior and SymptomIdentification Scale and the Quality of Recovery IndexIdentification Scale and the Quality of Recovery Index..[203][203]  

Yoga has been shown in a study to have some cognitive functioningYoga has been shown in a study to have some cognitive functioning ((executive functioningexecutive functioning,, including includinginhibitory control) acute benefitinhibitory control) acute benefit..[204][204]  

Physical injuriesPhysical injuries[[editedit]]  See also:See also:  Sports injury Sports injury   

Since a small percentage of yoga practitioners each year suffer physical injuries analogous to sportsSince a small percentage of yoga practitioners each year suffer physical injuries analogous to sportsinjuriesinjuries;;[205][205]  caution and common sense are recommendedcaution and common sense are recommended..[206][206]  Yoga has been criticized for beingYoga has been criticized for beingpotentially dangerous and being a cause for a range of serious medical conditions including thoracicpotentially dangerous and being a cause for a range of serious medical conditions including thoracicoutlet syndrome, degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine, spinal stenosis, retinal tears, damage tooutlet syndrome, degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine, spinal stenosis, retinal tears, damage tothethe  common fibular nervecommon fibular nerve,, so called so called ""Yoga foot dropYoga foot drop,,""[207][207]  etc. An exposé of these problemsetc. An exposé of these problemsbyby  William BroadWilliam Broad  published in January, 2012 inpublished in January, 2012 in  The New York Times MagazineThe New York Times Magazine[208][208]  resulted inresulted in

  

controversy within the international yoga community. Broad, a science writer, yoga practitioner, andcontroversy within the international yoga community. Broad, a science writer, yoga practitioner, andauthor ofauthor of The Science of Yoga: The Risks and the RewardsThe Science of Yoga: The Risks and the Rewards,,[209][209]  had suffered a back injury whilehad suffered a back injury whileperforming a yoga postureperforming a yoga posture..[210][210]  Torn muscles, knee injuriesTorn muscles, knee injuries,,[211][211]  and headaches are commonand headaches are commonailments which may result from yoga practiceailments which may result from yoga practice..[212][212]  

 An extensive  An extensive survey of survey of yoga practyoga practitioners in itioners in Australia shoAustralia showed thawed that about t about 20% ha20% had suffered d suffered somesomephysical injury while practicing yoga. In the previous 12 months 4.6% of the respondents hadphysical injury while practicing yoga. In the previous 12 months 4.6% of the respondents hadsuffered an injury producing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment. Headstands, shouldersuffered an injury producing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment. Headstands, shoulder

stands, lotus and half lotus (seated cross-legged position), forward bends, backward bends, andstands, lotus and half lotus (seated cross-legged position), forward bends, backward bends, andhandstands produced the greatest number of injurieshandstands produced the greatest number of injuries..[205][205]  

Some yoga practitioners do not recommend certain yoga exercises for women during menstruation,Some yoga practitioners do not recommend certain yoga exercises for women during menstruation,for pregnant women, or for nursing mothers. However, meditation, breathing exercises, and certainfor pregnant women, or for nursing mothers. However, meditation, breathing exercises, and certainpostures which are safe and beneficial for women in these categories are encouragedpostures which are safe and beneficial for women in these categories are encouraged..[213][213]  

 Among the  Among the main reasomain reasons that ns that experts cite experts cite for causfor causing negating negative effects ive effects from yogfrom yoga are bega are beginners'inners'competitiveness and instructors' lack of qualification. As the demand for yoga classes grows, manycompetitiveness and instructors' lack of qualification. As the demand for yoga classes grows, manypeople get certified to become yoga instructors, often with relatively little training. Not every newlypeople get certified to become yoga instructors, often with relatively little training. Not every newlycertified instructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommendcertified instructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommendrefraining from doing certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries. In turn, a beginningrefraining from doing certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries. In turn, a beginningyoga student can overestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses beforeyoga student can overestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses beforetheir body is flexible or strong enough to perform themtheir body is flexible or strong enough to perform them..[208][212][208][212]  

Vertebral artery dissectionVertebral artery dissection,, a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can

result from rotation of the neck while the neck is extended. This can occur in a variety of contexts, forresult from rotation of the neck while the neck is extended. This can occur in a variety of contexts, forexample, in a beauty shop while your hair is being rinsed, but is an event which could occur in someexample, in a beauty shop while your hair is being rinsed, but is an event which could occur in someyoga practices. This is a very serious condition which can result in ayoga practices. This is a very serious condition which can result in a  strokestroke..[214][215][214][215]  

 Acetabular  Acetabular labral tearslabral tears,, damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip, have been reported to damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip, have been reported tohave resulted from yoga practicehave resulted from yoga practice..[216][216]  

PediatricsPediatrics[[editedit]]  

It is claimed that yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form ofIt is claimed that yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form ofphysical exercise and for physical exercise and for breathingbreathing, focus, mindfulness, and stress , focus, mindfulness, and stress relief: Many school districts relief: Many school districts havehaveconsidered incorporating yoga into their P.E. programs. The Encinitas, California school districtconsidered incorporating yoga into their P.E. programs. The Encinitas, California school districtgained a San Diego Superior Court Judge's approval to use yoga in P.E., holding against thegained a San Diego Superior Court Judge's approval to use yoga in P.E., holding against theparents who claimed the practice was intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of a stateparents who claimed the practice was intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of a statefunded programfunded program..[217][217]  

 Yoga physiology  Yoga physiology [[editedit]]  

  

  

Yogin with six chakras, India, Punjab Hills, Kangra, late 18th centuryYogin with six chakras, India, Punjab Hills, Kangra, late 18th century

Main article:Main article:  Yoga physiology Yoga physiology   

Over time, an extended yoga physiology developed, especially within the tantric tradition and hathaOver time, an extended yoga physiology developed, especially within the tantric tradition and hathayoga. It pictures humans as composed oyoga. It pictures humans as composed of f three bodiesthree bodies  or or   five sheatsfive sheats  which cover the atman. Thewhich cover the atman. Thethree bodies are described within thethree bodies are described within the  Mandukya UpanishadMandukya Upanishad,, which adds a fourth state, which adds a fourth state,  turiyaturiya,, while while

the five sheaths (pancha-kosas) are described in thethe five sheaths (pancha-kosas) are described in the  Taittiriya Taittiriya UpanishaUpanishadd..[218][218]  They are oftenThey are oftenintegrated:integrated:

1.1. Sthula sariraSthula sarira, the Gross body, comprising the, the Gross body, comprising the Annam Annamaya Koshaaya Kosha[219][219]  

2.2. Suksma sariraSuksma sarira, the, the  Subtle bodySubtle body,, composed of; composed of;

1. the1. the  PranamayaPranamaya  KoshaKosha (Vital breath or  (Vital breath or   EnergyEnergy)),,

2.2.   ManomayaManomaya  KoshaKosha  ((MindMind))  3. the3. the  VijnanamayaVijnanamaya  KoshaKosha  ((IntellectIntellect))[219][219]  

3.3. Karana sariraKarana sarira, the, the  Causal bodyCausal body,, comprising the comprising the   Anand Anandamaya amaya KoshaKosha  ((BlissBliss))[219][219]  

Within the subtle body energy flows through theWithin the subtle body energy flows through the  nadisnadis  or channels, and is concentrated withinor channels, and is concentrated withinthethe  chakraschakras..  

 Yoga compared with other systems o Yoga compared with other systems of meditationf meditation[[editedit]]  Zen BuddhismZen Buddhism[[editedit]]  

ZenZen,, the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyaana" via the Chinese "ch'an the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyaana" via the Chinese "ch'an""[note 22][note 22]  is a formis a formof of   Mahayana BuddhismMahayana Buddhism.. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for  The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity withits proximity withyogayoga..[221][221]  In the west, Zen is often set alongside yoga; the two schools of meditation display obviousIn the west, Zen is often set alongside yoga; the two schools of meditation display obviousfamily family resemblanresemblancesces..[222][222]  This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic practices have someThis phenomenon merits special attention since yogic practices have someof their roots manifested in the Zen Buddhist schoolof their roots manifested in the Zen Buddhist school..[note 23][note 23]  Certain essential elements of yoga areCertain essential elements of yoga areimportant both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular ..[223][223]  

Tibetan BuddhismTibetan Buddhism[[editedit]]  

In theIn the  NyingmaNyingma  tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into ninetradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into nine yanasyanas, or vehicles, which, or vehicles, whichare said to be increasingly profoundare said to be increasingly profound..[224][224]  The last six The last six are described as "yoga yanas":are described as "yoga yanas": ""Kriya yogaKriya yoga"",,"Upa yoga," "Yoga yana,""Upa yoga," "Yoga yana," ""Mahā yogaMahā yoga,,"" "" Anu yog Anu yogaa"" and the ultimate practice, and the ultimate practice, "" Ati Atiyogayoga..""[225][225]  TheThe  SarmaSarma  traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and Yoga, withtraditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and Yoga, with

thethe   Anuttara y Anuttara yogaoga  class substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyogaclass substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga..[226][226]  

Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heartOther tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heartrhythm. The Nyingma tradition also practicesrhythm. The Nyingma tradition also practices  Yantra yogaYantra yoga  (Tib. "Trul khor"), a discipline that (Tib. "Trul khor"), a discipline that includesincludesbreath work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and precise dynamic movements to centrebreath work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and precise dynamic movements to centrethe practitioner the practitioner ..[227][227]  The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the DalaiThe body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the DalaiLama's summer temple of Lama's summer temple of   LukhangLukhang.. A semi-popular account of Tibetan yoga by Chang (1993) refers A semi-popular account of Tibetan yoga by Chang (1993) referstoto  caṇḍalī caṇḍalī   (Tib. "tummo"), the generation of heat in one's own body, as being "the very foundation of(Tib. "tummo"), the generation of heat in one's own body, as being "the very foundation ofthe whole of Tibetan yoga.the whole of Tibetan yoga.""[228][228]  Chang also claims Chang also claims that Tibetan yoga involves reconciliation ofthat Tibetan yoga involves reconciliation ofapparent polarities, such asapparent polarities, such as  pranaprana  and mind, relating this and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of to theoretical implications of   tantrismtantrism..  

Christian meditationChristian meditation[[editedit]]  Main articles:Main articles:  Christian meditationChristian meditation,,   A Christia A Christian reflection n reflection on the on the New AgNew Agee  and and    Aspects of  Aspects of ChristianChristianmeditationmeditation  

Some Christians integrate yoga and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer and meditation.Some Christians integrate yoga and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer and meditation.

This has been attributed to a desire to experience God in a more complete wayThis has been attributed to a desire to experience God in a more complete way ..[229][229]  In 2013,In 2013,Monsignor Raffaello Martinelli, servicing Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, having workedMonsignor Raffaello Martinelli, servicing Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, having worked

  

for over 23 years with Cardinal Joseph Ratzingerfor over 23 years with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger ((Pope Benedict XVIPope Benedict XVI)),,[230][230]  said that forsaid that forhishis  MeditationMeditation,, a Christian can learn from other religious traditions a Christian can learn from other religious traditions ((zenzen,, yoga, controlled yoga, controlledrespiration,respiration,  MantraMantra)):: "As long as the"As long as the  Catholic ChurchCatholic Church  rejects nothing of what is true and holy in theserejects nothing of what is true and holy in thesereligions, we should not despise these indications since non-Christian. Instead, we can collect fromreligions, we should not despise these indications since non-Christian. Instead, we can collect fromthem what is useful, provided you never lose sight of the Christian conception of prayer, its logic andthem what is useful, provided you never lose sight of the Christian conception of prayer, its logic andrequirements, since it is within this that all these fragments must be reformulated andrequirements, since it is within this that all these fragments must be reformulated andassumed.../...»assumed.../...»..[231][231]  Previously, thePreviously, the  Roman Catholic ChurchRoman Catholic Church,, and some other Christian organizations and some other Christian organizationshave expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern andhave expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern and  New AgeNew Age  practices thatpractices that

include yoga and meditationinclude yoga and meditation..[232][233[232][233][234]][234]  

In 1989 and 2003, theIn 1989 and 2003, the  VaticanVatican  issued two documents:issued two documents:   Aspects of  Aspects of Christian mChristian meditationeditation  andand "" A AChristian reflection on the New AgeChristian reflection on the New Age,," that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The" that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The2003 document was published as a 90 page handbook detailing the Vatican's position2003 document was published as a 90 page handbook detailing the Vatican's position..[235][235]  TheTheVatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cultVatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cultof the body" and that equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbanceof the body" and that equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbanceand, at times, to moral deviations." Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, whenand, at times, to moral deviations." Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, whenthe church opposed the gnostics' belief that salvation came not through faith but through a mysticalthe church opposed the gnostics' belief that salvation came not through faith but through a mysticalinner knowledgeinner knowledge..[229][229]  The letter also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched byThe letter also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched bymeditation methods developed in other religions and culturesmeditation methods developed in other religions and cultures""[236][236]  but maintains the idea that "therebut maintains the idea that "theremust be some fit between the nature of [other approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs aboutmust be some fit between the nature of [other approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs aboutultimate reality.ultimate reality.""[229][229]  SomeSome  fundamentalistfundamentalist  Christian organizations consider yoga to be incompatibleChristian organizations consider yoga to be incompatiblewith their religious background, considering it a part of thewith their religious background, considering it a part of theNew Age movementNew Age movement  inconsistent withinconsistent withChristianityChristianity..[237][237]  

 Another v Another view holds tiew holds that Christihat Christian meditaan meditation can tion can lead to relead to religious pluraligious pluralism. This is hellism. This is held by and by aninterdenominational association of Christians that practice it. "The ritual simultaneously operates asinterdenominational association of Christians that practice it. "The ritual simultaneously operates asan anchor that maintains, enhances, and promotes denominational activity and a sail that allowsan anchor that maintains, enhances, and promotes denominational activity and a sail that allowsinstitutionainstitutional l boundaboundaries to ries to be crossed.be crossed.""[238][238]  

IslamIslam[[editedit]]  

The development of The development of   SufismSufism  was considerably influenced by Indian yogic practises, where theywas considerably influenced by Indian yogic practises, where theyadapted both physical posturesadapted both physical postures ((asanasasanas)) and breath control and breath control ((pranayamapranayama))..[239][239]  The ancient IndianThe ancient Indianyogic text Amritakunda ("Pool of Nectar)" was translated into Arabic and Persian as early as the 11thyogic text Amritakunda ("Pool of Nectar)" was translated into Arabic and Persian as early as the 11thcentury. Several other yogic texts were appropriated by Sufi tradition, but typically the textscentury. Several other yogic texts were appropriated by Sufi tradition, but typically the texts

 juxtapose y juxtapose yoga materoga materials alongsials alongside Sufi praide Sufi practices withoctices without any rut any real attempt eal attempt at integraat integration ortion orsynthesis. Yoga became known to Indian Sufis gradually over time, but engagement with yoga is notsynthesis. Yoga became known to Indian Sufis gradually over time, but engagement with yoga is notfound at the historical beginnings of the traditionfound at the historical beginnings of the tradition..[240][240]  

Yoga is a growing industry in Islamic countries (Two Bikram Yoga studios in Iran). Also, yoga is usedYoga is a growing industry in Islamic countries (Two Bikram Yoga studios in Iran). Also, yoga is usedin developing countries like Palestine to help the population manage stress. This article is ain developing countries like Palestine to help the population manage stress. This article is acomparative study of yoga and Islam, showing their similaritiescomparative study of yoga and Islam, showing their similarities..[241][242[241][242][243]][243]  

Malaysia's topMalaysia's top  IslamicIslamic  body in 2008 passed abody in 2008 passed a  fatwafatwa,, which is  which is legally non-bindinlegally non-binding,g,againstagainst  MuslimsMuslims  practicing yoga, saying it had elements ofpracticing yoga, saying it had elements of ""HinduHindu  spiritual teachings" and that itsspiritual teachings" and that itspractice waspractice was  blasphemyblasphemy  and is thereforeand is therefore  haraamharaam.. Muslim yoga teachers in  Muslim yoga teachers in Malaysia criticized theMalaysia criticized thedecision as "insulting.decision as "insulting.""[244][244]  Sisters in IslamSisters in Islam,, a women's rights group in Malaysia, also expressed a women's rights group in Malaysia, also expresseddisappointment and said that its members would continue with their yoga classesdisappointment and said that its members would continue with their yoga classes..[245][245]  

The fatwa states that yoga practiced only as physical exercise is permissible, but prohibits theThe fatwa states that yoga practiced only as physical exercise is permissible, but prohibits thechanting of religious mantraschanting of religious mantras,,[246][246]  and states that teachings such as the uniting of a human with Godand states that teachings such as the uniting of a human with Godis not consistent with Islamic is not consistent with Islamic philosophphilosophyy..[247][247]  In a similar vein, theIn a similar vein, the  Council of UlemasCouncil of Ulemas,, an Islamic body an Islamic bodyin Indonesia, passed ain Indonesia, passed a  fatwafatwabanning yoga on the grounds that it contains "Hindubanning yoga on the grounds that it contains "Hinduelementselements""[248][248]  These fatwas have, in turn, been criticized byThese fatwas have, in turn, been criticized by  Darul Uloom DeobandDarul Uloom Deoband,,  aa  DeobandiDeobandi  Islamic seminary in IndiaIslamic seminary in India..[249][249]  

  

In May 2009, Turkey's head of theIn May 2009, Turkey's head of the  Directorate of Religious AffairsDirectorate of Religious Affairs,,   Ali Barda Ali Bardakoğlukoğlu,, discounted discountedpersonal development techniques such as yoga as commercial ventures that could lead topersonal development techniques such as yoga as commercial ventures that could lead toextremism. His comments were made in the context of yoga possibly competing with and erodingextremism. His comments were made in the context of yoga possibly competing with and erodingparticipation in Islamic practiceparticipation in Islamic practice..[250][250]  

 As of Ma As of May 2014, y 2014, according according to Iran’s Yto Iran’s Yoga Assooga Association,ciation,  IranIran  has approximately 200 yoga centres, ahas approximately 200 yoga centres, aquarter of them in the capitalquarter of them in the capital  TehranTehran,, where groups can often be seen practising in parks. This has where groups can often be seen practising in parks. This hasbeen met by opposition among conservativesbeen met by opposition among conservatives..[251][251]  

See alsoSee also[[editedit]]  

  

Yoga portal Yoga portal   

HiHi nduisnduism portal m portal   

  

India portal India portal   

   Yoga physiologyYoga physiology  

   List of asanasList of asanas  

   List of yoga schoolsList of yoga schools  

   Yoga seriesYoga series  

NotesNotes[[editedit]]  

1.1. Jump up^Jump up^  For instance, Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation thatFor instance, Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation thathashas  EnlightenmentEnlightenment  as itsas its ultimateultimate aim." Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary aim." Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessaryto take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditionedto take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditionedstatestate,,NibbanaNibbana....." A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer-Schreiber..." A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer-Schreiber et al.et al. (1991), p. 142: (1991), p. 142:""MeditationMeditation   – – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring theconsciousness of the practitioner to a state consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'"experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'"Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4).Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4).

2.2. Jump up^Jump up^  TheThe  PāliPāli  andand  SanskritSanskrit  wordword bhāvanābhāvanā literally means "development" as in "mental development." For the association of this term literally means "development" as in "mental development." For the association of this termwith "meditation," see Epstein (1995), p. 105; and, Fischer-Schreiberwith "meditation," see Epstein (1995), p. 105; and, Fischer-Schreiber et al.et al. (1991), p. 20. As an example from a well-known discourse of (1991), p. 20. As an example from a well-known discourse ofthethe  Pali CanonPali Canon,, in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" ( in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" (Maha-Rahulovada SuttaMaha-Rahulovada Sutta,, MNMN  62), Ven.62), Ven.  SariputtaSariputta  tells Ventells Ven.. RahulaRahula  (in Pali, based(in Pali, basedonon  VRI, n.d.)VRI, n.d.)::  ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi ..Thanissaro (2006)Thanissaro (2006)  translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [bhāvanabhāvana]]ooff mindfulness of in-&-out breathingmindfulness of in-&-out breathing.." (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note.)" (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note.)

3.3. Jump up^Jump up^  See, for example,See, for example,  Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), entry forRhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), entry for "jhāna"jhāna11"";;Thanissaro (1997)Thanissaro (1997);; as well as, Kapleau (1989), p. 385, for as well as, Kapleau (1989), p. 385, for

the derivation of the word "zen" fromthe derivation of the word "zen" from  SanskritSanskrit  "dhyāna.""dhyāna."  PTSPTS  Secretary Dr. Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of Secretary Dr. Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of   wanderingwanderingasceticsascetics  contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:

"...[T]here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical"...[T]here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technicalterm in English, be referred to term in English, be referred to as 'altered states of consciousness'. In the as 'altered states of consciousness'. In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come tocome to

be termed 'meditations' ([Skt.:]be termed 'meditations' ([Skt.:]dhyānadhyāna / [Pali:] / [Pali:] jhāna jhāna) or 'concentrations') or 'concentrations' ((samādhi samādhi )); the attainment of ; the attainment of such states of consciousness wassuch states of consciousness wasgenerally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world." the nature of the world." (Gethin, 1998, p. 10.)(Gethin, 1998, p. 10.)

4.4. Jump up^Jump up^  See also Gavin Flood (1996),See also Gavin Flood (1996), HinduismHinduism, p.87-90, on "The orthogenetic t, p.87-90, on "The orthogenetic theory" and "Non-Vedic origins of renunciation"heory" and "Non-Vedic origins of renunciation"..[53][53]  

5.5. Jump up^Jump up^  Post-classical traditions consider Post-classical traditions consider   HiranyagarbhaHiranyagarbha  as the originator of yogaas the originator of yoga..[56][57][56][57]  

6.6. Jump up^Jump up^  Zimmer: "[Jainism] does not Zimmer: "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects tderive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much olderhe cosmology and anthropology of a much olderpre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India - pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India - being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metbeing rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, andaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, andBuddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems.Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems.""[60][60]  

7.7. Jump up^Jump up^  Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as Niniam Smart, inZimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as Niniam Smart, inDoctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy Doctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy ,,1964, p.27-32 & p.761964, p.27-32 & p.76,,[61][61]  and S.K. Belvakar &and S.K. Belvakar &  Inchegeri SampradayaInchegeri Sampradaya i inn History of Indian philosophy History of Indian philosophy , 1974 (1927), p.81 & p.303-, 1974 (1927), p.81 & p.303-409409..[61][61]  See Crangle 1994 page 5-7See Crangle 1994 page 5-7..[62][62]  

8.8. Jump up^Jump up^  Geofffrey Samuel: "Our best Geofffrey Samuel: "Our best evidence to date suggests that [yogic practice] developed in evidence to date suggests that [yogic practice] developed in the same ascetic circles as the earlthe same ascetic circles as the earl yysramana movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in sramana movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries Baround the sixth and fifth centuries BCE.CE.""[63][63]  

9.9. Jump up^Jump up^  Gavin Flood: "These renouncer traditions offered a Gavin Flood: "These renouncer traditions offered a new vision of the human condition which new vision of the human condition which became incorporated, to somebecame incorporated, to somedegree, into the worldview of the Brahman householder. The ideology of asceticism and renunciation seems, at first, discontinuous withdegree, into the worldview of the Brahman householder. The ideology of asceticism and renunciation seems, at first, discontinuous withthe brahmanical ideology of the affirmation the brahmanical ideology of the affirmation of social obligations and the performance of of social obligations and the performance of public and domestic rituals. Indeed, public and domestic rituals. Indeed, there has beenthere has beensome debate as to whether asceticism and its ideas of retributive action, reincarnation and spiritual liberation, might not have originatedsome debate as to whether asceticism and its ideas of retributive action, reincarnation and spiritual liberation, might not have originatedoutside the orthodox vedic sphere, or even outside Aroutside the orthodox vedic sphere, or even outside Aryan culture: that a divergent historical yan culture: that a divergent historical origin might account for the aporigin might account for the ap parentparentcontradiction within 'Hinduism' between the world affirmation of the householder and the world negation of the renouncer. However, thiscontradiction within 'Hinduism' between the world affirmation of the householder and the world negation of the renouncer. However, thisdichotomization is too simplistic, fdichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, or continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elementswhile elements

from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal. Indeed there arefrom non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal. Indeed there arecontinuities between vedic Brahmanism and Buddhism, and it continuities between vedic Brahmanism and Buddhism, and it has been argued that the Buddha sought to return to has been argued that the Buddha sought to return to the ideals of a the ideals of a vedicvedicsociety which he saw as being eroded isociety which he saw as being eroded in his own day.n his own day.""[65][65]  

  

10.10. Jump up^Jump up^  Flood: "...which states that, Flood: "...which states that, having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (atmanatman), within oneself.), within oneself.""[73][73]  

11.11. Jump up^Jump up^  

   Jacobsen writes that "Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of tapas, ascetic practices in the Vedic tradition. The use byJacobsen writes that "Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of tapas, ascetic practices in the Vedic tradition. The use byVedic priests of ascetic practices in Vedic priests of ascetic practices in their preparations for the performance of ttheir preparations for the performance of the sacrifice might be precursor to Yhe sacrifice might be precursor to Yoga.oga.""[74][74]  

   Whicher believes that "the proto-Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elementsWhicher believes that "the proto-Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elementscharacteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation, ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control...characteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation, ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control...""[75][75]  

12.12. Jump up^Jump up^  

   Wynne states that "The Nasadiyasukta, one of the earliest and most important cosmogonic tracts in the early Brahminic literature,Wynne states that "The Nasadiyasukta, one of the earliest and most important cosmogonic tracts in the early Brahminic literature,contains evidence suggesting it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation. A close reading of this textcontains evidence suggesting it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation. A close reading of this textsuggests that it was closely related to suggests that it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation. The poem may have been composed bycontemplation. The poem may have been composed by

contemplatives, but even if not, an argument can contemplatives, but even if not, an argument can be made that it marks the be made that it marks the beginning of the contemplative/meditative trend in beginning of the contemplative/meditative trend in IndianIndianthought.thought.""[78][78]  

   Miller suggests that the composition of Miller suggests that the composition of Nasadiya Sukta andNasadiya Sukta and  Purusha SuktaPurusha Suktaaarises from "the subtlest meditative stage, calledrises from "the subtlest meditative stage, calledabsorption in mind and heart" which "inabsorption in mind and heart" which "involves enheightened experiences" through which seer "explores the mysterious psychic andvolves enheightened experiences" through which seer "explores the mysterious psychic andcosmic forces..."cosmic forces..."..[79][79]  

   Jacobsen writes that dhyana (meditation) is derived from Jacobsen writes that dhyana (meditation) is derived from Vedic term dhih whicVedic term dhih which refers to "visionary insight", h refers to "visionary insight", "thought provoking"thought provokingvision"vision"..[79][79]  

13.13. Jump up^Jump up^  On the dates of the Pali On the dates of the Pali canon, Gregory Schopen writes, "We know, canon, Gregory Schopen writes, "We know, and have known for some time, that tand have known for some time, that the Pali canon as wehe Pali canon as wehave ithave it —— and it is generally conceded to  and it is generally conceded to be our oldest sourcebe our oldest source —— cannot be taken back further than the last quarter of the first century cannot be taken back further than the last quarter of the first centuryBCE, the date of the Alu-vihara redaction, the earliest redaction we can have some knowledge of, and thatBCE, the date of the Alu-vihara redaction, the earliest redaction we can have some knowledge of, and that —— for a critical history for a critical history —— it can it canserve, at the very most, only as a source for the Buddhism of this period. But we also know that even this is problematic... In fact, it is notserve, at the very most, only as a source for the Buddhism of this period. But we also know that even this is problematic... In fact, it is notuntil the time of until the time of the commentaries of Buddhaghosa, Dhammapala, and othersthe commentaries of Buddhaghosa, Dhammapala, and others —— that is to say, the fifth to sixth centuries CE that is to say, the fifth to sixth centuries CE —— that we that wecan know anything definite about the actual contents can know anything definite about the actual contents of [the Pali] canon.of [the Pali] canon.""[88][88]  

14.14. Jump up^Jump up^  For the date of this For the date of this Upanishad see also Helmuth von Glasenapp, from Upanishad see also Helmuth von Glasenapp, from the 1950 Proceedings of the "Akademie derthe 1950 Proceedings of the "Akademie derWissenschaften und Literatur Wissenschaften und Literatur ""[98][98]  

15.15. Jump up^Jump up^  Flood writes, "...Bhagavad Gita, including a complete chapter (ch. 6) devoted to traditional yoga practice. The Gita alsoFlood writes, "...Bhagavad Gita, including a complete chapter (ch. 6) devoted to traditional yoga practice. The Gita alsointroduces the famous three kinds of yoga, 'knowledge' (jnana), 'action' introduces the famous three kinds of yoga, 'knowledge' (jnana), 'action' (karma), and 'love' (bhakti)."(karma), and 'love' (bhakti)."  [108][108]  

16.16. Jump up^Jump up^  Karma yoga involves performance of action witKarma yoga involves performance of action without attachment to resultshout attachment to results..[109][109]  

17.17. Jump up^Jump up^  The yoga of devotion is similar to the yoga of action, but the fruits of action, in yoga of devotion, are surrendered toThe yoga of devotion is similar to the yoga of action, but the fruits of action, in yoga of devotion, are surrendered to  KrishnaKrishna..[110][110]  

18.18. Jump up^Jump up^  Jnana yoga is the path of wiJnana yoga is the path of wisdom, knowledge, and direct experience of sdom, knowledge, and direct experience of BrahmanBrahman as the ultimate reality. The path renounces as the ultimate reality. The path renouncesboth desires and actions, and is therefore depicted as both desires and actions, and is therefore depicted as being steep and very difficult in being steep and very difficult in the Bhagavad Gitathe Bhagavad Gita..[111][111]  

19.19. Jump up^Jump up^  Werner writes, "The word Yoga appears here for the first time in its fully technical meaning, namely as a systematic training,Werner writes, "The word Yoga appears here for the first time in its fully technical meaning, namely as a systematic training,and it already received a more or and it already received a more or less clear formulation in some other less clear formulation in some other middle Upanishads....Further process of the systematizatimiddle Upanishads....Further process of the systematization of Yogaon of Yogaas a path to the ultimatas a path to the ultimate mystic goal is obvious in se mystic goal is obvious in subsequent Yoga Upanishads and the culmination of this endeavour is ubsequent Yoga Upanishads and the culmination of this endeavour is represented byrepresented byPatanjali's codification of this path into a system of the eightfold Yoga.Patanjali's codification of this path into a system of the eightfold Yoga.""[106][106]  

20.20. Jump up^Jump up^  Worthington writes, "Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainism, and Jainism reciprocates by making the practice of yoga partWorthington writes, "Yoga fully acknowledges its debt to Jainism, and Jainism reciprocates by making the practice of yoga partand parcel of life.and parcel of life.""[146][146]  

21.21. Jump up^Jump up^  Eliade, Mircea, Yoga - Immortality and Freedom, Princeton, 1958: Princeton Univ.Pr. (original title: Le Yoga. Immortalité etEliade, Mircea, Yoga - Immortality and Freedom, Princeton, 1958: Princeton Univ.Pr. (original title: Le Yoga. Immortalité etLiberté, Paris, 1954: Libr. Payot)Liberté, Paris, 1954: Libr. Payot)

22.22. Jump up^Jump up^  "The Meditation school, called 'Ch'an' in Chinese from the Sanskrit 'dhyāna,' is best known in the West by the Japanese"The Meditation school, called 'Ch'an' in Chinese from the Sanskrit 'dhyāna,' is best known in the West by the Japanesepronunciation 'Zen'pronunciation 'Zen'""[220][220]  

23.23. Jump up^Jump up^  Exact quote: "This phenomenon merits sExact quote: "This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic roots are to pecial attention since yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhist school be found in the Zen Buddhist school ofofmeditation.meditation.""[223][223]  

ReferencesReferences[[editedit]]  

1. 1. ^̂  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   c c   White 2011White 2011..  

2.2. Jump up^Jump up^  The Lion's Roar: An The Lion's Roar: An Introduction to Tantra by Chogyam Trungpa. Shambhala, 2001Introduction to Tantra by Chogyam Trungpa. Shambhala, 2001  ISBN 1-57062-895-5ISBN 1-57062-895-5  

3.3. Jump up^Jump up^  Edmonton Patric 2007,pali and its sinificance p. 332Edmonton Patric 2007,pali and its sinificance p. 3324. 4. ^̂  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Lama Yeshe.Lama Yeshe. The Bliss of Inner Fire.The Bliss of Inner Fire. Wisdom Publications. 1998, pg.135-141. Wisdom Publications. 1998, pg.135-141.

5.5. Jump up^Jump up^  Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody,Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody, Serene Compassion.Serene Compassion. Oxford University Press US, 1996, page 68. Oxford University Press US, 1996, page 68.

6. 6. ^̂  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Stuart Ray Sarbacker,Stuart Ray Sarbacker, Samādhi: The Numinous and Cessative in IndoSamādhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga.-Tibetan Yoga.SUNY Press, 2005, pp. 1SUNY Press, 2005, pp. 1 – –2.2.

7. 7. ^̂  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102

8. 8. ^̂  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   c c   Werner p. 119-20Werner p. 119-20

9.9. Jump up^Jump up^  Whicher, pp. 38Whicher, pp. 38 – –39.39.

10. ^10. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   James Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 28 June 2012.James Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 28 June 2012.   <URL><URL> [ [accessed 19 September 2013] pg.1 "Scholarship onaccessed 19 September 2013] pg.1 "Scholarship onhathayoga, my own included, unanimously declares it to hathayoga, my own included, unanimously declares it to be a reformation of tantric be a reformation of tantric yoga introduced by the gurus of the Nath syoga introduced by the gurus of the Nath s ampradaya,ampradaya,in particular their supposed founder, Goraksa."in particular their supposed founder, Goraksa."

11. ^11. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Burley, Mikel (2000). Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 16. "It is for this reasonBurley, Mikel (2000). Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 16. "It is for this reasonthat hatha-yoga is sometimes referred to as a variety of 'Tantrism'."that hatha-yoga is sometimes referred to as a variety of 'Tantrism'."

12. ^12. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   White 2011White 2011,, p. 2.p. 2.

13.13. Jump up^Jump up^  Smith, Kelly B.; Pukall, Caroline F. (May 2009). "An evidence-based review of yoga as a complementary intervention forSmith, Kelly B.; Pukall, Caroline F. (May 2009). "An evidence-based review of yoga as a complementary intervention forpatients with cancer".patients with cancer". Psycho-Oncology Psycho-Oncology   1818 (5): 465 (5): 465 – –475475..dodoii::10.1002/pon.141110.1002/pon.1411..  PMIDPMID  1882152918821529..  

14. ^14. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Vancampfort, D.; Vansteeland, K.; Scheewe, T.; Probst, M.; Knapen, J.; De Herdt, A.; De Hert, M. (July 2012). "Yoga inVancampfort, D.; Vansteeland, K.; Scheewe, T.; Probst, M.; Knapen, J.; De Herdt, A.; De Hert, M. (July 2012). "Yoga inschizophrenia: a systematic review of randomised controlled trischizophrenia: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials"als".. Acta Psychiatrica Scandina Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavicavica  126126 (1): 12 (1): 12 – –2020..doidoi::10.1111/j.1600-10.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.01865.x0447.2012.01865.x.., art.nr. , art.nr. 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.0186510.1111/j.1600-0447.2012.01865.x.x

15.15. Jump up^Jump up^  Sharma, Manoj; Haider, Taj (October 2012). "Yoga as an Alternative and Complementary Treatment for Asthma: A SystematicSharma, Manoj; Haider, Taj (October 2012). "Yoga as an Alternative and Complementary Treatment for Asthma: A SystematicReview"Review"..Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative MedicineJournal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine  1717 (3): 212 (3): 212 – –217217..dodoii::10.1177/215658721245372710.1177/2156587212453727..  

  

16.16. Jump up^Jump up^  Innes, Kim E.; Bourguignon, Cheryl (November Innes, Kim E.; Bourguignon, Cheryl (November  – –December 2005). "Risk Indices Associated with the Insulin ResistanceDecember 2005). "Risk Indices Associated with the Insulin ResistanceSyndrome, Cardiovascular Disease, and Possible Protection with Yoga: A Systematic Review"Syndrome, Cardiovascular Disease, and Possible Protection with Yoga: A Systematic Review".. Journal of the American Board of FamilyJournal of the American Board of FamilyMedicineMedicine  1818 (6): 491 (6): 491 – –519519..dodoii::10.3122/jabfm.18.6.49110.3122/jabfm.18.6.491..  

17.17. Jump up^Jump up^  Whicher, p. 6Whicher, p. 6 – –7.7.

18. ^18. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975).Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975). A History of Indian Philosop A History of Indian Philosophy hy   11. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 226.. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 226.  ISBNISBN  81-208-81-208-0412-00412-0..  

19.19. Jump up^Jump up^  Bryant 2009, p. 5.Bryant 2009, p. 5.

20.20. Jump up^Jump up^  Bryant 2009, p. xxxix.Bryant 2009, p. xxxix.

21.21. Jump up^Jump up^   Aranya, Swami Hariharananda Aranya, Swami Hariharananda  (2000).(2000). Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati . Calcutta, India: University of Calcutta.. Calcutta, India: University of Calcutta.p. 1p. 1.. ISBNISBN  81-87594-00-481-87594-00-4..  

22.22. Jump up^Jump up^  Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975).Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975). A History of Indian Philosoph A History of Indian Philosophy y   11. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 227.. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 227.  ISBNISBN  81-208-0412-81-208-0412-

00..  23.23. Jump up^Jump up^   American Heritage Dictionary: "Yogi, One who practices yoga." Websters: "Yogi, A follower of the  American Heritage Dictionary: "Yogi, One who practices yoga." Websters: "Yogi, A follower of the yoga philosophy; an ascetic."yoga philosophy; an ascetic."

24. ^24. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   c c   Jacobsen, p. 4.Jacobsen, p. 4.

25. ^25. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   White 2011White 2011,, p. 6.p. 6.

26.26. Jump up^Jump up^  White 2011White 2011,, p. 7.p. 7.

27.27. Jump up^Jump up^  White 2011White 2011,, p. 9.p. 9.

28.28. Jump up^Jump up^  White 2011White 2011,, p. 10.p. 10.

29.29. Jump up^Jump up^  "Foreword"."Foreword". Jain Yog Jain Yog . Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh. 2004.. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh. 2004.

30.30. Jump up^Jump up^  "blessings"."blessings". Sambodhi Sambodhi . Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh. 2004.. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh. 2004.

31.31. Jump up^Jump up^  Sarvepalli RadhakrishnanSarvepalli Radhakrishnan,, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, pp. 19 Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, pp. 19 – –20.20.

32.32. Jump up^Jump up^  Bryant 2009, p. 10.Bryant 2009, p. 10.

33.33. Jump up^Jump up^  Bryant 2009, p. 457.Bryant 2009, p. 457.

34.34. Jump up^Jump up^  Flood 1996Flood 1996,, pp. 82, 224 pp. 82, 224 – –4949

35.35. Jump up^Jump up^  Changing World Religions, Cults & Occult by Jerry StokesChanging World Religions, Cults & Occult by Jerry Stokes  

36.36. Jump up^Jump up^  Einoo, Shingo (ed.) (2009).Einoo, Shingo (ed.) (2009). Genesis and Development of TantrismGenesis and Development of Tantrism. University of Tokyo. p. 45.. University of Tokyo. p. 45.

37.37. Jump up^Jump up^  Banerjee, S.C., 1988.Banerjee, S.C., 1988.

38.38. Jump up^Jump up^  White 2000White 2000,, p. 7.p. 7.

39. ^39. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   See Kriyananada, page 112.See Kriyananada, page 112.

40.40. Jump up^Jump up^  See Burley, page 73.See Burley, page 73.

41.41. Jump up^Jump up^  See Introduction by Rosen, pp 1See Introduction by Rosen, pp 1 – –2.2.42.42. Jump up^Jump up^  See translation by Mallinson.See translation by Mallinson.

43.43. Jump up^Jump up^  On page 140, David Gordon White On page 140, David Gordon White says of Gorakshanath: "... hatha yoga, in which fisays of Gorakshanath: "... hatha yoga, in which fi eld he was India's major systematizer andeld he was India's major systematizer andinnovator."innovator."

44.44. Jump up^Jump up^  Bajpai writes on Bajpai writes on page 524: "Nobody can dispute about the top ranking position page 524: "Nobody can dispute about the top ranking position of Sage Gorakshanath in the philosophy ofof Sage Gorakshanath in the philosophy ofYoga."Yoga."

45.45. Jump up^Jump up^  Eliade writes of Eliade writes of Gorakshanath on page 303: "...he accomplished a new synthesis among certain Gorakshanath on page 303: "...he accomplished a new synthesis among certain Shaivist traditionsShaivist traditions(Pashupata), tantrism, and the doctrines (unfortunately, so im(Pashupata), tantrism, and the doctrines (unfortunately, so imperfectly known) of the siddhasperfectly known) of the siddhas  – – that is, of the perfect yogis." that is, of the perfect yogis."

46.46. Jump up^Jump up^  Davidson, Ronald.Davidson, Ronald. Indian Esoteric Buddhism.Indian Esoteric Buddhism.Columbia University Press. 2002, pg.169-235.Columbia University Press. 2002, pg.169-235.

47.47. Jump up^Jump up^  Larson, p. 142.Larson, p. 142.

48. ^48. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Jacobsen, p. 9.Jacobsen, p. 9.

49.49. Jump up^Jump up^  Dupler, Douglas; Frey, Rebecca.Dupler, Douglas; Frey, Rebecca.  Gale Encyclopedia of MedicineGale Encyclopedia of Medicine,, 3rd ed (2006). Retrieved 30 August 2012. 3rd ed (2006). Retrieved 30 August 2012.

50.50. Jump up^Jump up^  Crangle 1994Crangle 1994,, p. 4-7. p. 4-7.

51.51. Jump up^Jump up^  Possehl (2003), pp. 144Possehl (2003), pp. 144 – –145145

52. ^52. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Larson, p. 36.Larson, p. 36.

53. ^53. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Flood 1996Flood 1996,, p. 87-90. p. 87-90.

54. ^54. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Crangle 1994Crangle 1994,, p. 4. p. 4.

55.55. Jump up^Jump up^  Crangle 1994Crangle 1994,, p. 5. p. 5.

56.56. Jump up^Jump up^  Feuerstein, Georg (2001).Feuerstein, Georg (2001). The Yoga Tradition: Its History, The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and PracticeLiterature, Philosophy and Practice. Arizona, USA: Hohm Press.. Arizona, USA: Hohm Press.p. Kindle Locations 7299p. Kindle Locations 7299 – –7300.7300.  ISBNISBN  978-1890772185978-1890772185..  

57.57. Jump up^Jump up^   Aranya, Swami Hariharananda Aranya, Swami Hariharananda  (2000). "Introduction".(2000). "Introduction". Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali with Bhasvati . Calcutta, India: University of. Calcutta, India: University ofCalcutta. p. xxiv.Calcutta. p. xxiv.  ISBNISBN  81-87594-00-481-87594-00-4..

58.58. Jump up^Jump up^  Samuel 2008Samuel 2008,, p. 2-3.p. 2-3.

59.59. Jump up^Jump up^  Zimmer 1951Zimmer 1951,, p. 217, 314.p. 217, 314.

60.60. Jump up^Jump up^  Zimmer 1951Zimmer 1951,, p. 217.p. 217.

61. ^61. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Crangle 1994Crangle 1994,, p. 7. p. 7.

62.62. Jump up^Jump up^  Crangle 1994Crangle 1994,, p. 5-7. p. 5-7.

63. ^63. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Samuel 2008Samuel 2008,, p. 8. p. 8.

64. ^64. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Flood 1996Flood 1996,, p. 77. p. 77.

65.65. Jump up^Jump up^  Fllod 1996Fllod 1996,, p. 76-77. p. 76-77.

66.66. Jump up^Jump up^  White 2011White 2011,, p. 3.p. 3.

67.67. Jump up^Jump up^  P. 132P. 132 A Student's Guide to A2 Re A Student's Guide to A2 Religious Studies for the OCR Spligious Studies for the OCR Specificationecification By Michael Wilcockson By Michael Wilcockson

68.68. Jump up^Jump up^  Flood 1996Flood 1996,, p. 95. p. 95.

69.69. Jump up^Jump up^  P. 99P. 99 The Wisdom of the VedasThe Wisdom of the Vedas By Jagadish Chandra Chatterji By Jagadish Chandra Chatterji

70. ^70. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   White 2011White 2011,, p. 4.p. 4.

71.71. Jump up^Jump up^  Burley, Mikel (2000).Burley, Mikel (2000).  Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and PracticeHatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice.. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 25. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 25.  ISBNISBN  978-8120817067978-8120817067..  

72.72. Jump up^Jump up^  P. 25P. 25 HaṭhaHaṭha-Yoga: Its Context, Theory, and Practice-Yoga: Its Context, Theory, and Practice By Mikel Burley By Mikel Burley

73.73. Jump up^Jump up^  Flood 1996Flood 1996,, p. 94 p. 94 – –95.95.

74. ^74. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   c c   d d   Jacobsen, p. 6.Jacobsen, p. 6.

75.75. Jump up^Jump up^  Whicher, p. 12.Whicher, p. 12.

76. ^76. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   c c   Flood, p. 94Flood, p. 94 – –95.95.

  

77.77. Jump up^Jump up^  Whicher, p. 13.Whicher, p. 13.

78.78. Jump up^Jump up^  Wynne, p. 50.Wynne, p. 50.

79. ^79. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Whicher, p. 11.Whicher, p. 11.

80.80. Jump up^Jump up^  Flood 1996Flood 1996,, p. 94. p. 94.

81.81. Jump up^Jump up^  P. 51P. 51 The Complete Idiot's Guide to YogaThe Complete Idiot's Guide to Yoga By Joan Budilovsky, Eve Adamson By Joan Budilovsky, Eve Adamson

82.82. Jump up^Jump up^  Total Heart HealthTotal Heart Health P. 170 P. 170  By Robert H. Schneider, Jeremy Z. FieldsBy Robert H. Schneider, Jeremy Z. Fields

83.83. Jump up^Jump up^  P. 531P. 531 The Yoga Tradition: Its History, The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy and PracticeLiterature, Philosophy and Practice By Georg Feuerstein (2002) By Georg Feuerstein (2002)

84.84. Jump up^Jump up^  P. 538P. 538 The Yoga TraditionThe Yoga Tradition By Georg Feuerstein By Georg Feuerstein

85.85. Jump up^Jump up^  Larson, p. 34Larson, p. 34 – –35, 53.35, 53.

86.86. Jump up^Jump up^  Douglass, Laura (2011).Douglass, Laura (2011).  "Thinking Through The Body: The Conceptualization Of Yoga As Therapy For Individuals With Eating"Thinking Through The Body: The Conceptualization Of Yoga As Therapy For Individuals With EatingDisorders"Disorders".. Academic Search Premier  Academic Search Premier : 83. Retrieved 19 February 2013.: 83. Retrieved 19 February 2013.

87.87. Jump up^Jump up^  Datta, Amaresh (1988).Datta, Amaresh (1988).  Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: devraj to jyoti Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: devraj to jyoti .. Sahitya Akademi. p. 1809. Sahitya Akademi. p. 1809.  ISBNISBN  978-81-260-1194-0978-81-260-1194-0..

88.88. Jump up^Jump up^  Wynne, pp. 3Wynne, pp. 3 – –4.4.

89.89. Jump up^Jump up^  Richard GombrichRichard Gombrich,, "Theravada Buddhism: A Social Hi"Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Cstory from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo." Routledge and Keganolombo." Routledge and KeganPaul, 1988, p. 44.Paul, 1988, p. 44.

90.90. Jump up^Jump up^  Barbara Stoler Miller, "Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, withBarbara Stoler Miller, "Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, withCommentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords." University of California Press, 1996, p. 8.Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords." University of California Press, 1996, p. 8.

91.91. Jump up^Jump up^  Wynne, p. 92.Wynne, p. 92.

92.92. Jump up^Jump up^  Wynne, p. 105.Wynne, p. 105.

93. ^93. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Wynne, p. 95.Wynne, p. 95.

94.94. Jump up^Jump up^  Mallinson, James. 2007.Mallinson, James. 2007. The Khecarīvidyā of Adinathā.The Khecarīvidyā of Adinathā. London: Routledge. pg.17-19. London: Routledge. pg.17-19.

95.95. Jump up^Jump up^  James Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 6 March 2012.James Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 6 March 2012.   <URL><URL>  [accessed 10 June 2012] pgs. 20-21 "The Buddha himself[accessed 10 June 2012] pgs. 20-21 "The Buddha himselfis said to have tried both is said to have tried both pressing his tongue to the back of his pressing his tongue to the back of his mouth, in a manner similmouth, in a manner similar to that of the ar to that of the hathayogic khecar hathayogic khecar  īmudrā, and īmudrā, andukkutikappadhāna, a squatting posture which may be rukkutikappadhāna, a squatting posture which may be related to hathayogic techniques such as mahāmudrā, elated to hathayogic techniques such as mahāmudrā, mahābandha, mahāvedha,mahābandha, mahāvedha,  mūlabandha, and vajrāsana in which pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, in order to force upwards the breath omūlabandha, and vajrāsana in which pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, in order to force upwards the breath or Kundalinī."r Kundalinī."  

96.96. Jump up^Jump up^  Wynne, pp. 44Wynne, pp. 44 – –45,58.45,58.

97.97. Jump up^Jump up^  Whicher, p. 17.Whicher, p. 17.

98.98. Jump up^Jump up^  "Vedanta and Buddhism, A Comparative Study""Vedanta and Buddhism, A Comparative Study".. Retrieved 29 August 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2012.

99.99. Jump up^Jump up^  Whicher, p. 18Whicher, p. 18 – –19.19.

100. ^100. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   c c   Jacobsen, p. 8.Jacobsen, p. 8.

101.101. Jump up^Jump up^  Whicher, p. 20.Whicher, p. 20.102.102. Jump up^Jump up^  Whicher, p. 21.Whicher, p. 21.

103.103. Jump up^Jump up^  Feuerstein, GeorgFeuerstein, Georg  (January(January – –February 1988). "Introducing Yoga's Great Literary Heritage".February 1988). "Introducing Yoga's Great Literary Heritage".   Yoga Journal Yoga Journal   (78): 70(78): 70 – –5.5.

104. ^104. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   White, David Gordon.White, David Gordon. Yoga in PracticeYoga in Practice. Princeton University Press 2012, page 14.. Princeton University Press 2012, page 14.

105. ^105. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   White, David Gordon (2003).White, David Gordon (2003). Kiss of the Yogini Kiss of the Yogini . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 224. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 224.. ISBNISBN  0-226-89483-50-226-89483-5..  

106. ^106. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Werner, p. 24.Werner, p. 24.

107.107. Jump up^Jump up^  Jacobsen, p. 10.Jacobsen, p. 10.

108.108. Jump up^Jump up^  Flood, p. 96.Flood, p. 96.

109.109. Jump up^Jump up^  Fowler, p. xliv.Fowler, p. xliv.

110.110. Jump up^Jump up^  Jacobsen, p. 11.Jacobsen, p. 11.

111.111. Jump up^Jump up^  Folwer, p. xli.Folwer, p. xli.

112.112. Jump up^Jump up^  "Ch. 2.48""Ch. 2.48"  "Bhagavad-Gita As It Is" by "Bhagavad-Gita As It Is" by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International.A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International.  

113.113. Jump up^Jump up^  Gambhirananda, p. 16.Gambhirananda, p. 16.

114.114. Jump up^Jump up^  Jacobsen, p. 46.Jacobsen, p. 46.

115.115. Jump up^Jump up^  Fowler, p. xlv.Fowler, p. xlv.

116.116. Jump up^Jump up^  Whicher, p. 25Whicher, p. 25 – –26.26.

117.117. Jump up^Jump up^  Wynne, p. 33.Wynne, p. 33.

118.118. Jump up^Jump up^  Larson, p. 38.Larson, p. 38.

119.119. Jump up^Jump up^  Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 342.Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 342.

120.120. Jump up^Jump up^  Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 344.Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 344.121.121. Jump up^Jump up^  Stiles 2001Stiles 2001,, p. x. p. x.

122.122. Jump up^Jump up^  For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents,"For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents,"and pp. 453and pp. 453 – –487.487.

123.123. Jump up^Jump up^  For a brief overview of the yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.For a brief overview of the yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.

124.124. Jump up^Jump up^  Karel Werner, The Yogi and the Mystic. Routledge 1994, page 27. "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As farKarel Werner, The Yogi and the Mystic. Routledge 1994, page 27. "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As faras its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga Sutras that ras its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon and eveeminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon and even more son more sofrom thefrom the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika."Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika."  

125.125. Jump up^Jump up^  Larson, pp. 44Larson, pp. 44 – –45.45.

126.126. Jump up^Jump up^  Karel Werner,Karel Werner, The Yogi and the Mystic The Yogi and the Mystic . Routledge 1994, page 27. "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far. Routledge 1994, page 27. "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As faras its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga Sutras that ras its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon and eveeminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon and even more son more sofrom the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika."from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika."  

127.127. Jump up^Jump up^  For yoga acceptance of samkhya concepts, but with addition For yoga acceptance of samkhya concepts, but with addition of a category for God, see: of a category for God, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453.Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453.

128.128. Jump up^Jump up^  For yoga as accepting the 25 principles of samkhya with the addition of God, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.For yoga as accepting the 25 principles of samkhya with the addition of God, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.

129.129. Jump up^Jump up^  Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy," p. 104.Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy," p. 104.

130.130. Jump up^Jump up^  Zimmer (1951), p. 280.Zimmer (1951), p. 280.

131.131. Jump up^Jump up^  For For   PatanjaliPatanjali  as the founder of the philosophical system called yoga see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 42.as the founder of the philosophical system called yoga see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 42.

132.132. Jump up^Jump up^  Larson, p. 21Larson, p. 21 – –22.22.

133.133. Jump up^Jump up^  For "raja yoga" as a system for control of the mind and connection to Patanjali'sFor "raja yoga" as a system for control of the mind and connection to Patanjali's Yoga SutrasYoga Sutras as a key work, see:  as a key work, see: Flood (1996),Flood (1996),pp. 96pp. 96 – –98.98.

134.134. Jump up^Jump up^  For text and word-by-word translation as "Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind." See: Taimni, p. 6.For text and word-by-word translation as "Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind." See: Taimni, p. 6.

  

135.135. Jump up^Jump up^  Barbara Stoler Miller, "Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, withBarbara Stoler Miller, "Yoga: Discipline of Freedom: the Yoga Sutra Attributed to Patanjali; a Translation of the Text, withCommentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords." University of California Press, 1996, page 9.Commentary, Introduction, and Glossary of Keywords." University of California Press, 1996, page 9.

136.136. Jump up^Jump up^  Vivekanada, p. 115.Vivekanada, p. 115.

137.137. Jump up^Jump up^  Phillips, Stephen H. (1995).Phillips, Stephen H. (1995). Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of "New Logic" "New Logic" . Open. OpenCourt Publishing. pp. 12Court Publishing. pp. 12 – –13.13.

138. ^138. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Larson, p. 478.Larson, p. 478.

139.139. Jump up^Jump up^  Yoga Journal Yoga Journal ,, Active Interest Media, Inc., 2006, p. 121 Active Interest Media, Inc., 2006, p. 121,, ISSNISSN  0191096501910965  

140.140. Jump up^Jump up^  Divanji, Prahlad, ed. (1954).Divanji, Prahlad, ed. (1954). Yoga Yajnavalkya: A Treatise on Yoga as Yoga Yajnavalkya: A Treatise on Yoga as Taught by Yogi YajnavalkyaTaught by Yogi Yajnavalkya. B.B.R.A. Society's. B.B.R.A. Society'sMonograph No. 3. Bombay, India: Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. p. 105.Monograph No. 3. Bombay, India: Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. p. 105.

141.141. Jump up^Jump up^  Mohan, A.G. (2010).Mohan, A.G. (2010).  Krishnamacharya: His Life and Krishnamacharya: His Life and TeachingsTeachings.. Shambhala Publications. p. 127 Shambhala Publications. p. 127..ISBNISBN  978-1-59030-800-4978-1-59030-800-4..

142. ^142. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Tattvarthasutra [6.2]Tattvarthasutra [6.2]

143.143. Jump up^Jump up^  Niyamasara [134-40]Niyamasara [134-40]144.144. Jump up^Jump up^  Zydenbos, Robert. "Jainism Today and Its Future." München: Manya Verlag, 2006. p.66Zydenbos, Robert. "Jainism Today and Its Future." München: Manya Verlag, 2006. p.66

145.145. Jump up^Jump up^  Zydenbos (2006) p.66Zydenbos (2006) p.66

146.146. Jump up^Jump up^  Worthington, p. 35.Worthington, p. 35.

147.147. Jump up^Jump up^  P. 313P. 313 The Integrity of the The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of the Classical YogaClassical Yoga By Ian Whicher By Ian Whicher

148.148. Jump up^Jump up^  Dan Lusthaus. Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Dan Lusthaus. Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch'eng Wei-shih Lun.Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch'eng Wei-shih Lun.Published 2002 (Routledge).Published 2002 (Routledge).  ISBN 0-7007-1186-4ISBN 0-7007-1186-4.. pg 533 pg 533

149.149. Jump up^Jump up^  Simple Tibetan Buddhism: A Guide to Tantric Living By C. Alexander Simpkins, Annellen M. Simpkins. Published 2001. TuttleSimple Tibetan Buddhism: A Guide to Tantric Living By C. Alexander Simpkins, Annellen M. Simpkins. Published 2001. TuttlePublishing.Publishing.  ISBN 0-8048-3199-8ISBN 0-8048-3199-8  

150.150. Jump up^Jump up^  Larson, pp. 136Larson, pp. 136 – –139.139.

151.151. Jump up^Jump up^  Cutler, Norman (1987)Cutler, Norman (1987).. Songs of ExperienceSongs of Experience.. Indiana University Press. p. 1. Indiana University Press. p. 1.  ISBNISBN  978-0-253-35334-4978-0-253-35334-4..

152.152. Jump up^Jump up^  Larson, p. 137.Larson, p. 137.

153.153. Jump up^Jump up^  Jacobsen, p. 22.Jacobsen, p. 22.

154. ^154. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published:Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published:University of California Press, 1991. pp 313University of California Press, 1991. pp 313

155.155. Jump up^Jump up^  Your ayurvedic constitution: Prakruti byYour ayurvedic constitution: Prakruti by  Robert SvobodaRobert Svoboda  Motilal BanarsidassMotilal Banarsidass  Publication,2005Publication,2005;;ISBN 978-81-208-1840-ISBN 978-81-208-1840-88  Google BooksGoogle Books  

156.156. Jump up^Jump up^  Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published:Title: Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Author: Robert I. Levy. Published:University of California Press, 1991. pp 317University of California Press, 1991. pp 317

157.157. Jump up^Jump up^  James Mallinson, "SākJames Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 28 June 2012tism and Hathayoga," 28 June 2012.. <URL><URL>  [accessed 19 September 2013] pgs. 2 "The earliest[accessed 19 September 2013] pgs. 2 "The earliestreferences to hathayoga are scattered mentions in Buddhist canonical works and treferences to hathayoga are scattered mentions in Buddhist canonical works and their exegesis dating from the heir exegesis dating from the eighth century onwards, ineighth century onwards, inwhich it is the soteriological method of last resort."which it is the soteriological method of last resort."

158.158. Jump up^Jump up^  James Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 28 June 2012James Mallinson, "Sāktism and Hathayoga," 28 June 2012..  <URL><URL>  [accessed 19 September 2013] pgs. 2 "In its [accessed 19 September 2013] pgs. 2 "In its earliestearliestdefinition, in Pundarīka’s eleventhdefinition, in Pundarīka’s eleventh--century Vimalaprabhā commentary on the Kālacakratantra, hathayoga is said to bring about thecentury Vimalaprabhā commentary on the Kālacakratantra, hathayoga is said to bring about the"unchanging moment" (aks"unchanging moment" (aksaraksana) "through the practice of nāda by forcefully making the breath enter the central caraksana) "through the practice of nāda by forcefully making the breath enter the central channel and throughhannel and throughrestraining the bindu of the bodhicitta in the vajra of the lotus of wisdom". While the means employed are not specified, the ends, inrestraining the bindu of the bodhicitta in the vajra of the lotus of wisdom". While the means employed are not specified, the ends, inparticular restraining bindu, semen, and making the particular restraining bindu, semen, and making the breath enter the central channel, are similar breath enter the central channel, are similar to those mentioned in the earliestto those mentioned in the earliestdescriptions of the practices of hathayoga, to which I now turn."descriptions of the practices of hathayoga, to which I now turn."

159.159. Jump up^Jump up^  Larson, p. 140.Larson, p. 140.

160.160. Jump up^Jump up^  Raub, James A.. Psychophysiologic Effects Raub, James A.. Psychophysiologic Effects of Hatha Yoga on Musculoskeletal and Cardiopulmonary Function: of Hatha Yoga on Musculoskeletal and Cardiopulmonary Function: A LiteratureA LiteratureReview.Review.

161.161. Jump up^Jump up^  Living Yoga: Creating a Life PracticeLiving Yoga: Creating a Life Practice – – Page 42 by Christy Turlington (page 42) Page 42 by Christy Turlington (page 42)

162.162. Jump up^Jump up^  "Guiding Yoga's Light: Yoga Lessons for Yoga Teachers""Guiding Yoga's Light: Yoga Lessons for Yoga Teachers" – – Page 10 by Nancy Gerstein Page 10 by Nancy Gerstein

163.163. Jump up^Jump up^  "Mindfulness Yoga: The Awakened Union of Breath Body & Mind""Mindfulness Yoga: The Awakened Union of Breath Body & Mind" – – Page 6 by Frank Jude Boccio Page 6 by Frank Jude Boccio

164.164. Jump up^Jump up^  Burley, Mikel (2000).Burley, Mikel (2000).  Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and PracticeHatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice.. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 16. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 16.  ISBNISBN  978-8120817067978-8120817067..  

165.165. Jump up^Jump up^  Feuerstein, Georg. (1996). "The Shambhala Guide to Yoga." Boston & London: Shambhala Publications, Inc.Feuerstein, Georg. (1996). "The Shambhala Guide to Yoga." Boston & London: Shambhala Publications, Inc.

166.166. Jump up^Jump up^  Hatha YogaHatha Yoga  "Hatha Yoga - Art of Living""Hatha Yoga - Art of Living"  

167.167. Jump up^Jump up^  Dhillon, p. 249.Dhillon, p. 249.

168.168. Jump up^Jump up^  Dhillon, p. 255.Dhillon, p. 255.

169.169. Jump up^Jump up^  Mansukhani, Gobind Singh (2009).Mansukhani, Gobind Singh (2009).  Introduction To SikhismIntroduction To Sikhism.. Hemkunt Press. p. 66.Hemkunt Press. p. 66.  ISBNISBN  978-81-7010-181-9978-81-7010-181-9..  170.170. Jump up^Jump up^  Dhillon, Harish (2010)Dhillon, Harish (2010).. Guru Nanak Guru Nanak .. Indus Source Books. p. 178.Indus Source Books. p. 178.  ISBNISBN  978-81-88569-02-1978-81-88569-02-1..  

171. ^171. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Shaw, Eric.Shaw, Eric. 35 mOMents35 mOMents,,  Yoga Journal Yoga Journal ,, 2010-09.2010-09.

172.172. Jump up^Jump up^  Goldberg, Philip, American Veda. From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation. How Indian Spirituality Changed theGoldberg, Philip, American Veda. From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation. How Indian Spirituality Changed theWest, New York, 2010: Harmony Books, pp.21ff., Von Glasenapp, Hellmuth, Die Philosophie der Inder, Stuttgart, 1974: A. Kroener Verlag,West, New York, 2010: Harmony Books, pp.21ff., Von Glasenapp, Hellmuth, Die Philosophie der Inder, Stuttgart, 1974: A. Kroener Verlag,p. 166f.p. 166f.

173. ^173. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   "Fear of Yoga""Fear of Yoga".. Utne.com. Retrieved 28 August 2013.Utne.com. Retrieved 28 August 2013.

174.174. Jump up^Jump up^  De Michelis, Elizabeth, A History Of Modern Yoga. Patanjali and Modern Esotericism. London, 2004: Continuum Books, pp.De Michelis, Elizabeth, A History Of Modern Yoga. Patanjali and Modern Esotericism. London, 2004: Continuum Books, pp.19ff.19ff.

175.175. Jump up^Jump up^  Flood, Gavin D., Body and Cosmology in Kashmir Saivism, San Francisco, 1993: Mellen Research University Press, pp.229ff.Flood, Gavin D., Body and Cosmology in Kashmir Saivism, San Francisco, 1993: Mellen Research University Press, pp.229ff.

176.176. Jump up^Jump up^  Singleton, Mark (12 January 2010). Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice. Oxford University Press. p.32,Singleton, Mark (12 January 2010). Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice. Oxford University Press. p.32,5050.. ISBN 9780199745982ISBN 9780199745982.. Retrieved 14 March 2014.Retrieved 14 March 2014.

177.177. Jump up^Jump up^  Joseph S. Alter (30 August 2004). Yoga in Modern India: The Body between Science and Philosophy. Princeton UniversityJoseph S. Alter (30 August 2004). Yoga in Modern India: The Body between Science and Philosophy. Princeton UniversityPress. p.87.Press. p.87.  ISBN 9780691118741ISBN 9780691118741.. Retrieved 14 March 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2014.

178.178. Jump up^Jump up^  Title: A History of Modern Yoga. Author: Elizabeth De Michelis. Published: Continuum, 2005Title: A History of Modern Yoga. Author: Elizabeth De Michelis. Published: Continuum, 2005

179.179. Jump up^Jump up^  Bryant 2009, p. xviii.Bryant 2009, p. xviii.

180.180. Jump up^Jump up^  Cushman, Ann (JanuaryCushman, Ann (January – –February 2000).February 2000).  "The New Yoga""The New Yoga".. Yoga Journal.comYoga Journal.com. p. 68. Retrieved 5 February 2011.. p. 68. Retrieved 5 February 2011.

181.181. Jump up^Jump up^  Silva, Mira, and Mehta, Shyam. (1995).Silva, Mira, and Mehta, Shyam. (1995). Yoga the Iyengar Way Yoga the Iyengar Way , p. 9. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, p. 9. Alfred A. Knopf, New York..ISBN 0-89381-731-7ISBN 0-89381-731-7  

182.182. Jump up^Jump up^  Desikachar, T. K. V. (2005).Desikachar, T. K. V. (2005). Health, healing and beyond: Yoga and the Health, healing and beyond: Yoga and the living tradition of Krishnamacharyaliving tradition of Krishnamacharya, (cover jacket text)., (cover jacket text). Aperture, USA. Aperture, USA.  ISBN 978-0-89381-731-2ISBN 978-0-89381-731-2  

183.183. Jump up^Jump up^  Congressional Honorary Resolution 521Congressional Honorary Resolution 521  US Library of CongressUS Library of Congress184.184. Jump up^Jump up^  Singleton, Mark. (2010).Singleton, Mark. (2010). Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture PracticePosture Practice, p. 161. Oxford University Press, USA., p. 161. Oxford University Press, USA.  ISBNISBN

01953953440195395344  

  

185.185. Jump up^Jump up^  Chidanand Rajghatta.Chidanand Rajghatta.  "US President Barack Obama t"US President Barack Obama throws weight behind yoga"hrows weight behind yoga".. Times of India. Retrieved 2013-04-01.Times of India. Retrieved 2013-04-01.

186.186. Jump up^Jump up^  Rajghatta, ChidanandRajghatta, Chidanand.. "US President Barack Obama throws "US President Barack Obama throws weight behind yoga"weight behind yoga".. Times of India. Retrieved 1 April 2013.Times of India. Retrieved 1 April 2013.

187.187. Jump up^Jump up^  "Diversify Your Client's Workout With Yoga""Diversify Your Client's Workout With Yoga".. American College of Sports Medicine. Retrieved 19 September 2013. American College of Sports Medicine. Retrieved 19 September 2013.

188.188. Jump up^Jump up^  Krisanaprakornkit, T.; Ngamjarus, C.; Witoonchart, C.; Piyavhatkul, N. (2010). "Meditation therapies for attention-Krisanaprakornkit, T.; Ngamjarus, C.; Witoonchart, C.; Piyavhatkul, N. (2010). "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)".deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)".  Cochrane Database of Systematic Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online)Reviews (Online)  (6):(6):CD006507CD006507..dodoii::10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub210.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2..PMIDPMID  2055676720556767..

189.189. Jump up^Jump up^  Ospina, M. B.; Bond, K.; Karkhaneh, M.; et al. (2008). "Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics andOspina, M. B.; Bond, K.; Karkhaneh, M.; et al. (2008). "Clinical trials of meditation practices in health care: characteristics andquality".quality". Journal of Alternative and Complementary MedicineJournal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine  1414 (10): 199 (10): 199 – –213.213.

190.190. Jump up^Jump up^  Uebelacker, L. A.; Epstein-Lubow, G.; Gaudiano, B. A.; Tremont, G.; Battle, C. L.; Miller, I. W. (2010). "Hatha yoga forUebelacker, L. A.; Epstein-Lubow, G.; Gaudiano, B. A.; Tremont, G.; Battle, C. L.; Miller, I. W. (2010). "Hatha yoga fordepression: critical review of the evidence for efficacy, plausible mechanisms of action, and directions for future research".depression: critical review of the evidence for efficacy, plausible mechanisms of action, and directions for future research".Journal ofJournal ofPsychiatric PracticePsychiatric Practice  1616 (1): 22 (1): 22 – –3333..doidoi::10.1097/01.pra.0000367775.88388.9610.1097/01.pra.0000367775.88388.96..PMIDPMID  2009822820098228..

191.191. Jump up^Jump up^  Birdee, Gurjeet S. et al. "Characteristics of Yoga Users: Results of a National Survey." Journal of General Internal Medicine.Birdee, Gurjeet S. et al. "Characteristics of Yoga Users: Results of a National Survey." Journal of General Internal Medicine.October 2008, Volume 23 Issue 10. p1653-1658October 2008, Volume 23 Issue 10. p1653-1658

192.192. Jump up^Jump up^  "Yoga's ability to improve mood and lessen anxiety is linked to increased levels of a critical brain chemical, research finds""Yoga's ability to improve mood and lessen anxiety is linked to increased levels of a critical brain chemical, research finds"..  Sciencedaily.com. 12 November 2010Sciencedaily.com. 12 November 2010..doidoi::10.1089/acm.2010.000710.1089/acm.2010.0007.. Retrieved 28 November 2012.Retrieved 28 November 2012.

193.193. Jump up^Jump up^  Streeter, Chris C. et al. "Effects of Yoga Versus Walking on Mood, Anxiety, and Brain GABA Levels: A Randomized ControlledStreeter, Chris C. et al. "Effects of Yoga Versus Walking on Mood, Anxiety, and Brain GABA Levels: A Randomized ControlledMRS Study." Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine. November 2010, Volume 16 Issue 11, p1145-115MRS Study." Journal of Alternative & Complementary Medicine. November 2010, Volume 16 Issue 11, p1145-115

194.194. Jump up^Jump up^  Yoga could be good for heart disease. SimYoga could be good for heart disease. Simultaneous focus on body, breathing, and mind may be just ultaneous focus on body, breathing, and mind may be just what the doctor ordered.what the doctor ordered.(2010). Harvard Heart Letter: From Harvard Medical School, 21(3), 5. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.(2010). Harvard Heart Letter: From Harvard Medical School, 21(3), 5. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

195.195. Jump up^Jump up^  Tilbrook, Helen E;Tilbrook, Helen E; et al.et al. (2011). "Yoga for Chronic Low Back Pain: A Randomized Trial". (2011). "Yoga for Chronic Low Back Pain: A Randomized Trial". Ann. Intern. Med. Ann. Intern. Med.  155155 (9): 569 (9): 569 – –578578.. doidoi::10.1059/0003-4819-155-9-201111010-0000310.1059/0003-4819-155-9-201111010-00003..  PMIDPMID  2204194522041945..

196.196. Jump up^Jump up^  Sherman, KJ; Cherkin, DC; Erro, J; Miglioretti, DL; Deyo, RA (2005). "Comparing yoga, exercise, and a self-care book forSherman, KJ; Cherkin, DC; Erro, J; Miglioretti, DL; Deyo, RA (2005). "Comparing yoga, exercise, and a self-care book forchronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled trial".chronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled trial". Ann. Intern. Med. Ann. Intern. Med.  143143(12): 849(12): 849 – –56.56.  doidoi::10.7326/0003-4819-143-12-200512200-10.7326/0003-4819-143-12-200512200-0000300003..  PMIDPMID  1636546616365466..  

197.197. Jump up^Jump up^  Williams, KA; Petronis, J; Smith, D;Williams, KA; Petronis, J; Smith, D; et al.et al.(2005). "Effect of Iyengar yoga therapy for chronic low back pain".(2005). "Effect of Iyengar yoga therapy for chronic low back pain". PainPain  115115 (1 (1 – –2):2):107107 – –1717..dodoii::10.1016/j.pain.2005.02.01610.1016/j.pain.2005.02.016..PMIDPMID  1583697415836974..  

198.198. Jump up^Jump up^  Chuang, Ling-Hsiang;Chuang, Ling-Hsiang; et al.et al. (2012). "A Pragmatic Multicentered Randomized Controlled Trial of Yoga for Chronic Low Back (2012). "A Pragmatic Multicentered Randomized Controlled Trial of Yoga for Chronic Low BackPain: Economic Evaluation".Pain: Economic Evaluation".SpineSpine  3737 (18): 1593 (18): 1593 – –16011601..doidoi::10.1097/BRS.0b013e318254593710.1097/BRS.0b013e3182545937..PMIDPMID  2243349922433499..  

199.199. Jump up^Jump up^  "Researchers Find Yoga May Be Effective For Chronic Low Back Pain In Minority Populations""Researchers Find Yoga May Be Effective For Chronic Low Back Pain In Minority Populations".. Sciencedaily.com. 4 NovemberSciencedaily.com. 4 November2009. Retrieved 28 November 2012.2009. Retrieved 28 November 2012.

200.200. Jump up^Jump up^  DeStasio, Susan A. Integrating Yoga Into Cancer Care. Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing. February 2008, Volume 12 IssueDeStasio, Susan A. Integrating Yoga Into Cancer Care. Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing. February 2008, Volume 12 Issue

1. p125-1301. p125-130201.201. Jump up^Jump up^  Smith K, Pukall C. An evidence-based review of yoga as a complementary intervention for patients with cancer. Psycho-Smith K, Pukall C. An evidence-based review of yoga as a complementary intervention for patients with cancer. Psycho-Oncology [serial online]. May 2009;18(5):465Oncology [serial online]. May 2009;18(5):465 – –475.475.

202.202. Jump up^Jump up^  http://www.webmd.com/balance/guide/the-health-benefits-of-yogahttp://www.webmd.com/balance/guide/the-health-benefits-of-yoga  

203.203. Jump up^Jump up^  Khalsa, Sat Bir S. et al. Evaluation of a Residential Kundalini Yoga Lifestyle Pilot Program for Addiction in India. Journal ofKhalsa, Sat Bir S. et al. Evaluation of a Residential Kundalini Yoga Lifestyle Pilot Program for Addiction in India. Journal ofEthnicity in Substance Abuse. 2008, Volume 7 Issue 1. p67-79Ethnicity in Substance Abuse. 2008, Volume 7 Issue 1. p67-79

204.204. Jump up^Jump up^  Gothe, N.; Pontifex, M. B.; Hillman, C.; McAuley, E. (2013). "The acute effects of yoga on executive function".Gothe, N.; Pontifex, M. B.; Hillman, C.; McAuley, E. (2013). "The acute effects of yoga on executive function". Journal ofJournal of

 physical activity & heal physical activity & healthth  1010 (4): 488 (4): 488 – –495.495.  PMIDPMID  2282015822820158..  editedit  

205. ^205. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Penman, Stephen; Cohen, Marc; Stevens, PhilPenman, Stephen; Cohen, Marc; Stevens, Phil ip; Jackson, Sue (2012).ip; Jackson, Sue (2012).  "Yoga in Australia: Results of a national"Yoga in Australia: Results of a nationalsurvey"survey"..  IJOY, International Journal of YogaIJOY, International Journal of Yoga  55 (2): 92 (2): 92 – –101.101.  dodoii::10.4103/0973-6131.9821710.4103/0973-6131.98217.. PMCPMC  34102033410203..PMIDPMID  2286999122869991.. Retrieved 20 Retrieved 20November 2012.November 2012.

206.206. Jump up^Jump up^  Summers, Kathleen.Summers, Kathleen.  "Can Yoga Wreck Your Body?""Can Yoga Wreck Your Body?"  (blog by medical and yoga expert). TheYogaDr.com. (blog by medical and yoga expert). TheYogaDr.com. Retrieved 21Retrieved 21November 2012. "Here are some tips to avoid injury:"November 2012. "Here are some tips to avoid injury:"

207.207. Jump up^Jump up^  Chusid, Joseph (9 August 1971).Chusid, Joseph (9 August 1971).  "Yoga Foot Drop""Yoga Foot Drop".. JAMA, The Journal of tJAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Associationhe American Medical Association  271271 (6): 827 (6): 827 – –828828..doidoi::10.1001/jama.1971.0319006006502510.1001/jama.1971.03190060065025.. Retrieved 19 November 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2012.

208. ^208. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Broad, William J.Broad, William J.  (5 January 2012).(5 January 2012).  "How Yoga Can Wreck Your Body""How Yoga Can Wreck Your Body".. The New York Times MagazineThe New York Times Magazine. Retrieved 29. Retrieved 29 August 2012. August 2012.

209.209. Jump up^Jump up^  Broad, William J. (7 February 2012).Broad, William J. (7 February 2012). The Science of Yoga The Risks The Science of Yoga The Risks and the Rewardsand the Rewards(hardcover) (1st ed.). Simon & Schuster.(hardcover) (1st ed.). Simon & Schuster.p. 336p. 336..ISBNISBN  978-1451641424978-1451641424..

210.210. Jump up^Jump up^  Walters, Joanna (14 January 2012).Walters, Joanna (14 January 2012).  "'Yoga can damage your body' article throws "'Yoga can damage your body' article throws exponents off-balance: A $5bn industry isexponents off-balance: A $5bn industry isoutraged over a New York Tioutraged over a New York Times article saying that the keep fit mes article saying that the keep fit regime is bad for your body"regime is bad for your body"..  The Guardian, The Observer The Guardian, The Observer . Retrieved 29. Retrieved 29 August 2012. August 2012.

211.211. Jump up^Jump up^  Patel, SC; Parker, DA (2008).Patel, SC; Parker, DA (2008).  "Isolated rupture of the lateral collateral ligament during yoga practice: a case report""Isolated rupture of the lateral collateral ligament during yoga practice: a case report"..  Journal ofJournal ofOrthopaedic Surgery Orthopaedic Surgery 1616 (3): 378 (3): 378 – –80.80.

212. ^212. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Hale, Beth.Hale, Beth.  "When yoga can be bad for the "When yoga can be bad for the body beautiful"body beautiful"..  The Daily Mail The Daily Mail . Retrieved 29 August 2012.. Retrieved 29 August 2012.

213.213. Jump up^Jump up^  Christensen, Alice.Christensen, Alice.  "Who Can Practice Yoga?""Who Can Practice Yoga?"..  General Yoga InformationGeneral Yoga Information. American Yoga Association. Retrieved 28 October. American Yoga Association. Retrieved 28 October2012.2012.

214.214. Jump up^Jump up^  Biffl, Walter L.; Moore, Ernest E.; Elliott, J. Paul; Ray, Charles; Offner, Patrick J.; Franciose, Reginald J.; Brega, Kerry E.;Biffl, Walter L.; Moore, Ernest E.; Elliott, J. Paul; Ray, Charles; Offner, Patrick J.; Franciose, Reginald J.; Brega, Kerry E.;Burch, Jon M. (May 2000).Burch, Jon M. (May 2000).  "The Devastating Potential of Blunt Vertebral Arterial Injuries""The Devastating Potential of Blunt Vertebral Arterial Injuries" ..   Annals of Surgery  Annals of Surgery   231231 (5): 672 (5): 672 – –681681.. doidoi::10.1097/00000658-200005000-0000710.1097/00000658-200005000-00007..  PMCPMC  14210541421054..  PMIDPMID  1076778810767788.. Retrieved 21 November 2012.Retrieved 21 November 2012.

215.215. Jump up^Jump up^  Critchley, E. M. (June 1984)Critchley, E. M. (June 1984).. "Non-atheromatous causes of cerebral infarction""Non-atheromatous causes of cerebral infarction"  (PDF).(PDF).Postgraduate Medical Journal Postgraduate Medical Journal   6060 (704): (704):386386 – –390390..dodoii::10.1136/pgmj.60.704.38610.1136/pgmj.60.704.386.. PMCPMC  24179052417905..PMIDPMID  63796286379628.. Retrieved 21 November 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2012.

216.216. Jump up^Jump up^  Kang, Chan; Hwang, Deuk-Soo; Cha, Soo-Min (December 2009).Kang, Chan; Hwang, Deuk-Soo; Cha, Soo-Min (December 2009).  "Acetabular Labral Tears in Patients with Sports"Acetabular Labral Tears in Patients with SportsInjury"Injury".. Clinics in Sports Injury Clinics in Sports Injury   11 (4): 230 (4): 230 – –235235..doidoi::10.4055/cios.2009.1.4.23010.4055/cios.2009.1.4.230..  PMCPMC  27849642784964..PMIDPMID  1995648119956481.. Retrieved 21 November Retrieved 21 November2012.2012.

217.217. Jump up^Jump up^  http://www.jdjournal.com/2013/07/02/california-judge-says-yoga-is-secular-approves-its-use-in-schools/http://www.jdjournal.com/2013/07/02/california-judge-says-yoga-is-secular-approves-its-use-in-schools/  

218.218. Jump up^Jump up^  David Frawley,David Frawley, Yoga and the Sacred Yoga and the Sacred Fire: Self-Realization and Planetary TransformationFire: Self-Realization and Planetary Transformation, p.288, p.288

219. ^219. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   c c   J.Jagadeesan.J.Jagadeesan.  The Fourth DimensionThe Fourth Dimension.. Sai Towers Publishing. p. 13 Sai Towers Publishing. p. 13.. ISBNISBN  97881789909279788178990927..

220.220. Jump up^Jump up^  The Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan. Edited by William Theodore de Bary. pp. 207The Buddhist Tradition in India, China, and Japan. Edited by William Theodore de Bary. pp. 207 – –208.208.  ISBN 0-394-71696-5ISBN 0-394-71696-5  

221.221. Jump up^Jump up^  Dumoulin, Heinrich & Knitter, p. 22.Dumoulin, Heinrich & Knitter, p. 22.

222.222. Jump up^Jump up^  Dumoulin, Heinrich & Knitter, p. xviii.Dumoulin, Heinrich & Knitter, p. xviii.

223. ^223. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   Dumoulin, Heinrich & Knitter, p. 13.Dumoulin, Heinrich & Knitter, p. 13.

224.224. Jump up^Jump up^  The Lion's Roar: An Introduction to TantraThe Lion's Roar: An Introduction to Tantra by Chogyam Trungpa. Shambhala, 2001 by Chogyam Trungpa. Shambhala, 2001  ISBN 1-57062-895-5ISBN 1-57062-895-5  

  

225.225. Jump up^Jump up^  "Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet" by Ray, Reginald A. Shambhala: 2002. pp. 37"Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet" by Ray, Reginald A. Shambhala: 2002. pp. 37 – –3838  ISBN 1-57062-ISBN 1-57062-917-X917-X  

226.226. Jump up^Jump up^  "Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet" by Ray, Reginald A. Shambhala: 2002. p. 57"Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet" by Ray, Reginald A. Shambhala: 2002. p. 57   ISBN 1-57062-917-XISBN 1-57062-917-X  

227.227. Jump up^Jump up^  "Yantra Yoga: The Tibetan Yoga of Movement" by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu. Snow Lion, 2008"Yantra Yoga: The Tibetan Yoga of Movement" by Chogyal Namkhai Norbu. Snow Lion, 2008..ISBN 1-55939-308-4ISBN 1-55939-308-4  

228.228. Jump up^Jump up^  Chang, G.C.C. (1993). "Tibetan Yoga." New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group. p. 7Chang, G.C.C. (1993). "Tibetan Yoga." New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group. p. 7  ISBN 0-8065-1453-1ISBN 0-8065-1453-1  

229. ^229. ^  Jump up to:Jump up to:a a   b b   c c   Steinfels, Peter (7 January 1990).Steinfels, Peter (7 January 1990).  "Trying to Reconcile the Ways of the Vatican and the East""Trying to Reconcile the Ways of the Vatican and the East".. New York TimesNew York Times..

Retrieved 5 December 2008.Retrieved 5 December 2008.

230.230. Jump up^Jump up^  http://www.sancarlo.pcn.net/Francais/RM1.htmhttp://www.sancarlo.pcn.net/Francais/RM1.htmBishop Raffaello Martinelli presentationBishop Raffaello Martinelli presentation

231.231. Jump up^Jump up^http://www.webdiocesi.chiesacattolica.it/cci_new/documenti_diocesi/80/2013-01/23-236/AdA-201301-Opera-http://www.webdiocesi.chiesacattolica.it/cci_new/documenti_diocesi/80/2013-01/23-236/AdA-201301-Opera-Completa.pdf Completa.pdf  A Argomenti di Attualità mons. Raffaello Martinelli ed. gennaio 2013 Page 135rgomenti di Attualità mons. Raffaello Martinelli ed. gennaio 2013 Page 135

232.232. Jump up^Jump up^  "Vatican sounds New Age alert""Vatican sounds New Age alert".. BBC. 4 February 2003. Retrieved 27 August 2013. BBC. 4 February 2003. Retrieved 27 August 2013.

233.233. Jump up^Jump up^  Teasdale, Wayne (2004).Teasdale, Wayne (2004). Catholicism in dialogue: conversations across Catholicism in dialogue: conversations across traditionstraditions. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 74. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 74.. ISBNISBN  0-7425-0-7425-3178-33178-3..  

234.234. Jump up^Jump up^  Mohler, R. Albert Jr.Mohler, R. Albert Jr.  "The Subtle Body"The Subtle Body – – Should Christians Practice Yoga?" Should Christians Practice Yoga?".. Retrieved 14 January 2011. Retrieved 14 January 2011.

235.235. Jump up^Jump up^  Handbook of vocational psychology Handbook of vocational psychology  by W. Bruce Walsh, Mark Savickas 2005 by W. Bruce Walsh, Mark Savickas 2005  ISBN 0-8058-4517-8ISBN 0-8058-4517-8ppage 358age 358

236.236. Jump up^Jump up^  "1989 Letter from Vatican to Bishops on Some Aspects of Christian Meditation""1989 Letter from Vatican to Bishops on Some Aspects of Christian Meditation".. Ewtn.com. Retrieved 28 November 2012. Ewtn.com. Retrieved 28 November 2012.

237.237. Jump up^Jump up^  Dr Ankerberg, John & Dr Weldon, John,Dr Ankerberg, John & Dr Weldon, John,Encyclopedia of New Age BeliefsEncyclopedia of New Age Beliefs, Harvest House Publishers, 1996, Harvest House Publishers, 1996

238.238. Jump up^Jump up^  MermisMermis – –Cava, Jonathan (2009). "An Anchor and a Sail: Christian Meditation as the Mechanism for a Pluralist ReligiousCava, Jonathan (2009). "An Anchor and a Sail: Christian Meditation as the Mechanism for a Pluralist ReligiousIdentity".Identity". Sociology of ReligionSociology of Religion..

239.239. Jump up^Jump up^  Ernst, C. W. (2005). "Situating Sufism and Yoga".Ernst, C. W. (2005). "Situating Sufism and Yoga". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society   1515::

1515..doidoi::10.1017/S135618630400467510.1017/S1356186304004675..  editedit  240.240. Jump up^Jump up^  "Situating Sufism and Yoga""Situating Sufism and Yoga"  (PDF). Retrieved 5 September 2010.(PDF). Retrieved 5 September 2010.

241.241. Jump up^Jump up^http://www.adishakti.org/pdf_files/islam_and_yoga_(sites.netscape.net).pdf http://www.adishakti.org/pdf_files/islam_and_yoga_(sites.netscape.net).pdf   

242.242. Jump up^Jump up^  karmayogaglobal.comkarmayogaglobal.com  

243.243. Jump up^Jump up^  niroga.orgniroga.org  

244.244. Jump up^Jump up^  Top Islamic body: Yoga is not for MuslimsTop Islamic body: Yoga is not for Muslims   – –MSNBCMSNBC  

245.245. Jump up^Jump up^  "Mixed reactions to yoga ban""Mixed reactions to yoga ban".. Thestar.com.my. 23 November 2008. Retrieved 5 S Thestar.com.my. 23 November 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2010.eptember 2010.

246.246. Jump up^Jump up^  ""Malaysia leader: Yoga for Muslims OK without chantMalaysia leader: Yoga for Muslims OK without chant,," Associated Press" Associated Press

247.247. Jump up^Jump up^  "Sidang Media"Sidang Media – – Fatwa Yoga" Fatwa Yoga".. Islam.gov.my. Archived from Islam.gov.my. Archived from  the originalthe original  on 6 January 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2010.on 6 January 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2010.

248.248. Jump up^Jump up^  "Indonesian clerics issue yoga ban""Indonesian clerics issue yoga ban"..  BBC NewsBBC News. 25 January 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2010.. 25 January 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2010.

249.249. Jump up^Jump up^  "rediff.com: Why give yoga r"rediff.com: Why give yoga religious connotation: Deoband"eligious connotation: Deoband".. Specials.rediff.com. 29 January 2009. Retrieved 5  Specials.rediff.com. 29 January 2009. Retrieved 5 SeptemberSeptember2010.2010.

250.250. Jump up^Jump up^  "It’s OK to stretch, just don’t believe""It’s OK to stretch, just don’t believe".. Hurriyet.com.tr. Retrieved 5 September 2010. Hurriyet.com.tr. Retrieved 5 September 2010.

251.251. Jump up^Jump up^  The perils of yoga: Conservative clerics are wary of a popular pastimeThe perils of yoga: Conservative clerics are wary of a popular pastime,, economist.com.economist.com.

SourcesSources[[editedit]]  

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   Crangle, Edward Fitzpatrick (1994),Crangle, Edward Fitzpatrick (1994), The Origin and Development of Early IThe Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practicesndian Contemplative Practices, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag

   Dhillon, Dalbir Singh (1988).Dhillon, Dalbir Singh (1988).  Sikhism, Origin and Development Sikhism, Origin and Development .. Atlantic Publishers. GGKEY:BYKZE4QTGJH. Atlantic Publishers. GGKEY:BYKZE4QTGJH.

   De Michelis, Elizabeth (2004).De Michelis, Elizabeth (2004). A History of Modern Yoga A History of Modern Yoga. London: Continuum. London: Continuum.. ISBNISBN  0-8264-8772-60-8264-8772-6..  

   Dumoulin, Heinrich; Heisig, James W.; Knitter, Paul F. (2005).Dumoulin, Heinrich; Heisig, James W.; Knitter, Paul F. (2005).  Zen Buddhism: a History: India Zen Buddhism: a History: India and Chinaand China.. World Wisdom, Inc World Wisdom, Inc.. ISBNISBN  978-0-978-0-941532-89-1941532-89-1..

   Eliade, MirceaEliade, Mircea  (1958).(1958). Yoga: Immortality and FreedomYoga: Immortality and Freedom. Princeton: Princeton University Press.. Princeton: Princeton University Press.  ISBNISBN  978-0-691-14203-6978-0-691-14203-6..  

   Feuerstein, GeorgFeuerstein, Georg  (1996).(1996). The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. 1st The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. 1st ed ed . Boston & London: Shambhala Publications.. Boston & London: Shambhala Publications.

   Flood, Gavin D. (1996),Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge University Press

   Fowler, Jeaneane D. (2012).Fowler, Jeaneane D. (2012).  The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for StudentsThe Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students.. Sussex Academic Press. Sussex Academic Press.  ISBNISBN  978-1-84519-346-1978-1-84519-346-1..  

   Goldberg, Philip (2010).Goldberg, Philip (2010). American Veda. From Emerson and the Be American Veda. From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation. How Indiatles to Yoga and Meditation. How Indian Spirituality Changed an Spirituality Changed the West the West ..New York: Harmony BooksNew York: Harmony Books..ISBNISBN  978-0-385-52134-5978-0-385-52134-5..  

   Flood, Gavin (1996).Flood, Gavin (1996).   An Introduction to Hinduism An Introduction to Hinduism.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  ISBNISBN  0-521-43878-00-521-43878-0..

   Gambhirananda, Swami (1998).Gambhirananda, Swami (1998). Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad_Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha DīpikāMadhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad_Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā. Calcutta. Calcutta:: Advaita Advaita Ashrama Ashrama  Publication Department.Publication Department.  ISBNISBN  81-7505-194-981-7505-194-9..

   Jacobsen, Knut A.; Larson, Gerald James (2005).Jacobsen, Knut A.; Larson, Gerald James (2005).  Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James LarsonHonour of Gerald James Larson.. BRILL BRILL.. ISBNISBN  978-978-90-04-14757-790-04-14757-7..  

   Larson, Gerald James (2008)Larson, Gerald James (2008).. The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India's philosophy of meditationThe Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India's philosophy of meditation.. Motilal Banarsidass.Motilal Banarsidass.  ISBNISBN  978-978-81-208-3349-481-208-3349-4..  

   McEvilley, Thomas (2002)McEvilley, Thomas (2002).. The shape of ancient thought The shape of ancient thought .. Allworth Communications. Allworth Communications.  ISBNISBN  978-1-58115-203-6978-1-58115-203-6..  

   Müller, MaxMüller, Max  (1899).(1899).  Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and VaiseshikaNaya and Vaiseshika.. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd.  ISBNISBN  0-0-7661-4296-57661-4296-5.. Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of "The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy."Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of "The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy."

   Possehl, GregoryPossehl, Gregory  (2003).(2003).  The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary PerspectiveThe Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective.. AltaMira Press. AltaMira Press.  ISBNISBN  978-0-7591-0172-2978-0-7591-0172-2..

   Radhakrishnan, S.Radhakrishnan, S.;; Moore, CA (1967).Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Ph A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy ilosophy . Princeton. Princeton.. ISBNISBN  0-691-01958-40-691-01958-4..  

   Samuel, Geoffrey (2008),Samuel, Geoffrey (2008),  The Origins of Yoga and TantraThe Origins of Yoga and Tantra,, Cambridge University Press,Cambridge University Press,  ISBNISBN  978-0-521-69534-3978-0-521-69534-3  

  

   Taimni, I. K. (1961).Taimni, I. K. (1961). The Science of YogaThe Science of Yoga. Adyar, India: The Theosophical Publishing House.. Adyar, India: The Theosophical Publishing House.  ISBNISBN  81-7059-212-781-7059-212-7..

   Werner, Karel (1998).Werner, Karel (1998). Yoga And Indian Philosophy Yoga And Indian Philosophy . Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.  ISBNISBN  81-208-1609-981-208-1609-9..  

   Whicher, Ian (1998).Whicher, Ian (1998).  The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana: A Reconsideration of Classical YogaThe Integrity of the Yoga Darśana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga.. SUNY Press. SUNY Press.  ISBNISBN  978-0-7914-3815-2978-0-7914-3815-2..  

   White, David Gordon (2011)White, David Gordon (2011),, Yoga, Brief History of an Idea (Chapter 1 of Yoga, Brief History of an Idea (Chapter 1 of "Yoga in practice")"Yoga in practice"),, Princeton University PressPrinceton University Press

   Worthington, Vivian (1982).Worthington, Vivian (1982).   A History of Yoga A History of Yoga.. Routledge Routledge.. ISBN 0-7100-9258-XISBN 0-7100-9258-X..  

   Wynne, Alexander Wynne, Alexander   "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation.""The Origin of Buddhist Meditation."  Routledge, 2007,Routledge, 2007,  ISBN 1-134-09741-7ISBN 1-134-09741-7..  

   Zimmer, HeinrichZimmer, Heinrich  (1951),(1951),  Philosophies of IndiaPhilosophies of India,, New York, New York: Princeton University Press, New York, New York: Princeton University Press,  ISBNISBN  0-691-01758-10-691-01758-1  Bollingen Series XXVI;Bollingen Series XXVI;Edited by Joseph Cambell.Edited by Joseph Cambell.

   Zydenbos, Robert.Zydenbos, Robert. Jainism Today and Its FutureJainism Today and Its Future. München: Manya Verlag, 2006. p. . München: Manya Verlag, 2006. p. 6666

External linksExternal links[[editedit]]  

  

 Yoga: A Ho Yoga: A Holistic Way of Life!listic Way of Life!

If you think of If you think of people in seemingly impossible and weirdly twisted poses when you think of "Yoga", then you people in seemingly impossible and weirdly twisted poses when you think of "Yoga", then you may have an inkling may have an inkling ofof

what yoga is, just an inkling, what yoga is, just an inkling, that's it. But Yoga is mthat's it. But Yoga is much more than those poses.uch more than those poses.

It is a complete way of life including -It is a complete way of life including - Gyan YogaGyan Yoga or philosophy, or philosophy, Bhakti YogaBhakti Yoga or path of devotional bliss, or path of devotional bliss, Karma YogaKarma Yoga or path of or path of

blissful action andblissful action and Raja YogaRaja Yoga or path of mind  or path of mind control.control.Raja YogaRaja Yoga is further divided into eight  is further divided into eight parts, of which only one part is Asana orparts, of which only one part is Asana or

postures. Derived from the Sankrit word "yuj" which means "to unite or postures. Derived from the Sankrit word "yuj" which means "to unite or integrate"; yoga is a 5000 year old Indian integrate"; yoga is a 5000 year old Indian body of knowledge.body of knowledge.

Yoga is all about harmonizing the body with the Yoga is all about harmonizing the body with the mind and breath through the means of mind and breath through the means of various breathing techniques,various breathing techniques,   yoga postures yoga postures

(asanas)(asanas)  and meditation.and meditation.

Sri Sri YogaSri Sri Yoga

Sri Sri YogaSri Sri Yoga  is a 10 hours' workshop spread over 3-5 days, uniting the body, breath is a 10 hours' workshop spread over 3-5 days, uniting the body, breath and mind in a joyful experience. A combinationand mind in a joyful experience. A combination

of gentle and vigorous series of Asanas is taught fof gentle and vigorous series of Asanas is taught for holistic well-being of the body, while or holistic well-being of the body, while an equal emphasis is placed onan equal emphasis is placed on

techniques for nurturing the mind and spirit.techniques for nurturing the mind and spirit.

The program provides a multi dimensional routine with includes Yoga postures, Breathing techniques, Yogic knowledge andThe program provides a multi dimensional routine with includes Yoga postures, Breathing techniques, Yogic knowledge and

Meditation, which gives the students a complete tMeditation, which gives the students a complete take home practice. It is a comake home practice. It is a complete package for beginners as well as regularplete package for beginners as well as regular

practitioners and something for every one of all age practitioners and something for every one of all age groups. Through the practices taught in the workshop, participants can lgroups. Through the practices taught in the workshop, participants can loseose

weight and be cured of chronic diseases such as insomnia, asthma, diabetes, weight and be cured of chronic diseases such as insomnia, asthma, diabetes, hypertension and migraine.hypertension and migraine.

 Yoga For Ev Yoga For Everyoneeryone

Yoga has never been alien to us. It'Yoga has never been alien to us. It's a way of our life. Ws a way of our life. We have been doing it since we were a baby! Whether e have been doing it since we were a baby! Whether it is the Cat Stit is the Cat St retchretch

that strengthens the spine or the Wthat strengthens the spine or the Wind-Relieving pose that boosts digestion, you will always see kids do some form ind-Relieving pose that boosts digestion, you will always see kids do some form of yogaof yoga

throughout the day. It keeps tthroughout the day. It keeps the body healthy and the mind clear. Yoga can be mhe body healthy and the mind clear. Yoga can be many things to many people. Our strong parts arany things to many people. Our strong parts aree

striving to be flexible and our fstriving to be flexible and our f lexible parts are striving to be strong. Yoga can create lexible parts are striving to be strong. Yoga can create a wonderful sense of balance in your body,a wonderful sense of balance in your body,

mind and spirit. It mind and spirit. It is our mission to help you on that is our mission to help you on that journey in an open and loving environment.journey in an open and loving environment.

 Ayurveda: The Sc Ayurveda: The Science of Lifeience of Life

 Ayurveda is an ancient Indian system of natural and holistic medicine. It uses the inheren Ayurveda is an ancient Indian system of natural and holistic medicine. It uses the inherent principles of nature, to help maintaint principles of nature, to help maintain

health in a person by keeping the health in a person by keeping the individual's body, mind and spirit in perfect equilibrium with natindividual's body, mind and spirit in perfect equilibrium with nature. Ayurveda insists that withinure. Ayurveda insists that within

natures balance lies all the remedies for good health. natures balance lies all the remedies for good health. Practicing ayurveda also improves your yoga practice, a perfect win-winPracticing ayurveda also improves your yoga practice, a perfect win-win

situation! This section sheds light on how ayurveda can uplift situation! This section sheds light on how ayurveda can uplift our life in every sphere.our life in every sphere.

Breathing Techniques (Pranayama) & Breathing Techniques (Pranayama) & MeditationMeditation(Dhyaan)(Dhyaan)

  

Pranayama is the extension and controlPranayama is the extension and control of one’s breath. Practicing proper techniques of breathing can help of one’s breath. Practicing proper techniques of breathing can help bring more oxygen tobring more oxygen to

the blood and brain, eventually helping control prana or the blood and brain, eventually helping control prana or the vital life energy. Pranayama also goes hand in hand with the vital life energy. Pranayama also goes hand in hand with various yogavarious yoga

asanas. The union of these two yogic asanas. The union of these two yogic principles is considered as the highest form of purification and self-discipline, covering bothprinciples is considered as the highest form of purification and self-discipline, covering both

mind and body. Pranayama techniques also prepare us for a deeper experience of meditation. Know more about mind and body. Pranayama techniques also prepare us for a deeper experience of meditation. Know more about variousvarious

pranayama techniques in these sections.pranayama techniques in these sections.

Patanjali Yoga SutrasPatanjali Yoga Sutras

This section lays an exclusive commentary by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar on the ancient scriptureThis section lays an exclusive commentary by Sri Sri Ravi Shankar on the ancient scripture,,Patanjali Yoga SutrasPatanjali Yoga Sutras,, which will which will

enlighten you on the knowledge of yoga, its enlighten you on the knowledge of yoga, its origin and purpose. The goal of this origin and purpose. The goal of this rendition of the Yoga Sutras is to make trendition of the Yoga Sutras is to make thehe

principles and practices of the Yoga Sutras more understandable and accessible. The descriptions of each sutra offered principles and practices of the Yoga Sutras more understandable and accessible. The descriptions of each sutra offered by Sri Sriby Sri Sri

Ravi Shankar attempts to focus on the practical suggestions of what can Ravi Shankar attempts to focus on the practical suggestions of what can be done to experience the ultimate benefits of be done to experience the ultimate benefits of a yogica yogic

lifestyle.lifestyle.

Feeling held back due to a Feeling held back due to a physical ailment? Are emotions taking a toll on your personal and work lifphysical ailment? Are emotions taking a toll on your personal and work life? Fill in te? Fill in the form below to learnhe form below to learn

more about how yoga can aide you in more about how yoga can aide you in overcoming issues naturally with minimum lifestyle changes.overcoming issues naturally with minimum lifestyle changes.

  

yoga info 101yoga info 101Welcome to our yoga resource section! The info below covers:Welcome to our yoga resource section! The info below covers:

   What is yoga?What is yoga?  

   Different yoga stylesDifferent yoga styles  

   What to wear to yogaWhat to wear to yoga  

   Yoga in your communityYoga in your community  

   Video: A yoga class with ambassador Chris ChavezVideo: A yoga class with ambassador Chris Chavez  

   Video: Sun salutations with ambassador Eoin FinnVideo: Sun salutations with ambassador Eoin Finn  

what is yoga?what is yoga?

The word "yoga" comes from the Sanskrit root "yuj", which means "to yoke" the spirit and physical body together. Yoga has evolved over thousands ofThe word "yoga" comes from the Sanskrit root "yuj", which means "to yoke" the spirit and physical body together. Yoga has evolved over thousands of

years to embrace a wide range of styles and disciplines.years to embrace a wide range of styles and disciplines.

Yoga is a popular activity for athletes, children, and seniors. Yoga can be modified to suit Yoga is a popular activity for athletes, children, and seniors. Yoga can be modified to suit all levels of fitness. Yoga has been proven tall levels of fitness. Yoga has been proven to lower bloodo lower blood

pressure and increases strength and flexibility. Yoga energizes our bodies and calms our minds.pressure and increases strength and flexibility. Yoga energizes our bodies and calms our minds.

yoga quickguideyoga quickguide

   AerialAerial: Fluid, acrobatic yoga... in a hammock.: Fluid, acrobatic yoga... in a hammock.

   AnusaraAnusara: Playful. Expect to laugh and go upside down.: Playful. Expect to laugh and go upside down.

   AshtangaAshtanga: Athletic and : Athletic and vigorous.vigorous.

   BikramBikram:: Consistent poses in a very heated studio.Consistent poses in a very heated studio.

   HathaHatha:: Foundation for many yoga styles. Great for beginners.Foundation for many yoga styles. Great for beginners.

   HotHot: Make sure to bring a towel -- : Make sure to bring a towel -- or two!or two!

   IyengarIyengar:: With a focus on structure, usually uses blocks, straps for With a focus on structure, usually uses blocks, straps for support.support.

   KundaliniKundalini:: Focused on meditation and breathing.Focused on meditation and breathing.

   Power/FlowPower/Flow//VinyasaVinyasa:: An athletic and physically challenging style.An athletic and physically challenging style.

   Pre- and Post-natalPre- and Post-natal: Gentle Hatha yoga is ideal for pregnant women to help lower stress.: Gentle Hatha yoga is ideal for pregnant women to help lower stress.

   YinYin: A slow class that will take you deeper than you've ever gone.: A slow class that will take you deeper than you've ever gone.

Here's the extended version of each style mentioned above:Here's the extended version of each style mentioned above:

aerialaerial

  

It's easy to free your mind when a hammock is gently cradling you and gravity does the work of deepening your stretch. The compression-free inversionsIt's easy to free your mind when a hammock is gently cradling you and gravity does the work of deepening your stretch. The compression-free inversions

can be terrifying at first until you realize that the hammock has your back. Aerial yoga is all about trust. Trust and the blissful sensation that you'recan be terrifying at first until you realize that the hammock has your back. Aerial yoga is all about trust. Trust and the blissful sensation that you're

floating.floating.

anusaraanusara

Expect a playful class with a strong focus on proper alignment and Tantric yoga philosophy (not what you're thinking). It (like most yoga) is derived fromExpect a playful class with a strong focus on proper alignment and Tantric yoga philosophy (not what you're thinking). It (like most yoga) is derived from

Hatha yoga.Hatha yoga.

ashtangaashtangaThis practice is very athletic and made up of six vigorous series of postures. It's one of the oldest forms of yoga and is considered to be the foundation ofThis practice is very athletic and made up of six vigorous series of postures. It's one of the oldest forms of yoga and is considered to be the foundation of

much of the yoga we see today in the west.much of the yoga we see today in the west.

bikrambikram

You're going to sweat in a Bikram's class, more than you ever thought was possible. Bikram yoga consists of 26 postures and breathing exercisesYou're going to sweat in a Bikram's class, more than you ever thought was possible. Bikram yoga consists of 26 postures and breathing exercises

repeated twice (that's right 90 minutes) irepeated twice (that's right 90 minutes) in a room heated to 105 degrees. Heads up n a room heated to 105 degrees. Heads up - humidity is 40% and will knock you over the first tim- humidity is 40% and will knock you over the first time.e.

  learn more aboulearn more aboutt bikram y bikram yoga >>oga >>  

hathahatha

The foundation of every style of yoga mentioned here. Traditional Hatha yoga is a holistic path that includes disciplines, physical postures (asana),The foundation of every style of yoga mentioned here. Traditional Hatha yoga is a holistic path that includes disciplines, physical postures (asana),

purification procedures, breathing (pranayama), and meditation. Hatha practiced in the West consists of mostly physical postures and is also recognizedpurification procedures, breathing (pranayama), and meditation. Hatha practiced in the West consists of mostly physical postures and is also recognized

as a gentle introductory yoga for people new to yoga.as a gentle introductory yoga for people new to yoga.

   learn more aboulearn more aboutt hatha yoga >>hatha yoga >>  

hothot

By adding heat it is said that classes will help you lose weight, loosen your muscles (by adding increased range of motion) and improve yourBy adding heat it is said that classes will help you lose weight, loosen your muscles (by adding increased range of motion) and improve your

cardiovascular system. It differs from Bikram's in that the series of postures are not always (but can be) in any particular order and modifications arecardiovascular system. It differs from Bikram's in that the series of postures are not always (but can be) in any particular order and modifications are

often offered.often offered.

   Read this blog post foRead this blog post forr hot yoga tips from expertshot yoga tips from experts..

iyengar/restorativeiyengar/restorative

Expect a class emphasizing healing the body and mind through use of supported postures. One of the oldest forms of yoga, it's for a person who lovesExpect a class emphasizing healing the body and mind through use of supported postures. One of the oldest forms of yoga, it's for a person who loves

technical intricacies and is also great for people who are new to yoga or have any issues with their health.technical intricacies and is also great for people who are new to yoga or have any issues with their health.

  

   learn more aboulearn more aboutt iyengar yoga >>iyengar yoga >>  

kundalinikundalini

Don't be surprised if your waving your hands like you just don't care or laughing uncontrollably, this practice is intended to wake up the kundalini energyDon't be surprised if your waving your hands like you just don't care or laughing uncontrollably, this practice is intended to wake up the kundalini energy

coiled at the base of your spine while activating chakras (energetic centers in the body), as well as detox the body and mind.coiled at the base of your spine while activating chakras (energetic centers in the body), as well as detox the body and mind.

   learn more aboulearn more aboutt kundalini yoga >>kundalini yoga >>  

powerpower

Many say Power yoga is the Western interpretation of Ashtanga. It is sometimes done in a heated room and focuses on the breath as fuel for the practice.Many say Power yoga is the Western interpretation of Ashtanga. It is sometimes done in a heated room and focuses on the breath as fuel for the practice.

This practice can be challenging for beginners, but is a nice balance to more gentle forms of yoga once you become comfortable with the differentThis practice can be challenging for beginners, but is a nice balance to more gentle forms of yoga once you become comfortable with the different

postures.postures.

vinyasa/flowvinyasa/flow

Derived from Ashtanga yoga, expect a class full of rhythmical flow (often combined with music) connecting each moment with unifying pranayamaDerived from Ashtanga yoga, expect a class full of rhythmical flow (often combined with music) connecting each moment with unifying pranayama

(breath). Classes can be more meditative or focused on the natural movement of the body, almost like dancing through postures. A great transition from(breath). Classes can be more meditative or focused on the natural movement of the body, almost like dancing through postures. A great transition from

Hatha when you're looking for more of a challenge.Hatha when you're looking for more of a challenge.

   learn more aboulearn more aboutt vinyasa yoga >>vinyasa yoga >>  

yinyin

Some believe that Yin yoga is the oldest form of Hatha yoga, since it is the ideal method of physical conditioning for prolonged meditation. Don't let theSome believe that Yin yoga is the oldest form of Hatha yoga, since it is the ideal method of physical conditioning for prolonged meditation. Don't let the

props and gentle movement fool you, this is not a form of restorative yoga. The long holds require that you focus and release all effort from the muscles.props and gentle movement fool you, this is not a form of restorative yoga. The long holds require that you focus and release all effort from the muscles.

Yin classes often use props like Yin classes often use props like bolsters or blocks.bolsters or blocks.  

last but not leastlast but not least

Remember: your body is your best guide. You don't have to stick to one kind of yoga, just do what your body needs!Remember: your body is your best guide. You don't have to stick to one kind of yoga, just do what your body needs!

There are many other styles not mentioned here that we encourage you to discover for yourself. The bottom line is: if it doesn't feel right, don't do it.There are many other styles not mentioned here that we encourage you to discover for yourself. The bottom line is: if it doesn't feel right, don't do it.

what to wear to yogawhat to wear to yoga

Proper alignment of yoga postures is important for many types of yoga. Choose clothes that are not too baggy and that help you and your yoga instructorProper alignment of yoga postures is important for many types of yoga. Choose clothes that are not too baggy and that help you and your yoga instructor

make sure you're not doing anything harmful to your body. In more physical types of yoga and especially in hot classes, expect to sweat. Wear clothesmake sure you're not doing anything harmful to your body. In more physical types of yoga and especially in hot classes, expect to sweat. Wear clothes

that dry quickly, wick moisture away, and will keep you as comfortable as possible to get the most out of your yoga class. Fabrics with stretch will helpthat dry quickly, wick moisture away, and will keep you as comfortable as possible to get the most out of your yoga class. Fabrics with stretch will help

you feel most comfortable as you move from pose to pose. Whatever you choose to wear to class, you should be able to move freely and feel good.you feel most comfortable as you move from pose to pose. Whatever you choose to wear to class, you should be able to move freely and feel good.

  

yoga props and blocksyoga props and blocks

Yoga blocks and straps are great tools for beginner to seasoned yogis. Some styles of yoga, such as Iyengar, require more use of yoga props (such asYoga blocks and straps are great tools for beginner to seasoned yogis. Some styles of yoga, such as Iyengar, require more use of yoga props (such as

straps) than others to help you better alistraps) than others to help you better align yourself in a pose or get into "hard to reach" postures. Try sitting gn yourself in a pose or get into "hard to reach" postures. Try sitting on a yoga block with your legs crossed ton a yoga block with your legs crossed too

help open your hips up.help open your hips up.

   Check out availablCheck out availablee yoga blocks and strapsyoga blocks and straps  

yoga matsyoga mats

You're going to be spending a lot of time up close and personal with your mat. YYou're going to be spending a lot of time up close and personal with your mat. Yoga mats come in a variety of colours, sizes oga mats come in a variety of colours, sizes and thicknesses. Are you aand thicknesses. Are you a

traveling yogi? Look for thin travel mats that fold up so you can take your downdog on the road. Shop now for lululemontraveling yogi? Look for thin travel mats that fold up so you can take your downdog on the road. Shop now for lululemon   yoga matsyoga mats  and choose a mat thatand choose a mat that

fits your lifestyle.fits your lifestyle.

   Shop for Shop for   lululemon yoga matslululemon yoga mats  

try a local yoga classtry a local yoga class

EveryEvery  lululemon locationlululemon location  offers complimentary yoga lead by local yogis in your community. Learn more about these noffers complimentary yoga lead by local yogis in your community. Learn more about these neighbourhood yoga classes on theeighbourhood yoga classes on the  gift ofgift of

yoga pageyoga page..  

yoga videosyoga videos

yoga at lunchyoga at lunch

Our global ambassadorOur global ambassador  Chris ChavezChris Chavez  recently stopped by our office to teach a yoga class over lunch. Check out a sneak peek from the video:recently stopped by our office to teach a yoga class over lunch. Check out a sneak peek from the video:

how to do a sun salutationhow to do a sun salutation

WatchWatch  Eoin FinnEoin Finn,, global lululemon ambassador, demo a sun salutation for you:global lululemon ambassador, demo a sun salutation for you:

  

 What Is Yo What Is Yoga, Reallyga, Really??

MMost of us are accustomed to lookingost of us are accustomed to looking

outside of ourselves for fulfillment. We areoutside of ourselves for fulfillment. We are

living in a world that conditions us to believeliving in a world that conditions us to believe

that outer attainments can give us what wethat outer attainments can give us what we

want. Yet again and again our experienceswant. Yet again and again our experiences

show us that nothing external canshow us that nothing external can

completely fulfill the deep longing within forcompletely fulfill the deep longing within for

"something more." Most of the time,"something more." Most of the time,

however, we find ourselves striving towardhowever, we find ourselves striving toward

that which always seems to lie that which always seems to lie just beyondjust beyond

our reach. We are caught up in doing ratherour reach. We are caught up in doing rather

than being, in action rather than awareness.than being, in action rather than awareness.

It is hard for us It is hard for us to picture a state ofto picture a state of

complete calmness and repose in whichcomplete calmness and repose in which

thoughts and feelings cease to dance inthoughts and feelings cease to dance in

perpetuaperpetual motion. Yet it is l motion. Yet it is through such athrough such a

state of quietude that we can touch a lstate of quietude that we can touch a levelevel

of joy and understanding impossible toof joy and understanding impossible to

achieve otherwise.achieve otherwise.

It is said in the Bible: "Be still and know that I am God." In these few words lies the keyIt is said in the Bible: "Be still and know that I am God." In these few words lies the key

to the science of Yoga. This ancient spiritual science offers a direct means of stilling theto the science of Yoga. This ancient spiritual science offers a direct means of stilling the

natural turbulence of thoughts and restlessness of body that prevent us from knowingnatural turbulence of thoughts and restlessness of body that prevent us from knowing

what we really are.what we really are.

Ordinarily our awareness and energies are directed outward, to the things of this world,Ordinarily our awareness and energies are directed outward, to the things of this world,

which we perceive through the limited instruments of our five senses. Because humanwhich we perceive through the limited instruments of our five senses. Because human

reason has to rely upon the partial and often deceptive data supplied by the physicalreason has to rely upon the partial and often deceptive data supplied by the physical

senses, we must learn to tap deeper and more subtle levels of awareness if we wouldsenses, we must learn to tap deeper and more subtle levels of awareness if we would

solve the enigmas of lifesolve the enigmas of life —— Who am I? Why am I here? How do I realize Truth? Who am I? Why am I here? How do I realize Truth?

Yoga is a simple process of reversing the ordinary outward flow of energy andYoga is a simple process of reversing the ordinary outward flow of energy and

consciousness so that the mind becomes a dynamic center of direct perception noconsciousness so that the mind becomes a dynamic center of direct perception no

longer dependent upon the fallible senses but capable of actually experiencing Truth.longer dependent upon the fallible senses but capable of actually experiencing Truth.

  

By practicing the step-by-By practicing the step-by-

step methods of Yoga takingstep methods of Yoga taking

nothing for granted onnothing for granted on

emotional grounds or throughemotional grounds or through

blind faith we come to knowblind faith we come to know

our oneness with the Infiniteour oneness with the Infinite

Intelligence, Power, and JoyIntelligence, Power, and Joy

which gives life to all andwhich gives life to all and

which is the essence of ourwhich is the essence of our

own Self.own Self.

In past centuries many of theIn past centuries many of the

higher techniques of Yoga were little understood or practiced, owing to mankind'shigher techniques of Yoga were little understood or practiced, owing to mankind's

limited knowledge of the forces that run the universe. But today scientific investigationlimited knowledge of the forces that run the universe. But today scientific investigation

is rapidly changing the way we view ourselves and the world. The traditionalis rapidly changing the way we view ourselves and the world. The traditional

materialistic conception of life has vanished with the discovery that matter and energymaterialistic conception of life has vanished with the discovery that matter and energy

are essentially one: every existing substance can be reduced to a pattern or form ofare essentially one: every existing substance can be reduced to a pattern or form of

energy, which interacts and interconnects with other forms. Some of today's mostenergy, which interacts and interconnects with other forms. Some of today's most

celebrated physicists go a step further, identifying consciousness as the fundamentalcelebrated physicists go a step further, identifying consciousness as the fundamental

ground of all being. Thus modern science is confirming the ancient principles of Yoga,ground of all being. Thus modern science is confirming the ancient principles of Yoga,

which proclaim that unity pervades the universe.which proclaim that unity pervades the universe.

The word yoga itself means "union": of the individual consciousness or soul with theThe word yoga itself means "union": of the individual consciousness or soul with the

Universal Consciousness or Spirit. Though many people think of yoga only as physicalUniversal Consciousness or Spirit. Though many people think of yoga only as physical

exercisesexercises —— the asanas or postures that have gained widespread popularity in recent the asanas or postures that have gained widespread popularity in recent

decadesdecades —— these are actually only the most superficial aspect of this profound science of these are actually only the most superficial aspect of this profound science of

unfolding the infinite potentials of the unfolding the infinite potentials of the human mindhuman mind

and soul.and soul.

There are various paths of Yoga that lead toward thisThere are various paths of Yoga that lead toward this

goal, each one a specialized branch of onegoal, each one a specialized branch of one

comprehensive system:comprehensive system:

Hatha YogaHatha Yoga —— a system of physical postures, a system of physical postures,

oror asanas,asanas, whose higher purpose is to purify the body, whose higher purpose is to purify the body,

giving one awareness and control over its internalgiving one awareness and control over its internal

states and rendering it fit for meditation.states and rendering it fit for meditation.

Karma YogaKarma Yoga —— selfless service to others as part of selfless service to others as part of

one's larger Self, without attachment to the results;one's larger Self, without attachment to the results;

and the performance of all actions with theand the performance of all actions with the

  

consciousness of God as the Doer.consciousness of God as the Doer.

Mantra YogaMantra Yoga —— centering the consciousness within through centering the consciousness within through japa, japa, or the repetition of or the repetition of

certain universal root-word sounds representing a particular aspect of Spirit.certain universal root-word sounds representing a particular aspect of Spirit.

Bhakti YogaBhakti Yoga —— all-surrendering devotion through which one strives to see and love the all-surrendering devotion through which one strives to see and love the

divinity in every creature and in everything, thus maintaining an unceasing worship.divinity in every creature and in everything, thus maintaining an unceasing worship.

Jnana (Gyana) YogaJnana (Gyana) Yoga —— the path of wisdom, which emphasizes the application of the path of wisdom, which emphasizes the application of

discriminative intelligence to achieve spiritual liberation.discriminative intelligence to achieve spiritual liberation.

Raja YogaRaja Yoga —— the royal or highest path of Yoga, immortalized by Bhagavan Krishna in the royal or highest path of Yoga, immortalized by Bhagavan Krishna in

the Bhagavad Gita and formally systematized in the second century B.C. bythe Bhagavad Gita and formally systematized in the second century B.C. by   the Indianthe Indian

sage Patanjalisage Patanjali,, which combines the which combines the

essence of all the other paths.essence of all the other paths.

At the heart of the At the heart of the Raja Yoga system,Raja Yoga system,

balancing and unifying these variousbalancing and unifying these variousapproaches, is the practice of definite,approaches, is the practice of definite,

scientific methods of meditation thatscientific methods of meditation that

enable one to perceive, from the veryenable one to perceive, from the very

beginning of one's efforts, glimpses ofbeginning of one's efforts, glimpses of

the ultimate goalthe ultimate goal —— conscious union conscious union

with the with the inexhaustibinexhaustibly blissful ly blissful Spirit.Spirit.

The quickest and most effectiveThe quickest and most effective

approach to the goal of Yoga employsapproach to the goal of Yoga employs

those methods of meditation that dealthose methods of meditation that deal

directly with energy anddirectly with energy and

consciousnconsciousness. It is ess. It is this directthis direct

approach that characterizes Kriyaapproach that characterizes Kriya

Yoga, the particular form of Raja YogaYoga, the particular form of Raja Yoga

meditation taught by Paramahansameditation taught by Paramahansa

Yogananda.Yogananda.

Next: The Eightfold Path of YogaNext: The Eightfold Path of Yoga  

The Eightfold Path of YogaThe Eightfold Path of Yoga

The Bhagavad Gita andThe Bhagavad Gita and Yoga SutrasYoga Sutras of Patanjali of Patanjali

  

 Y  Y oga, the timeless science behind all toga, the timeless science behind all true religions, consists of systematic and definiterue religions, consists of systematic and definite

steps to realization of the steps to realization of the soul’s oneness withsoul’s oneness with

Spirit.Spirit.

The Bhagavad GitaThe Bhagavad Gita,, which is a sacred which is a sacred

  

dialogue between the divine teacher Krishnadialogue between the divine teacher Krishna

and his disciple Arjuna, is and his disciple Arjuna, is India’s mostIndia’s most

beloved scripture of yoga, as explained inbeloved scripture of yoga, as explained in

Paramahansa Yogananda’s definitive twoParamahansa Yogananda’s definitive two--

volume translation and commentary:volume translation and commentary:  GodGod

Talks With Arjuna: The Bhagavad GitaTalks With Arjuna: The Bhagavad Gita ——  

  

Royal Science of God-Realization.Royal Science of God-Realization.  

  

The essence of the yoga path was set forth inThe essence of the yoga path was set forth in

systematic form by the ancient sage Patanjalisystematic form by the ancient sage Patanjali

in his short but in his short but masterly work, themasterly work, the Yoga Yoga

SutrasSutras. Paramahansa Yogananda has written:. Paramahansa Yogananda has written:

 ―Patanjali’s date is unknown, tho ―Patanjali’s date is unknown, though manyugh many

scholars assign him to the second centuryscholars assign him to the second century

B.C. His renownedB.C. His renowned Yoga SutrasYoga Sutras presents, in a presents, in a

series of brief aphorisms, the condensed essence of the exceedingly vast and intricateseries of brief aphorisms, the condensed essence of the exceedingly vast and intricate

science of God-unionscience of God-union —— setting forth the method of uniting the soul with the setting forth the method of uniting the soul with the

undifferentiated Spirit in such a undifferentiated Spirit in such a beautiful, clear, and concise way that beautiful, clear, and concise way that generations ofgenerations of

scholars have acknowledged thescholars have acknowledged the Yoga SutrasYoga Sutras as the foremost ancient work on yoga.‖ as the foremost ancient work on yoga.‖   

The yoga system of Patanjali is known as the Eightfold Path, which leads to the finalThe yoga system of Patanjali is known as the Eightfold Path, which leads to the final

goal of God-realization.goal of God-realization.

Patanjali’s Eightfold Path of Yoga:Patanjali’s Eightfold Path of Yoga:  

1.1.   YamaYama (moral conduct): noninjury to others,  (moral conduct): noninjury to others, truthfulness, nonstealing,truthfulness, nonstealing,

continence, and noncovetousnesscontinence, and noncovetousness

2.2.   NiyamaNiyama (religious observances): purity of body and mind, contentment in al (religious observances): purity of body and mind, contentment in alll

circumstances, self-discipline, self-study (contemplation), and devotion to circumstances, self-discipline, self-study (contemplation), and devotion to GodGod

and guruand guru

3.3.    Asana Asana:: right posture right posture

4.4.   PranayamaPranayama:: control of control of prana prana, the subtle life currents in the body, the subtle life currents in the body

  

5.5.   PratyaharaPratyahara:: interiorization through withdrawal of the senses from external interiorization through withdrawal of the senses from external

objectsobjects

6.6.   DharanaDharana:: focused concentration; holding the mind to  focused concentration; holding the mind to one thought or objectone thought or object

7.7.   DhyanaDhyana:: meditation, absorption in the vast perception of God in one of His meditation, absorption in the vast perception of God in one of His

infinite aspectsinfinite aspects —— Bliss, Peace, Cosmic Light, Cosmic Sound, Love, Wisdom, Bliss, Peace, Cosmic Light, Cosmic Sound, Love, Wisdom,

etc.etc. —— all-pervading throughout the whole universe all-pervading throughout the whole universe

8.8.   Samadhi Samadhi :: superconscious experience of the oneness of the individualized soul superconscious experience of the oneness of the individualized soul

with Cosmic Spiritwith Cosmic Spirit

"When you meditate long...the glory of the Divine shines forth."When you meditate long...the glory of the Divine shines forth.You realize then that all along there was something tremendousYou realize then that all along there was something tremendouswithin you, and you did not know it."within you, and you did not know it."

—— Paramahansa Yogananda Paramahansa Yogananda

Paramahansa Yogananda’s SRF Lessons forParamahansa Yogananda’s SRF Lessons forHome StudyHome Study

TThehe Self-Realization Fellowship LessonsSelf-Realization Fellowship Lessons are are

unique among Paramahansa Yogananda’sunique among Paramahansa Yogananda’s

published writings in that they give his step-published writings in that they give his step-

by-step instructions in the by-step instructions in the yoga techniquesyoga techniques

of meditation, concentration, andof meditation, concentration, and

energizatioenergization that n that he taught, includinghe taught, including  KriyaKriya

YogaYoga..  

The goal of The goal of these simple yet highly effectivethese simple yet highly effective

yoga techniques is to teach you to dealyoga techniques is to teach you to deal

directly with energy and consciousnessdirectly with energy and consciousness

enabling you to recharge your body withenabling you to recharge your body with

energy, to awaken the mind's unlimitedenergy, to awaken the mind's unlimited

power, and to experience a deepeningpower, and to experience a deepening

awareness of the Divine in your life.awareness of the Divine in your life.

TheThe LessonsLessons were compiled underwere compiled under

ParaParamahansa Yogananda’s direction from hismahansa Yogananda’s direction from his

writings and the many classes and lectureswritings and the many classes and lectures

he gave. In addition to his comprehensivehe gave. In addition to his comprehensive

  

instructioninstructions in s in meditation, themeditation, the LessonsLessons offer practical guidance for every aspect ofoffer practical guidance for every aspect of

spiritual livingspiritual living —— how to live joyfully and successfully amidst the unceasing how to live joyfully and successfully amidst the unceasing

challenges and opportunities in this world of change.challenges and opportunities in this world of change.

Each lesson is 6Each lesson is 6––8 pages in length, and is meant to be studied for one week. The8 pages in length, and is meant to be studied for one week. The

entire course ofentire course of LessonsLessons lasts about 3½ years.lasts about 3½ years.

Topics Include:Topics Include:  

   The scientificThe scientific

techniques oftechniques of

yoga meditationyoga meditation

   How to weaveHow to weaveGod into yourGod into your

daily lifedaily life

   FriendshipFriendship —  —  the theart of gettingart of getting

along with othersalong with others

   CreatingCreatingharmony inharmony in

marriage andmarriage and

family lifefamily life

   How to developHow to develop

creative intuitioncreative intuition

   Finding your trueFinding your true

vocation,vocation,and balancedand balanced

success andsuccess and

 prosperity prosperity   Yoga methods ofYoga methods of

diet, healing,diet, healing,

relaxation, andrelaxation, andrejuvenationrejuvenation

   Living withoutLiving without

stress and fearstress and fear

   The dynamicThe dynamic

 power of will power of will —  —   how to create athow to create at

will what youwill what you

needneed

   Life after deathLife after death

   Karma andKarma and

reincarnationreincarnation

  

Meditation Techniques Offered toMeditation Techniques Offered toFollowers of All ReligionsFollowers of All Religions

Since Yoga is based on practice and experience rather than on adherence to aSince Yoga is based on practice and experience rather than on adherence to a

particular set of beliefs, followers of all particular set of beliefs, followers of all religions can benefit from the spiritualreligions can benefit from the spiritual

teachings in theteachings in the LessonsLessons and theand the  three basic techniquesthree basic techniques.. When practiced regularly, When practiced regularly,

these methods lead unfailingly to deeper levels of spiritual awareness andthese methods lead unfailingly to deeper levels of spiritual awareness and

perception.perception.

Kriya YogaKriya Yoga

After a preliminary period of study and practice of the basic techniques, studentsAfter a preliminary period of study and practice of the basic techniques, students

are eligible to apply for initiation in Kriya Yoga. At this time they formally establishare eligible to apply for initiation in Kriya Yoga. At this time they formally establish

the sacredthe sacred  guru-disciple relationshipguru-disciple relationship  with Paramahansa Yogananda and his lineagewith Paramahansa Yogananda and his lineage

of gurus.of gurus.

The technique of Kriya Yoga is given in person at special initiation ceremonies, asThe technique of Kriya Yoga is given in person at special initiation ceremonies, as

well as sent to each initiate in a special series of printed lessons that cover everywell as sent to each initiate in a special series of printed lessons that cover everyaspect of the Kriya science.aspect of the Kriya science.

Personal Guidance andPersonal Guidance andOther Services toOther Services toStudentsStudents

LessonsLessonsstudents can alsostudents can also

receive personal guidance inreceive personal guidance in

their practice at any time, free oftheir practice at any time, free of

charge, from experiencedcharge, from experienced

meditation counselors of themeditation counselors of the

Self-Realization FellowshipSelf-Realization Fellowship

Monastic Order, by contactingMonastic Order, by contacting

thethe  International HeadquartersInternational Headquarters..  

In addition, students can attendIn addition, students can attend  classes on the techniques of meditationclasses on the techniques of meditation  conductedconducted

periodically by SRF monastics all over the world. (These classes are open onlyperiodically by SRF monastics all over the world. (These classes are open only

toto LessonsLessons students.)students.)

Students also receive special letters of inspiration and encouragement from theStudents also receive special letters of inspiration and encouragement from the

SRF president throughout the year, as well as newsletters and other publicationsSRF president throughout the year, as well as newsletters and other publications

from Self-Realization Fellowship.from Self-Realization Fellowship.

  

Cost and TimingCost and Timing  

TheThe LessonsLessons are divided into six steps of thirty lessons each, and two lessons areare divided into six steps of thirty lessons each, and two lessons are

mailed every other week. It takes about 3½ years to receive all of them. All of themailed every other week. It takes about 3½ years to receive all of them. All of the

basic meditation techniques that arebasic meditation techniques that are

preparatory to Kriya Yoga are mailedpreparatory to Kriya Yoga are mailed

during the first 6 months.during the first 6 months.

It was Paramahansa Yogananda's wish thatIt was Paramahansa Yogananda's wish that

thethe Self-Realization Fellowship LessonsSelf-Realization Fellowship Lessons be be

easily available to all who sincerely desireeasily available to all who sincerely desire

to know God. To this end, theto know God. To this end, the LessonsLessons havehave

always been offered for only a nominal feealways been offered for only a nominal fee

to help cover printing and postage coststo help cover printing and postage costs —— currently about 70 cents per lesson. currently about 70 cents per lesson.

Full details and Full details and subscrsubscription/mailing plans are outlined on theiption/mailing plans are outlined on the LessonsLessons applicationapplication

form,form,  available hereavailable here..  

Please allow 4Please allow 4––6 weeks for your first lessons to reach you.6 weeks for your first lessons to reach you.  LessonsLessons  by e-mail are not available at this by e-mail are not available at this time.time.  

―After practicing your ―After practicing your   LessonsLessons for six months, I have found all you have taught mefor six months, I have found all you have taught me

to be true. You have proven the existence of God to me, something I once thoughtto be true. You have proven the existence of God to me, something I once thought

impossible.‖ impossible.‖   

—— C.C., Vienna, Virginia. C.C., Vienna, Virginia.

  

  

Applying online is quickApplying online is quick

and easy. You can alsoand easy. You can also pay online with your pay online with your

credit card. This willcredit card. This willreduce processing time forreduce processing time foryour application.your application.

If you prefer, you can alsoIf you prefer, you can also

apply by mail. If youapply by mail. If youselect this option,select this option,

 please please  download the applicationdownload the application

formform  and mail it to theand mail it to the

address on the applicationaddress on the applicationform.form.

 Lessons Lessons Introduction Introduction

(download PDF)(download PDF)  

  

What is Yoga: Definition of Yoga and the Six Branches of YogaWhat is Yoga: Definition of Yoga and the Six Branches of YogaWritten by:Written by:  shaynebanceshaynebance  

What comes into your mind when you hear the word Yoga?What comes into your mind when you hear the word Yoga?

Well, if you think of women in seemingly impossible poses, then you may have an inkling of what Yoga is.Well, if you think of women in seemingly impossible poses, then you may have an inkling of what Yoga is.But that's just it - an inkling. You've got a long way to go before fully understanding Yoga.But that's just it - an inkling. You've got a long way to go before fully understanding Yoga.

Yoga is an ancient Indian body of knowledge that dates back more than 500"Yoga is an ancient Indian body of knowledge that dates back more than 500"

class="related_products_container"0 years ago. The word "Yoga" came from the Sanskrit word "yuj" whichclass="related_products_container"0 years ago. The word "Yoga" came from the Sanskrit word "yuj" whichmeans "to unite or integrate." Yoga then is about the union of a person's own consciousness and themeans "to unite or integrate." Yoga then is about the union of a person's own consciousness and the

universal consciousness.universal consciousness.

Ancient Yogis had a belief that in order for man to be in harmony with himself and his environment, he hasAncient Yogis had a belief that in order for man to be in harmony with himself and his environment, he has

to integrate the body, the mind, and the spirit. For these three to be integrated, emotion, action, andto integrate the body, the mind, and the spirit. For these three to be integrated, emotion, action, and

intelligence must be in balance. The Yogis formulated a way to achieve and maintain this balance and it isintelligence must be in balance. The Yogis formulated a way to achieve and maintain this balance and it is

done through exercise, breathing, anddone through exercise, breathing, and  MeditationMeditation  - the three main Yoga structures.- the three main Yoga structures.

In Yoga, the body is treated with care and respect for it is the primaryIn Yoga, the body is treated with care and respect for it is the primary

instrument in man's work and growth.instrument in man's work and growth. Yoga Exercises i Yoga Exercises improve circulation, stimulate the abdominal organs,mprove circulation, stimulate the abdominal organs,

  

and put pressure on the glandular system of the body, which can geneand put pressure on the glandular system of the body, which can generally result to better health.rally result to better health.

  

Breathing techniques were developed based on the concept that breath is the source of life. In Yoga,Breathing techniques were developed based on the concept that breath is the source of life. In Yoga,

  

students gain breathing control as they slowly increase theistudents gain breathing control as they slowly increase thei r breathing. By focusing on their breathing, theyr breathing. By focusing on their breathing, they

  

prepare their minds for the next step prepare their minds for the next step - Meditation.- Meditation.

  

There is a general misconception that in Meditation, your mind has to go blank. It doesn't have to be so. In Meditation, students bring the activities of theThere is a general misconception that in Meditation, your mind has to go blank. It doesn't have to be so. In Meditation, students bring the activities of the

  

mind into focus resulting in a 'quiet' mind. By designing physical poses andmind into focus resulting in a 'quiet' mind. By designing physical poses and Breathing Techniques Breathing Techniques that develop awareness of our body, Yoga helps usthat develop awareness of our body, Yoga helps us

  

focus and relieves us from our everyday stress.focus and relieves us from our everyday stress.

  

Six Branches of YogaSix Branches of Yoga

   Hatha YogaHatha Yoga  or Yoga of Posturesor Yoga of PosturesHatha Yoga is perhaps the path Hatha Yoga is perhaps the path of Yoga you are most of Yoga you are most familiar with since this is the most popularfamiliar with since this is the most popular

 branch of Yoga in the West. This branch of Yoga uses physical poses or Asana, Breathing branch of Yoga in the West. This branch of Yoga uses physical poses or Asana, Breathing

Techniques or Pranayama, and MedTechniques or Pranayama, and Meditation to achieve better health, as well as itation to achieve better health, as well as spirituality. Therespirituality. Thereare many styles within this path - Iyengar, are many styles within this path - Iyengar, Integral, Astanga, Kripalu, and Jiva Mukti to name aIntegral, Astanga, Kripalu, and Jiva Mukti to name a

few.few.

If what you want is a peaceful mind and a healthy body to go along with it, Hatha Yoga may justIf what you want is a peaceful mind and a healthy body to go along with it, Hatha Yoga may just

 be the path for you. be the path for you.  

   Bhakti YogaBhakti Yoga  or Yoga of Devotionor Yoga of DevotionBhakti Yoga is the path most followed in Bhakti Yoga is the path most followed in India. This is the path of the heart and India. This is the path of the heart and devotion. Yogisdevotion. Yogis

who practice this branch sees the "One" or the Divine in everyone and everything. Bhakti Yogawho practice this branch sees the "One" or the Divine in everyone and everything. Bhakti Yoga

teaches a person to have devotion to the "One" or to Brahma by developing a person's love andteaches a person to have devotion to the "One" or to Brahma by developing a person's love andacceptance for all things.acceptance for all things.  

   Raja YogaRaja Yoga  or Yoga of Self-Controlor Yoga of Self-Control

Raja means "royal". This path is considered to be the King of Yoga and this may be due to theRaja means "royal". This path is considered to be the King of Yoga and this may be due to thefact that most of its practitioners are members of religious and spiritual orders. Raja Yoga isfact that most of its practitioners are members of religious and spiritual orders. Raja Yoga is

 based on the teachings of the Eight Limbs of Yoga found in the Yoga sutras. based on the teachings of the Eight Limbs of Yoga found in the Yoga sutras.

  

  

A Raja Yogi sees the self as central, A Raja Yogi sees the self as central, and as such, respect to oneself and as such, respect to oneself and for all creation are vitaland for all creation are vital

to this path. They achieve to this path. They achieve self-respect by first learning to be masters of themselves.self-respect by first learning to be masters of themselves.

If you wish to learn discipline, then Raja If you wish to learn discipline, then Raja Yoga would perfectly suit that need.Yoga would perfectly suit that need.   

   Jnana Yoga Jnana Yoga or Yoga or Yoga of the Mof the Mindind

Jnana Yoga is the path of Yoga that basically deals with the mind, and as such, it focuses onJnana Yoga is the path of Yoga that basically deals with the mind, and as such, it focuses onman's intelligence. Jnana Yogis consider wisdom and man's intelligence. Jnana Yogis consider wisdom and intellect as important and they aim to unifyintellect as important and they aim to unify

the two to surpass limitations. Since they wish to gain knthe two to surpass limitations. Since they wish to gain knowledge, they are open owledge, they are open to otherto other

 philosophies and religion for they believe that an open and rational mind is crucial in knowing philosophies and religion for they believe that an open and rational mind is crucial in knowing

the spirit.the spirit.  

   Karma Yoga Karma Yoga or Yoga of or Yoga of ServiceServiceKarma Yoga is the path of Karma Yoga is the path of service for in this path, it is believed that service for in this path, it is believed that your present situation isyour present situation is based on your past actions. So by doing selfless service now, you are choosing a future that is based on your past actions. So by doing selfless service now, you are choosing a future that is

free from negativity and selfishness. Karma Yogis change their attitude towards the free from negativity and selfishness. Karma Yogis change their attitude towards the good and ingood and inthe process, change their souls, which the process, change their souls, which leads to a change in their dleads to a change in their destiny.estiny.  

   Tantra Yoga Tantra Yoga or Yoga of or Yoga of RitualsRitualsPerhaps the most misunderstood of all the paths, TanPerhaps the most misunderstood of all the paths, Tantra Yoga is about using rituals to experiencetra Yoga is about using rituals to experience

what is sacred. Although sex is a what is sacred. Although sex is a part of it, sex is not the whole opart of it, sex is not the whole of it since this path aims to findf it since this path aims to find

what is sacred in everything we dwhat is sacred in everything we do. Tantra Yogis must possess certain qualities like purity,o. Tantra Yogis must possess certain qualities like purity,humility, devotion, dedication to his Guru, cosmic love, humility, devotion, dedication to his Guru, cosmic love, and truthfulness among other things.and truthfulness among other things.

There are still a lot of misconceptions about Yoga, There are still a lot of misconceptions about Yoga, for instance, Yoga being a religion. Yoga for instance, Yoga being a religion. Yoga isisnot a religion. It is more of a not a religion. It is more of a set of techniques for us to find spirituality. In fact, Yoga is beingset of techniques for us to find spirituality. In fact, Yoga is being

 practiced by a lot of people from different religions like Christians practiced by a lot of people from different religions like Christians, Jewish, Buddhists, and, Jewish, Buddhists, and

Muslims.Muslims.

  

Another misconception is that Yoga is an Another misconception is that Yoga is an exercise, a way for us to exercise, a way for us to keep fit. It is partly true, but ifkeep fit. It is partly true, but if

you think that Yoga is just that then you are greatly mistaken. Yoga develops the body since ayou think that Yoga is just that then you are greatly mistaken. Yoga develops the body since a

weak one is a hindrance weak one is a hindrance to spiritual growth. It does not simply focus on the to spiritual growth. It does not simply focus on the physical but on thephysical but on themental and spiritual aspects as well.mental and spiritual aspects as well.  

  

Yoga in Your LifeYoga in Your Life

  

You may ask, "Is Yoga for me?"You may ask, "Is Yoga for me?"

  

Definitely, yes! Yoga is for anyone who is willing to learn its ways and ideas. It does notDefinitely, yes! Yoga is for anyone who is willing to learn its ways and ideas. It does not

  

actually require any special equipment or clothing. What it requires is your will to have a healthier, stress-free self.actually require any special equipment or clothing. What it requires is your will to have a healthier, stress-free self.

You may first approach Yoga as a way to achieve a great body or to keep fit and that is perfectly alright. Yoga really does help in improving your healthYou may first approach Yoga as a way to achieve a great body or to keep fit and that is perfectly alright. Yoga really does help in improving your health

  

for stretching can tone your muscles and exercise your spine and your entire skeletal system.for stretching can tone your muscles and exercise your spine and your entire skeletal system.

  

Do not just take advantage of what Yoga can offer. Yoga encourages you to reflect on yourself and to find your inner peace. It exercises not just yourDo not just take advantage of what Yoga can offer. Yoga encourages you to reflect on yourself and to find your inner peace. It exercises not just your

  

body but your mind as well. With a healthy body and mind, you're on body but your mind as well. With a healthy body and mind, you're on your way to a more fulfilling life.your way to a more fulfilling life.

  

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