2015 Gorkha Earthquake, New Constitution and Local Resilience in Nepal

TrilochanPokharelDirector of Studies

Nepal Administrative Staff CollegeNepal

AchalaDahal1

Director of StudiesNepal Administrative Staff College

Nepal

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IntroductionThisarticle isasummaryreviewofNepal’seffortstowards ‘resiliencesociety.’Whiledoingso,wewillkeepthe2015earthquakeinfocusandnavigatethroughthegeopoliti-calsituation, institutionalarrangements,policyresponsesandtherecentrestructuringofNepalwithnewformofgovernanceanddevolutionofauthoritytolocalgovernments,includingdisasterriskmanagement.Beingpronetomultipletypesofdisasterrisks,thecountryisworkingtowardsbuildingaresilientsocietythroughstrategiesofstrength-enedpreparednesscapacity,both institutionalandsocial,mitigationandpost-disasterrecoveryactivities.Infact,disasterismultidimensionalwithinwhichsocialfactorsareequallyimportanttoaddress(Fordham,Lovekamp,Thomas,&Phillips,2013).Inacon-text,thecountrythatisstrugglingtograduatefromleast-developedcountry(NationalPlanningCommission[NPC],2013),Nepal’s lessonsareworthnotingbyfor individualsandinstitutionsaroundtheworld,particularlythoseworkingtoimproveresiliency.

Thisarticle isorganizedtoprovidemacrooverviewofNepal’sgeophysical,polity,narrativesof2015Aprilearthquake (popularlyknownasGorkhaearthquake), recentpoliticalandadministrativerestructuringofthenationandroleoflocalgovernmentsinachievingthemuchcherishedgoalofresilientsociety.

Ⅰ. Nepal’s Geopolitical SituationAsanemergingnation-stateoftheSouthAsia,Nepalliesinactiveseismicbeltandis

2015 Gorkha Earthquake, New Constitution

and Local Resilience in Nepal

Abstract Buildingaresilientstate isamuch-desiredgoalofanynationalgovernment.Nepalhasenacteda2018policyondisasterriskreductionandmanagement(DRRM)comple-mentingthe2015ConstitutionofNepal,whichprovidedthe legalbasesforthe institu-tionalizedefforts to improvestatecapacityandservethecitizen,particularlyonthisconcern.Thesehavetwo-prongedstrategies: strengtheningnationalcapacityandem-powering citizens throughbothdirect and indirectmeasures onDRRM.The2015Gorkhaearthquakebeingthemostdevastatingofrecent timehas leftmanyscarsonpeople’s lives.Meanwhile, thestatehasanopportunitytoassess itsshortcomingsandimprove itsperformanceso that thepeoplewouldnotbedisastervictimsagain.Anemergingnation-state thatwitnesseddecadesofpolitical turmoil, internalconflictandpoorpublicsectorperformance,Nepalhastoworkhardertobuildresiliency.The2015ConstitutionofNepalhasassignedtheexerciseofstatepoweramongfederal,provincialandlocalgovernments.Thelocalgovernmentshavereceivedanexclusivestatusofau-tonomousgovernmentwithmajorresponsibilitytoprovideuninterruptedservicestothecitizens, includingDRRM.Thepromiseofresilientsocietynowlargelydependsonthefunctioningoflocalgovernmentsandstateeffortstostrengthentheircapacity.

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pronetoseveralotheranthropogenichazards.Thelatestearthquakeof7.6magnitudein25April2015andsubsequentaftershocks, thatclaimedalmost9000 livesandcosthugeeconomic losses isarecentexample.Nepal ispopularlyrecognizedintheworldbythetallestpeak,themesmerizingbeautyknownas ‘MountEverest’.Underneathitaretwocollidingtectonicplates;youngmountains(Khrul,Adhikari,&Dorka,2018);ac-tivefaultline,andthousandsofriversandrivulets(Dhital,2015)thatkeepthiscountryonhazardouszone.

NepalissituatedinmiddleoftheHinduKushHimalayanrange.Ithasdiversegeog-raphy. Inanorth-southstretchofabout200kilometer, threedistinctgeographiesarerecorded (Figure1).Thenorthernpart issparselypopulatedmountainousareawithsnow-coveredpeakshousingeightofthetenworld’stallestpeaks.Themiddlepartisahillyareaandis largelypopulatedandarable.Thehillsserveasmajoreconomiccen-tersandusedtoholdthelargestproportionofpopulationsomedecadesago.Thesouth-ernpart isplain land,holding thehighestproportionofpopulation.Economically, itservesasthefoodbanktoentirecountry.Nepalborderswithtwogiants, intermsofgeography,economyanddemography:ChinainthenorthandIndiaintheeast,southandwest.Thedeepinterconnectionwiththesetwoneighborsineconomy,socialvalues,cultureandpoliticalaffairs,hassomeimpactsonnationalaffairs.

Source:Retrievedfromhttp://creativenepal.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/nepal-map.jpg,accessedon15March2019

Figure 1:GeographicalZonesofNepal

A landmassof147,181squarekilometers,Nepal, isresidenceof26.5millionpeople(Nepal2011census).Withanaverageannualgrowthrateof1.35percent,thepopulationofNepalisprojectedtobe30.4millionby2021andto33.6millionby2031.Thepopula-tionissparselydistributedthroughoutthecountrywithanaverageof180peoplepersquarekilometerinarangeof3to4416(CentralBureauofStatistics[CBS],2014).The

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countryisalsoanexampleofrichsocial-culturalandethnicdiversity,arecordedhomeofover125caste/ethnicgroups.Eachcaste/ethnicgrouprepresentsdifferentsocio-eco-nomicstatus,residentialpattern,choiceofoccupationandawarenessaboutriskprofile.Therecent2015ConstitutionofNepalpavedthewayforbothpoliticalandadministra-tiverestructuringofthecountry,thatimpactsonNepal’sgovernancesystem,includingdisasterriskmanagement.Thiswillbediscussedinthelatersection.

Ⅱ. Disaster Risk ProfileThecountryhasuniquedisasterriskvulnerability,withnumeroushazardspresentthroughoutthecountry.Table1isasummaryofkeyhazardsasidentifiedbytheMin-istryofHomeAffairs,theleadministryindealingwithdisasterriskreductioninNepal.Thehazardsarecombinationofanthropogenic factorsandoperateseparatelyor incombination.Thesocio-economicprofileofparticularareaaddsvulnerabilityindisasterrisk.Excludingthe2015earthquake,Nepalrecordsanaverageofover300deathsandpropertylossofover10milliondollarseachyear(MinistryofHomeAffairs[MoHA]&DiasterPreparednessNetwork-Nepal[DPNet-Nepal],2015).

RecordsshowthatNepalhaswitnessedmajorearthquakewaves incertain inter-vals,claiminglivesofthousandsofpeopleandhugecostinlossofproperties.ThefirstrecordedearthquakeinNepaldatesbackto7June1255withamagnitudeof7.7.Seriesoftremorswereobservedthereafter(NSET,2012).In1934,anearthquakestruckwithamagnitudeof8.1andanepicenterattheEasternpart(sixmilessouthoftheMountEv-erest)ofNepalandatBihar,northernstateofIndia,claiminglivesofmorethan12,000combined(Gunn,2008).Afewmediumsizedearthquakeswererecordedinbetween-6.0Min1966,6.5Min1980and6.6Min1988(Dhakal,2016).The2015Gorkhaearthquakeisthelatestintheseries.

Table 1:RiskProfileofNepal,2017

Typeofhazard Nature Location Reasonsofvulnerability

Landslides Recurrent ThehillydistrictsofNepallo-cated in the Siwalik, Ma-habharat range (east-westlowerhillrange),mid-land,andalso foreandhigherHimala-yas

Bothnaturalandhumanfac-tors such as steep slopes,fragilegeology,highintensityof rainfall, deforestation,un-plannedhumansettlements

Floods Mostcommon RiverbasinlikeKoshi(easternNepal),Narayani(central),Kar-nali (mid-western),Mahakali(far-western) riversperennialrivers

Anthropogenicactivities likeimproper landuse,encroach-ment into vulnerable landslopesandunplanneddevel-opment activities such asconstructionofroadsandirri-gationcanalswithoutproperprotectionmeasures in thevulnerablemountainbeltandclimatechange

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Glacier lakesoutburst floods(GLOFs)

Occasional Highaltitudeareasparticular-lyinthefoothillofmountain

Damminginbymoraines,thelakescontainedhugevolumesofwatermelting of glaciermay lead to outbreak thelakes

Earthquake Occasional Major active faults in east-westalignment, entireNepalwhich lies in active seismiczone

Siwalik, lesserHimalayaandfrontalpartoftheHigherHi-malaya

Fire Recurrent Midhillareas 78% agro-base households,cluster based house moresusceptibletocatchingfire,indryseasonwildorforestfire

Drought Recurrent SomepartsofTerai,mid-landandTrans-HimalayanbeltsofNepal

Mostlycausedbyunevenandirregular lowmonsoon rain-fallandmoreoverthelackofirrigationfacilitiesfurtherex-a ce rba t e s the e f f e c t o fdrought causing enormouslossofcropsproductionlead-ingtotheshortageand inse-curityfood

Avalanche Occasional Highmountainousregionhav-ing the rugged and steepslopestopographically

Slopes, thicknessof snoworhumanactivitywithcumulat-eddebrisinthesnowline.

Source:MoHA(2017)

Exceptforearthquakes,thereisseasonalcalendarofhazardsinNepal.Thefloods,thunderboltsandlandslidesareprevalentduringthemonsoonseason;whilecoldwavesandavalanchestakeplacemoreofteninwinter;firesandheatwavestaketollsinsum-mer.Healthhazardsaremoreprevalentincommunitieswithpooraccesstohealthfa-cilitiesandbackwardsocio-economicstatus.Nevertheless,theentirecountryexperienc-esat leastsomeformsofdisasterthroughouttheyear.TheMoHA(2017)recordsfor2015and2016include2,940disastereventswithatollof9698deaths,281missingand23,317 injuredpersons.The former includesdeaths from2015Gorkhaearthquake.Thesedisastersalsohaveincalculableeconomicandsocialloss,adverselyaffectingthelivesofpeople.

Ⅲ. The 2015 Gorkha EarthquakeIn2015,Nepalwitnessedtwomajorevents–theGorkhaearthquakeandthenewCon-stitution.Thesetwoevents,althoughnotcorrelatedinanyway,havefarreachingim-pactsinNepal’sdisastergovernancesystem.The2015GorkhaearthquakecameatthetimeNepalwasintheprocessofpromulgatinganewConstitutionthroughpeopleelect-edConstituentAssembly.TheConstituentAssemblywasanoutcomeoflongbattlebe-tweenthestateandtherebels ina ‘war’ thattook livesofalmost17000people.Theconflicthadpushedthecountryintoafragile,unstableandeconomicallyweakcountry.

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Nepal’simageintheworldpoliticalandsocialmapwasacountrywithveryhighpoliti-calvulnerabilitycompoundedwithhighdisastervulnerability.

The2015earthquakeprovidestwomajor frameworkstoevaluateNepal’sdisastergovernance.First, thisprovidesanassessmentof thecountry’sreadiness toconfrontsuchhugeshocks,e.g.,capacity assessment.Thisalsoaddsvaluetoexistingknowledgebybringingperspectivesonthecountrysurvivedsuchlarge-scaledisaster.Second,inusingthelessonslearnedfromthiscostlyexperience,Nepalmaybeabletostrengthen its system.Will this learning fit intoNepal’spolicyprocessanddisastergovernance?The2015aftermathalsogaveopportunityforreengineeringNepal’ssettlementpattern,understandingaboutsocialdynamicsandencouragingcitizento livesafer lives inawaythatisinharmonywiththeircultureandgeography.

In thisarticle,wewillassess thenarrativesaroundthe2015Gorkhaearthquake,providesummaryofdamagesandofkeyaspectsofreconstructiondone,withtheendinviewofdrawingsomelessonsinbuildingresiliency.Thepaperwillalsodiscusstheprocessofpromulgatingthe2015Constitutionanditsrelationtopost-disasterrecoverypolicies,aswellastheinstitutionalarrangementsandrolesoflocalgovernmentsinim-provingdisastergovernanceinNepal.

At least forthecurrentgeneration,mid-dayofSaturday25April2015remainsasoneof thekeyeventsthat theyhaveadded intheir timeline.Thecountrytrembledwithaforceof7.6magnitudes,puttingeveryoneintochaos,uncertaintyandbewilderedterror.Perhaps, for theNepalisociety, thatdaycouldbeknownastheexceptionallymostterrifyingdayinthepasthalfofthecentury.Increasingaccesstopublicinforma-tionandgovernmentandotherorganization’seffortstoincreaseawarenessofcitizensondisasterrisk,havemadetheNepalisocietymoreawareofpotentialdisasterrisks.Amidst fear,partialknowledgeandgovernment’sminimaleffortsto improvedisasterpreparedness,on25April2015apowerfulearthquakeof7.6magnitudewithepicenteratBarpak,Gorkhadistrict,76kilometersnorthwestofKathmanduandamajorafter-shockof6.8magnitudeson12May2015withitsepicenteratDolakhadistrict,85kilo-metersnortheastofKathmanduoccurred.TheincidentsdestabilizedsociallivesleavinglongstandingquestionsforNepalistateandsociety,onthestate’sabilitytobuildresil-ientsociety.

Table2summarizesthedamageofthe2015Gorkhaearthquake.Theaftermathtookalmost9000 livesand leftaround22,000people injured.At leastone-thirdofthetotalpopulationwasaffectedinsomeway.Itfullyorpartiallydamagednearlyamillionpri-vatehousesfrom31of77districts.TheGovernmentdeclared14severelyaffectedand17partiallyaffecteddistricts.ThePostDisasterNeedsAssessment(PDNA)conductedbyNationalPlanningCommission following theaftermathestimated the impactoneightmillionpeople.ThePDNAfurtherassertedalossof$7.065billionin18sub-sectorsoutof foursectors-social,productive, infrastructureandcrosscutting.Of them,socialsector includingprivatehousing,humansettlement,healthandeducation infrastruc-

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turesandculturalheritagealoneaccounted58percentofthetotalloss(NationalPlan-ningCommission[NPC],2015).

Table 2:EconomicLossbySectors

S.N. Sectors % of total % within sector

A Social Sectors 57.84 100.00

1 HousingandhumanSettle-ments 49.62 85.79

2 Health 1.07 1.85

3 Education 4.43 7.66

4 Culturalheritage 2.72 4.70

B Productive Sectors 25.21 100.00

5 Agriculture 4.02 15.93

6 Irrigation 0.05 0.22

7 Commerce 2.40 9.52

8 Industry 2.73 10.82

9 Tourism 11.50 45.61

10 Finance 4.52 17.91

C Infrastructure Sectors 9.45 100.00

11 Electricity 3.01 31.81

12 Communications 1.23 13.02

13 CommunityInfrastructure 0.47 5.01

14 Transport 3.13 33.12

15 WaterandSanitation 1.61 17.04

D Cross-Cutting Issues 7.49 100.00

16 Governance 2.66 35.44

17 Disasterriskreduction 0.02 0.29

18 EnvironmentandForestry 4.82 64.27

Total 100.00 100.00

Total(NPRmillion) 706,461

Total(US$million) $7,065

Source:NationalPlanningCommission[NPC](2015)

Theseestimateswereusedinpreparingpost-disasterrecoveryplansandsourcingsupportfromtheinternationalcommunityto‘buildbackbetter’theNepalisociety.ThePDNAreportsrecognizesocialaspects’vulnerabilitybutcouldnotdomuchtoaccount

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forlosses.Thereportsstate‘thedisasteralsohighlightedaspectsofinequitiesinNepalisocietyspanninggeography,incomeandgender.Poorerruralareashavebeenmoread-verselyaffectedthantownsandcitiesduetothe inferiorqualityof theirhouses (Na-tionalPlanningCommission[NPC],2015)’.Factoringinsocialaspectsindamagewouldgiveadifferentscenario,although it ismathematicallydifficult toestimate.Neverthe-less, theresilientcharacteristicsof theNepalisocietywere fullyappreciatedandad-mired,leadingtothesuccessfulcompletionofearlyrescueandrelief,despitesomemi-norweaknesses.

Ⅳ. Political Perils around 2015 Gorkha EarthquakeAsNepalweretofullyfocusonreducingthedamageandnegativeeffectsofthe2015earthquake,thepoliticalnegotiationstodraftthenewconstitutionwererife(Pokharel,etal.,2018).Thepoliticalpartiesweredividedinunderstandingandadvocatingpropos-als tobe included intheConstitution.Thesystemof thecoalitiongovernmentwasa‘newnormal’andthepoliticalprocesswasbasicallyconfinedtonegotiationsonpowersharingandholdingportfolios.Thedemiseofthefirstconstituentassemblyin2012,af-terfouryearsofdismalexistenceandwithoutdeliveringanyoutput,e.g.,anewconsti-tution,hadfurtherheightenedthepoliticalturmoil.Peoplewereskepticalonthecapaci-tyandintentofthegovernmenttoputagovernancesystemontrackanddealwiththemassivedestruction.Frequentchangesofgovernmentsinthepasttwodecades(beforethequake),havedestabilizedthestatemachineriesandingrainedacultureofdistrustontheireffectivefunctioning(Bhandari,2014).

Theelectionoftheconstituentassemblywasaresultof2006ComprehensivePeaceAccord(CPA)betweenthestateandrebelswhofoughtforstatetransformationforal-mostadecade.FollowingtheCPA,thecountrystartedmovingtowardsinstitutionaliz-ingthepeaceprocessanddraftnewconstitutionthroughconstituentassembly.Thepo-liticalpartiespaidmoreattention inechoing theirpolitical interests thanbringingimprovementsinthedeliverycapacityofthestate.

For longNepalwasportrayedasacountryof instability,conflictandpoorgover-nance (Kaufman,Kraay,&Mastruzzi,2009).Thecountrywasprogressingamidst lowperformingpublicinstitutions,governmentinstitutionsconfinedwithincitycentersandsomeminimallyaccessibletotheruralareas.Forpeoplelivinginfar-flungareas,accesstogovernmentwasanightmare.Localgovernment institutionswerealmostdysfunc-tionalinabsenceofelectedrepresentativesofpeople,foralmosttwodecades(Pokharel,etal.,2018).Thiscreatedanobstacleinechoingcitizenvoicesinpublicgovernance.

TheformationofthesecondConstituentAssembly (CA) in2013gavehopetociti-zensthattheCAwoulddeliveraconstitutionand leadthecountrytowardsstability.ThecoalitiongovernmentformedinFebruary2014fromtwomajorpoliticalpartieshadamajormandatetoformulateaconstitutionadheringtothecitizen’sdemandfor‘ajustandinclusivestate’.However,thefragilecoalitionwasrepletewithtensions,differencesanddiverseadvocaciestoproposeintheconstitution.Fullyoccupiedwithpoliticaldis-

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courses,thegovernmentwasnotadequatelypreparedforothertypesofdisastersuchasnaturaldisastersandearthquakes.Assuch,acomprehensivepre-plantodealwithmegacatastropheswasnotinplace.Atendencytopoliticizeanyeventandseekoppor-tunity forpoliticalcalculationwasverticallydistributedacrossthecountry (TheAsiaFoundation,2011).Thepoliticalmaneuveringresultedina‘cheaplyconstituted’NationalReconstructionAuthority (NRA),amuchhypedand ‘minimumcondition institutionofdonorcommunity’todealwiththeentireprocessofpost-earthquakereconstruction.

Thepoliticalnegotiationwasso intensethat theNRAwasconstitutedtwice.Thegovernmentmadethe firstattempt inAugust2015throughanordinancewhichwasdissolvedshortlyafterthegovernmentfailedtoforwardsuchordinancetotheparlia-ment,owingtolackofpoliticalconsensus.Followingtheformationofthenewgovern-ment,thegovernmentformedtheNRAon25December2015,eightmonthsafterthedevastatingearthquake.The turnoverof fourChiefExecutiveOfficers in less thanthreeyearsofNRA’s formation indicatesthattheproblemofdisastermitigationandmanagementhasbecomeapoliticalplaygroundandminefield.

Nevertheless,thedisasterplayedasacatalysttobringalldisgruntlingpoliticalpar-tiestogethertocomprise.Amidstpublicpressureandpoliticaltension,theConstituentAssemblypromulgatedtheConstitutionofNepalwrittenbytherepresentativeofciti-zenson20September2015.Thiswassupposedtoendaneraofinstabilityanduncer-tainty.However,ittooktimeforestablishinginstitutionsasprovisionedintheconstitu-tion.Thestate thenconcentrated itsstrengthon implementationofconstitutionandformationofnewinstitutionsthroughelections furtherunderminedthe functioningofNRA.

Ⅴ. Pre 2015 Gorkha Earthquake Institutional ArrangementClassically,disasterswereconsideredastheresultofdivinepowerandwereaddressedinsameapproach.Thedisastermanagementwasmainlydrivenbycharityapproach.Thestateemphasizedonrescueandreliefactivitiesandlessemphasizedonprepared-nessandmitigation. Inshort, therewasabsenceofholisticapproachofdisasterriskmanagement.Althoughnotveryeffective,Nepalhasmadeseverallegalandinstitution-alframeworkstodealwithdisasters(Table3).Thissectionbrieflysummarizeskeyle-galandpolicyinstrumentsandinstitutionalarrangementthatNepalhadadoptedbefore2015Gorkhaearthquake.Thepost-disasterinstitutionalframeworkisdiscussedinsub-sequentsection.

Natural Calamity (Relief) Act 1982TheNaturalCalamity (Relief)Act1982wasthe first formal legal instrumentenactedwithanobectiveto‘makearrangementfortheoperationofreliefworkandthemainte-nanceofpeopleconveniencewithaviewtoprotectthelifeandpropertyofthepeopleingeneral andpublicproperty’ (NepalLawCommission, 1982).With the focusonpost-disasterreliefmanagement,theActhasprovisioneda25-memberCentralDisasterReliefCommitteeundertheleadershipoftheMinisterforHomeAffairsanddescribes

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thedetailfunctionsofthecommitteeinrelationtonaturaldisaster.Itallowedthegov-ernmenttoconstitutedisasterreliefcommitteeatregional,district,andlocallevel.TheActprovidedauthoritytosetupnaturaldisasterrelief fundsatthecentral,regional,district,andlocallevelsbyauthorizingtherespectivecommitteestousesuchfundsinreliefoperations.ThisActwastheonlylegalinstrumenttodealwithdisastersuntilre-placedbyDisasterRiskandManagementAct2017.AsthisActwasenactedto im-proverescueandrelief, thepreparednessandotheraspectsofdisasterriskmanage-mentwerenotadequatelyaddressed.

National Action Plan for Disaster Management (1996)InlightoftheInternationalDecadeforNaturalDisasterReduction(IDNDR,1990-1999)andtheYokohamaStrategy(1994)andtheneedtotranslatethecommitmentsintoac-tion,anationalplanfordisastermanagementwasdevelopedin1996.Thisactionplanmappedthedisasterriskmanagmenetcapacityofthecountryandmainstreameddisas-terriskmanagementparticularlyintheeducationsector.Italsodefinedtherolesandresponsibilitiesofkeyactorsinriskmanagmeentandprioritisedactivitiesdesignedtoincreasetheresilienceofcommunitiesanddecreasetherisks.

Table 3:MajorPolicyFrameworksinPre-2015Earthquake

Year Policy/Strategy/Guideline

1982 NaturalCalamity(Relief)Act

1992 Inter-AgencyStandingCommittee

1996 NationalActionPlanforDisasterManagement

1998 LocalSelf-GovernanceAct

2002-2007 Tenthfive-yeardevelopmentplan

2003 DisInventardatabasesystem

2005 Water-InducedDisasterManagementPolicy

2005 DisasterRescueandReliefStandard

2005 PrimeMinister’sNaturalDisasterReliefFund

2007 DisasterManagementAct(proposed)

2008/10, 2011/13,2014/16 Three-YearPeriodicPlans

2009 NationalStrategyforDisasterRiskManagement

2009 NationalPlatformonDisasterRiskReduction

2009 Multi-SectoralInitialRapidAssessment

2010 NationalEarlyWarningStrategy

2010 DRRandCRMfocalpoints

2010 DistrictDisasterManagementPlan

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2010 NationalAdaptationProgrammeofAction

2011 NepalRiskReductionConsortium

2011 DisasterPreparednessandResponsePlan

2011 LocalDisasterRiskManagementPlanningGuidelines

2011 ClimateChangePolicy

2011 EmergencyOperationCentre

2012 NationalLandUsePolicy

2013 NationalDisasterResponseFramework

2013 EnvironmentallyFriendlyLocalGovernanceFramework

2013 NationalMonitoringandEvaluationGuidelines

2013 DisasterRecoveryFramework

2013 NationalAdaptationProgramme

2013 DeadBodyManagementGuideline

Local Self Governance Act, 1999TheActdecentralizedriskmanagmenet issuesbydelegatingmoreauthorityandre-sponsibility to localbodies for thedesignand implementationof local-levelplansandprograms.Itemphaziedonthedevelopmentactivities,includinginfrastructuredevelop-ment,whichcouldmanagenaturalcalamitiesandlessenrelatedlossoflifeandproper-ty,but its focuswasnotreallyonthedisasterriskmanagement.Asprovided intheAct,around600disastermanagementcommitteeswereformedatthelcoallevels.Dias-terriskmanagmenetwere linkedwithdistrictdisasterreliefcommittees (DDRCs) topromotetheeffectivenessoftechnical,financialandotheraspectsofcoordination.

Periodic PlansNepalstartedplanneddevelopmentfrom1956withthedisclosureoffirstfiveyearplan.Thedisaserriskmanagementgotexclusiveattentiononlyin2002.Thetenthfiveyearplan(2002-2007)managedtoallocateaseparatechaptertodisastermanagement.Theplanacknowledgedthatdisasterriskmanagmenetiskeytoensuringsustainabledevel-opment,publicsafety,andtheeffectivemanagementofnaturalresourcesandhuman-in-duceddisasters.Theplancalled forprogrammessuchaspilotingGISmapsandhaz-ard-and-vulnerabilityassessmentsandforformulatingasectorplanondisasters.Italsorecognizesthelinkbetweendisasterreductionandtheenvironment.

Thetwothreeyearplans2007/08-2009/10and2009/10-2012/13continuedtogivedueconsiderationtodisasterriskmanagement.Theplansemphasizedonpolicyformu-lation,strengtheninginstitutionalmechanism,introduceearlywarningsysteminmajorriversacrossthecountry; fostercoordinatedapproachfordisasterriskreductionandlinkingdisastermanagementwithclimatechange,amongothers.

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National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management (NSDRM) 2009TheNSDRMunderscoredthatunlessdisasterriskmanagement ismainstreamedintodevelopmentactivities,thepeopleandstatewillcontinueexperienceoflossofphysicalproperty,humanlives,andbasicinfrastructures.Theframeworkproposedtostrength-enMoHA’sroleas the focalagency fordisasterriskmanagement. If furtherrecom-mendedestablishinganationaldisasterpreparednessagency,settingupanationwideearlywarningsystem,andinvestinginweatherforecastingcapacities,buttheprogresswasfarbelowthetargetssetintheactionplan.

TheframeworkhadadoptedthreemajorstrategicobjectivesandfiveprioritiesofactionassetbyHyogoframeworkofaction.Theframeworkoutlined29strategicactiv-itiesunder fiveprioritiesofaction.Thestrategies includedwereagricultureandfoodsecurity,health,education,shelter,infrastructureandphysicalplanning,livelihoodpro-tection,waterandsanitation, information,communication,coordinationand logistics,search and rescue, anddamageandneeds assessment (Ministry ofHomeAffairs[MoHA],2009).

Disaster Preparedness and Response Plans (DPRP), 2011ThegovernmentformulatedDPRPsinall75districtstoboostriskmanagementanden-hanceemergencyresponseandrelief for local-levelresilience,milestones initiatives.Basedontheseplansthe localbodieswerealsoencouragedtoprepare localdisasterriskmanagementtoaddresstheirownlocalneeds.TheMoHAhadconductedannualpre-monsoonworkshopsatthenational,regionalanddistrictlevelsfrom2011tomakestakeholdersawareofdisasterpreparednessandresponseandfacilitatethemtoimple-mentDPRPs.Inabsenceofstrongvigilanceandmonitoring,theactualoutputtheplanscouldnotbeaccountedwhether,itmadeasignificantmovetowardsbuildingresiliency.

National Disaster Response Framework (NDRF), 2013TheMoHApreparedNDRFoutliningtherolesandmandatesofallgovernmentandnon-governmentstakeholderstorespondtodisaster.TheNDRFconnectedallrelevantstakeholders inaplatformtocompliment inallphasesofdisastermanagementcycle.Becauseitwasakindofstandardoperatingprocedures(SOP)mechanism,iteasedtheprocessofcoordinatinghumanitarianagenciesduringemergencyresponse incaseofmegadisaster.Thisefforthadawakenedanintegratedplatformagainstdisastereventsand forrapidresponseandrecovery.TheNDRFstrengthened institutionalcapacityandputinplacecollectiveandcoherenteffortstosystematizethedisasterresponse.

Ⅵ. Institutional MechanismMinistry of Home AffairsMinistryofHomeAffairs(MoHA)actsasnationalfocalagencyondisastermanagementand leadagencyresponsible for implementationof theNaturalCalamity (Relief)Act,1982.TheMoHAisalsoresponsibleforrescueandreliefwork,datacollectionanddis-semination,aswellascollectionanddistributionoffundsandresources.Theassignedtaskhasbeenimplementedthroughdisastermanagementdivisionwithintheministry

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andnationalemergencyoperationcenteranditsdistrictleveloffices.

Central Disaster Relief Committee (CDRC)AccordingtoNaturalCalamity (Relief)Act,1982, thegovernmenthasconstitutedtheCentralDisasterReliefCommitteeundertheleadershipoftheministerforhomeaffairs.Thecommitteeisresponsibletoformulateandimplementthepoliciesandprogramsre-latingtothenaturaldisasterreliefworkandtoundertakeothernecessarymeasuresthereof.Moreover,theCentralCommitteepreparesspecificnormsofreliefassistancetothedisastervictims.

Regional Disaster Relief Committee (RDRC)2

Regionalcommitteesusedtoworkassubsidiaryarmofcentralcommittee. Itwasre-sponsible for formulationof regional levelpolicyonnaturaldisasterreliefworkandpreparationof theprogress,coordinateorcause tocoordinatebetweensub-regionalcommitteesonreliefworkandforwardinformationtothecentralcommittee.

District Disaster Relief Committee (DDRC)Intheerstwhilesystem,theDDRCwasthemostfunctionalunitfordisasterriskman-agementatsub-national level.Thesecommitteeshave functionsandduties tocoordi-nateorcausetocoordinatebetweenlocalcommitteesinreliefwork,formulatedistrictlevelplans,monitorreliefworkoflocalcommitteesandsupporttheon-goingwork,for-ward informationandwork inaccordancewiththedirectivesofhigher levelcommit-tees.TheChiefDistrictOfficerwasmaderesponsibleforoverseeingactivitiesrelatedtodisaster,basicallythepost-disasterrescueandreliefactivities.

Local Disaster Relief Committee (LDRC)Atmunicipallevel,theLDRCshadfunctionsanddutiestopreparedetaileddescriptionoftheloss,organizevolunteer’steams,makenecessaryarrangementstoprovidemedi-calaccess,makearrangements for theevacuationof thevictims,distributethereliefpackages,conductawarenessprogrammesasaprecautionforthepreventionandcon-trolofthepossibleeventsofthenaturaldisaster.However,becauseoflimitedcapacityandabsenceof technicalknowledge the functioningof thesecommitteesarealwaysquestioned.

Disaster Units in Security ForcesThethreesecurityforces―NepalArmy,ArmedPoliceForceandNepalPolicehaddi-sasterunitsandsquadswithintheirstructure.Theseunitsusedtofunctionincoordina-tionwithcommitteesatvariouslevels.Forrescueandreliefactivities,theseunitscomeintoforefrontandtakelead.

Inaddition, thegovernmentagreedonclusterapproachand identified11clustersbytheNDRF2013andassignedclustersleadandco-lead.Thegovernmenttookinallclusterswhilethehumanitarianagenciessecondedasco-lead.Thisapproachprovedtobeinstrumentaltocoordinateamongtheinstitutionsworkingindisasterriskmanage-

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ment.Frequentbutsmall-scaledisastershavecontinuouslyencouragedthegovernmentandotherpartnerstoprepareforresilientsocietyandconcentrateitseffortsinimprov-inginstitutionaldisastergovernance.Inabsenceofintensivesimulationandcontinuousengagement, lapseswerenoticedindisastergovernance.TheGorkhaearthquakepro-videdanopportunitytoassessNepal’sinstitutionalcapacitytodealwithdisasterrisks.

Ⅶ. The Grokha Earthquake and RecoveryThe National Reconstruction Authority (NRA) and reconstructionDespite tediousmulling, theNRAwasconstitutedon25December2015,aftereightmonthsofthedevastation.Atthetime,thepublicinstitutionswerelargelycriticizedfornotperformingandaloofofpublicinterest,therewasgreatskepticismonperformanceoftheNRA.TheNRAwasconstitutedwithaimto‘promptlycompletetheconstructionworkofstructuresdamagedinasustainable,resilientandplannedmanner,andtopro-motenationalinterestsandprovidesocialjusticebymakingresettlementandtransloca-tionof thepersonsand familiesdisplacedbytheearthquake’ (GovernmentofNepal,2015).TheNRAthenpreparedavisionofwell-plannedresilientsettlementandapros-peroussociety.

TheNRAwasanewpracticeinNepal.Consideringthescaleofdamageandworkofreconstructiontobeundertaken,anunderstandingbetweenthegovernmentandde-velopmentpartnerspavedwayforformationofdedicatedinstitutiontooverseeentireprocessofreconstruction.Astherescueandreliefwasmostlycompletedbefore, theNRAwasrequiredtofullyconcentrateonreconstructionofpublicandprivateproper-tiesandbriningcitizensbacktonormalcybutinsaferlivingarrangements.TheNRAsufferedtheimpactofpre-disasterpoliticaleconomyand‘influencednotonlybytheac-tionsofrelevantstakeholdersbutalsobybias,(in)justiceand(dis)advantagethatpre-vailedinpre-disastersetting(Pokharel,etal.,2018).

Therewasabighopeamongcitizensthatthereconstructionwouldexpeditealongwiththe formationof theNRA,but itremainedentangledwith institutionalarrange-ment,preparingstandardoperatingproceduresandengagingotherstakeholdersinthereconstructionprocess(Lord&Moktan,2017).Moreimportantwastoidentifyvictims,communicatethemthereconstructionprocessandbuildtheirconfidence.Thistooklon-gerperiodandwentthroughseveralcomplexitieslikeidentifyingactualnumberofvic-tims,theirsocio-economicdifficultiesandtheperspectivestheyhaveinreconstruction.Thegovernmentalsotooktimetogetclarityandconsensusontheprocessofdisburse-mentof funds,establishing fieldoffices,educatingstaffandmobilizationofengineers,amongothers.TheNRAitselfwasparalyzedforseveralmonthsinabsenceofsufficientworkingstaffandthesupportfromotherinstitutionswithwhomtheNRAhastoworktogether.

Withthetenureoffiveyearsandpossibilityofextensionofoneyear,theNRAen-gageditselfininitialpreparationandcreatingbaseforreconstructionforalmostayear.Atthesametime,thecountrygotinvolvedintheconsecutiveelectionsoffederal,pro-

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vincialandlocallevelsstartingfromMay2017toDecember2017.Ithadsevereimpedi-mentsintheprocessofreconstructionfrombothgovernmentandcitizens.

Absenceoflocalelectedrepresentativeswasanotherhurdletoestablishreciprocalrelationshipwithcitizeninpost-earthquakesituation.Giventheabsenceoflegitimatelo-calinstitutions,thereconstructionfollowedcentralizedmodel,withlittlespaceforciti-zentoexpresstheirinterests.Almostalldesignsofprivatebuildingwereuniformpro-totype irrespectiveofpersonalneedsofcitizen.Theprocesswaseither inflexibleorcommunicatedasinflexible.Itcouldnotattractthevictimsimmediatelytoparticipateinreconstruction.

Theelectionoflocalgovernmentsin2017,afterabreakofalmosttwodecadespro-ducedanewpowerdynamicsandgavelegitimateoptionsforvictimstoechotheircon-cerns.Thelocalgovernments,sincetheirformation,showedconcernedoverreconstruc-tionprocessandventilatedgrievancesreportingofvictimsonreconstruction. In lateJanuary2019, theNRAhandedover theentireprocessof reconstructionofprivatehouseholdstolocalgovernments.Wewilldiscusstheroleoflocalgovernmentindisas-terriskmanagementinlatersection.

Ⅷ. Statistics of ReconstructionAsofApril2019,thereconstructionisanongoingbusiness.Thereconstructionismov-ingatdifferentspeedondifferentsectors.Thereconstructionprocesscompletesinfivestages–survey,identificationofbeneficiariesandvalidation,enrolmentandagreement,reconstructionanddisbursementoffundsandcompletion.TheFigure2showsthedif-ferentialprogressonreconstruction.

Reconstructionofprivatesettlementconstitutesmajorportionofwork.The latestrecordshowsthattherecoveryismovingforwardbutatslowpaceatearlystageandspikeinthethirdyearandexpectedtoslowdownthereafter.Ofthosewhohadagree-mentforreconstruction,bytheendofFebruary2020,82percenthaveeitherstartedorcompletedthereconstructionofprivatehouses.However,therearecriticsthatthere-constructionhasbeen instrumental todisburseandreceivegovernment’s fundratherthanaddressingcitizen’sinterestasitconvertedthetraditionalhousesintosingleroomhouses(TheKathmanduPost,2018).Comparedtoprivatesettlements,schoolbuildingsandpublicoffices, reconstructionofdrinkingwater infrastructures, securityagencybuildings,culturalheritagesandpublichealthbuildingsisrelativelyslow.

Ⅸ. Lessons and Perils of Gorkha EarthquakeTheGorkhaearthquakedidnotonlyleavescarsinNepalisocietybutalsotaughtsever-allessonsthatNepalistatehastoponderforbuildingaresilientsociety.ForemergingcountrylikeNepal,investingondisasterriskmanagementdoesnotgetpriorityforsev-eralreasonslikeresourcecrunch,poorinstitutionalcapacityandlimitedchoicesforciti-zens.Asaresult,therescueandreliefactivitiesremainuppermostagendaindisasterriskmanagementinNepal.Asabarometerofmeasuringinstitutional,social,economic

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andpoliticalstrengths,theGorkhaearthquakedisclosedseveralshortfallsofNepal’sdi-sastergovernance.Nepal’shasseveralgoodlessonstocherishforthewaysitmanagedcomparedtosimilar typeofcatastrophe inHaiti in2010 (Auerbach,2015),at least inrescuesandrelief.Thissectionsummarizeskeyshortcomingsthatcanbeaddressedinfutureriskreductionplan.

The lessonscanbeorganized intotwobroaderdomains-structuralandnon-struc-turallessons.Thestructural lessonssupportforimprovingperformanceofgovernmentbystrengtheninginstitutionalarrangement.Theinstitutionsandlegalinstrumentsthatwere inplace forreducingvulnerabilityandsafeguardingcitizen,wereeither incom-pleteornotfullyfunctioning.Theorganizationsworkingindisasterriskmanagementwereshortfallofequipment,knowledgeandresources.Thelawsandpolicyguidelineswereinadequatelycommunicatedandamasterplanofreducingvulnerabilityandim-provingresiliencywasnot inplace.Despitean increasingattention,thestructuralre-formwasslow.Forexample, it tookadecadetopreparedisasterriskreductionandmanagementact.Thefirstdraftwaspreparedin2007andaftermuchhic-upsandde-liberations,theactwasapprovedbytheparliamentonlyinSeptember2017.Thedetailsofactarediscussedinnextsection.

Lapsesinmechanismstostrengthencoordinationamonginstitutionswereapparent(MinistryofHomeAffairs[MoHA],2017).Theinfluxofinternationalhumanitarianagen-ciesandlocalorganized/unorganizedgroupswithreliefmaterialshadunequaldistribu-tion,astherecouldnotbechannelforthereliefdistributioninamanagedway(Sthapit,

T=TargetNote: a)Forprivatehouseholds,onlynewconstructionisincluded.Thetargetisreducedthanearlierreport

byremovingsomedefaultbeneficiaries. b)Noupdateisavailableindrinkingwaterinfrastructures. c)Forotherfacilities,retrofittingprojectsarealsoincluded.

Source:NationalReconstructionAuthority,2020,retrieved fromhttp://nra.gov.np/mapdistrict/datavisualiza-tion,accessedon1March2020.

Figure 2:PercentageofCompletedorUnderConstructionAgainstTargetasofMarch2020

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2015;Sharma,KC,Subedi,&Pokharel,2018) .Victimsofconvenientplacesgotmorebenefitswhilethoseatdistancestruggledforminimumentitlements.

Lowenforcementof lawsandguidelinesrelatedtoriskreductionheightenedthevulnerability.Thebuildingcodes,forexample,wereintroducedinmajorcitiesbutwerepoorly followedandgoverned (Pokharel&Goldsworthy,2017),Nosuchcodeswerepracticedinruralareas,wherethemostcasualtieshappened.Similarly,themonitoringofcomplianceofsafetyprovisionsandremovingvulnerableinfrastructuresalsogotlowpriorities.

Thenon-structurallessonsarerelatedtothelevelofknowledgeandbehaviorofciti-zenstowardsresiliency. It isalsoabouttheknowledgeandskillsofofficebearersre-sponsiblefordisasterriskreduction.Theinvestmentofstatetoencouragecitizensforsafersettlementsandincreasingawarenessondifferentformsofdisasterwasrelativelyinadequate.Educatingcitizensontheirexposuretovulnerabilityandinducingtoprac-ticeriskreductionmeasureseitherbyrelocationofsettlementorapplyingmitigationmeasureswasnotinhighpriority.Applyingbuildingcodeswasconsideredasatechni-calbutrequiredtopromoteassocialissue(NationalSocietyforEarthquakeTechnolo-gy-Nepal[NSET],2017),thatchangescitizens’behaviortowardsresiliency.

Engagingcitizensindesigningsolutionsforpost-earthquakereconstructionwasun-dermined.Considerationofvictim’ssocio-culturalaspectsand involvingthemforde-signingreconstructionspecifications iscritical forsustainablerecovery (Basnet,2015;Sharma,KC,Subedi,&Pokharel,2018).Asaresult,victimswerereluctanttoparticipateinreconstructionatearlystage(NepalDevelopmentResearchInstitute,2017).Thepos-sibilityofusingtechnologythat isculturally friendlyandbasedon indigenousknowl-edgewouldattractcitizen’sparticipationinsuchrecoveryprocess.

TheMoHAhas identified33reformareas fromthe2015aftermath,mostof themarestructuralreform.Somemajorlessonsarepolicyreformsincludingnewactondi-sastermanagement; institutionalreforms includingextensionofdisastermanagementunittolocallevel,equippingthem;preparingaframeworkformobilizingalliedagenciesandhumanresources;humanitarianstagingarea,amongothers. Ithasalso identifiedvulnerabilityassessment,increasingcivicawarenessandpromotingcommunityinvolve-mentincycleofdisasterriskmanagement(MinistryofHomeAffairs[MoHA],2016).

Despiteshortcomings,theGorkhaearthquakealsohassomegoodlessonsthatNepalhasto translate into longer-termstrategiesofbuildingresilientsociety.Forexample,thesocialcapitalwherethepeoplespontaneouslystoodtogethertoextendsupporttoaffectedpeopleandcontributedlargelyinrecoveryactivities.Ithasalsoprovedthatifthegovernment iscommitted, itcouldmobilize itsmachineryveryeffectivelyat thetimeofcatastrophe.The increasingsensitizationofbuildingresilient societyamonggovernmentsagencies, thealliedagenciesandcitizens tobeconsideredasassetandneedtoimprovefurther.

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Ⅹ. Post Gorkha Earthquake Institutional ArrangementPost Disaster Recovery Framework (PDRF), 2016TakingtheGorkhaaftermathasalearninglabfordealingwithlarge-scalecatastrophe,thegovernment introducedsomepolicyand legalreformsto improve institutionalca-pacity.TheNRA introducedPostDisasterRecoveryFramework (PDRF)2016-2020withavisionto‘well-planned,resilientsettlementsandprosperoussociety’,hasdefinedfivestrategic interventionareas―safestructures,socialcohesion,access toservices,livelihoodsupportandcapacitybuilding (NationalReconstructionAuthority [NRA],2016).ThePDRFservesasa frameworktorespond languishingandwoefulrecoveryactivitiesinamoreplannedandsustainablemannertoattainresilience(Anhorn,2018;SAWTEE,2018).

TheFrameworkischerishedasablueprintbytheorganizationsworkinginrecov-ery.Basedontheframework,theNRAmadesubsequentpolicyrevisionsandrecoveryguidelinestofacilitatethereconstruction.ThePDRFprosedfouractivitiestostrength-en local capacity in recovery- a) settingup resource centers inpartnershipwithnon-governmentalorganizationsforstandardizationofapproachesandidentifyinggoodpractices,b)supportingcommunitylevelanddistrictlevelprojectimplementationunits,c)hiringspecializedskillsforreconstructionofheritagethatrequirespecialskills,andd)developing training strategies to supply trainedconstructionworkers.ThePDRFshouldnotbetakenonlyasaninterimdocumenttocompletepost-earthquakerecoverybuttotakeasbenchmarkingframeworkforbuildingresiliencybymobilizingbroadernetworkandstrengtheningcapacityofsub-nationalinstitutions.

Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act (DRRMA), 2017 Aftermuchoweddeliberationandcontroversiesaround,NepalendorsedDisasterRiskReductionandManagementAct(DRRMA)on24September2017,replacingNatu-ralCalamityReliefAct1982.TheActenvisions to ‘coordinateandeffectivemanage-mentofactivitiesrelatedtonaturalandnon-naturaldisasters;toprotectlifeofcitizensandpublic,privateand individualproperties, toprotectnaturalandculturalheritageandphysical infrastructure’ (NepalLawCommission,2017).TheAct isconsideredasprogressiveandcomprehensive (MinistryofHomeAffairs [MoHA],2017)comparedtopast legalarrangements.TheActhasbeenpromulgatedatthetimeNepalhas intro-ducednewConstitutionthathasfederalizedthegovernancesystemwithdelineationofrolesandresponsibilitiesofpublicaffairsamong federal,provincialand localgovern-ments.KeyfeaturesoftheActinclude:

・　Recognizeddisasterasmulti-dimensionalissueandadoresdisastercycle–pre-vention,mitigation,emergencypreparedness,responseandrecoveryplan

•　Buildingresiliencesocietyascoreobjective・　Dedicated ‘NationalDisasterRiskReductionandManagementAuthority’ to

overseedisasterriskmanagementactivitiesonaregularbasis・　Devolutionofdisasterriskmanagementactivitiestoprovinceandlocalgovern-

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mentsandstrengthentheircapacity・　Buildingallianceswithorganizationsworkinginriskmanagement

Figure 3:InstitutionalStructureforDisasterGovernanceProposedinNDRRMAct2017

TheActhasmadeprovisiontoset-upNationalCouncilforDisasterRiskReductionandManagement(NCDRRM)underthechairmanshipofthePrimeMinisterasanapexbody.Inordertoimplementpoliciesandplansformulatedbythecouncil,therewillbeanExecutiveCommitteeundertheHomeMinisterandExpertTeamcomprisingex-pertsfromgeology,environment,infrastructureandothers.NationalDisasterReductionandManagementAuthority (NDRMA)willbeset-upunder theHomeMinistry.AtProvincelevel,therewillbeProvincialDisasterManagementCommittee(PDMC)underthechairmanshipof theChiefMinister.At local level, therewillbeDistrictDisasterManagementCommittee(DDMC)andLocalDisasterManagementCommittee(LDMC).Themajorrights,responsibilitiesanddutiesarealsoprovisionedasinstitutionalset-upbydisastertypes, levelofgovernanceanddisastermanagementcyclesthatmaketheactmoreprogressive.

Sendai Framework of Action (2015-2030)NepaladoptedtheSendaiFrameworkofActionwithvisiontostandtogetherininter-nationalcommunities forbuildingnationalcapacity indisasterresilience.The frame-workassertsto‘setthegoaltopreventthecreationofnewrisk,reducingexistingriskandstrengthenresilience’(Pal&Ghosh,2017).Thecountriesandinternationalcommu-nitiesstoodtogetherwithapromisetoprotectpeople’srighttoliveinasaferenviron-mentandbuildingnationalstrengthenstoreducetheriskofdisaster.TheGovernmentofNepal localized the frameworkandtranslated intonationaldisasterriskreductionpolicyandstrategicactionplanwith18priorityareasasmentionedinsectionbelow.

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ThefourprioritiesofSendaiframeworkPriorities 1:UnderstandingdisasterriskPriorities 2:Strengtheningdisasterriskgovernancetomanagedisasterrisk.Priorities 3:InvestingindisasterriskmanagementforresiliencePriorities 4:Enhancingdisasterpreparednessforeffectiveresponseandto‘BuildBackBetter’

inrecovery,rehabilitationandreconstruction.

Source:UnitedNations,(2015)

National Disaster Risk Reduction Policy (NDRRP) 2018Inordertofacilitateandinstitutionalizeriskreductioninitiatives,theNDRRPemphasiz-esonthebuildingresilientsociety.ThePolicyenvisions to ‘buildresilientnation’ forcontributinginsustainabledevelopment(MinistryofHomeAffairs[MoHA],2018).Basedonthispolicy,anationaldisasterriskreductionstrategicactionplanwasadoptedfortheperiodof2018to2030,whichcorroborateswiththesustainabledevelopmentgoalsandSendaiframeworkofaction.Thesedocumentsofferwiderangesofpolicyandstra-tegicoptionstostrengthendisastergovernanceandimprovethecapacityofstateandthesocietyforbuildingresiliency.Foundedonthelessonsandexperiencesfromimple-mentationofNSDRM2009andtheGorkhaearthquake2015,therecentpolicyandstra-tegicplanendorsedfollowingpriorityareasandactionsforbuildingNepalasaferandresilientcountry.

Priority Area 1: Understanding disaster riskPriorityAction1:Hazard-wiseassessmentofriskPriorityAction2:Inter-agencycoordinationformulti-hazardriskassessmentPriorityAction3:Developmentofeffectivedisastermanagement informationsys-

temandinformationdisseminationPriorityAction4:Capacitybuildingforunderstandingdisasterrisk

Priority Area 2: Strengthening disaster risk governance at federal, provincial and local level

PriorityAction5:EstablishingandstrengtheningorganizationalstructuresPriorityAction6:DevelopinglegalandregulatoryframeworksPriorityAction7:Capacitybuilding,collaborationandpartnershipfordisasterrisk

governancePriorityAction8:Ensuringinclusivenessindisasterriskreduction

Priority Area 3: Promoting comprehensive risk-informed private and public investments in disaster risk reduction for resilience

PriorityAction 9:PromotinginvestmentforbuildingresiliencePriorityAction10:PromotingpublicinvestmentindisasterriskreductionPriorityAction11:PromotingprivateinvestmentindisasterriskreductionPriorityAction12:Increasingdisasterresilience throughrisk transfer, insurance

andsocialsecurity

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Priority Area 4: Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to ‘build back better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction

PriorityAction13:Strengtheningdisasterpreparedness foreffectivedisasterre-sponse

PriorityAction14:Developmentofmulti-hazardearlywarningsystemfordisasterpreparedness

PriorityAction15:Promotingcommunity-baseddisasterriskreductionPriorityAction16:Strengtheningcommunicationanddisseminationsystemfordi-

sasterpreparednessPriorityAction17:CapacitybuildingforsearchandrescuePriorityAction18:Promoting ‘buildbackbetter’approach inrecovery,rehabilita-

tionandreconstruction

Eachpriorityisclearlymentionedwithactivities,expectedoutcomes,timeframe,re-sponsibleagenciesandsupportingagencies,whichmakestheroleoftheentiredisasterstakeholderclearer.Thismakescollaborationamongthethreetiersofgovernmenteasi-erinbuildingaresilientNepal.Promulgationofnewacttoaddressnewsocio-economicandpoliticaldynamicsand lessons learnt fromrecentmassivedisaster isawelcomework.The15thfive-yearplanfor2019-2024hasalsoenvisionedmakingNepala‘disastersafeandresilientnation’(NationalPlanningCommission[NPC],2019),forwhichnumberofpolicyinterventionsandstrategiesareidentified.However,theprovisionsareyettofunction fullyandtheresultsarenotyetrealized.The importantaspect ishowthestrengthsofdisastergovernancecascadestocommunitythroughlocalinstitutions.

Ⅺ. The Constitution and Local Government in Disaster Risk Management

The Constitution of Nepal, 2015Afteralongpoliticalnegotiation,battleandturmoil,NepaladoptednewConstitutionon20September2015.TheConstitutionischerishedthananyearlierversiononfollowingaspects:

・　TheConstitutionhasended longcentralized formofgovernanceand ithasconstitutionallyrecognizedthreelevelsofgovernment–federal,provincialandlocal.

・　Thestatepowerisconstitutionallyassignedamongthreelevelsofgovernment.・　Aconsiderableamountofstateauthorityandresponsibilitiesisassignedtothe

localgovernments.・　TheLocalgovernmentsareconsideredas thenearestpublicentity todeal

withthecitizens’basic issuesincludingriskmanagement.Therefore,uninter-ruptedpresenceoflocalgovernmentisensuredandthepoliticaldifferencesinfunctioningareundermined.

TheConstitutionrequiresstateto‘makeadvancewarning,preparedness,rescue,re-liefandrehabilitationinordertomitigateriskfromnaturaldisasters’(MinistryofLaw,JusticeandParliamentaryAffairs,2017).TheConstitutionfurtherunderscoresdisasterriskmanagementisconcertedeffortofallthreespheresofthegovernmentsandhence

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theyshouldworkintandem.Theresponsibilityofmanagingdisasterissharedrespon-sibilityamongfederal,provincialand localgovernments,while the localgovernmentsalsohave‘disastermanagement’astheirexclusiveresponsibility,makingthemaccount-ableforrespondingdisasters(MinistryofHomeAffairs[MoHA],2017).Thisunderscorestheunabatedrolesofthelocalgovernmentstodealwithdisasterasimmediaterespond-erclosertothecitizens.TheConstitutionhasalsoprovisionedforstablelocalgovern-mentthatwillfunctioninprincipleofcivicengagement,ratherthanacoercivegovern-ment.

Local Government Operation Act (LGOA), 2017Oneofthemajorinstrumentstoorganizeandfacilitatetheexerciseofauthorityatlocallevel,theLGOAispreparedbasedontheconstitutionalassignmentofrolestothelocalgovernment.TheLGOAelaboratestheroleoflocalgovernmentsindisasterriskman-agementinthefollowing12areas(NepalLawCommission,2017):

・　Formulation,implementation,monitoring,evaluationandregulationoflocalpol-icies,laws,standardsandplansrelatedtodisastermanagement,

・　Local leveldisasterpreparednessandresponseplan,earlywarningsystem,searchandrescue,bufferstock,distributionandcoordinationofreliefmateri-als,

・　Localriverembankment,landslidecontrolandmanagementandregulationofrivers,

・　Mappingofdisasterriskareas,andidentificationandrelocationofsettlements,・　Support,coordinationandcooperationwith federal,provincialand localcom-

munities,organizationsandprivatesectorfordisastermanagement,・　Establishmentandoperationofdisastermanagementfundandresourcemobi-

lization,・　Formulation, implementation,monitoringandregulationof local levelprojects

relatedtodisasterriskreduction,・　Locallevelrehabilitationandreconstructionafterdisaster,・　Datamanagementandresearchstudiesrelatedtolocalleveldisasters,・　Localemergencyworkoperationsystem,・　Operationofcommunitybaseddisastermanagementprograms,and・　Otherworksrelatedtodisastermanagement.

Besides,severalother instrumentsmake localgovernmentsresponsible fordealingwithdisaster.However,consideringthatdisasterisnotonlythenaturalphenomenabutalso largelysocial (Perry,2018),requiresamultitudecombinationofapproach,efforts,interventionand investments.The localgovernmentsareconsideredasthe foremostshieldtobuildaresilientsocietybutrequireafurtherinvestmenttostrengthentheircapacity (Ministry ofHomeAffairs [MoHA], 2017;Nepal,Khanal,&Sharma, 2018;Pokharel,etal.,2018).

Conclusion: Towards ResiliencyNepal,beingathighriskofexposure todifferent formsofdisasters, isstruggling to

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overcome its social, economicandpolitical factors thataggravate thevulnerability.Learningfrompastlessonsandkeepingtheonusofmakingthesocietyresilientispri-mafacieagendaof thegovernment.Foranydisaster, thevictimsthemselvesarethefirstrespondersandtherecomesthecommunitylater.Inacountrywithpronetomul-tipleformsofdisaster,citizen’sawarenessis instrumentalassettoimplementtheriskreduction initiatives.Arecent ‘NepalNationalGovernanceSurvey2017/18’conductedbyNepalAdministrativeStaffCollegeamongcitizensof18yearsandabovefindsdif-ferential levelofawarenessaboutrisksofdifferent formsofdisaster in their locality(Figure4).Beinginactiveseismiczoneandpronetootherformsofdisasters,slightlyoverone-fifthpeopleonlyconsidertheyhavehighriskofearthquake,whilethosecon-sideringhighriskof flooding is three-tenth.Lessthanone-fifthconsider landslidehashighriskforthem,whilethree-tenthconsiderhighriskofstorm.

Source:NepalAdministrativeStaffCollege[NASC],(2018)

Figure 4:PerceivedRiskofDisasters,2017/18,Nepal(N=12872)

Afurtherassessmentbythesamesurvey,onpeople’sawarenessaboutriskman-agementinitiativesintheirlocality,callsformoreconcertedinvestmentsincreatingre-silientenvironment.Lessthan40percentofcitizensareonlyawareaboutany initia-tivesinthelocality,thehighest(36%)forcommitteesorgroupondisastermanagementandlowest(19%)forlocaldisasterriskmanagementplan.Thesuccessofanyinitiativelargelydependsontowhatextentthecitizensareeducatedandtakenonboardduringimplementation.

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Source:NepalAdministrativeStaffCollege[NASC],(2018)

Figure 5:AwarenessAboutRiskManagementInitiatives,2017/18,Nepal(N=12872)

Thesetwofiguresshowadisparitybetweenintopolicyprovisionsandthelevelofcitizen’sengagementinriskreductionactivities.Theappreciatedsuccessofthe ‘resil-ientsociety’largelydependsonhoweffectivelythegovernmentandalliedorganizationsimprovetheircapacityandreachout topeople. Improvedawarenessamongcitizenswouldsufficethegovernmenteffortsandawarecitizenswouldholdgovernmentandotherorganizationsaccountablefortheirresponsibilities.Lowknowledgeandparticipa-tionofpeopleinriskreductioninitiativesshouldhavedueconsiderationasapotentialdrawbackinthepathofresiliency.

Nepal’sdeservesapplaudsinthewayitmanagedseveralbigcatastrophesinrecentpast,particularlyonimmediaterescueandrelief.Itcouldhappenbecauseofcollectiveeffortsof thegovernment,humanitarianagenciesandsociety.However, therecoveryphasesuffersseveralimpedimentsmainlybecauseofinsufficientpreparationandweakinstitutionalcapacitytodeliverthepolicydecisions(MinistryofHomeAffairs[MoHA],2017).Toachievethegoalof ‘resilientstate’,Nepalhastoworkmore indisasterpre-parednessratherthanwaitingdisastertooccurandhavereactiveapproachestoad-dressthem.

Beingacountrywith lowpercapita income, thesocialand individualcapacity todealwithdisasterriskreductionusingsophisticatedtechnology iscostly,whichmaydiscouragepeopletofollowguidelines.Usingindigenousknowledgeandtechnologyisagoodoption,whichmakes resiliency locally adaptedandculturally informed.Asayounganddynamiccountry,Nepalwillcontinuetogrow.Formeetingpeople’saspira-tionofadevelopedandprosperouscountry,Nepalisunderpressurefordemandsofin-vestment indevelopmentactivities.Thiswouldto leadtogrowth inconstructionof,largeorsmall,infrastructuresthatrequirecontributinginbuildingdisasterresiliency.

Notes 1 BothareDirectorofStudies,NepalAdministrativeStaffCollege.

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 2 Inearlierpoliticaladministrationsystem,Nepalwassub-dividedintofiveadministrativere-gions-Eastern,Central,Western,Mid-westernandFar-westerndevelopmentregion.EachregionwasgovernedbyaRegionalAdministrator,who isacareerbureaucratFollowingthenewConstitutionin2015,thisstructureisdissolved.

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