2014.5 journal of literature and art studies

Journal of Literature

and Art Studies

Volume 4, Number 5, May 2014 (Serial Number 30)

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Journal of Literature and Art Studies

Volume 4, Number 5, May 2014 (Serial Number 30)

Contents Literature Studies

The Fragmentation of the Female Selfhood in The Flight From the Enchanter 325 XU Ming-ying, SUI Xiao-di, AN Xue-hua

Borges’ Poetics of Visible Unrealities 338 Robin McAllister

Translation of Allusions in Fortress Besieged 345 ZHANG Qun-xing

Girl Power in Cashore’s Graceling 351 Suryo Tri Saksono, Syarifah, SS

Art Studies

A Study of the Styles of Early Taiwanese Bamboo Chairs According to the Methodology of Style 359

Shih-Hsing Wu, Ying-Pin Cheng, Chi-Hsiung Chen

Crises of Socialism in China and Chinese Rock in 1980s: The Case of CUI Jian 375 WANG Xiang

Never, Ever Break Up a Family 384 Steven William Schaufele

Special Research

Revisiting Contemporary Judaism in Modern Israel 396 Uri Zur

From Sex Objects to Heroines—A Tough Road for Female Characters in Video Games 409 Adam Flamma

Argentina and Brazil: Laws as Mediators of Social Identities 418 Yussef Daibert Salomão de Campos

Journal of Literature and Art Studies, ISSN 2159-5836 May 2014, Vol. 4, No. 5, 325-337

The Fragmentation of the Female Selfhood in

The Flight From the Enchanter∗

XU Ming-ying, SUI Xiao-di, AN Xue-hua

Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China

Iris Murdoch is a renowned female novelist and philosopher in the 20th century English literature. In her literary

creation, she has a preference for male narration and holds a reserved attitude to women’s movements with

reluctance to be considered as a feminist writer, which permits her realistic depiction of female characters and

dispassionate thought on women’s problems. This paper, with the interpretation and redefinition of the concepts as

consciousness, identity, and self in Murdoch’s philosophy, analyzes the fragmented self of three female figures in

The Flight from the Enchanter (1956) respectively from the perspectives of self-consciousness, identity, and self

and reveals that the fragmentation of female selfhood is mainly due to the overwhelming male dominance in the

gender relationship.

Keywords: Iris Murdoch, identity, female selfhood, fragmentation

Introduction

Historically, both the patriarchal culture and discourse were of the opinion that female biology had its own

defects and limitations. “The female is a female by virtue of a certain lack of qualities”, said Aristotle, “we should

regard the female nature as afflicted with a natural defectiveness” (Beauvoir, 1953, p. xviii). For St. Thomas,

woman was renounced as an “imperfect man”, an “incidental being” (Beauvoir, 1953, p. xviii). Besides, “a man

is in the right in being a man; it is woman who is in the wrong” (Beauvoir, 1953, p. xviii). Women were

marginalized and disparaged with these defects. Consequently, both in the Victorian age and in the early 20th

century, the popular image of the ideal wife/woman came to be “the Angel in the House”. They were expected to

be devoted and submissive to their husbands just like the Angel: passive and powerless, meek, charming,

sympathetic, pious, self-sacrificing, and above all—pure. In the modern society, the outbreak of the two world

wars and the advancement of women’s movement brought the dramatic changes of the women’s roles

domestically and socially. The long-established traditional female selfhood has been disintegrated under the new

social and cultural circumstances.

Although Murdoch insisted on her status of not being a feminist, she explored the crisis of female identity

∗ Acknowlegements: The paper is supported by “the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities”, Project No. DUT14RW 212 and No. DUT12RW401.

XU Ming-ying, Ph.D., associate professor, School of Foreign Languages, DalianUniversity of Technology. SUI Xiao-di, Ph.D., associate professor, School of Foreign Languages, DalianUniversity of Technology. AN Xue-hua, master, associate professor, School of Foreign Languages, DalianUniversity of Technology.

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THE FRAGMENTATION OF THE FEMALE SELFHOOD 326

and its consequence, the fragmentation of the female selfhood as the major themes in her novels. In her opinion,

the process of the disintegration of the female selfhood is irreversible, and the roots of this disintegration are

formulated at a much deeper level than the roots of the disintegration of the male selfhood in contemporaneous

texts. While they do share a sense of cultural crisis, the very core of this crisis is defined as the dualism inherent in

the patriarchal system, a dualism that justifies women’s continual exclusion from the power and their

appropriation for the purposes of the male imagination and male desire.

This paper is intended to discuss the female characters’ disruptive self-consciousness, marginalized identity,

and disintegrated self and to demonstrate women’s fragmented selfhood in Murdoch’s early novel The Flight

from the Enchanter (1956). The symbolic title of the novel reinforces the sense of restriction, of being confined,

and of the desire for independent self. It underlines the basic theme of imprisonment and escapes which is

common to most of Murdoch’s novels where physical confinement is not a necessary adjunct of enslavement;

moral and spiritual compulsions are more devastating; and the enchanters of the novels ensnare the hearts and

minds of the female characters around them as surely as the settings enclose them.

The Disruption of Women’s Self-awareness

The philosophical state of self-awareness holds that one exists as an individual being, while

self-consciousness is a preoccupation with oneself as an acute sense of self-awareness (Lipka & Brinthaupt, 1992,

p. 228). That is, self-awareness in a philosophical context is being conscious of oneself as an individual, while

self-consciousness is being excessively conscious of one’s appearance or manner. Self-awareness Theory states

that when we focus our attention on ourselves, we evaluate and compare our current behavior to our internal

standards and values. However self-consciousness is not to be confused with self-awareness. We would not

become self-conscious until we could function as objective evaluators of ourselves.

In some context, self-consciousness may affect the development of identity in varying degrees, as some

people are constantly self-monitoring or self-involved, while others are completely oblivious about themselves

(Branden, 1969, p. 42). Both private and public self-consciousness are frequently distinguished by psychological

terms. Private self-consciousness is a tendency to introspect and examine one’s inner self and feelings. Public

self-consciousness is an awareness of the self as it is viewed by others, which can result in self-monitoring and

social anxiety. As relatively stable personality traits, private and public self-consciousness are not correlated just

because that an individual is high on one dimension does not mean that he or she is high on the other (Bernd,

2004, p. 30).

Murdoch shares with Romantic writers an interest in individual consciousness and how it operates. In

Romantic fiction, this preoccupation is expressed through the representation of “problems of consciousness, of

vision and perception” (Jackson, 1981, p. 51). In Murdoch’s fiction, the interest in “character dispersal and

fragmentation” (Jackson, 1981, p. 86) is an aspect of the destabilized sense of self evident during the Romantic

period. This destabilization surfaces in descriptions of sightings, material, and immaterial, of the self or an ideal

other that can be interpreted as an externalization of the self.

What Annette lacks is the self-awareness, the capacity for introspection and the ability to reconcile oneself

as an individual separate from the environment and other individuals. The Flight from the Enchanter opens with

Annette Cockeyne’s decision to leave her “expensive finishing-school in Kensington” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 7).


“Learning nothing here” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 7) is Annette’s reason to leave her school and “enter the School of

Life” to “educate [herself]” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 7). Her departure is also partly because of her lack of interest in

the teaching mission of this expensive college which is to teach “to young women of the débutante class such

arts as were considered necessary for the catching of a husband” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 7). All these remind the

reader of her immaturity as a girl of 19 years old.

A false impression on Annette is that she is an invulnerable character with a charmed life and even without

any physical scars. But actually Annette is a nymph-like young girl who has insufficient self-awareness and feels

homeless and nationless. Annette had once said to the young women at Ringenhall: “I have no homeland and no

mother tongue. I speak four languages fluently, but none correctly” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 63). In spite of her perfect

French and English, Annette “liked to think of herself as a waif. Even her appearance suggested it, she noted with

satisfaction” (Murdoch, 1956, pp. 63-64). In Demetriou’s theory of cognitive development, self-awareness

develops systematically from birth through the life span and it is a major factor for the development of general

inferential processes (Demetriou). That is, the previous experiences, especially those in the childhood, are of

great influence on the systematic development of one’s self-awareness. In Annette’s memory, “the sensations of

childhood” include “the loneliness and boredom and fear of strange places, the hurry and the noise of a world

which was never her own, the alien odour of the expensive hotel and the long-distance train. These were the thing

that had prefigured the present moment” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 267). Annette’s experiences in her childhood cast

shadow on her present sense of instability and make her lack of sense of belonging. When asked to go back home,

she said: “Home! Cam’ Hill Square isn’t my home. I have no home. I’m a refugee!” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 271).

Self-awareness makes people align their behavior with their standards, and the failure to live up to their

personal standards will result in a negative effect. When Annette evaluates and compares her current behavior to

her internal standards and values, she feels completely confused and lost. “The idea of growing up had always

been for Annette the idea of being able to live at her own pace” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 63). To her disappointment,

she can achieve this aim in no way. Although Annette tries her best to protect her body in the physical sense, she

fails to gain access to greater self-awareness in the spiritual sense. In order to reinforce her sense of being an

individual being, Annette turns to establish the relationship with other fingers, especially male characters, which

proves to make her live at others’ pace instead of at her own.

Insufficient self-awareness results in Annette’s inability to overcome the androcentric fantasy and impedes

the growth of her selfhood because she has no clear idea about herself, her life as well as the way to set up the

appropriate relation with men and protect herself. So when Rainborough asks her what she is going to do for her

living, Annette tells him that she has no idea and she is not good at anything “in a helpless feminine way about

which Rainborough could not decide whether it was natural or the effect of art” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 132). In

Rainborough’s eyes, “Women pick up these conventions at such an early age, …they’re almost bred in

them”(Murdoch, 1956, p. 132). Then he cannot help wondering “how can anyone who has travelled so much be

so appallingly juvenile?” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 132). The fact that Annette has no concern about her future source

of income shows us her conventional thinking of male and female social roles and division of labor, which leads

to her willingly enslavement in androcentric fantasy.

Lack of self-awareness makes Annette not only have no idea about the future life, but also fail to recognize

the present reality as she lacks the sense of ownership of her own body and of self-protection. Although Annette


is kind and caring to the people around her, she seldom receives any care, concern, respect, or love from them,

especially from the male. Her brother Nicholas arrangs his friend to “deflower” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 64) Annette

when she is 17 just to make her “rational about these things” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 64). Nicholas expects her not to

“build up an atmosphere of mystery and expectation” about sex, because that will only make her “neurotic”

(Murdoch, 1956, p. 64). Contrary to his expectations, Annette attends a number of adventures since that time,

which bring her “neither delight nor grief” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 64) but the misconception of the appropriate

relationship between the sexes. “The mystery was displaced, but it remained suspended in Annette’s vision of the

future, an opaque cloud, luminous with lightning” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 64). This misconception hinders her from

establishing a positive and normal self-recognition in the male-female relationships. He has no favorite for

Annette at all, and what he does is just for his own lust without the consideration to Annette’s feeling and respect

to her as a woman. Annette’s reaction is also a sign of her female weakness. Murdoch (1956) depicts the female

inferiority to the man regardless of their higher social status or even prominent family background. The sexual

offense of the refugee Jan to Annette is a case in point. Although Rosa dislodges Jan from her house, Annette’s

terrified feeling does not arouse her any sympathy.

Dominated by the androcentric fantasy, Annette desires nothing as fervently as to become the enchanter

Mischa’s captive. Mischa is unmoved by the schoolgirl heroine playing out “her fated role of international

waif-adventuress” (Sullivan, 1986, p. 77). Annette, on the other hand, experiences in Mischa’s presence “a daze

of beatitude” and feels “with a deep joy, the desire and the power to enfold him, to comfort him, to save him”

(Murdoch, 1956, p. 215). That is, perhaps because she is truly an elfin child, or because she belongs to the people

who “seek evil simply because they want adventure” (Whiteside, 1964, p. 32). It requires Calvin’s cynicism to

make her realize that the “notion that one can liberate another’s soul from captivity is an illusion of the very

young” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 240).

Annette’s every effort to make herself more self-conscious is to build up some kind of relation with the male

and prove her own existence by their treatment to her. Unfortunately, Annette receives no love and support but

indifference from the people around her when she is struggling for the establishment of her self-consciousness.

Abandoned not only by Mischa, but also by Rosa and her brother Nicholas, Annette begins to toy with the idea of

suicide. The photograph of her brother Nicholas is no longer enough to shield her. In her genuine aloneness,

Annette regrets that she will be “forever shut away” from “the world of the chamber maid and the cyclist and the

little strange hotel” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 63). She tries “to persuade herself that she felt ill” (Murdoch, 1956, p.

157), but “unfortunately she did not feel ill, only extremely miserable” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 157). Finally, she

“attempted to weep” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 157), yet this proves equally “unsatisfactory” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 157).

Having lost all reason to exist, Annette throws her jewels into the river. With this symbolic gesture, Annette gives

vent to her conviction that “death could not change her now more than she was already changed” (Murdoch, 1956,

p. 267) and she stages her suicide. Here, fate or chance intervenes. Her parents arrive and whisk Annette off the

Europe and security. On yet another train Annette looks, in the same way she always will.

Our last glimpse of the family is in the south of France as the Orient Express transports the recovered

Annette away from the events of the novel to the land of Cockeyne. With this splendid tableau of an enchanted

family frozen in a state of utter inaccessibility, the story of the Annette Cockayne comes to an end. The

question whether Annette has graduated from the “School of Life” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 7) and “learnt more


since she left Ringehall than [she] ever did while [she was] there” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 217), as her brother

believes, remains unanswered. Most probably, she is still the unscarred mermaid murmuring “enchanted”

through the ballrooms of Europe, ever enchanted by her temporarily sustained glimpses of real life out of the

windows of trains, always again to return to her land of jewels and opulence (Sullivan, 1986, p. 79). It seems

that everything returns to the beginning, but Annette has been changed by the happenings after she dropes

out of the school.

Insufficient self-awareness results in Annette’s inability to overcome the androcentric fantasy and impedes

the growth of her selfhood because she has no clear idea about herself, her life as well as how to set up the

appropriate relation with men and protect herself. In the struggling process of establishing her private

self-consciousness as a young lady, Annette tends to introspect and examine her inner self and feelings. With

an awareness of the self as it is viewed by others, Annette fails to set up her public self-consciousness because

of her unawareness of the real root of her dilemma: patriarchy.

The Marginalization of Women’s Identity

Since female identity is the central concern of Murdoch’s novels, as has been already mentioned, it is

necessary to define an individual identity and the female self-identity of Murdoch’s female characters. One’s

identity, in Hall’s view (2004), can be thought of as a particular set of traits, beliefs and allegiances that, in short

or long term ways, gives one a consistent personality and mode of social being, while subjectivity implies always

a degree of thought and self-consciousness about identity, at the same time allowing a myriad of limitations and

often unknowable, unavoidable constraints on our ability to fully comprehend identity. Subjectivity as a critical

concept invites us to consider the question of how and from where identity arises, to what extent it is

understandable, and to what degree it is something over which we have any measure of influence and control

(Hall, 2004, pp. 3-4). Following Hall’s definition and Murdoch’s understanding of identity, the particular set of

traits, which will give Murdoch’s female characters a constant personality and mode of being, is the autonomy

and androgyny. To be autonomous means to sticking to her own voice and keeping her own life course; to be

androgynous means to go beyond her gender constraints, living with the androgynous mind of a “full balance of

femaleness and maleness, nurturance and aggression” (Showalter, 2004, p. 264). However, there are a lot of

constrains and restrictions preventing the female characters to retain this identity, namely, the historical, social,

cultural and biological ones.

The characterization of refugees in Murdoch’s novels is greatly influenced by her experiences in war time.

After the completion of her own degree at Oxford in 1942, Murdoch went straight into the Civil Service as an

Assistant Principal in the Treasury, living, and working in wartime London. When the war ended, she felt the

need to do some social work to help those who had been displaced and disorientated in the conflict, so she went to

work for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA). While working for UNRRA in

Brussels and then Innsbruck from 1945 to 1946, she saw people deported to almost certain death and survivors

who would never return to their homes. There is little doubt that during this time she came face to face with many

of the horrors and cruelties that man inflicted upon man, which left an indelible impression on her mind.

Throughout her novels there are depictions of exiles and refugees, illegal immigrants who have fled the horrors of

their own country, men and women trying to escape from their past. For some of them, a line drawn on the map of


Europe can make the difference between life and death. Yet they are not always sympathetically portrayed. In

The Flight from the Enchanter, the Lusiewicz brothers have minds which appear to be permanently distorted by

their early experiences, and the young dressmaker, Nina lives in permanent fear of being deported and is finally

destroyed by the fear.

It is of special significance to study the female identity in Murdoch’s characterization of Nina as a woman

refugee under the dual oppressions. The autonomy for the female characters includes making their voice heard

and freedom to choose their own life. So having their voice is the foremost step for female autonomy. Nina’s

refugee status unvoices her completely. Nina’s sensitivity to her illegal status leads her to strive for the

integration to the people around by mimicking their appearance, speaking their language and complying with the

etiquettes. Nina insists on speaking English “politely and firmly” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 82) when Annette induces

her to speak other languages, although “a charming and quite undiagnosable foreign accent” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 82)

reveals her true origin. Besides, she dyes blonde her “dark straight hair” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 82) and “long downy

hairs” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 82) on her arms, which makes her look like “a small artificial animal” (Murdoch, 1956,

p. 82) with “a brown complexion” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 82).

But when it comes to the legal document, all the efforts Nina takes seems to be futile. “She stared at her

passport, and it seemed to her suddenly like a death warrant. It filled her with shame and horror” (Murdoch, 1956,

p. 288). The sight of the old picture on it reminds Nina of “the worst days of her fear” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 289).

She feels that an “anxious, haggard and fearful” “younger black-haired Nina stared back” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 289)

at her present golden-haired self. The passport evokes her miserable memories of being exiled in the past and

indicates that she has “no official existence” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 289). Both nationality and gender hinder Nina

from establishing her own identity by depriving her of the right to voice herself and choose her own life.

Illegal status deprives Nina of having a say as she is not an existence being in the political sense in this

country, while the repression which Mischa imposes upon her “condemned” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 154) her love to

silence, so she has no right to express her love as a woman. She dare not leave her name and address to the

governmental agency because “she had the refugee’s horror of the power and hostility of all authorities and of

their mysterious interconnection with each other” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 155) and “if she left her name at Australia

House Mischa Fox should not be told of this within twenty-four hours” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 155). When Nina is

discovered by Mischa in a textile factory, her need for a livelihood and protection makes her pliable to his wishes.

Nina knows it well that it is impossible to achieve an “independent establishment and a clientele” (Murdoch,

1956, p. 151) without Mischa’s help. Once she realizes that her love for Mischa is not reciprocated, she resolves

to leave England to gain “freedom from slavery, rather that freedom in an abstract or philosophical sense”

(Rabinovitz, 1978, p. 285). The only hope for her is to flee from England and never see Mischa again, then she

could escape from him. What attracts her most is that the future new life will be “in every way the reverse of her

present life” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 155) and “she would live in their midst a life of openness and gaiety, respected

as a worker and loved as a woman” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 155). To fulfill her plan, she decides to appeal to Rosa for

assistance for “her regard for Rosa was augmented by an astonished respect for a being who had once been under

Mischa’s spell and had freed herself without migrating to the Antipodes” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 156). Rosa’s

indifference to her pleas ruins her hopes. When the deportation order is likely to come, her only possible

escape is death.


Nina’s choice to commit suicide is due to her identity crisis both as a citizen and as a woman. Besides Nina’s

refugee status and her fear of deportation, patriarchal oppression from Mischa is also the primary cause of her

tragedy. There is an important difference between the crisis of the female identity and the crisis of the male

identity in contemporaneous canonical texts. The male refugees Lusiewicz brothers also experience a loss of

identity as the consequence of their illegal status. With Rosa’s help, they “rapidly showed a remarkable aptitude

with machines, …learnt to speak English with confidence and charm” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 46). And even “[t]heir

appearance improved” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 46). Meanwhile, Nina proves herself to be “a good dressmaker …

patient, good-tempered, humble, discreet, fast, an exquisite worker, and…inexhaustibly imaginative” (Murdoch,

1956, p. 81) after Mischa helped her settle down and rent a house for her. As refugees, all of them try their best to

learn the language, work hard and be obedient to their sponsors in order to integrate into the local life and start a

new life. However, the male-female different positions in the patriarchal society make their life paths quite

different. After their settlement, the Lusiewicz brothers change their attitude to their sponsor Rosa from “with an

inarticulate deference which resembled religious awe” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 48) to with aggression by conquering

her body and controlling her mind. Yet, Rosa recovers quick from “the first shock of her despair” (Murdoch,

1956, p. 58) and accepts the change from being a conqueror to a prey for fear of losing the brothers.

But the situation is completely different in Nina’s case. Without her voice being heard, Nina, as a woman,

has no capability to change the pattern of her relationship with Mischa and consequently has no freedom to

choose her own life path. Nina has no way to decline Mischa’s monthly allowance for his excuse that “his

‘inconvenient ways’ were possibly damaging to her business” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 153). As “a good organizer

and a good business woman” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 153), Nina has an ambitious plan to enlarge her business since

“her range of contacts was now very considerable” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 153). But without any doubt, this plan

displeases Mischa apparently, which makes it clear that any plan of this kind will violate Mischa’s expectations to

Nina. Her love for Mischa has been transformed “into a strange emotion which had in it more of terror and

fascination than of tenderness” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 154) and “an emotion more mixed with puzzlement and

curiosity” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 153), which becomes the source of distress for Nina because “his personality made

it impossible for her to open her heart to anyone” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 154). In great anxiety, Nina has a nightmare

in which her sewing machine turns into an unstoppable monster which savages both her and an endless cloth map

of all the countries in the world.

Nina’s aphasia states as a refugee for the land of her birth and her enslavement as a woman for the gender of

her birth makes her autonomy establishment impossible. Moreover, to be androgynous remains slightly out of her

reach, which is the last question she thinks about before she kills herself. As she sits on the window-sill, she looks

at a crucifix and thinks the idea that death is the end is not “senseless blackness” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 291) for

Christ, as it will be for her. She throws herself out of the window with a broken and marginalized identity. The

same political guile for the removal from the scene of the illegal immigrants Jan and Stefan destroys Nina, who

becomes the innocent victim, the scapegoat who suffers not merely for the sins of others but also for their neglect.

Her act of self-destruction becomes a response to a general feeling of hopelessness for which she finds no outlet,

neither in her unsatisfactory relationship with Mischa nor in any meaningful activity.

Murdoch illustrates the destructive female identity through depicting Nina’s plight and her tragic ending. As

a typical example of doubly marginalized women, Nina is powerless to struggle against destiny of being


marginalized by the political authorities and controlled by the masculine hegemony regardless of her unremitting

efforts to integrate with the new environment and her willingness to mingle with the new culture. Besides,

through the characterization of Nina, Murdoch also tends to unravel the lack of mutual assistance among women

to struggle with their marginalized identity and survive the male dominance in this novel.

The Disintegration of Female Self

While Murdoch depicts Annette Cockeyne’s disruptive self-consciousness and Nina’s marginalized identity,

her main concern is the portrayal of the female protagonist in this novel: Rosa and her disintegrated self in the

process of her flight from the enchanter. Murdoch’s moral philosophy is premised on the reality of the

individual self, so much so that she starts that “the central concept of morality is ‘the individual’” (Murdoch,

1970, p. 30). Distinguished from Romanticism, Murdoch holds the opinion that the individual as a

self-in-relation is renewed in the context. While Modernism emphasizes on “formal autonomy” (Waugh, 1989,

p. 79) and holds identity as “transcendence of history through symbol and self as a construction of language”

(Waugh, 1989, p. 79), Murdoch focuses on the self in relation. In her novels, she portrays how individual

consciousness functions in people as moral beings, and the effect this has on their perception of reality, rather

than the social and historical conditions in which her characters operate. “Underlying Murdoch’s moral

philosophy is a concept of the individual as the ‘owner’ of their ‘inner life’ and of inner activity as morally

significant” (Widdows, 2004, p. 21). So the self in Murdoch’s fiction is a fixed entity that is built in the relations.

Compared with Annette and Nina, Rosa Keepe has a stronger sense of self-consciousness and self-identity

since she knows who she is and what she wants better. Unfortunately, she still fails to obtain integrated self for

her personal weaknesses in specific and female limitations in general obstruct the building of her in-relation self.

The following analysis will mainly focus on three pairs of relationships: Rosa and the Lusiewicz brothers, Rosa

and Mischa, and Rosa and other female characters in the novel.

Though educated, the heroine Rosa is willing to work on the assembly line in a factory instead of being a

journalist or a teacher because she is unable to stand her mother’s disappointment at her failure to be “a fanatical

idealist” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 47) and her own at to be “a good teacher” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 47). She still makes

this choice “in a mood of self-conscious asceticism” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 47) although she knows it well that

working in the factory is an experience of almost unbearable affliction and a kind of modern slavery. The

machines in Rosa’s factory never stop, day or night. She fears being “caught in the machine” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 42).

Here she has a secret about the refugee Lusiewicz brothers, who arrive “dejected and colourless, like

half-starved, half-drowned animals” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 46). Except Rosa, no one shows any interests in them at

that time. As a dutiful protector, Rosa guides them, gives them financial support, teaches them English and treats

them as her children. “Then after a while Rosa found herself becoming oddly secretive and possessive about the

pair” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 46) .With her help, the brothers have been making big process and becoming popular in

the factory, which brings Rosa mixed feelings: “with interest and pleasure at first, and later with sadness”

(Murdoch, 1956, p. 47). The brothers treat her at first “with an inarticulate deference which resembled religious

awe. They were like poor savages confronted with a beautiful white girl” (Murdoch, 1956, pp. 48-49). Their

dependence upon her makes Rosa even worried at the degree of her power over them. They need her permission

to the simplest things and they make no choice without her opinion just like her slaves. This power makes Rosa


feared as well as joyful. Overwhelmed by their primitive adoration and their abject respect, Rosa feels “like the

princess whose strong faith released the prince from an enchanted sleep, or from the transfigured form of a beast”

(Murdoch, 1956, p. 54) and in return for their devotion, she showers the brothers with love.

Contrary to Rosa’s expectations, her role as an enchantress is of short duration. Once “the mastery had

passed to the brother” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 60), Rosa becomes their property. They begin to thrive and make their

own conquests, including Rosa, whom they share sexually. Gradually and almost without awareness on her part,

Rosa changes from mother-surrogate to sister-surrogate. What helps her to accept the role reversal is her ability to

overcome the “physical sensation” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 57) with “that numb paralysis which is the deliberate

dulling of thought by itself” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 57) and the painful fear of losing the brothers. When they retell

Rosa their experiences of raping their school teacher by turns and abandoning her just to revenge her for

humiliating them in the class, which leads to her death directly, Rosa is so anesthetized while she is “empty of

thoughts and feelings” and experiences “a kind of triumph” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 78). Consequently, she does not

resent the brothers and accepts without demur “the rules of the new regime” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 57) which Jan

and Stefan “made plain to her” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 57) with “gentle tact” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 57). After her

acceptance of the grotesque reversal of roles, Rosa uses the machines in the factory as instruments to immobilize

her feelings. Nevertheless, the brothers’ more and more excessive behaviors, such as uninvited visit to Rosa’s

house and assaulting Annette sexually there, drive Rosa to reach the point where she confronts herself with the

realization that she is unable to break the black spell the Poles hold over her. In the relationship between Rosa and

the brothers, Rosa functions as a power figure at first because of the superiority of her social status, but she soon

descends to the enchanted because of the inferiority of her female gender. The formation of her self faces a great

challenge and becomes instabilized in this process of reversal.

In utter frustration, she resorts to the powers of Mischa whose marriage proposal she refuses ten years ago to

run away from his control. She tells about her plight with reservation, however Mischa asks no question but her

permission to use any method he likes. Rosa “felt as if she were selling herself into captivity” (Murdoch, 1956,

p. 262). “But to be at his mercy was at that moment her most profound desire” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 262). Mischa

then manipulates SELIB, the Special European Labor Immigration Board, to have Stefan deported. To her

consternation, Rosa discovers that after all these years she is still very fond of Mischa and would not mind to be

rescued by him. As she approaches her former lover whose enchantment she believes to have disappeared, she is

“quite ready to acknowledge herself to be under a spell … [and] she knew that even if at that moment Mischa was

oblivious of her existence, yet he was drawing her all the time” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 257). As she attempts to

solve her personal problem, Rosa has either not yet gained the “degree of self-knowledge” (Rabinovitz, 1978,

pp. 330-331) necessary “to achieve morality or love” (Rabinovitz, 1978, pp. 330-331), or is not fully aware of

her “moral strength and weakness to be able to overcome the vicissitude of a moral crisis” (Rabinovitz, 1978,

pp. 330-331).

At “a point of disequilibrium where rest was no longer possible” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 292), Rosa

impulsively travels south herself to join Mischa at his villa in Italy. She feels compelled by the enchanter whom

she like to be reunited with. But Rosa does not return to Mischa thanks to Calvin Blick’s interference. He

shows the photographs of Rosa with the Lusiewicz brothers, telling her Mischa has seen them, though he tells

Hunter he has not. Looking at the photograph Calvin has taken of her, Rosa is able to recognize the flaws in her


obsession with Mischa. Many years ago, Rosa “put herself under the enchanter’s spell because she thought he

was in touch with reality” (Whiteside, 1964, p. 49) and is satisfied with her lot until she senses “that Mischa

was not merely in touch with reality but had power over it, and then she began to fear him” (Whiteside, 1964,

p. 49). Calvin comforts her that she “will never know the truth” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 304) because “[r]eality is a

cipher with many solutions, all of them right ones” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 305), and therefore, she “will read the

signs in accordance with [her] deepest wishes” (Murdoch, 1956, pp. 304-305), just like everybody else. Rosa

retorts that this view is a surrender of his power.

Rosa’s final triumph is in her inexplicable act of turning back from Mischa even though he is waiting for

her. Now that he has transformed Rosa into the “real” woman worthy of his love, she reveals herself to be

tougher than he has thought and succeeds in shattering his ephemeral formula for control by her unexpected

assertion of freedom. However, Rosa’s decision is one of pure renunciation. Nonetheless, Rosa does make one

vital gain and discovery. She can choose to be free of Mischa and to recognize herself as a free agent. She says

to Calvin, whose name tolls predestination, “in the past I always felt that whether I went towards him or away

from him I was only doing his will. But perhaps it was all an illusion” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 308). Years ago,

Rosa refuses Mischa’s offer of marriage and flees from Mischa because she fears the ultimate consequence of

his control over her as much as she dreaded the intimacy of married life. Years later, Rosa goes back willingly

to be under his control and protection. The journey from flight to regression reveals the incapability of Rosa’s

disintegrated self to find a balanced position in the patriarchal male-female relationship.

Moreover, the deficiency of Rosa’s sense of self hinders her from establishing a healthy and normal

relationship with other female characters. Rosa has no easy-going and cheerful characters since she “never

wanted other human beings to come too near” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 48). The intimacy with the person makes her at

times feel horrible. She lives with her brother Hunter and her schoolfriend’s daughter Annette, whom “had never

yet occupied very much of Rosa’s attention” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 66). Rosa shows no caring and love to Annette

as expected from a female seniority to a young girl, but the hostility and indifference from a jealousy same-sex

peer. Annette’s “kittenish” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 66) ways both charm and irritate Rose for they remind of “her

memories of herself at that age” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 66). She often likes to be accompanied by Annette, yet the

child makes her uneasy. Although she knew that her sarcasm make Annette feared, she becomes more inclined to

“prick and bite her” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 66). When Jan offends Annette sexually in her upstairs room, Rosa’s

first reaction is to pretend not to have heard Annette’s cry for help. When she is urged to see what is happening

upstairs, she just gets Jan away by striking his face. Then “without a glance at Annette” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 163),

she descends “at a leisurely pace” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 163). What Rosa really cares about is not Annette’s terrible

state of mind as a victim of sexual assault but her own jealousy for the brothers’ betrayal and their interests in

other women. She feels greatly relieved for “after the incident with Jan, …a certain coldness in her reception …

had almost immediately vanished and everything had seemed to be as usual” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 245). In the

party at the Mischa’s, the tripping dancing of Mischa and Annette irritates her so much that she ruins the party by

breaking the fishbowl into pieces. Her next gaffe comes as:

Rosa shook herself like a dog. Her hair, which had been loosened by the struggle, cascaded down her back. She had been cut in the arm by some of the broken glass on the floor. People gathered round her. As she stood there looking at the blood upon her arm her eyes slowly filled with tears. (Murdoch, 1956, p. 213)


After the party, Mischa drives to the seaside with Annette to comfort her and then sends her back to Rosa’s

house. The sight of Mischa’s coat on Annette makes Rosa so annoyed that:

Suddenly Rosa turned into Annette’s room and began to drag open the drawers of her dressing-table. She seized an armful of clothes and hurled them down into Annette’s face. Then pulling out one of the drawers entire she upended it at the top of the stairs. (Murdoch, 1956, p. 220)

With no attention to the fragility of Annette’s body and mind, Rosa commits these crazy behaviors which

make Annette so physically and mentally broken that she rolls down the stairs and hurt her leg. Rosa’s madness

proves her to be a completely self-centered woman showing no concerns to any other people or events only when

they violate her own life, which makes it impossible for her to have a wholeness of self.

Nina is another victim of Rosa’s misanthropy. Every time after her attempts to plea for Rosa’s help, Rosa

always has the same reaction: care nothing about what Nina says and forget her completely soon after her visits.

In Mischa’s villa in Italy, Calvin Blick shows Rosa a newspaper report of Nina’s suicide, remarking that

“someone ought to have explained things to her” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 306). Obviously, Rosa bears responsibility

for Nina’s death in two ways. At first, She herself unleashed Mischa’s power, authorizing him, to “use any

methods” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 256) to protect herself and Hunter from Stefan. Secondly, because she was so

rapturously abstracted at the thought of seeing Mischa, she failed to attend to Nina’s plea for help: “I have some

problems… I would like to ask your advice” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 259). However, Rosa replies merrily: “Life is a

series of problems! …Never be afraid to ask for advice, …People try to be far too independent of each other. I’m

just going in now to ask Mr. Fox’s advice” (Murdoch, 1956, pp. 259-260). Nina’s death is in part as a result of

Rosa’s inattention, in part because Rosa enlists Mischa and his methods. This moment of unexpected moral crisis

made to see her responsibility for Nina’s death, she is ready to perceive the destructive consequences of the

enchanter in herself and others.

The closing chapter is melancholy, though it contains good as well as bad news. On her return from Italy to

rainy London, Rosa goes straight to see Peter, free of the moral and emotional ties which have bound her to

Mischa. From him she learns that Camilla Wingfield has died, leaving her all the shares of the Artemis and an

annual income of £500 if she will edit the journal. The Artemis has been saved from Mischa, and Rosa has been

saved from the factory and given a new purpose. However, a bilingual inscription has been discovered which is a

key to the Kastanic script and proves Peter’s work on it to be futile. Peter is stoical: “One reads the signs as best

one can, and one may be totally misled. …It was worth trying. Now I can go back to my other work in peace.

There’s nothing to be sad about, Rosa” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 315). But Rosa is sad because Peter Saward rejects

her offer of marriage because he knows that Rosa is merely seeking a safety-net. The novel ends with Peter

showing Rosa the photographs of the lost world of Mischa’s childhood and “she saw the pictures through a

gathering haze of tears” (Murdoch, 1956, p. 316).

Conclusions

The Flight from the Enchanter starts from Annette’s running away from her finishing school to enter the

school of life, which directly points to the theme of the novel: Flight, with the central plot that a feminist

magazine called Artemis is close to closure due to a lack of readers. All the people’s lives in the novel revolve

around the mysterious figure of Mischa Fox, a frightening figure of power. As for the female figures in this novel,


what they flee from is not only the power or enigma of Mischa Fox, but also their fragmented selfhood.

Regardless of her wealthy and decent family background, spoiled but rootless Annette is confronted with lack of

love and attention from her parents, her brother, her guardian Rosa. Meanwhile, her gender makes her unable to

escape from the economic exploitation, emotional control and sexual assault of the male. So she is thirsty for love

and attention to prove her existence even at the cost of her life. From her, Murdoch depicts women’s inability to

introspect and examine their inner self, desires and feelings in order to know themselves as an individual. The

worried immigrant dressmaker Nina endures double oppressions—racial and sexual oppression. Though she is

more financially successful than the Polish brothers who have the same immigrant status as her, she can’t reverse

the position of the controller and the controlled as they do just because of the female weaknesses. In spite of her

economic independence, the confinement of her spirit disables her to be definable and recognizable in the

relations. The main female character Rosa, fierce and strong-minded, is too indulgent in her own world to know

the reality. Her status as a power figure, due to her racial privilege, in the life of two Polish brothers is soon

destroyed by the gender advantage of the male. Then she is occupied by the malformed relationship with two

Polish brothers without their admiration and attachment to her as they have before. Frightened by the gradually

out-or-control situation, she turns to the power of her former lover Mischa Fox, the male force, to help her get rid

of the entwinement of these brothers. In this novel, Murdoch reveals that no matter what kind of backgrounds

they have, women are not powerful enough to overcome the gender advantages of the male and the suppression

imposed by the male domination on them. Moreover, Murdoch expresses the women’s desire to flee from the

situation where they are and from the fragmented selfhood for reconstruction.

In modern mass society, a conception of individuality appears hopelessly outmoded to many philosophers.

Instead, Murdoch embraces the idea that selfhood is the outcome of relational activities, beginning with infant

nurturance, extending to language, and culminating in reflexive consciousness, in which selves become

self-aware. In The Flight from the Enchanter, Murdoch avoids approaching the female plights in the aspect of

financial dependence, less human right, family squabbles, parenting and other issues as many other feminist

writers do. Instead, she reveals the deconstructive female selfhood in the modern society caused by the historical,

social and economic changes. Regardless of their origin and background, what these female characters in

common is their attempt to escape from “an enchanter”, who usually imposes physical confinement as well as

mental and spiritual confinement on them. Their disruptive self-consciousness, marginalized identity, and

disintegrated self of the female characters fail all of them to complete the wholeness of female self and obstruct

their way to human goodness.

References

Beauvoir, S. de. (1953). The second sex. H. M. Parshley (Trans. & Ed.). London: Jonathan Cape. Bernd, S. (2004). Identity in Modern society. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Branden, N. (1969). The psychology of self-esteem. New York: Nash Publishing Corp.. Demetriou, A., & Kazi, S. (2001). Unity and modularity in the mind and the self. London: Routledge. Hall, D. E. (2004). Subjectivity. London: Routledge. Jackson, R. (1981). Fantasy: The literature of subversion. London: Methuen. Lipka, R. P., & Brinthaupt, T. M. (Eds.). (1992). Self-perspectives across the life span. Albany: State University of New York Press. Murdoch, I. (1956). The flight from the enchanter. London: Chatto & Windus. Murdoch, I. (1970). The sovereignty of good. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.


Rabinovitz, R., & Murdoch, I. (1978). Six contemporary British novelists. G. Stade, (Ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. Showalter, E. (2004). A literature of their own: British women novelists from Bronte to Lessing. Beijing: Foreign Language

Teaching and Research Press. Sullivan, Z. T. (1986). The demonic: The Flight from the Enchanter. In H. Bloom (Ed.), Iris Murdoch: Modern critical views (pp.

71-86). New York: Chelsea House Publishers. Waugh, P. (1989). Feminine fictions: Revisiting the postmodern. London: Routledge. Whiteside, G . (1964). The novels of Iris Murdoch. Critique, 7, 27-47. Widdows, H. (2004). The moral vision of Iris Murdoch. Hampshire: Ashgate.


Borges’ Poetics of Visible Unrealities

Robin McAllister

Sacred Heart University, Fairfield, Connecticut, USA

Close reading and inter-textual analysis of Borges’ essays, fiction, and poetry suggest a poetics of visible unrealities, a

fiction that calls attention to its own artifice. Borges’s poetics of reading and dreaming require another poetics of the work

as a text that calls attention to its own artifice. In reading Borges’ fiction, the separate roles and identities of reader, writer,

and work of fiction merge and exchange roles, powers, and identities and are transformed into a single act of dreaming,

which assumes cosmogonic and apocalyptic risks. In the dominant role given to the reader, the work of fiction as an object

or work of art does not exist unless it is read. There is no determinate text, only a version of our own we re-write and

invent every time we read the text. The author’s reading is not a spontaneous evocation of vision, but an artifice, as

artificial as the writing of the fiction. As writers and readers we are composed of texts and schemata, alphabets and

artifacts, not merely mental perceptions and ideas. The reader requires a prior text to copy, translate, and recreate, and that

text only exists as a fictional microcosm in so far as it is being read by a Reader who is able to actualize the revelation only

imminent within it.

Keywords: Borges, poetics, reading, Berkeley

He comprehended that the effort to mold the incoherent and vertiginous matter dreams are made of was the most arduous task a man could undertake, though he might penetrate all the enigmas of the upper and lower orders: much more arduous than weaving a rope of sand or coining the faceless wind. (Borges, 1962, “The Circular Ruins”)

It is hazardous to think that a co-ordination of words (philosophies are nothing else) can have much resemblance to the universe. It is also hazardous to think that one of those famous co-ordinations does not resemble it a little more than others, even in an infinitesimal way. (Borges, 1966, “Avatars of the Tortoise”)

Introduction

Dreaming and stories that are mere co-ordinations of words are clues to the riddle of Borges’ poetics of

fiction, his concepts about the roles of the writer and the reader in creating a work of fiction. In our ordinary

world of reading Borges, we uncritically take for granted the separate existence of the story as an object apart

from us, a book we are opening in our hands to begin reading, the previous existence of the writer who created

it, and our own autonomous existence as readers about to sit down, momentarily try to detach our attention

from the distractions of the actual reality surrounding us, and immerse ourselves in reading the story,

momentarily and, alas, only temporarily leaving behind one reality and entering into the mode of consciousness

we find in reading a work of fiction. But in the world of Borges’ fiction all these separate roles and identities

merge and exchange roles, powers, and identities. The separate existences of a reader, writer, and book are

transformed into a single act of dreaming.

Any account of Borges’ “poetics” of fiction, his concept—implicit or explicit in his stories, essays, and

Robin McAllister, associate professor, Department of English, Sacred Heart University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

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BORGES’ POETICS OF VISIBLE UNREALITIES

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poems—of what the fiction is, must take into account not just the extraordinary role he attributes to the reader,

but another almost hidden, often denied concept as well, the fiction, not just as a text, but as a work of art, a

“co-ordination of words”, that calls attention to its own artifice. However, the reader’s power to dream the work

of fiction into existence emerges as Borges’ preferred poetics, and the idea of the work as a co-ordination of

words is forgotten or repudiated. In the world of Borges’ fiction, the reader can assume fantastic roles: A

dreamer, a failed writer, an unrequited lover, and a blind “magus” who creates and destroys, a consciousness on

the verge of vision and annihilation, a copier and a creator, a simulacrum dreamed into existence by a prior text,

even a fictional role constructed out of literary topoi and metaphysical problems to resolve the problem of

trying to represent a vision of the universe that cannot be put into words.

The Role of the Reader

One of these roles, the Reader as Writer, is the subject of a famous essay by the late Rodrigues Monegal

(1972), who attributes the concept of the Reader as Writer to Gerard Genette:

…Criticism is an activity as imaginary as fiction or poetry… Nevertheless, it is possible to attempt another reading of these texts, and of the famous “Pierre Menard”, and instead of taking literally the conclusions of those critical articles, or the ironies of the story, perhaps to see in these short pieces the foundation of another aesthetic discipline, based not on the creation of the literary work but on its reading—instead of an aesthetics of the work of art, an aesthetics of its reading. This approach to Borges’ work has been favored by the Nouvelle Critique since Gerard Genette’s article, “La literature selon Borges”. Taking as his starting point the final lines of “Pierre Menard”, Genette has emphasized the importance of the Borgesian intuition that the most delicate and important operation of all those which contribute to the writing of a book is reading it. He concludes his analysis with these words: “The genesis of a work in the time of history and the life of an author is the most contingent and most insignificant moment of its duration … The time of a book is not the limited time of its writing, but the limitless time of reading and memory. The meaning of books is in front of them and not behind them; it is in us: a book is not a ready-made meaning, a revelation we have to suffer; it is a reservation of forms that are waiting to have some meaning, it is the `imminence of a revelation that is not yet produced”, and that every one of us has to produce for himself. (p. l05)

Certainly Borges seems to confirm this “approach, of whose validity there is no question” in an essay like

“A Note on (toward) Bernard Shaw”, where he rejects the notion of fiction as merely a “verbal structure”, a

“combinatory game”:

Those who practice this game forget that a book is more than a verbal structure or a series of verbal structures; it is the dialogue it establishes with its reader and the intonation it imposes upon his voice and the changing and durable images it leaves in his memory. The dialogue is infinite … Literature is not exhaustible, for the sufficient and simple reason that no single book is. A book is not an isolated being: it is a relationship, an axis of innumerable relationships. (Borges, 1962, p. 213)

Indeed the reader seems to determine the text, rather than the text determining our reading:

One literature differs from another, prior or posterior, less because of the text than because of the way in which it is read: if I were granted the possibility of reading any present-day page—this one, for example—as it will be read in the year two thousand, I would know what the literature of the year two thousand will be like. (Borges, 1962, pp. 213-214)

We seem to discover this kind of reader as a writer in the protagonist of “Pierre Menard, Author of the

Quixote”: “To be, in some way, Cervantes and reach the Quixote seemed less arduous to him—and,

consequently, less interesting—than to go on being Pierre Menard and reach the Quixote through the

experiences of Pierre Menard” (Borges, 1962, p. 40). Menard, “author” of the Quixote, is not just a writer, but


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also a reader, when he produces a Quixote identical in text with the original but different, indeed richer, in

meaning: “Cervantes’ text and Menard’s are verbally identical, but the second is almost infinitely richer”

(Borges, 1962, p. 42).

Like a reader Menard “copies” a text word for word, but, like a writer, he transforms it. Borges’ fiction

requires a reader who is both a translator and a creator—or re-creator. Borges (1962) confirms Rodrigues

Monegal’s discovery of “an aesthetics of fiction based on the reading of the text”:

Menard (perhaps without wanting to) has enriched, by means of a new technique, the halting and rudimentary art of reading: this new technique is that of the deliberate anachronism and the erroneous attribution. This technique, whose applications are infinite, prompts us to go through the Odyssey as if it were posterior to the Aeneid … This technique fills the most placid works with adventure. (p. 44)

The text of the Quixote stays identical, but the way Menard recomposes it changes it completely,

transforming it with deliberate anachronism into a symbol or sign of Menard’s time, not Cervantes’. But does

this technique of deliberately anachronistic reading actualize a revelation in the fiction that otherwise remains

merely imminent? Or is not it rather a playful fantasy reading in which we readers find ourselves with powers

of creativity autonomous from the text or the writer? An “adventurous” reading, we shall discover, is not just an

entertaining fantasy, but one which takes on cosmogonic and apocalyptic risks. The reader as writer will

assume fantastic, cosmogonic powers of creation and annihilation in poems like “Amanecer” and stories like

“The Circular Ruins”.

Perhaps, as Rodriguez Monegal (1972) asserts, there can be no question of the validity of this approach,

but, if so, the consequences are startling. The meaning of a story, “El Aleph” (1957), for example, is not what

Borges, the writer, may have intended, a meaning determined within the context of his other stories and essays

and limited by the historical moment in which he wrote, but whatever preconceptions and associations the

reader brings to the story as a reader from his own personal time and situation. It is impossible—or

delusional—to think that the reader ever reads or could read Borges’ “El Aleph” and write an essay about

“it”—such an object or determined text does not exist—merely a version of “El Aleph” the reader re-writes and

invents every time he reads the text of that title. There are as many “El Alephs” as there are readers, and Borges

becomes only one of many other readers of his own story. Criticism and scholarship does indeed become a

branch of fantastic literature.

Berkeley

It is hardly surprising that Borges, the radically idealist Borges of an essay like “A New Refutation of

Time” (1981) or stories like “Tlon, Ukbar, OrbisTertius” (1981), should deny that the fiction exists as a “verbal

structure” or an “object”. For the radical idealist Borges, a world of objects or material reality is only possible

through a perceiving consciousness that constitutes and sustains a “representation” (in the Berkeleyan sense of

framing an “idea”), as in one of several quotations Borges cites from Berkeley:

But, say you, surely there is nothing easier than for me to imagine trees, for instance, in a park, or books existing in a closet, and nobody by to perceive them. I answer, you may so, there is no difficulty in it; but what is all this, I beseech you, more than framing in your mind certain ideas which you call books and trees, and at the same time omitting to frame the idea of any one that may perceive them? But do not you yourself perceive or think them all the while? This therefore is nothing to the purpose: it only shews you have the power of imagining or forming ideas in your mind; but it does not shew that you can conceive it possible the objects of your thought may exist without the mind. (Rodriguez Monegal, 1981, p. 180)


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A previous quotation from Berkeley in the essay “A New Refutation of Time” implies that the work of

fiction as an object or work of art does not exist unless it is “perceived” by a reader:

Some truths there are so near and obvious to the mind that a man need only open his eyes to see them. Such I take this important one to be, viz., that all the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth, in a word all those bodies which compose the mighty frame of the world, have not any subsistence without a mind—that their being is to be perceivedor known; that consequently so long as they are not actually perceived by me, or do not exist in my mind or that of any other created spirit, they must either have no existence at all, or else subsist in the mind of some Eternal Spirit—. (Rodriguez Monegal, 1981, p. 181)

This quotation from Berkeley amounts to no less than a metaphysical argument for the priority of the

reader, as a constitutive and sustaining consciousness, over the text as an autonomous “object”, an object that

only exists in so far as it is seen or imagined by a sustaining consciousness, whether that of the writer, the

reader, or the eternal spirit. This reader as Berkeleyan eternal spirit might be the ancestor of Genette’s and

Rodriguez Monegal’s reader as writer, whose reading actualizes the “imminence of revelation”, a reader who

will appear over and over again in Borges’ essays and fictions as a dreamer or writer who dreams a vision of

the universe into existence.

Cosmogonic and Apocalyptic Reading

If the reader resembles Berkeley’s perceiver, he creates or dreams the universe he exists in, the fiction he

reads. When the reader reads she creates little worlds, microcosms. His reading is cosmogonic, world-creating,

and creative; no wonder the reader “writes” or re-creates the fiction he reads. Such a Berkeleyaneternal spirit

appears in the poem “Dawn” (1981). This poem resembles the type of “meditational poem” familiar to readers

of 17th Century English poetry. It is a poem of philosophical speculation, the record or account of a revelation

in the form of an idea that has occurred to the poet. Through the poet’s use of the first person “I”, the reader

enacts or re-lives the constitutive mind or consciousness of a blind poet, an insomniac—unable to lose

consciousness and sleep—who wanders through the streets of Buenos Aires, sustaining the entire city in his

mind, until others awaken and carry on his metaphysical burden. If the poem or fiction resembles an idea, like

Berkeley’s or Schopenhauer’s, it can only exist if it is dreamed into consciousness by an individual dreamer or

reader: “…Since ideas are not like marble, everlasting, but ever-renewing like a forest or river, the previous

speculation … dominated my reason and projected the following whim… ” (Rodriguez Monegal, 1981, p. 6)

The content of this poem is not the city of Buenos Aires at dawn, but a mental act, a revelation, at first only a

presentiment, then an idea of a prior writer or philosopher, which unexpectedly finds renewed existence as it is

reformulated and thought in the mind of the poet. There are no emotions or feelings in the poem, only

perceptions, memories, acts of reflection and speculation. The poem imitates or enacts a mental process of

creating a poem.

Like Berkeley’s mind that frames or constitutes “all the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth”

(Rodriguez Monegal, 1981, p. 181), the speaker in “Dawn” is an impersonal wanderer who sustains the entire

city of Buenos Aires in his consciousness and also threatens it with annihilation if he ceases to constitute or

dream it. Perhaps the physical blindness of the speaker (not necessarily just an autobiographical reference)

emphasizes the constitutive, fabricating process of perception that makes possible the vision of the city

sustained in his “dreaming” (Borges, 1962, p. 208) consciousness. This poem, like many others, moves from

revelation, dreaming, and creation to a moment of apocalypse and annihilation, particularly the annihilation of


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personal consciousness. The poet or reader, who reads, and in reading, re-lives and reconstitutes the poem,

exhibits cosmogonic and apocalyptic powers of creativity. The city only exists as long and in so far as it is

sustained in the wakened consciousness of the poet. Similarly the reader might suppose that the poem, like an

idea, only exists in so far as it is read, or rethought, transformed in the mind of a new reader, and, if the reader

ceases reading the poem, it ceases to exist.

Visible Unrealities

Another constitutive, sustaining consciousness appears in the story “The Circular Ruins”, where the

epigraph after the title, before the story even begins, evokes the reader’s cosmogonic, apocalyptic powers as a

Reader: “And if he left off dreaming about you… ” (Borges, 1962, p. 45). The writer has left it to the reader to

complete this interrupted quotation, and, if he does so, “you would cease to exist”. The opening lines of the

story—“No one saw him disembark in the unanimous night… ” (Borges, 1962, p. 45)—are footnotes to the

Berkeleyan quotations above. The protagonist or dreamer of this story is a powerful magician, evocative of a

Hermetic magus, who dreams a man into existence only to discover at the end of the story that he too is being

dreamed. The magician who dreams a man into existence resembles both a writer and a reader. The infinite

regress through which this story is fabricated—the dreamer within a dreamer includes the Reader as Berkeleyan

constitutive and sustaining consciousness (the creative “unanimous night” out of which a poem, like “Dawn” or

a story like “The Circular Ruins” can emerge). The new element in this myth of dreaming a fiction into

existence is the idea that our dreaming is dreamed. The logic of this infinite regress is unavoidable: The reader

is dreaming the story into existence, almost as if it was an actual reality, but the reader’s dreaming is dreamed,

by Borges or by the fiction as a text for the reading. The reader’s reading is not a spontaneous evocation of

vision, but an artifice, as artificial as the writing of the fiction. The illusion of reality the reader succumbs to is

only the result of enchanting himself into taking his “dreamed son” as an autonomous being. The reading would

appear to be determined by a prior text or by the writer’s “combinatory games” (Borges, 1962, p. 213) with his

verbal structure, not merely the evanescent and vanishing mental vision of the Eternal Spirit’s consciousness.

As writers and readers the readeris composed of texts and schemata, alphabets and artifacts, not merely mental

perceptions and ideas.

We begin to see here in this story, as in the “tremendous conjecture” of “Dawning” that denied or rejected

poetics of the poem or fiction as a prior text, repudiated by Borges as a mere “verbal algebra”. The magician of

“The Circular Ruins” exercises his cosmogonic powers in dreaming another man into existence and “imposing”

him on reality:

The purpose that guided him was not impossible, though supernatural. He wanted to dream a man; he wanted to dream him in minute entirety and impose him on reality. This magic project had exhausted the entire expanse of his mind…. (Rodriguez Monegal, 1981, p. 124)

This apparition, nourished by the very mental life of the dreamer, starts out a dream or fiction, but

“gradually, he began to accustoming him to reality”. The language used in this story for the process of

dreaming subtly implies that, if the dreamed man resembles a fiction, the work of fiction is not just a “copy” of

reality, but interpenetrates with reality, gradually assuming its own autonomous existence along with the rest of

the universe generated by the dreaming Consciousness. The climax and conclusion of the story is a sudden

revelation that contradicts this illusion of actual presence or existence. The dreamer encounters a “visible


343

unreality” when the fire encircling the ruins of the burned temple does not burn but only caresses his flesh:

He walked toward the sheets of flame. They did not bite his flesh, they caressed him and flooded him without heat or combustion. With relief, with humiliation, with terror, he understood that he also was an illusion, that someone was dreaming him. (Rodriguez Monegal, 1981, p. 127)

The Magician in “The Circular Ruins” anticipates another Magician in Borges’ essay (devoted to a history

of the idea of infinite regress), “Avatars of the Tortoise”:

“The greatest magician (Novalis has memorably written) would be the one who would cast over himself a spell so complete that he would take his own phantasmagorias as autonomous appearances. Would not this be our case?” I conjecture that this is so. We (the undivided divinity operating within us) have dreamt the world. We have dreamt it as firm, mysterious, visible, ubiquitous in space and durable in time; but in its architecture we have allowed tenuous and eternal crevices of unreason which tell us it is false. (Borges, 1962, p. 208)

This architecture of the dream is the text of the fiction, a text that requires artifice in our fabrication. No

matter how much Borges rejects and repudiates the concept of the fiction as a “mere verbal algebra,” the Writer

and Reader, like the dreamer in “The Circular Ruins”, resemble Novalis’s Magician, and certain poems of

philosophical speculation and stories like “The Circular Ruins” constructed out of philosophical puzzles and

paradoxes resemble those “philosophies” Borges evokes in “Avatars of the Tortoise”:

It is venturesome to think that a coordination of words (philosophies are nothing more than that) can resemble the universe very much. It is also venturesome to think that of all these illustrious co-ordinations, one of them—at least in an infinitesimal way—does not resemble the universe a bit more than the others. I have examined those which enjoy a certain prestige; I venture to affirm that only in the one formulated by Schopenhauer have I recognized some trait of the universe. According to this doctrine, the world is a fabrication of the will. Art—always—requires visible unrealities. Let it suffice for me to mention one: the metaphorical or numerous or carefully accidental diction of the interlocutors in a drama … Let us admit what all idealists admit: the hallucinatory nature of the world. Let us do what no idealist has done: seek unrealities which confirm that nature. We shall find them, I believe, in the antinomies of Kant and in the dialectic of Zeno. (Borges, 1962, pp. 207-208)

That is, the universe should exhibit, like the fiction “The Circular Ruins”, the “visible unrealities” of

Zeno’s dialectic, the principle of infinite regress.

Conclusions

In the dreamed and dreaming world of Borges’ fiction, objects, ideas, and people do not retain their

separate roles and identities but merge, exchange roles, and symbolize each other through such co-ordinations

of words as the avatars of infinite regress he discusses in “Avatars of the Tortoise”. One idea or poetics, like

dreaming, can resemble or require it’s opposite. The reader requires a prior text to copy, translate, and recreate,

and that text only exists as a fictional microcosm in so far as it is being read by a Reader who is able to

actualize the revelation only imminent within it.

References Borges, J. L. (1957). El Aleph (The Aleph). Buenos Aires: Emece. Borges, J. L. (1960). Otras inquisiciones (Other inquisitions). Buenos Aires: Emece. Borges, J. L. (1962). Labyrinths: Selected stories and other writings. D. A. Yates, & J. E. Irby, (Eds.). New York: A New

Directions Book. Borges, J. L. (1966). Other inquisitions: 1937-1952. (R. Simms, Trans.). New York: Washington Square Press. Borges, J. L. (1967). A personal anthology. A. Kerrigan, (Ed.). New York: Grove Press.


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Borges, J. L. (1970). The Alephand other stories 1933-1969: Together with commentaries and an autobiographical essay. (N. T. di. Giovanni, (Ed.), Trans.).New York: Bantam.

McAllister, R. (1962). Borges’ “El Aleph” and Poe’s “The Fall of the House of Usher: Two studies in Gothic romance”. In A. R. Becker (Ed.), Visions of the fantastic. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Press.

Rodriguez Monegal, E. (1972). Borges: The Reader as Writer. TriQuarterly, 25, 102-143. Rodriguez Monegal, E., & Reid, A. (Eds.). (1981). Borges, a reader: A selection from the writings of Jorge Luis Borges. New

York: Dutton.


Translation of Allusions in Fortress Besieged

ZHANG Qun-xing

Beijing Information Science and Technology University, Beijing, China

The wide application of Chinese and foreign allusions is a big feature of QIAN Zhong-shu’s only novel and

masterpiece Fortress Besieged, which was first published in 1947. The paper makes an attempt to categorize and

analyze the strategies in translating allusions adopted by Jeanne Kelly and Nathan K. Mao in the only English

version. The strategies include literal translation, literal translation plus endnote, literal translation plus explanation

added in the text, interpretation of the implied meaning plus endnote, and interpretation of the implied meaning in

the text. In particular, the strategy of literal translation plus endnote is mostly adopted. This is indicative of the

translators’ wish to be as faithful as possible to the source text. What’s more, the literal translation strategy and use

of endnotes is of a big help to communicate the Chinese culture to foreigners.

Keywords: allusion, Fortress Besieged, translation strategies

Introduction

QIAN Zhong-shu ranks among the most important writers and literary critics in the 20th-century Chinese

literature field. His masterpiece and only novel of his whole life Wei Cheng (1991), with the English translation

of Fortress Besieged, which was published in the year of 1980 by Indiana University Press, enjoys high

reputation home and abroad. The theme of the novel derives from a French old saying which reads “people who

are outside the fortress want to break into it, while those who are trapped in the fortress desire to escape”. It is a

comedy of manners with much picaresque humor, as well as a scholar’s novel, a satire, a commentary on

courtship and marriage, and a study of one contemporary man. It can be compared to The Scholars (1749) in the

1940s of China. Hsia (1961) highly praised the novel’s comic exuberance and satire, acclaiming it as “the most

delightful and carefully wrought novel in modern Chinese literature; it is perhaps also its greatest novel” (p. 441).

QIAN Zhong-shu, from a special perspective, offers a realistic description of the contradictory state of mind

and character flaws of the middle-class Chinese intellectuals deeply influenced by the Western and Chinese

cultures in the Republican era. QIAN’s enormous knowledge, rich imagination, and humorous satire make a

vivid impression on readers of one generation after another. In particular, the wide use of Chinese and foreign

allusions stands out as a big feature of Fortress Besieged, making it a unique literary masterpiece in China’s

modern literature history. The application of allusions helps to depict characters, stimulate plot development,

highlight the ironic effect, and deepen the theme of the novel.

ZHANG Qun-xing, associate professor, Foreign Languages School, Beijing Information Science and Technology University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

TRANSLATION OF ALLUSIONS IN FORTRESS BESIEGED 346

Definition of Allusion

Allusions have long been cherished as the crystallization of specific cultures. According to Webster’s New

Collegiate Dictionary (1973), allusion is an implied or indirect reference to someone or something. Barton and

Hudson (1997) defines allusion as “an indirect or explicit reference by one text to another text, to a historical

occurrence, or to myths and legends” (p. 9). Leppihalme (1997) defines allusion as “a figure of speech that

compares aspects or qualities of counterparts in history, mythology, scripture, literature, popular or

contemporary culture” (p. 6). As Wheeler (1979) puts it, “allusion helps to elucidate the meaning of each text and

to indicate the literary modes and conventions in which its author works” (p. 5). Allusions have been widely

applied in literature as one figure of speech. When an allusion is incorporated into another context, it acquires a

double meaning, and its original meaning gives way to the secondary meaning closely related to the context. In

short, allusion is an economical means of calling upon history, mythology, Holy Scriptures and other literary

works that author and reader are assumed to share (Dastjerdi & Sahebhonar, 2008).

Allusions usually derive from such origins as historical events, mythology, literary works, popular legend or

folklore, fables, customs, and old sayings. The writer who adopts an allusion not only reuses the language of the

original source, but also deliberately intends that the reader should recover the source context and appreciate the

semantic interplay between the original and the new use. Apparently, allusions, as culture-bound elements, resist

translation, and rendering them successfully depend largely on the translator’s familiarity with their reference.

Thus, allusion poses a troublesome challenge for translators. The famous Israeli translation theorist Lefevere

(1992) argues that allusion is what cultures “develop their own shorthand”, and its translation points to “the final,

real aporia” (p. 56). Translating allusions is a demanding task due to the fact that allusions have specific meanings

in the culture and language in which they arise but not necessarily in others. Allusive meaning is likely to be lost

in translation from one language into another if only the surface referential sense is rendered into the target

language. Translation of allusions, thus, involves two language cultures as well as literary and pragmatic aspects

on the textual level. Indeed, translating allusions is a challenging task. Without appropriate translation, allusions

may turn out to be the cause of much confusion for target readers especially when they know little about the

source language and culture.

Translation Strategies of Allusions in Fortress Besieged

Since its publication in 1947, Fortress Besieged has been translated into English, French, Japanese, German,

Russian, and some other languages. The English version, issued in 1979, is a joint effort of Jeanne Kelly and

Nathan K. Mao. Their translation has made Fortress Besieged the first Chinese novel ever listed in the

Penguin Classics.

According to statistics, there are more than 100 allusions descending from many sources in the novel. Some

derive from ancient stories, including fairy tales, legends, historical events, religious stories, fables, and so forth;

some come from poetic lines, statements of literary classics home and abroad, like works of ancient philosophers

such as Confucius, Sijing (The Book of Songs) (n.d.), The Bible (n.d.), Aesop’s Fables (n.d.), Arabian Nights

(n.d.), and etc.; some develop from the names of famous historical figures, names of places and things, people’s

titles, and so on; and some are from proverbs and old sayings. The content of the allusions also covers a wide

range, including literature, philosophy, religion, medicine, biology, and military tactics. The wide use of allusions


in Fortress Besieged makes it an extremely challenging job to translate. The English version Fortress Besieged

can be regarded as a good example of literal translation. Generally speaking, most of the allusions are translated

literally. Annotation, endnote in particular, is another widely used strategy. Besides, interpretation of the implied

meaning directly in the text is also used by the translators. In the following, the specific strategies adopted in the

English version will be analyzed with examples.

Literal Translation

When it comes to some allusions originating from Chinese ancient stories or poems, translators translate

literally (see example (1)-(3)):

(1) 他心境不好，准责备儿子从前不用功，急时抱佛脚，也许还来一堆“亡羊补牢，教学相长”的

教训，更受不了。(QIAN, 1991, p. 202)

If his father were in a bad mood, he would undoubtedly rebuke him for not having studied harder before and

only cramming everything in at the last minute. There might even be admonitions about “Repairing the fold after

the sheep are lost”, or “One learns as one teachers” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 210).

(2) 这真是“有缘千里来相会”了。(QIAN, 1991, p. 4)

It is certainly a case of “fate bringing people together from a thousand li away” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 6).

(3) 他虽然知道唐人“欲穷千里目，更上一层楼”的好诗，并没有乘电梯。(QIAN, 1991, p. 303)

Tough he knew the lovely T’ang poem, “For a thousand li view, ascend another flight of stairs”, he did not

take the elevator (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 316).

QIAN Zhong-shu not only used Chinese allusions, but also well knew English ones. As to those familiar to

English readers, the translators directly adopt literal translation (see example (4)-(5)):

(4)“也许人家讲你像狐狸，吃不到葡萄就说葡萄酸。”(QIAN, 1991, p. 132)

“Some people might say you are like the fox who couldn’t reach the grapes and complained that they were

sour” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 137).

(5) 上第一课，他像创世纪里原人阿大(Adam)唱新生禽兽的名字，以后他连点名簿子也不带了。

(QIAN, 1991, p. 201)

At the first class Hung-chien was like Adam in the Book of Genesis calling out the names of the newly

created animals. After that, he didn’t even bring his roll book (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 208).

The allusion adopted in Example 1 comes from Aesop’s Fables, “The Fox and the Grape”, which is a

well-known story to the western readers. In Example 2, Adam and Book of Genesis are household names to

English speakers. Therefore, word for word translation would not hinder the readers’ understanding.

Literal Translation Plus Endnote About Background Information

Endnote is a commonly used translation compensation strategy, especially in translating culture-bound

elements. A great number of allusions applied in the novel are closely related to ancient Chinese culture.

Translators offered many endnotes to introduce to target readers the relevant background information, including

the origins, related stories or persons, after literally translating the allusions in the text (see example (6)-(8)):

(6) 方鸿渐笑道：“《毛诗》说：‘窈窕淑女，寤寐求之；求之不得，寤寐思服。’他写这种信，

是地道中国文化的表现。”(QIAN, 1991, p. 80)

“As the poem from the Book of Odes goes, ‘The noble young lady,/Waking and sleeping he sought her;/He


sought her but could not find her,/Waking and sleeping he longed for her’. His letters are a manifestation of

genuine Chinese culture”, Hung-chien said with a grin (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 83).

Endnote: Literally, to harbor the amorous thoughts of spring. An allusion from the Book of Odes (Shi jing),

a collection of 305 songs dating from about 1100 to 600 B.C. The arrangement is attributed to Confucius, who

considered the book a model of poetic expression (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 360).

(7) 鸿渐给酒摆布得失掉自制力道：“反正你会摆空城计”。(QIAN, 1991, p. 89)

Under the influence of alcohol, Hung-chien had lost his self-control, as he blurted out, “Anyway, you could

always pull the ‘empty-town bluff’” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 91).

Endnote: A reference to a story in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms in which Chukuo Liang, left to

defend a town with no soldiers, feigned nonchalance by playing music in the tower on the town walls to give the

enemy commander the impression that the town was confident and well prepared for an attack (Kelly & Mao,

2011, p. 363).

(8) 遯翁一天听太太批评亲家母，灵感忽来，日记上添上了津彩的一条，说他现在才明白为什么两

家攀亲要叫“结为秦晋”⋯⋯ (QIAN, 1991, pp. 299-300)

One day after hearing his wife criticize Mrs. Sun, Tun-weng in a sudden inspiration added a splendid

passage to his diary stating that now at last he understood why two families seeking a marriage alliance called it

“joining together as Ch’in and Tsin” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 312).

Endnote: During the Ch’un Ch’iu period (722-481 B.C.), the royal families of the states of Ch’in and Tsin

formed marital alliances one generation after another. Thus the phrase, “joining together as Ch’in and Tsin”,

means to be allied in marriage (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 373).

Literal Translation Plus Endnote Serving as Explanation

In some endnotes, translators offer a clearer explanation about the meaning of the allusion without

presenting the relevant historical or cultural information. In the text its literal meaning is translated (see example

(9)-(11)):

(9) 苏小姐理想的自己是：“艳如桃李，冷若冰霜，”⋯⋯ (QIAN, 1991, p. 13)

Miss Su, who pictured herself in the words of the familiar saying, “as delectable as peach and plum and as

cold as frost and ice”, … (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 16).

Endnote: A standard description of a woman who appears cold and stern. It usually describes a virtuous

maiden or widow (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 355).

(10) 以后飞机接连光顾，大有绝世侍人一顾倾城、再顾倾国的风度。(QIAN, 1991, p. 36)

Later, the planes kept coming in much the same manner as the peerless beauty whose “one glance could

conquer a city and whose second glance could vanquish an empire” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 40).

Endnote: An expression which describes superlative beauty; it is equivalent of Helen of Troy in Western

literature (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 358).

(11) 鸿渐道：“啊哟，你又来了！朋友只好绝交。你既然不肯结婚，连内助也没有，真是‘赔了

夫人又折朋’。” (QIAN, 1991, p. 278)

“Ai yo! There you go again. I might as well cut off my friends. Since you refuse to get married, I don’t even

have a wife. It’s a true case of ‘Losing a wife, and having one’s friendship destroyed’” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 289).


Endnote: Losing at both ends, from a story in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms. (Kelly & Mao, 2011,

p. 372)

Literal Translation Plus Explanation Added In the Text

Translators, on several occasions, directly explained a few allusions to make a supplement to help target

readers understand the true meaning (see example (12)-(14)):

(12) 他所说的“让她三分”，不是“三分流水七分尘”的“三分”，而是“天下只有三分月色”

的“三分”。 (QIAN, 1991, p. 107)

The “three parts” referred to in “give in to her three parts” was not the “three parts” of “three parts water,

seven parts dust”, but rather the “three parts” as in “There are but three parts moonlight in all the world”, which

simply means total surrender (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 109).

(13) “这次走路真添了不少经验。总算功德圆满，取经到了西天⋯⋯”(QIAN, 1991, p. 179)

“… we’ve really gained a lot of experience during this trip. Ultimately everything came out well, and we

reached the Western Paradise [Buddhist heaven]… ” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 186).

(14) 斜川笑道：“别胡闹，我对教书没有兴趣，‘若有水田三百亩，来年不作猢狲王’；你们为

什么不陪我到香港去找机会？”(QIAN, 1991, p. 123)

“Don’t by silly”, said Hsieh-chiuan with a smile, “I’ve no interest in teaching. As they say, ‘If I had three

hundred mou of paddy fields, I wouldn’t be a monkey king [i.e., teacher] next year’. Why don’t you both go to

Hong Kong with me and look for something there?” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 126).

Interpretation of the Implied Meaning Plus Endnote

As to some allusions of a typical Chinese tradition, like Buddhism, translators directly explain the implied

meaning in the text with endnotes made to introduce some relevant cultural information (see example (15)-(16)):

(15) 只可惜这些事实虽然有趣，演讲时用不着它们，该另抱佛脚。(QIAN, 1991, p. 33)

Such a pity that while these items of information were all very interesting, they could not be used in the

lecture. He would have to read something else (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 36).

Endnote: Literally, “clasp the feet of Budda”. The idiom means that when someone gets into trouble through

lack of due preparation, he seeks help at the last critical moment (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 357).

(16) 这事不成，李梅亭第一个说“侥幸”，还说：“失马安知非福。⋯⋯”(QIAN, 1991, p. 66)

When the plan fell through, Li was the first to say, “Thank God”, adding, “It may be a blessing in

disguise… ” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 170).

Endnote: Literally, “just like the old frontiersman losing a horse, who knows but that which seems a

misfortune may be a blessing in disguise” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 354).

Interpretation of the Implied Meaning

Some allusions are translated by directly explaining the implied meaning without endnotes added outside

the text. But this strategy is seldom applied (see example (17)-(20)):

(17) 那女人平日就有一种孤芳自赏、落落难合的神情——大宴会上没人敷衍的来宾或喜酒席上过

时未嫁的少女所常有的神情——此刻更流露出嫌恶，黑眼镜也遮盖不了。(QIAN, 1991, p. 3)

Ordinarily the young woman had a rather conceited, aloof expression, much like that of a neglected guest at

a large party or an unmarried maiden at a wedding feast (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 5).


(18) “换句话说，像方先生这样聪明，是喜欢目不识丁的笨女人。”(QIAN, 1991, p. 75)

In other words, someone as intelligent as Mr. Fang would prefer a stupid, illiterate woman. (Kelly & Mao,

2011, p. 78).

(19) 辛楣道：“今天本来也请了董太太，董先生说她有事不能来。董太太是美人，一笔好中国画，

跟我们这位斜川兄真是珠联璧合。”(QIAN, 1991, p. 84)

Hsin-mei said, “I also invited Mrs. Tung, but Mrs. Tung said she was too busy to come. Mrs. Tung is a

beauty and a good painter. She and Hsieh-ch’üan make a perfect couple” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. P86).

(20) “⋯⋯‘莫遣佳期更后期’，这话很有道理。⋯⋯”(QIAN, 1991, p. 223)

“…As they say, ‘Don’t put off what is best done now’. That’s quite right… ” (Kelly & Mao, 2011, p. 231).

Conclusions

Most of the allusions in Fortress Besieged are classical, historical, literary, and cultural allusions which are

not to be understood from superficial perusal. In the English translation, Kelly and Mao mainly adopt the strategy

of literal translation plus endnote. This is indicative of the translators’ wish to be as faithful as possible to the

source text. More than 200 endnotes facilitate the readers’ understanding of the novel. Without them, QIAN’s

fabulous satire would at times become inaccessible to comprehension. Besides, the literal translation strategy is

also of a big help to communicate the Chinese culture to foreigners.

References

Barton, E., & Hudson, A. (1997). A contemporary guide to literary terms with strategies for writing essays about literature. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Dastjerdi, H. V., & Sahebhonar, S. (2008). Lost in translation: An intertextual study of personal proper-name allusions. Across Languages and Cultures, 9(1), 41–55

Hsia, C. T. (1961). A history of Modern Chinese fiction. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. Lefevere, A. (1992). Translation, rewriting and the manipulation of literary fame. London and New York: Routledge. Leppihalme, R. (1997). Culture bumps: An empirical approach to the translation of allusions. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. QIAN, Z. S. (1991). Wei Cheng. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House. QIAN, Z. S. (2011). Fortress Besieged. (J. Kelly, & N. K. Mao. Trans.). Beijing: Foreign Langauge Teaching and Research Press. Wheeler, M. (1979). The art of allusion in Victorian fiction. London: Macmillan Press Ltd..


Girl Power in Cashore’s Graceling

Suryo Tri Saksono, Syarifah, SS

Universitas Trunojoyo Madura, Madura, Indonesia

Girl Power in Cashore’s Graceling is the title of this study. This study uses radical feminism as the theory, because

the main character, Katsa, is the portrait of radical feminist. Katsa breaks the traditional gender roles and patriarchal

ideology which dismiss and underestimate women as the inferior and subordinate from men dominance. Katsa as

the main character is described as a woman who breaks the traditional gender roles by her extraordinary hobbies

and capabilities, such as fighting, and killing. She also portrays radical-libertarian feminist who is showed by her

principle and commitment on marriage, those are her refusal on marriage and her objection to have children.

Keywords: feminist criticism, radical feminism, radical-libertarian feminist

Introduction

Normally, the patriarchal ideology works to keep women and men in traditional gender roles and thereby

maintain male dominance (Tyson, 1999). Patriarchal recognizes women as the inferior and men as the

dominance. Nowadays, as a way to protest this condition, women raise their thought and their ideas then it is

poured into beautiful works.

In addition, nowadays there are many women who produce beautiful works based on their thought. One of

them is Virginia Woolf. She is regarded as a feminist author. She draws her thinking and ideas into beautiful

and critical works, such as Mrs. Dalloway (1925) and A Room of One’s Own (1929). Those great works tell

feminism and lesbian. Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own was a work which is criticized by male authors, and a

new model for female identity.

Moreover, Graceling (2008) is one of the most popular novels which describe radical-libertarian feminist

which is portrayed by the main character, Katsa. It describes about woman who has the extraordinary hobbies

and capabilities which break the traditional gender roles. It also describes about Katsa who is portrait of radical-

libertarian feminist because of her principle and commitment on marriage.

Kristin Cashore is an American fantasy author, which her debut novel is Graceling. Cashore is a

daydreamer woman as mentioned in her biography. Her novels grew from her daydreams (Cashore, 2008).

Because of her uniqueness hobby and also her highest imagination, her work got some praises. Cashore can

mix and combine several genres such as fantasy, romance, also adventure into her work, Graceling.

Review of Theory

Feminist Criticism

Tyson (1999) states that feminist criticism examines the ways in which literature (and other cultural

Suryo Tri Saksono, Ph.D., English Department, Universitas Trunojoyo Madura. Syarifah, SS, Freelance English Teacher, English Department, Universitas Trunojoyo Madura.

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productions), reinforces or undermines the economic, political, social, and psychological oppression of women.

It means that feminist criticism describes the oppression toward the women in some position and field such as

economic, political, social, and also psychological. Feminist criticism tries to reform the traditional gender roles

which underestimate women from men.

Patriarch cast women as a symbol of weakness, modesty, and coward. According to patriarchal concept,

feminists are not able to success in their business. They are not allowed to explore their opinion, idea in many

spheres. It means that feminist is considered as inferior rather than superior human beings (Tyson, 1999).

Besides, Patriarchal concepts also assume that women are the subject of protection rather than the object of the

protection. They also considered feminists as submission. They encourage feminists to tolerate familial abuse,

and wait patiently for men rescuing. Then, marriage is the only desirable reward for right decision to protect

feminists for dangerous, as Cinderella’s story which is criticized by feminists (Tyson, 1999). It can be

concluded that patriarchal and traditional gender roles consider women as the object of protection and men as

the subject of protection.

In addition, in every domain where patriarchy reigns, women are marginalized, defined into the others,

such as excluding women from equal access to leadership and decision-making positions (in the family as well

as in politics, academia, and the corporate world), paying men higher wages than women for doing the same

job (Tyson, 1999). Tong (2009) also states that women in United States are pushed into the specific jobs like

nurse, teaching, and childcare. They are taken away from jobs in business, science, technology, engineering,

and mathematics. It can be described that patriarchal ideology and traditional gender roles keep women in

particular positions. They are inferior and men as the superior.

Otherwise, according to Hannam (2007), feminism is a cultural as well as a political movement. It changes

the way women think and feel and affect how women and men live their lives and interpret the world. It means

that feminism changes the women’s way of thinking and their feeling, and then it changes their way to interpret

the world. Feminism makes their thought develop and be modern. So, the women can be more active rather

than passive. They can also be as what they want. They can handle some positions which are previously only

men can handle. Women are not only in the house, care their children and obey their husband as the traditional

gender roles but also find a job which they want.

Besides Marry Wollstonecraft in Hannam (2007) states that if women are given the same educational

opportunities as men they would become enlightened citizens, rational mothers, and if single, they will more

able to find employment. Marry’s powerful message changes women characters and reforms the traditional

gender roles. Moreover, women should also be given the opportunity and the chance in some positions such as

economical, educational, political field, to explore their idea and opinion, so they can be more active, rational,

and they will more able to find job.

Radical Feminism

Radical feminism analyzes the relationship between social inequality and sexual difference; the domination of women by men is seen to provide the foundation of social inequality, and the sexual oppression of women is seen to underlie the economic, cultural and social subordination of women. (Madsen, 2000, pp. 152-153)

Those statements describes that radical feminism examines the relationship between the inequality of

social and sexuality. These differences arise from the differences of women and men positions in some fields,


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such as economical, and social cultural. Furthermore, according to radical feminist the domination of women

by men are caused because of the difference sexuality.

In addition, Tong (2009) reinforces that radical-libertarian feminists rejected the patriarchal assumption

toward gender and sex. They state that patriarchal roles concept toward gender and sex must be reformed.

There must be a separation between gender (masculine or feminine) and sex (male or female) because patriarch

uses clumsy and rigid gender roles to keep women as passive and men as the active. According to Oxford

dictionary masculine means having the qualities or appearance considered to be typical of or appropriate for

men (Hornby, 1995). Meanwhile, feminine means having the qualities or appearance considered characteristic

of women (Hornby, 1995). Besides, male means one of the sexes that do not give birth to babies (Hornby,

1995). Otherwise, female means one of the sexes that can give birth to children or produce eggs (Hornby, 1995).

It can be concluded that female and male refer to the sex. Meanwhile, male and female reflect to characteristic

and behavior.

Radical feminism has two branches which are radical-libertarian feminist and radical-cultural feminist.

These branches have different ideas and argument toward sexism.

The first branch of radical feminist is radical-libertarian feminists, who claim that biological motherhood

drains women physically and psychologically. Women should be free to use their old-controlling and the new

reproduction-assisting technologies by their own way and their terms. They also argue that women are free for

unwanted pregnancies or they can have children when they want them (premenopausally or postmenopausally).

They should be free how they want them (in their own womb or the other women), and with whom they want

them (a man, woman, or alone) (Tong, 2009). It means that women can control their reproduction biology.

They are allowed to be mothers or singles. They are free to choose their couple, with women, men, or alone. It

is strengthens by Mirro and Rogers (2007) statement that Radical-Libertarian feminists like to violate sexual

norms and believe that women should control every aspect of their sexuality. Women should control both of

their sexuality and reproduction.

Related to the explanation above, Echols (2009) delivers her ideas by his statement below:

Just because a woman is biologically a female does not mean she is destined to exhibit only feminine characteristics. Women can be masculine as well as feminine. They can choose their gender roles and identities, mixing and matching them at will. (p. 50)

Those quotations mean that although women are biologically female but they can destine and free to live

as masculine or feminine characteristic depend on their own choice. They also can mix them, become feminine

and masculine, and live with both of them, if they want it. Women can be as masculine as men. They are

allowed to express their style as feminine or masculine depend on their willingness.

In line with those statements, Shulamith Firestone, another radical-libertarian feminist, states that men and

women would be encouraged to mix and match feminine and masculine traits and behaviors in whatever

combination they wished (Tong, 2009). They can combine between feminine and masculine as they want.

Instead, Firestone believes that women and men would be encouraged to mix and match feminine and

masculine traits and behaviors in whatever combination they wished. In short, everyone is allowed to be

androgynous person in the world. Meanwhile, Androgyny means having both and female characteristic

(Hornby, 1995). In addition, Mirro and Rogers (2007) state androgyny means to have both male and female

characteristics. So, it can be concluded that everyone can be masculine and feminine at the same time as they wish.


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The last branch of radical feminist is radical-cultural feminist which rejects the radical-libertarian feminist

opinion. They deliver their thought by this statement below:

Radical-cultural feminists expressed the view that it is better for women to be strictly female/feminine. Women, they said, should not try to be like men. On the contrary, they should try to be more like women, emphasizing the values and virtues culturally associated with women (“interdependence, community, connection, sharing, emotion, body, trust, absence of hierarchy, nature, immanence, process, joy, peace and life”). (Tong, 2009, p. 50)

Radical-cultural feminists have an opposite argument and statement about the sexism. They argue that

women should not be like men. Moreover, they should be feminine as their fates. They should try to be more

like women as their sex. They should emphasize and support the cultural values and virtues. They should be

feminine as the cultural values and virtues which flare up in the large society. Then, women should recognize

and emphasize the cultural values and virtues of men as the masculine and stronger than them. Moreover, they

argue that for the ideal women they should appreciate the cultural values and virtues among themselves. They

should recognize that all of women are female nature, but the influences of the men should make them better.

Discussions

Katsa’s Personality Breaks the Traditional Gender Roles

Katsa is the main character who has extraordinary hobbies and occupation such as lady fighter, lady killer

and protector. Being a lady fighter, lady killer and protector mean that she is strong, aggressive, competitive,

and planful which break the traditional gender roles perception about women personalities. Tong (2009) states

that women are affectionate, obedient, and responsive to sympathy, and approval, cheerful, kind and friendly

human beings.

Katsa as an Extraordinary Woman

Katsa as a strong woman.

As the previous explanation, women are considered as weak human being, but Katsa is a different woman.

She has an extraordinary power and strength. It is showed by her action in carrying Po’s grandfather on her

shoulders alone. She can defeat a lion alone. In this novel, her strength is confessed by men in this novel. As

traditional gender roles concept is related to men, but in this novel Katsa is described as a strong woman (Tyson,

1999). That is why she is a woman who breaks the traditional gender roles by her extraordinary strength.

Besides, Katsa has an extraordinary stamina. When she fights with Po, she never gets tired. Although, Po

hit her for more times, she never feel hurt. Hence, Po confesses her strength and her stamina. In this novel,

Katsa is portrayed as strength woman and Po is described as a weak woman, because men are not allowed to

confess her pain and their weakness in front of men or even women (Tyson, 1999). But, Po confesses his pain

and his weakness in front of Katsa. Po’s personality is contradictory to traditional gender roles concept of men

characteristics. Otherwise, Katsa’s personality is not identical to female characteristic.

Katsa as a woman who likes to fight.

In the story, Katsa is a woman who is portrayed to have the same capability as men. She is a fighter. She

likes fighting very much. She practices it every day. She usually practices her fighting to the prisoners who

executed to death. Fighting is her hobby. She can defeat big numbers of her enemies alone. She has a good

capability in fighting. Her good capability is confessed by men in this novel. Those characteristics are not

reflected to women’s characteristics which are stated by Tyson (1999). Generally speaking, Women just stay


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passive and stay calm with their modesty, frailty, and timidity (Tyson, 1999). Otherwise, being a lady fighter

means that she is a brave, aggressive, and planful woman. Hence, Katsa is described as a woman who breaks

the traditional gender by her personalities.

In addition, she delivers her hobby, fighting, by teaching her friends, Bitterblue, Po, Skye, guards, and the

messengers. Almost of her students are men, except Bitterblue. It means that her capability is fighting is better

than men around her. By having a particular position, lady fighter, from Middluns means that she is an

aggressive, brave, planful, and competitive woman. Those personalities are not identical to female personalities.

According to Tyson, female are symbols of gentle, submissive, virginal, and angelic, as traditional gender roles

concepts (Tyson, 1999). Because of that, Katsa’s personalities break the traditional gender roles.

In addition, in delivering her hobby, fighting, Katsa always wears trousers and hood. Otherwise, being a

woman is not only identified by characteristics but also by appearances. Katsa’s appearance does not reflect

feminist appearances. Hooks (2000) states that before women’s liberation all females young and old were

socialized by sexist thinking to believe that our value rested solely on appearance and whether or not we were

perceived to be good looking, especially by men. Nowadays, for women who had never been comfortable in

dresses and skirts, all these changes were exciting. Today they can appear trivial to females who have been able

to freely choose what they want to wear from childhood on (Hooks, 2000). Katsa does not restrict herself by

wearing female’s clothes as the majority of society assumption. Instead of wearing dress or skirt, Katsa prefers

to wear hood and trouser.

Katsa as a woman with a strong killing instinct.

Katsa has a particular position in Middluns Kingdom. She is a lady killer. Her name is well-known around

Middluns and the other kingdoms. So, everybody who meets her will be frightened. She is a cruel lady killer.

She was eight years old when she killed her cousin by her bare hand. For the first time, King Randa, her uncle,

who knows her capability uses her to be his lady killer. In the end, she rebels King rules and she does what she

wants. She will kill someone who will restrict her freedom, even King Randa.

Katsa is described as a woman who likes to fight, because of that she prefers to be a lady killer. It means

that Katsa is a cruel, aggressive, planful, and ambitious woman. Those personalities do not relate to traditional

gender roles perception about women personalities. According to Tong, traditional gender roles keep women

passive (“affectionate, obedient, responsive to sympathy and approval, cheerful, kind and friendly”) and men

active (“tenacious, aggressive, curious, ambitious, planful, responsible, original and competitive”) (Tong, 2009).

By being a lady killer means that she takes off her feminine characteristics and changes them into

masculine. It means that she is a portrait of radical-libertarian feminist who has a freedom to be masculine,

feminine characteristic (Tong, 2009). Otherwise, Katsa prefers to be masculine woman rather than feminine

woman.

Katsa as a protective woman.

Generally speaking, women are a portrait of the object of protection and men are the subject of protection

(Tong, 1999), but Katsa proves that woman can be a protector as well as man. It can be seen by her action in

saving her friends, even her men around her. As an extraordinary woman with an extraordinary strength, Katsa

prefers to deliver her strength to be a protective woman. In this novel, her men are described as the object of

protection and Katsa is the subject of protection. Her men also confess her as the protector.

Related to the explanation above, Katsa will do everything to protect her friend. It can be seen when she


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protects Bitterblue from her father, King Leck. She climbs the snowy mountain and carries Bitteblue on her

shoulders. The author tells in this novel that there is no one can pass and climb that snowy mountain, but Katsa

can do that. In this mountain, she fights with lion which wants to attack her and she can defeat it lonely.

Being a protector, means she breaks the traditional gender roles which cast men as rational, strong,

protective, and deceive. Meanwhile, traditional gender roles cast women as emotional (irrational), weak,

nurturing, and submissive (Tyson, 1999). In this novel Katsa is described as the subject of protection and men

as the object of protection.

Katsa as the portrayal of radical-libertarian feminist.

Katsa is a main character, who portrays the radical feminist by her commitment not to marry and have any

children. As it has been already mentioned in the previous chapter—radical-libertarian feminist concept that

women have their freedom to marry men or be a single woman. They also have their freedom to have babies or

unwanted them (Tong, 2009).

Katsa’s Refusal on Marriage

In the majority of the world’s societies, marriage put women in a position subordinate to their husbands.

Marriage gives husbands great power over their wives and gives fathers greater power over their children

(Wishner-Hanks, 2004). It means that, marriage will keep women as the subordinate and men as the super

ordinate. Husband will hold the greatest power among children and wife. Because of that, she refuses to

marry man.

Besides, she never wants to be a wife. Being a wife, means that she has to lay in a bed with her husband,

bear baby. In her mind, being a wife means that she has to be a good wife, caring her husband, her children.

She should be a good mother for her children and should service her in his bed. She is afraid to lose her

freedom of life. She does not want to be inferior. It is in line with Tong’s (2009) statement that radical feminists

claim men’s control of both women’s sexuality and reproductive, their self-identity, and their self-esteem are

the most fundamental oppression. In her mind, a husband will oppress his wife’s sexuality and reproduction.

The husband will control her freedom of life. Because of those reasons, she refuses to be a wife. Hence, she is a

portrait of radical-libertarian feminist.

Although, she loves Po very much but she will never have him. Katsa wants to go away from Po’s side.

She does not belong to someone. In her mind, being a wife, she will do everything what her husband wants.

She cannot do that, because she wants to be free. Being a wife, she must send children and obey her husband’s

control, both in her sexuality and reproduction. Her reason of refusal on marriage is in line with Tong’s (2009)

statement that the men’s control toward women both in reproduction and sex is the most fundamental

oppression in their life.

In addition, she wants to be alone without the restriction or some roles of someone else. Being a wife, she

must be a good wife who must obey and respect her husband’s rules. She must respect her role as a wife.

Although, if Po will give her a freedom, but that freedom will not fully be her own, because she is not a single

woman. If she becomes a wife, she will make promises for her future. She has to be a good wife for her

husband. Katsa believes that if she becomes Po’s wife she will not have her freedom, even Po gives it. She

thinks that love will break her freedom. So, she does not want to be a wife. As the explanation in the previous

chapter, radical feminists allow women to express their sexual intention with men, women, or with themselves

(Tong, 2009). Here, Katsa chooses to be a single woman. She still holds her principle to be a single woman

tightly. Hence, Katsa is a portrait of radical feminist who wants to be free with her own decision.


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Shortly, Katsa will not ever marry men because she wants to be freedom without any restriction.

According Katsa, being a wife means she must be a good wife who must obey and respect her husband’s roles

and rules, nurture her children well. Hence, Katsa is a portrait of radical feminist who wants to hold her

principle as a woman tightly. Because of being a wife, she will be an inferior and subordinate and her husband

will be a superior and super-ordinate.

Katsa’s Objection to Have Children.

Katsa does not want to be a mother. Even, she never and will not wish having children. Thinking of

children makes her panic. Her principle in objection to have children relates to the radical-libertarian feminist

who give women freedom to have or not have children. Here, Katsa is the portrait of radical feminist because of

her strong principle. Besides that, her unwillingness to have children related to Tong argument that woman are

allowed for bearing children (premenopausally or postmenopausally) or objecting them (Tong, 2009). Hence,

Katsa is the portrayal of radical feminist.

In her mind, being wife and having children are the affront, because she will be his nurturing and

submissive woman. She has to be a good wife who will stay at home and preserves Giddon’s children. As

Tong’s (2009) statement that women are free to control their reproduction as they want. Here, Katsa chooses to

be a single woman without children, husband, even family. Instead of being a wife and a mother, Katsa prefers

to be a single woman.

Related to the explanation above, Katsa does not want to be Raffin’s, prince of Middluns, wife. She knows

that if she becomes his wife, automatically she has to be a Queen of Middluns. She has to be a mother for his

crown price or princess. She does not want to have them. Of course, she has to be a good woman. Hooks (2000)

states that feminists focus on reproductive rights is needed to protect and sustain our freedom. Katsa is a

portrait of feminist who wants to be free for controlling her reproductive by her objection to have children.

Shortly, Katsa’s principle relates to the radical-libertarian feminist who gives women freedom to have or

have not children. Here, Katsa is the portrait of radical feminist because of her strong principle. She just wants

to do what she wants without someone’s restriction.

Conclusions

After analyzing Kristin Cashore’s Graceling by using radical feminist criticism, it can be concluded that

the main character, Katsa, is a portrait of radical-libertarian feminist. It is known by her personalities which are

so different from traditional gender roles concept about women. She has extraordinary occupations which are

always related to the men normally, they are killer, fighter, and protector. She also has an extraordinary

strength, so she prefers to be lady killer and lady fighter. Here, Katsa tries to prove that women can be

everything that they want without paying attention to her gender and sexuality. Here, Katsa prefers to be

masculine woman. It reflects the radical-libertarian feminist concept that women have their freedom to be

masculine or feminine or mix them.

Katsa also has the strong principle and commitment. She will not ever marry men. Even with her beloved

man, Po. Although, Po promises her to give her freedom if she become his wife, but Katsa always refuses it.

She thinks that even he gives her freedom she still cannot do everything as she wants because she is a wife. So

that, she still holds her commitment.

Besides that, Katsa also never wants to be a mother. She will be panic if she thinks about babies. She


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cannot imagine if she will be a mother. She thinks that her freedom will be restricted by children by her side.

So that she makes decision to be a single woman, without husband and children by her side.

References Benhabib, S., & Cornell, D. (1987). Feminism as critique. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Cashore, K. (2008). Graceling. New York: Graphia Boston New York. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.. Dickens, P. (2010). Exploring anarcha-feminism: Marriage and freedom. Retrieved from

http://propertyistheft.wordpress.com/2010/05/04/exploring-anarcha-feminism-marriage-and-freedom/ Echols, A. (2009). Women’s and gender studies. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Ferguson, A., Philipson, I., Diamond, I., Quinby, L., Vance, C. S., & Snitow, A. B. (1984). Forum: The feminist sexuality debates.

Retrieved from http://www.kmu.edu.tw/~gigs/enrollment/doc/The_Feminist_Sexuality_Debates.pdf Hannam, J. (2007). Feminism: A short history of a big idea. London: Pearson Longman. Hook, B. (2000). Feminism is for everybody: Passionate politics. Cambridge: South End Press. Hornby, A. S. (1995). Oxford advanced learners dictionary international. London: Oxford University Press. Madsen, D. L. (2000). Feminist theory and literary practice. London: Pluto Press. Meade, T. A., & Wishner-Hanks, M. E. (2004). A companion to gender history. London: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.. Mirro, T., & Rogers, D. (2007). Absolutely “radical” pornography. Retrieved from

http://www.montclair.edu/media/montclairedu/equityanddiversity/Student.pdf Octavia, A. (2000). A study on the elements of feminism as seen through Hester’s characters in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The

Scarlet Letter (Master thesis, Surabaya: Universitas Kristen Petra Publisher). Rohemah, S. (2011). The manifestation of feminism (Master thesis, University Trunojoyo Madura). Tong, R. (2009). Feminist thought (3rd ed.). New York: West View Press. Tyson, L. (1999). Critical theory today. New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc.. Walters, M. (2005). Feminism: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.. WU, Y. J. (2012). Fatal attraction for teens—An analysis of Kristin Cashore’s Graceling. Retrieved from

http://www.shs.edu.tw/works/essay/2012/03/2012033017512237.pdf


A Study of the Styles of Early Taiwanese Bamboo Chairs

According to the Methodology of Style

Shih-Hsing Wu

National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu, Yunlin, Taiwan

Ying-Pin Cheng

Hsuan Chuang University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan

Chi-Hsiung Chen

National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Douliu, Yunlin, Taiwan

Handicrafts and furniture of bamboo once flourished in Taiwan during the 1970s and 80s but have since gradually

declined after that period of time. The viability of the handicrafts industry was greatly threatened along with there

being a real possibility of losing this traditional heritage. Nowadays, green products are a growing trend in the

fashion industry, and thus some Asian countries have realized the importance of using green products and its

development of cultural creative assets. The literature/study of the styles of traditional Taiwan bamboo arts are rare

but they are worth exploring. Therefore, the purposes of this study are as follows: (1) to explore the category of

traditional Taiwanese bamboo column furniture; and (2) to explore the backgrounds, forms, and contents of

traditional Taiwanese bamboo column furniture. The results show that: (1) traditional Taiwanese bamboo chairs

can be divided into eight categories: stool, side chair, slant-back reclining chair, tai-shi armchair, pair of gong-po

chairs, two-seat chairs, “mother & child” chairs, and other styles of chairs; and (2) traditional Taiwanese bamboo

column chairs styles originate from early Chinese Fujian and Guangdong provinces, and these bamboo chairs’

forms have imitated the wood furniture of the Ming and Qing dynasty furniture. However, the technology of the

enclosed-pipe structure is a special handicraft skill that reflects the early Taiwanese’ resourcefulness in farming

and fishing. We hope this paper can promote relevant and practical foundation research and studies.

Keyword: style, bamboo furniture, cultural identity industry, handicraft

Introduction

The town of Zhushan can be regarded as the main area for the design, creation, production, and sales of

Taiwanese bamboo craft and furniture. When the Taiwanese economy took off in the 70s-80s, there were

approximately 2,000 bamboo craft factories flourishing in this area. Alas, they have subsided with the passing of

the years (Wu, Cheng, & Chen, 2005).

Shih-Hsing Wu, Ph.D., bamboo glass workshop Learning Centres Chairman, Graduate School of Design, Doctoral Program,

National Yunlin University of Science and Technology. Ying-Pin Cheng, assistant professor, Department of Fashion Design, Hsuan Chuang University. Chi-Hsiung Chen, Ph.D., professor, Department of Creative Design, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology.

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Bamboo furniture can be treated as one of the specialty products unique to Taiwan. However, the dying out

of older generation traditional bamboo furniture artisans, coupled with the lack of attraction to the younger

learners in picking up the craftsmanship through vocational education, has brought on realistic worry about the

serious discontinuity in the passing on of this distinctly unique Taiwanese cultural industry (Lee, 2000; Wu,

Cheng, & Chen, 2004).

In response to the high regard for environmental and green products in today’s industrial design world

(Ehrenfeld, 1997), the bamboo-producing countries have all actively manipulated bamboo to develop as green

products in recent years (Chung & Yu, 2002). Bamboo grows speedily (Chung & Yu, 2002; Ghavami, 2005), is

environmentally friendly and allows diverse usages (West & Louys, 2007). Therefore, this opens up new

business opportunities, but the impact cast by the materials used is also a concern (Bovea & Vidal, 2004). The

current available bamboo furniture is still relatively rough. Some bamboo furniture from Asian countries has

inherited the traditional look, yet its low durability is a drawback that cannot fit the lifestyles of modern

customers. Today, some Asian countries are conscious of the important roles of cultural and creative industries in

future economic developments (Yusuf & Nabeshima, 2005). This has lead to the revival of the Taiwanese

bamboo furniture industry which once prospered but that was now also on the verge of extinction.

How can we get a grasp on the traditional style of bamboo craft in Taiwan when studying bamboo furniture

and other daily amenities? Though we may be able to get some ideas through 20th Century Taiwanese Bamboo

Crafts by Lee (2000), the book cannot provide a thorough idea as we explore things further. Since there is an

array of Taiwanese traditional bamboo, in order to facilitate the study of Taiwan’s traditional style of bamboo

amenities, this paper shall specifically focus on the study of chairs and other types of furniture made out of bamboo.

Based on the aforementioned research background and motivation, this paper sets the research goals to be as

follows: (1) to study the types of Taiwan’s traditional bamboo furniture; and (2) to study the background style,

form and content of Taiwan’s traditional bamboo chairs.

This study applies the research techniques of content analysis of the documents used in this multi-case study.

The resources of the case studies come from the pictures of bamboo furniture from “The Bamboo Daily

Amenities of Taiwanese residents in the 20th century” by Lee (2000) with the photos being filed for this study.

The collections and analysis of images are used in the techniques in analyzing data. Through literary review,

comparisons of pictures, and written materials, this study tries to dissect the style of Taiwanese traditional

bamboo furniture.

Literature Review

Taiwanese Bamboo Furniture

In 1943, Japanese folk crafts expert, Zong-yue Liu launched an investigative study in Taiwan. When he saw

the austerity of bamboo furniture, he was deeply joyed by its charm. He believed that the bamboo furniture,

displayed the beauty of the material and the uniqueness in structural design. He therefore held Taiwanese

traditional bamboo craft in high esteem (Lee, 2000).

As a matter of fact, bamboo was an indispensable material in ancient Taiwan. Ya-tang Lian (1878-1936)

considered that Taiwanese bamboo craft experts can make beds, coffee-tables, small and big baskets, as well as

daily amenities out of the bamboo, in The General History of Taiwan ( published in 1918) (Lee, 2000). Back then,


the weaving of slender bamboo strips was the part-time job of peasant women in their free time. The making of

big-scale furniture that involved chiseling had needed the men’s craftsmanship. The bamboo craft works have

gradually converted from traditional Fujian and Cantonese styles into Taiwan’s very own featured style (Lee, 2000).

According to current data, there were about three primary categories of bamboo furniture that were used in

early historical Taiwan (Lee, 2000, Wu, Cheng, & Chen, 2004, Wu, et al., 2005): (1) Drawing from Fujian and

Cantonese styles of the Ming dynasty, artisans were able to make furniture such as armchairs (for

scholars/bureaucrats), wash stands, flower stands, bambusa stenostachya shelves, reclining chairs, and bamboo

stools; (2) The daily usage style can be seen in bamboo tables, bamboo chairs, bamboo beds, bamboo stools,

children’s chairs, strollers, bamboo cabinets, and shelves; And (3) creative and artistic styles consisted of crown

chairs, mandarin duck—shaped pillows and strollers. In view of the design style, the two former categories

mainly take on the traditional forms used in wooden furniture. The third type is modified furniture integrated

with a modern design concept. In regards to the decorative concept, the three aforementioned categories apply

heat to bend the slender pieces of bamboo, and the carving of the bamboo, had partial usage of certain mixed

materials such as glass, rattan, metals, and plastics as embellishments to the form (Wu, et al., 2005).

Traditional bamboo furniture tends to imitate the forms used in wooden furniture. Yet bamboo is hollow and

has no xylem. Its fiber and stem are hard and grow in parallel form, resulting in the unusual bamboo furniture

production methods that differ from those of wooden furniture. The major production methods of bamboo

furniture are: gouging, chiseling, paper-cutting, stem-enclosing, and heating to bend bamboo, fixing the bamboo

dowels, splitting bamboo, seat-top making, cabinet corner gussets, mortise-and-tenon-joints, round frame

making, and decorative bamboo floral patterns, etc.. Among which, the stem-enclosing technique (see Figure 1)

is the core technique in Taiwan bamboo furniture-making. This is a special production technique used in bamboo

work. It encompasses the aesthetics and decorative functions by using just one bamboo stem (see Figure 2) as the

main structure, added with drilled holes and the enclosure of other structures to form a tightly integrated structure.

All limbs are often applied during production (see Figure 3) (Wu, et al., 2005).

Figure 1. Stem-enclosing technique, Schematic plan view.


Figure 2. The Holes and the Front and Rear of the Stem.

Figure 3. All limbs applied during the production process.

The weaving of bamboo leaves is also one of the more significant techniques in bamboo furniture. First the

bamboo stems are sliced into many thin strips and woven into surface that can be used as a seat or table top (see

Figure 4). During the production process, a welding torch is required to heat and bend the bamboo. Strings are

tied to the bamboo temporarily to secure the shape, and will only be untied once the connections between the

stems are completed (Lee, 2000; Lin, 2002; Wu, et al., 2004; Wu, et al., 2005).

Figure 4. Weaving bamboo strips into a seat top.


In the past 20 years, the Taiwanese civilian factories and the National Taiwan Craft Research and

Development Institute have demonstrated substantial progress in the design and development of different

bamboo furniture forms. This has fostered the plastic art of modern bamboo furniture, which branches out into

two categories of design and production, namely being the “bamboo furniture in its natural form” and “laminated

bamboo furniture” (Lee, 2000; Wu, et al., 2004; Wu, et al., 2005). (1) Bamboo furniture in its natural form (see

Figure 5): usually maintains the traditional production process, which shows connections between stems of

bamboo, and conveys a plain and artless style; And (2) the laminated bamboo furniture design (see Figure 6):

bamboo material that has been processed in order to become laminated boards can therefore be more easily used

in creating the forms like those of wooden furniture. Composite materials can be used together, so there is higher

flexibility and plasticity in form design. As laminated bamboo furniture allows for easier innovation and carries

the bamboo’s texture, thus it is becoming more widely used.

Figure 5. Bamboo Furniture in its natural form.

Figure 6. Laminated bamboo furniture.

Overall, Taiwan bamboo furniture shows the following characteristics and trends (Wu, et al., 2005): (1)

There are totally different production methods for traditional and laminated bamboo furniture used by today’s

bamboo furniture factories. The former one is plain, neat, and low-cost. The latter one is luxurious, natural, and

expensive; (2) The traditional method of bamboo furniture making uses traditional production techniques, but

laminated bamboo furniture is made by using carpentry techniques; And (3) this means that it is not easy to create

new forms of traditional bamboo furniture as it needs to deal with the bamboo’s physical property first and

foremost. The laminated bamboo furniture however is made by using carpentry techniques. This results in there


being no differentiation between bamboo furniture and wooden furniture, a point worthy of further

contemplation.

Therefore, in not only keeping with the traditional features, traditional bamboo furniture also needs to

strengthen its production techniques by copying carpentry techniques.

Moreover, carpentry production techniques can be combined with traditional bamboo production

techniques in producing laminated bamboo furniture so as to retain the spirit of conventional culture and the

characteristics of natural bamboo. Lastly, besides working with bamboo in more traditional methods, designers

also need to study the materials itself to find out new possibilities of use. When working out a creative design in

bamboo furniture, we also need to understand the characteristics and styles of Taiwanese traditional bamboo

furniture. This means passing on a heritage and looking forward towards future developments of the craft.

Style

The definition and explanation of style differs according to the time period, history, and local geographic

region. According to the explanation of the English Cobuild Dictionary, Harper Collins (2003): (1) The style of

something is the general way in which something is made or presented, which often shows the attitudes of the

people involved in the making of the respective furniture; (2) If people or places have style, then they would be

smart and elegant; (3) The style of a product is its design; And (4) in the arts, a particular style is characteristic of

a particular period or group of people.

The Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary (Hornby, 1996) states the meaning of style as

(1) the different types of writing or language; (2) a unique type of an artist, a writer or someone working in other

forms of the arts; (3) the way or style of behavior; (4) a representation of the refined taste of somebody or

something; and (5) the style or design of fashions. From the explanations of style stated in the aforementioned

dictionaries, we can tell that the word style has several different meanings.

Ross (1982) explicates the concept of style as (1) the style of an organization, or school of thought; and (2)

an individual’s ideology in style. Ross believes that style is the study of the similarities and differences among

various kinds of works, which means the generalization and uniqueness of style. Individual works of art will be

presented in style in relations to their diverse and complex aesthetics. That is exactly what the fundamental value

of art and design is.

In Chen & Cheng’s (2005) discussion of the theory of style, they argued that “background” and

“constitution” were the two major factors that formulate style. “The background of the style” as a factor refers to

is: (1) the implied properties of time, i.e., within the same era, a period of time as in years, or the beginning period

of time, etc.; and (2) the implied properties of space i.e., the environment, country, society, school of thought,

company, and organization, etc..

While “The constitution of style” refers to: (1) the implied properties of form, i.e., the original entity, and the

appearance of the material, its technique/technology, the consistency, the paradigm, symbols, features,

influences, trends, its new definitions/declarations, the things that are inherent about it, and the sense of

differentiation, etc.; and (2) the implied properties of “content” are its value, ideology, history/culture, strength,

ideas, missions, the norms, the people’s attitude, aesthetics/tastes, philosophy, vision/anticipation, creativity,

meaning, and the process of solving problems, etc..


In reviewing the literature on style, this paper deems that there can be a simplification of the idea that would

constitute the implied properties of style that are proposed by Chen and Cheng (2005) into three constituting

elements—the background, its form, and content, with an omission of the implied properties in each constitution

(see Table 1).

Background—environments, regions (nations), the inheritance, and its organization; style—form, the

technique, symbol, and differentiation; content—value, ideology, culture, idea, taste, creativity, and meaning. It

is hoped that the constitution and implied properties that formulate style can help artisans or the study of the style

of craft works.

Table 1

The Constituting Factors and Implied Properties of Style The constituting factors and implied properties of style Constituting Elements

Implied properties

Background Environment, region(nation), inheritance, organizations

Style Form, technique, symbol, differentiation

Content Value, ideology, culture, idea

Methods

To achieve the goals of this study, this paper applies research techniques of content analysis of the

documents used in the multi-case study. Since there is an array of Taiwanese traditional bamboo, in order to

facilitate the study of Taiwan’s traditional style of bamboo amenities, this paper specifically focuses on the study

of the chairs of Taiwane bamboo furniture. The categorization of chairs is based on “The Bamboo Daily

Amenities of Taiwanese residents in the 20th century” by Lee (2000). It lists the following: (1) bamboo stools; (2)

side chairs; (3) reclining chairs; (4) armchairs (scholar-bureaucrat); (5) couple chairs; (6) double seaters; (7)

children chairs; and (8) others. Other daily amenities such as coffee tables, bamboo screens, bamboo beds, and

cabinets are not covered in this study.

During this study, the bamboo chairs listed in “20th Century Taiwanese Bamboo Crafts” by Lee are used as

case studies. We took pictures of the bamboo chairs, and had filed for individual and detailed dissection

comparisons. This was to find out the similarities and differences for further study and the inferences on the

analysis of the results are shown below.

Results and Discussion

Categorization and Introduction of Case Studies

(1) Bamboo stool (see Figure 7)—roughly grouped into bambusa stenostachya and makino bamboo stools.

The stem body of bambusa stenostachya is thick, sturdy, and cannot be bent easily. Carpentry production

techniques are mainly used in working on this kind of bamboo. Makino bamboo is soft, bright in tone and elastic,

and has a pleasant tactility and visual effect that carries a refreshing and natural sensation.

(2) Side chairs (see Figure 8 & Figure 9)—Regular chairs used by residents in farming villages in Taiwan,

usually made from makino bamboo, are either armed or without arms, the production methods used are the same

as of a bamboo stool. Those without arms are composed of simple lines, sharp, and clear designs. Armed chairs

are shorter, lighter, and have a wider seat surface.


(3) Reclining chairs (see Figure 10 & Figure 11)—There are two types of reclining chairs: dual- functioned

and fix-functioned with extensibility. Adjustable chairs allow for a recumbent position, making it less rigid as

armchairs, and therefore can be regarded as the best seat for resting. Fix-functioned chairs are mainly for lying

down, with an additional chair used as foot rest. In early times, residents often used them while taking naps in

the afternoon.

Figure 7. Bamboo stool.

Figure 8. Armless side chair.

Figure 9. Armed chair.


Figure 10. Dual-function reclining chairs.

Figure 11. Fix-functioned chair with extensibility.

Chiseling and gouging at special angles and heat-bending are the main production techniques used to work

on this kind of bamboo. Mechanical tools cannot be used to replace these kinds of techniques. The bamboo chairs

are distinctively characterized by their being easy to carry and comfortably cool for sitting on.

(4) The armchair (for scholars/bureaucrats) (see Figure 12 & Figure 13)—Possesses China’s Fujian and

Cantonese traditional forms, that are grouped into two styles—plain or grand. Plain ones are usually for guests

and the elderly. The grand style ones are made from selected bamboo materials, and are then painted, and backed

with an inlaid piece of red and blue decorative ceramics. Both styles come with heat-bent bamboo ornaments and

ornaments in H or S shapes. The chair’s bamboo sectors are neatly and delicately treated, demonstrating a natural

style, and are not to be owned by the general public. Ming-jia Cheng, an artisan from the town of Lun-bei, in

Yun-lin county, had inherited bamboo furniture making techniques from older generations that were passed onto

him, and is known for his production of armchairs (for scholars/bureaucrats). The Eight Trigram form of the chairs

display refined production techniques, with the back and arms being both inlaid with heat-bent slender bamboo,

floral decorations, each of which carries some customary meanings, and are stylish and full of aesthetic beauty.

(5) Couples chair (see Figure 14)—Placed in the bedroom, they are made armless probably for saving space

and making conversation between a happy couple easier. They are designed like side chairs but appear in pairs.


Figure 12. Plain armchair.

Figure 13. Grand armchair.

Figure 14. Couple chairs.


(6) Double seaters (see Figure 15)—These are an extension of the single seat chair, and are probably good

for increasing space for sitting on while it reduces the amount of production material and time spent creating it.

(7) Children’s Chair (see Figure 16)—Mainly, they are the infant chairs. If inverted, it can be sat on by a

nanny.

Figure 15. Double seat.

Figure 16. Children’s chair.

Figure 17. Sedan.

(8) Others (see Figure 17)—These are called sedans in The Bamboo Daily Amenities of Taiwanese residents

in the 20th Century by Zan-shou Li (2000). Li only mentioned that it can be sat on from many directions but he

did not convey the explicit function of the sedan. However, it can be used as an infant chair that is fit for tying

onto the back of an adult who then can work and take care of their baby at the same time.


The Style Analysis of Case Studies

This study uses the constituting elements and implied properties of style that are shown in table 1, combined

with the results of literature reviews, to conduct analysis on each item of the implied properties of styles in

Taiwanese bamboo furniture (see Table 2).

Table 2

The Constituting Elements and Implied Properties of Style Constituting Elements Implied Properties Explanations

Background Environment Subtropical zone, island, bamboo-producing

Region Farming and Fishing villages in early Taiwan

Inheritance Chinese cultures from Fujian, Canton

Style

Form Technique Symbol differentiation

See Figures 8, 9, & 18 See Figures 19, & 20 See Figure 21 See Figure 22

Content

Value Ideology Culture Idea Aesthetics Creativity Meaning

Practicality and Admiration Accumulation of life's experience Taiwanese agricultural culture Wisdom of living and the application of handicraft skills -- Using bamboo to imitate wooden furniture Practical utensils in simple life

Source of data: compiled in this study.

From the Table 2, we can know the background factors of the different styles of Taiwanese bamboo

furniture which, mainly inherits from China’s Fujian and Cantonese cultural traits of the past. Taiwan, in early

times, was still fishing and farming society. As an island with limited resources, and poor living standards but

having a proficient supply of bamboo, the island's artisans had developed bamboo into furniture to be made for

daily use. The styles of furniture and their implied content carried both practical, trustworthy, and admirable

values, displaying a wisdom of living and the application of skills of handicrafts. This had also demonstrated an

accumulation of living experiences and with no doubt, that was an imitation of Ming and Qing dynasty wooden

furniture designs.

Below is the analysis and explanations of the styles of Taiwanese bamboo furniture:

(1) Form—tends to imitate the Ming and Qing dynasty furniture styles. First the form of a bamboo stool is

made based on a square surface with increased height (see Figure 18). It is closely related to ergonomics, users,

situational and functional purposes. Being something that is easy to carry and that can be produced quickly also

has turned it to become the most widely used daily amenity. To meet the situational and home decoration

functions, the back and arms are added to the bamboo stool making it a side chair with back and arms (see Figure 8

& Figure 9).

(2) Techniques—Stem-enclosure is the core technique in Taiwanese bamboo furniture-making. It is

featured by using one’s choice of bamboo as the main structure, added with chiseled holes made at 45 degrees

and uses the enclosing of other structures to form a tightly integrated structure. It is a technique that encompasses

aesthetics and decorative functions. There are two types of stem-enclosure. The vertical one is for enclosing the

chair legs whereas the horizontal one is for enclosing a bamboo mat (see Figure 19).


Figure 18. A stool developed from a square surface with increased heig.

Figure 19. Vertical and Horizontal types of stem-enclosure.

In addition, weaving of the bamboo mat requires the technique of splitting up a huge amount of bamboo

strips from the vein of the bamboo stem. The loosely connected bamboo strips will be laid flat, and inserted into

the bamboo pins at both ends to make the seat, table top or bed surface. This production process requires fire

spray to heat-bend the bamboo stem which temporarily fixes the problem of the strings hence avoiding the

bouncing back or coming off of any parts. As there is a sequence in the assembly of parts, the artisan usually

needs to use all his limbs in the production process. Taiwanese bamboo furniture in its natural form is much more

restricted in its form as the bamboo needs to be especially bent, so that they usually display a square-looking

structure with insertions. For decorations, the heated slender bamboo strips are often introduced to soften the look

of the form and thus making the furniture more delightful and pleasing to the eyes (see Figure 20).

(3) Symbols—The rectangular forms of the back and chair legs are imitations of Ming dynasty furniture (see

Figure 21). This reveals the origin and inheritance of modern Taiwanese bamboo furniture. The decorations here

are often presented in strict lines through bamboo weaving, and they are also very common in the chairs that have

a comb-like back such as with Ming dynasty furniture.

Figure 20. The decorative effects presented by the applications of curvature through the usage of slander bamboo strips.


Figure 21. The rectangular form of the back and chair legs are imitations of Ming dynasty furniture.

Figure 22. The different structure between non-stem-enclosure and stem-enclosure.

(4) Differentiation—We can judge whether a piece of bamboo furniture is made by the traditional

Taiwanese bamboo furniture style by examining if it has stem-enclosed structures (see Figure 19) and back

decorations (see Figure 13). Most of the traditional Taiwanese bamboo furniture will be made with

stem-enclosing techniques to reinforce the chair’s structure while making it more pleasant in its appearance. The

furniture with its enclosed stem usually appears smooth and warm, pleasant to the touch and ergonomic. Chairs

without stem-enclosed parts appear rough and overly simplistic in structure (see Figure 22), making the form

very crude. Traditional Taiwanese farming societies usually were minimalistic, but friendly, polite, and modest.

Therefore, one’s household furniture should also better reflect this sense of simplistic harmony.

General Discussions

Through the style analysis of the case studies quoted above, we know that most designs are intimations of

Ming and Qing dynasty furniture, particularly the Ming furniture. In fact, considering everything from the point

of view of practical living experiences and cultural systems, it is understandable why bamboo has been adopted

to produce chairs that can be seen daily and that are used often. The bamboo stem used in furniture and the wood

used in Ming dynasty furniture share a commonality in roundness. The origin of bamboo chairs can date back to

Song Dynasty when literati paintings deeply influenced the Ming dynasty furniture. Therefore, it makes sense for

artisans of traditional Taiwanese bamboo furniture to make imitations of Ming dynasty furniture.

In regards to the techniques, the stem-enclosing, the taking of measurements, heat-bending, and floral

patterns are the most prominent features in Taiwanese bamboo furniture. We cannot trace these techniques back

to the original source, but maybe we can explore this through ancient Chinese paintings. However, as seen from

the collected pictures, most chairs do not show the usage of these techniques. The stem-enclosing technique


makes the bamboo chairs fitting and sturdy. In fact, it is well known that cutting hollow and round structures

from bamboo is troublesome, so typical bamboo furniture is usually stem-enclosed. Yet traditional Taiwanese

bamboo furniture does not apply this technique when cutting the stem. Artisans must select straight and thick

stems, with suitable nodes for production, so that the stems can be well treated in its joints and bent parts. It is

inferred that the appearance of the stem-enclosing technique is used to reduce the number of times one uses to cut

off the stem, for structural reinforcement, and durability.

Moreover, stem-enclosure also produces a soft tactility and a texture that does not hurt people’s skin.

Therefore, this technique is mostly used for the seat’s surface, the joints of chair legs, and the underside of the

mat and the fixing of chair legs. These parts in fact are the most protruding parts of a chair and are most

frequently in touch with human body parts. In 1943, Japanese folk crafts expert, Zong-yue Liu launched an

investigative study in Taiwan. When he saw the beauty of the material and uniqueness of the structural design in

bamboo furniture, he was deeply joyed by its charm and therefore gave it his high commendation (Lee, 2000).

Although, he should have witnessed the stem-enclosing technique of the bamboo.

From the analysis and discussion of the results in this study, there are three main styles used in making

Taiwanese traditional bamboo chairs: (1) imitations of Ming and Qing dynasty furniture; (2) the structural

treatment in stem-enclosing techniques; and (3) demonstration of the conveniences for everyday life. It displays

the wisdom gained from life experiences, and the practical functions of the farming and fishing villages at that

time, along with the heritage of daily amenities and the living aesthetics of Fujian and Cantonese cultures.

Conclusions and Suggestions

Drawn from the aforementioned analysis, this study deems that traditional Taiwanese bamboo chairs can be

categorized into eight different types: bamboo stools, side chairs, reclining chairs, armchairs, couple’s chairs,

double seaters, children’s chairs, and others. From the analysis of the contents of the documents of various case

studies, it is inferred that there are three major styles in Taiwanese traditional bamboo chairs, namely: (1)

imitations of Ming and Qing dynasty furniture; (2) the structural treatment techniques with stem-enclosing; and

(3) the display of the simplicity and convenience of pastoral life in Taiwan.

During the process of this study, suggestions such as the followings are to be made: (1) the inheritance and

innovation in traditional Taiwanese bamboo furniture; and (2) the originating time and the generation of

stem-enclosing techniques. It is hoped that this study can help the Taiwanese to understand traditional Taiwanese

bamboo furniture, while acting as a reference to cultural and creative industries, and thus facilitating the

re-development of the bamboo art industry.

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Crises of Socialism in China and Chinese Rock in 1980s:

The Case of CUI Jian

WANG Xiang

Shanghai University, Shanghai, China

This paper focuses on CUI Jian and his rock music to examine the social complexity of the 1980s in China, which

is much about the destructions brought by the Cultural Revolution and the economic reformation since 1978, as

well as to investigate an alternative discourse that is different from mainstream in understanding the Chinese rock.

Also, the paper through CUI’s works tries to inquire the questions of how the ideal of socialism transforms after the

fail of the revolution and how the disillusion connects the country’s pursuit of the western modernization in music.

Moreover, the paper asks how and by which CUI’s songs associate themselves to the social transformation and in

what way they root in the “socialistic personality” shaped by the socialist revolution since 1950s.

Keywords: 1980s, CUI Jian, rock music, disillusion of socialist ideal, Chinese socialistic personality

Rock Music in East Asia

The history of rock music in East Asia developed after the end of the Second World War. Since the 1940s,

the Western rock music has circulated from the radio stations of the American military bases to a reason the

western Pacific Rim such as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Okinawa. In China, because of the Western

colonialist powers, music like Jazz in the 1930s swept across Shanghai and Harbin. Yet since the American

military bases in China proper during the anti-Japanese and the Chinese civil wars remained absent, most of the

Chinese people were ignorant of the Western rock music while it got popular in other East Asian areas. Mass

music and Shanghai oldies had been dominated in China’s music world until the late 1970s when the Western

rock music sneaked into China through some underground broadcasting stations.

The brief summary of this history helps to explain the different route of rock music in China than in other

Asia Pacific regions. The differences need to be understood along with the political and economic changes in

East Asia after 1945, which were determined by two key historical moments: One was the moment of the

American military taking over Japan’s power in the Pacific Rim; the other was the confrontation of socialism

and capitalism in East Asia. Although the Allies of WWII nominally won the war, it was America that actually

defeated Japan as well as expropriated the colonies that Japan possessed before and during the war. The

American armies in these “liberated” colonies built their military bases which later on became the transmission

centre of the American pop culture and the Western rock to the local. On the contrary, the establishment of

People’s Republic of China pushed the country to take a road which not only empowered mass music to

overwhelm Shanghai oldies and Jazz music but also made the Western rock prohibited as music of capitalism.

Around the late 1970s when the Cultural Revolution was close to an end, the enormous destruction led by the

WANG Xiang, Ph.D., Department of Literature, Shanghai University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

CRISES OF SOCIALISM IN CHINA AND CHINESE ROCK IN 1980S

376

revolution inevitably disillusioned Chinese people and, therefore, rock music to the younger

generations—especially to the “educated youth” (Zhiqing 知青)—was no longer considered as a Western

threat but as a new weapon in resisting the existing authoritarian system formed in the ages of the socialist

revolution.

Namely, rock music in China developed against a historical background in which the ideal of socialism

was frustrated by the disastrous Cultural Revolution and in which the economic reform beginning in 1978

brought in anxiety and desire for the Western modernization. To this point, the “revolution-centeredness” in the

MAO age was changed to the “Western-modernization-centeredness” at the turn of the 1970s and the 1980s. In

such great change, CUI’s rock music surfaced.

“Northwest Wind” Music or Rock Music

CUI’s performance of “Nothing to My Name” (also known as “I Have Nothing”, Yiwusuoyou, 1989) on

the stage of “A Hundred Pop Stars” concert in 1986 was remarkable. Since then, this song has been considered

as the origin of the Chinese rock. Meanwhile, the public image of CUI as the “godfather of the Chinese rock”

and “China’s Bob Dylan” (DAI, 2000, p. 232) was also created, accompanying the music critics’ celebration on

“the birth of Chinese rock”. CUI once reminisced about this time:

It was at the beginning of 1986 when I was at the age of 25 that I contacted the Western rock for the first time. Although the music sounded strange to me, it caught my attention all of sudden. I felt heat coming in waves through my body, and it gave me strong enthusiasm and confidence on making music. I realized that only rock could profoundly explain the meaning of music. Since then, my inspiration and compositions was centred on rock music. And before long, I wrote my first rock song “It’s Not That I Don’t Understand” (It’s Not That I Don’ Understand, 1984), followed by “Nothing to My Name”.1 (ZHU, 2000, para. 2)

CUI’s reminiscence and other similar narrations of the Chinese rock all started from their experiences of

the Western rock. And that creates a tendency of constructing the Western rock as the root of the history of the

Chinese rock. That means, beyond CUI’s and critics’ awareness, there is an inherent Western viewpoint which

remains dominated in the self-narration of the Chinese rock. But the question is, does the Western viewpoint

explain the whole story of rock music in China?

Notably, “Nothing to My Name” is not only taken as the first Chinese rock song but also categorized as

music of “northwest wind”. The “northwest wind” music is a type of ballads that origins from the northwest

China and later as a pop music is sung nationwide. As the “root-seeking” movement dominated the culture in

the 1980s, the “northwest wind” music was considered as an exemplary artistic form of the movement. A

Chinese scholar notes:

Since 1985, a strong and comprehensive trend of investigating the past emerged in the Chinese culture. The artistic circles, with an ambition of expanding their arts to the global world, looked for inspiration from the ancient China and consciously or unconsciously, reflected on the Chinese traditional culture. The artistic trend in this period was illustrated by the works which valued the nation’s primitive culture or the traditional customs. The trend was called the “root-seeking” movement that later became prevalent among the Chinese artists and intellectuals in the mid and late 1980s. (WANG, 2009, p. 37)

With this understanding, we could say that “Nothing to My Name” shows the aesthetics of the “northwest

wind” music by using a Chinese traditional instrument Suona and the music similar to a “northwest wind” song

1 The Chinese-English translations of this essay are done by the author.


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“Yellow Earth of the High Plateau” (CUI, 1988). CUI explained, “‘Nothing to My Name’ gets its music first

before having its lyrics” (LU & LI, 2003, p. 58). In other words, considering the producing process of this song,

the artist firstly introduces the elements of the “northwest wind” music in hearing to create the feeling of

“seeking root” and then adds the lyrics to stabilize the tone. Here, the “northwest wind” musical elements

cultivate rather a national emotion than a personal sentiment: The audiences seem to see the vast yellow land of

the northwest China as the bleak sound of Suona rises; the resounding singing arouses a common feeling of

living on the same motherland. To this point, the primitive elements are borrowed to reify the state-supported

national culture, they function not only to distinguish China from the western worlds but also to lead people

back to the earthy, eternal, and essential Chinese national culture. By incorporating folk songs and adapting

them through the production mechanism of the musical industry of pop music, the power of the state and the

market together produce a pop music which serves the country’s needs. According to Attali (1985), music is

socially constructed by the political and economic power to deal with noise in society,

In noise can be read the codes of life, the relations among men. Clamour, Melody, Dissonance, Harmony; when it is fashioned by man with specific tools, when it invades man’s time, when it becomes sound, noise is the source of purpose and power, of the dream—Music. (p. 6)

And he continues,

All music, any organization of sounds is then a tool for the creation or consolidation of a community, of a totality. It is what links a power centre to its subjects, and thus, more generally, it is an attribute of power in all of its forms. (p. 6)

In other words, the process of constructing music is the process of power extracting and moulding

materials from noise by its will. In the case of the Chinese music, power infiltrates into people’s ears by

appropriating the elements of folklores and connecting the “northwest wind” music in the 1980s to the

state-promoted revolutionary works in the ages of revolution. In terms of revolutionary works, nationalism,

statism, and the ideology of “building new society” are all integrated to create a social consensus on the state’s

anti-imperialist policies. But unlike the spirit of anti-imperialism in these revolutionary arts, the appropriated

“northwest wind” music in the 1980s without the sustainment of the socialist principles has transformed the

connotation of anti-imperialism and the idea of “nation” to support the country’s economic construction. And

that the strategy of the “northwest wind” music works is a particular value system comes to appear and direct

society at this time. Since the economic reform, China in an international order, especially under the Western

eyes, has developed a way of self-gazing: by giving the dichotomy of “backward/advanced” and

“indigenous/western”, China promptly provincialized itself. The Chinese indigenous elements become a rule of

aesthetics: CUI rolled up his trousers and stepped on the stage in a rustic way, which sharply contrasts to the

“western” images of those pop music singers. The characteristics of “backwardness” and “infertility” opposite

to Hong Kong’s and Taiwan’s popular urban love songs actually are very “masculine”. It is such “masculinity”

that allows China not only to develop confidences on competing with the western worlds in economics but to

win over the applause of the foreign capital markets. To this point, the Chinese authority tactfully connects the

“northwest wind” music to the revolutionary art works by emphasizing the national sentiments within, but in

fact, it passes by the conflicts between the former’s desires for the capitalistic market and the latter’s socialist

principles.

The music and the singing of “Nothing to My Name” also show such constructed masculinity. However,

there is a tension between the distinguishable “masculine” China and the feeling of “weakness” which emerges


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as “I” is questioned and answered by “you” in the lyrics (“But you always laugh at me/for having nothing to my

name” (CUI, 1989f)). Intriguingly, rather than dissolving the song into the sense of nothingness, the tension

gives the song a feeling of cohesiveness: Even though “I” has nothing, “I” continues on moving forward. Here,

the song interweaves perseverant attitude of “I”, which is also the core of rock music, and the social

implications of the “northwest wind” music. It not only sings out the expectation for the advent of the economic

construction but also the persistent attachment to the primitive China and, more importantly, the ideal of the

socialist revolution. In this sense, instead of claiming the MAO era and the post-MAO era as two isolated

historical periods, the song reveals that these two are actually intertwined with each other in a twisted way. To

some extent, admitting the self’s weakness or nothingness in this song also evidences a certain kind of

self-affirmation, by which the idea of the revolution is emphasized. For the singer, the future is revealed only

when “I” sees “myself” as the unworthy; or, in Yoshimi’s (2005) words, “one needs to become nothing before

being everything” (p. 176).

“Because My Sickness Is that I Have No Feeling”: Predicament of “Freedom”

CUI in “Nothing to My Name” sings, “I want to give you my dreams and my freedom” in “No More

Disguises” (CUI, 1989a), he sings, “Your freedom belongs to the universe/Your courage belongs to you”. In

“Fake Monk” (CUI, 1989d), CUI depicts a tireless figure which “goes from south to north”; the lyrics continues,

“If you want to love me, don’t worry about regretting it/Because eventually I always leave everything behind”.

In “This Space” (CUI, 1991), CUI sings “I can’t open the sky/I can’t get into the earth/Freedom isn’t just a

prison”. In an interview of CUI in the mid-1990s, CUI claimed that “I would never give up freedom for love”.

In fact, CUI forsook his career as a trumpet player in the Beijing Philharmonic Orchestra for pursuing his music.

Combining CUI’s music and career, the author understands his reply in the interview as an act motivated by the

idea of “freedom”, which may be associated with a feeling of relief brought by rock music and the economic

reformation launched in the1980s as well.

The socialist revolution and socialist construction in China had undergone many changes since the New

China was built. From the 1950s to the 1970s, the country was led toward industrialization by the authoritarian

regime yet the prompt development in industry caused nation-wide catastrophes in the age of the Great Leap

Forward Movement. In the 1980s, the Chinese government replaced the principles of class struggle with its

determination on the economic construction, which later on introduced various western values and the capitalist

systems. In regards to the Chinese rock, the imitation of the western rock seems more like an impulse produced

in such particular political and economic change. CUI’s call for “freedom” in his songs is based upon the

Chinese people’s imagination on the West, which teems with the ideas of a western “free world” and

sometimes with the advertisements of never-ending choices in a capitalistic world. On the surface, the Chinese

people seemingly lose their subjectivity while imagining and pursuing the glamour of the West. But if we push

the discussion further, it is not difficult to discover that the imagination on the West is a try through which the

Chinese people resume their national subjectivity broken by the disillusion of the socialist revolution. For this

reason, the questions should not be “Why is China so eager in following the West?” but “What does China try

to express by imagining a Western free world?” and “What is the specific content of ‘freedom’ of the 1980s?”.

Back to CUI’s rock music of the 1980s, CUI manages to create the figure of a runaway who, carrying

inner conflicts, leaves home with no destination but only the will of moving forward. CUI sings, “Alone I walk

past you/But have nothing to say” (CUI, 1989c), “I pick-up my legs and walk down that old road/My eyes gaze


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upon that old place” (CUI, 1989b), and “I never stay in one place/And never want anyone to follow me” (CUI,

1989d). This determined and painful figure had touched many young people in the 1980s. In the author’s

interpretation, although the figure begins the travel without any direction, in reverse, it is the lack of direction

that pushes him/her to continue on travelling. Accompanying the idea of “freedom”, the travelling in the lyrics

might symbolize CUI’s strong desire for the feeling of being “free”. But the problem here is that CUI could not

picture the specific look of “freedom”. Is “freedom” an act out of impulsion? Or does it mean building a

brand-new social system? The fact is, during the process of the political and economic adjustment in the 1980s,

the concept of “freedom” had not been profoundly discussed, neither was it ever considered and established as

a core value of the social harmony. With neither complete social systems nor knowledge systems upon which

the idea of “freedom” can fully develop, the runaway with the desire for “freedom” cannot but travel back and

forth without destinations, or to be more specific, he/she just jumps up and down on the same spot.

The predicament that CUI encounters in terms of “freedom” is also what the Chinese authority confronts

in the historical turning of the reform and opening. At this point, the concept of “freedom” in China cannot be

easily thrown out as the Western dross nor simply replicate the related Western ideas. Facing the dilemma of

“freedom”, CUI sings the song “Wild on the Snow” (1996):

Stripped to the waist I greet the blustering snow Running down the road from the hospital I escaped. Don’t stop me I don’t want any clothes either Because my sickness is that I have no feeling.

Give me a bit of flesh Give me a bit of blood Take away my grit and resolve. Please let me cry Please let me laugh Please let me go wild on this snowy ground.

Yi Yeh Yi Yeh Because my sickness is that I have no feeling. Yi Yeh Yi Yeh Please let me go wild on this snowy ground.

I wear no clothes or shoes Yet cannot feel the force and intensity of the northwest wind. I don’t know if I’m walking or running Because my sickness is that I have no feeling.

Give me a little stimulation—oh doctor my lord! Give me a little love—oh nurse my goddess! Please let me cry or please let me laugh. Please let me go wild on this snowy ground.

Yi Yeh Yi Yeh Because my sickness is that I have no feeling Yi Yeh Yi Yeh Please let me go wild on this snowy ground.


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Here, “the hospital” symbolizes both the treatments and the regulations. In Foucault’s (2003) viewpoint:

…medical consciousness is duplicated: it lives at an immediate level, in the order of “savage” observations; but it is taken up again at a higher level, where it recognizes the constitutions, confronts them, and, turning back upon the spontaneous forms, dogmatically pronounces its judgment and its knowledge. It becomes centralized in structure. (p. 34)

As CUI sings “Running down the road from the hospital I escaped”, “the hospital” is taken not only as a

medical entity but also as a metaphor of an oppressive institution which “I” rejects. But where could “I” go

after “running away from the hospital?” Moreover, what does “freedom” look like once the restraints imposed

by the centralized power are shook off? By having “I” indulge in the feeling of running away, CUI’s song

closes off the chances of discussing these questions by reason, or, of reasoning a “free” life after leaving “the

hospital”. As comprehending “freedom” rationally is out of the question, the irrational and emotional feelings

well up from the lyrics: “Don’t stop me/I don’t want any clothes either/Because my sickness is that I have no

feeling”. These few lines show an intriguing mental state of “I”, from which a tension comes to the surface: On

the one hand, the regulations of a traditional institution like “the hospital” continue to exist and discipline

people; on the other hand, the feeling of loss begins to emerge and haunts the runaway outside “the hospital”

when the desired object, “freedom” remains unfulfilled. “I” suddenly finds that “I” stands in nowhere: there is

no place to go except “the hospital”. Although the pressure coming from the regulations of “the hospital”

temporarily disappears, the feeling of emptiness soon occupies the mind of “I”. In other words, an abrupt

withdrawal of disciplines and the lack of a standing ground outside “the hospital” cause the “rational” and

“normal” appearance fall off. The unreasonable inner emotions thus flow out: “Give me a bit of flesh/Give me

a bit of blood/Take away my grit and resolve/Please let me cry/Please let me laugh/Please let me go wild on

this snowy ground”. In this near-hysterical singing, the “snowy ground” symbolizes primitivity and innocence

of the mankind. By repeatedly singing “Stripped to the waist”, “I don’t want any clothes either”, “I wear no

clothes or shoes”, and “Please let me go wild on this snowy ground”, the singer seemingly breaks loose and

integrates into the “snowy ground”, which turns “I” into the natural state of human being. Here, all of the

feelings that were constrained in “the hospital” are all released. It is at this moment when these feelings

overwhelm “I” that “I” feels a strong self-consciousness urging “I” to shout out “Because my sickness is that I

have no feeling”. What’s the therapy for the “sickness”? The singer continues, “Give me a little stimulation

—oh doctor my lord!/Give me a little love—oh nurse my goddess!” At this point, the irrational enthusiasm

within not only crazes “I” in the song but also boils the audiences’ blood.

The predicament of freedom, which appeared in the 1980s and became tangible after the 1990s, comes

from the social expectation for “freedom” which eventually fails since no social institution, not even a language,

could carry out any public discussion on “freedom”. Meanwhile, the Chinese market society is forming a more

thorough and crueller dictatorship by increasing market competition2, in which the desires for freedom cannot

but change into the freedom of desires. Comparing with the critiques in the mid and the late 1990s which

claimed that the Chinese society was overwhelmed by “moral degradation”, “materialistic pursuits”, and

“self-indulgence”, what CUI’s song expresses gives a glimpse of a mental crisis widely shared among the

2 The predicament of freedom mostly comes from the lack of the independent social mechanisms for democracy. And it is a problem shared with the third world. As a Korean scholar Cho (2007) suggests, “ …the third world, characterized by authoritarianism, dependent development and a struggle from the bottom for democratization. Although the retreat of the authoritarian regime has been pushed by the opposing mobilized civil society, the driving force also came from the capital which has been financially supported by the authoritarian state” (p. 581).


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public. Meanwhile, more and more questions come to appear. Why do the phenomena of “self-indulgence”

emerge as this socialist country undergoes the economic and political transformation? Why do so many people

feel unsatisfied? Is having no feeling their illnesses? Are all of the mistakes from market economy, or is there

any alternative choice to it?

Remnants of Socialistic Personality

Although the socialistic ideal was crushed as the Cultural Revolution failed, the “social personality” which

had been cultivated by the long-term socialistic revolution would not be dissolved immediately. Such socialistic

personality remains and continues to function in this “post-revolution” era. In terms of Chinese rock, CUI

seemingly has his songs follow the principles of the western rock, but the fact is that he adds many elements

which could not be fully understood in the framework of the Western rock. For instances, the star on his cap,

the marching music in his songs, and the idea of “the New Long March” in his first album all symbolizes the

remnants of “socialistic personality” which could not be easily digested by the knowledge of the western rock.

The song “Rock and Roll on the New Long March” (CUI, 1989e) starts with a voice shouting “One, two,

three, four” which mimics not only the advancing armies but also a “long march” that is supposed to have a

revolutionary base in the age of the revolution. However, the first line of the lyrics is all about the absence of

“long march” today: “I’ve heard about, but never seen/Twenty-five thousand miles/Some talk about it, but

never done it/How do they know it’s tough?”. This is the reminiscence of the “long march” spoken by a young

man living in the post-revolution era. But where does such reminiscence lead to as the singer proceeds with the

military shouting “one, two three, four” in this new age? The singer continues, “I just concentrate and move

ahead/On a quest for myself/Walking here, walking there/Without any destination”. Here, “I” apparently feels a

need for a revolutionary destination or base. But this “I” in the lyrics is not equal to a rootless individual in a

developed capitalistic world; rather, “I” keeps looking for a revolutionary base in a place where a revolution is

impossible and believing that “I” could find the true self in that dreaming place. These few lines reveal what the

author calls the “socialist personality”: It is a quality of patience and persistence, an inherent impulse of moving

forward to create a new world. The concept of “personality” in this essay refers to something that contrasts with

the physical body but is not independent from it. The physical body is visible and tangible while the

“personality” can only be felt. Although the ethereal “personality” seems abstract and illusory, it is never

something absent or deniable.

In other words, “I” in this song can never become a revolutionary subject in a “long march” no matter how

much he/she wants to be, neither is he/she an isolated atomic individual in a capitalist world. Instead, “I” is the

third type of the subject who can only be understood along with the particular historical moment of the socialist

China celebrating the market economy. CUI used to be inspired by the Western rock and looked forward to

new music, but he soon realized that he could not completely accustom himself to the new age by following the

principles of the western music. For this reason, he turned to criticize the five thousand years national tradition

and the Chinese customs as the bondages of the Chinese people. But ironically, neither could he get rid of the

“personality” shaped by the Chinese socialist revolutionary traditions. From any end of the left-wing or

right-wing spectrum, CUI’s presence is so striking that no power can ignore or incorporate him. He and his

songs keep reminding people of the dilemmas and the questions of the historical transformation that the country

continues to experience.

At the historical moment of “revolution-reformation”, the whole country turned around to welcome the


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economic market and bypassed the memory of the revolutionary age. Society is reconstructed by the

government’s determination on reformation when the socialist ideal today (if any) is deprived of its objects

(imperialist? the bourgeoisie?) and loses its subjects (the new socialist men? the proletariat? the third world?).

After the substantial institutions of the socialist revolution are cancelled, the “personality” of it overflows and

permeates the new age. This “personality” also seizes CUI and takes shape: It merges into his music and even

his subjectivity. In this sense, CUI does possess a particular subjectivity as the outside world is crumbled by the

advancing capitalism which gets into the capillaries of society and destroys the integrated traditional system

and social ties. In the historicist viewpoint, “that a once-existing centered subject, in the period of classical

capitalism and the nuclear family, has today in the world of organizational bureaucracy dissolved” (Jameson,

1991, p. 15). In other words, the collapse of social bonding pushed CUI to look inward and develop a solid

subjectivity, from which he sees the “theme” of this scatted age and struggles against it.3 In this sense, by

infusing his music inerasable and non-ignorable tensions and strength, CUI tries to live with this new world and

to speak with the “theme” of the age (but the question here is what the “theme” of the age is supposed to be).

Moreover, CUI also expects that his audiences would be stirred by his music. He said in an interview, “I would

like to make my music and, with the audiences of mine, create the common social wealth by leading them to

see this world from my angle. And this is irreplaceable”4 (YU, 2012, p. 43).

CUI, carrying such consolidated subjectivity, increases the tensions with the outside world by taking an

attitude, which in the Beijing dialect is called Sike (死磕), meaning two solid objects collide with each other

and persistently refuse to give ground. However, CUI’s rock music in the 1990s had lost its powerful influence

as it once had in the 1980s, the younger generation might not understand the remaining “socialist personality”

left in him; they celebrated CUI as the godfather of the Chinese rock, worshiped him in the shrine of rock

music, or worse, ignored him completely. CUI gets more and more lonely, but he maintains the gesture of

confronting the “theme” of the age even when the age changes and is getting different from his imagination.

Conclusions

With his song “Nothing to My Name”, CUI wanted the title of the “godfather of the Chinese rock” as

China welcomed its political and economic reforms in the 1980s. But the author argues that the Chinese rock

led by CUI is much different from the rock music developing from the western culture. In fact, CUI’s music

borrows much from the Chinese folk music in music forms and involves the socialist ideals in lyrics. The

convention of CUI’s music looking for the inspiration from folk music keeps his songs close to the people.

Also, strong political implications within CUI’s rock music evidence a social imagination on a nation-state

which develops and evolves from the socialist tradition. Generally speaking, new social environment created by

the policy of reform and opening allows the power of market to join the state in intervening in the development

of China’s rock and to embody the desires within music in “individuality”. Consequently, the feeling of being

free invoked by CUI’s rock music is inevitably confused with individual free choice in a capitalistic world. CUI

as well as the following artists and music witness the inter twist of different historical forces: The will of the

Communist Party and its influence are internalized into China’s early rock music and then expressed in 3 A music critic LI Wan suggests, “There are some historical figures who can compose the theme of the age into their works. People with great ambitions and serious goals are many, but no one is like CUI Jian who has performed so well for such a long time. CUI picks the biggest theme of this age as, in his own words, ‘greatest opponent’ and then keeps the conversation with it” (YU, 2012, p. 40). 4 The English translation is done by the author.


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reminiscent and conflicting ways; meanwhile, the power of market since the 1980s has released private feelings

of each individual which had been suppressed in the past days. As a capitalistic society expanded in China and

different genres of music mix with each other to create new styles of popular music, CUI’s works cannot be

generally named as “rock music”, neither can it be simplified as “folk music”; rather, CUI creates an alternative

music which implicitly delivers a political claim by singing an artist’s resistance, confusion and reminiscence.

References Attali, J. (1985). Noise: An essay on the political economy of music. (B. Massumi, Trans.). Oxford: Manchester University Press. Cho, H. Y. (2007). Revitalizing the Bandung spirit. In K. H. CHEN, & C. B. HUAT (Eds.), The Inter-Asia Cultural Studies

Reader (p. 581). London & New York: Routledge.

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and roll on the New Long March) [CD]. Beijing: Jingwen Record.

CUI, J. (1989a). 不再掩饰 (No More Disguises) [Recorded by ADO Band]. On 新长征路上的摇滚 (Rock and roll on the New

Long March) [CD]. Beijing: Jingwen Record.

CUI, J. (1989b). 出走 (Stepping Out) [Recorded by ADO Band]. On 新长征路上的摇滚 (Rock and roll on the New Long

March) [CD]. Beijing: Jingwen Record.

CUI, J. (1989c). 花房姑娘 (Greenhouse Girl) [Recorded by ADO Band]. On 新长征路上的摇滚 (Rock and roll on the New


CUI, J. (1989d). 假行僧 (Fake Monk) [Recorded by ADO Band]. On 新长征路上的摇滚 (Rock and roll on the New Long

March) [CD]. Beijing: Jingwen Record.

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滚 (Rock and roll on the New Long March) [CD]. Beijing: Jingwen Record.

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CUI, J. (1991). 这儿的空间 (This Space) [Recorded by CUI JIAN Band]. On 解决 (Solution) [CD]. Beijing: Jingwen Record.

CUI, J. (1996). 快让我在雪地里撒点野 (Wild on the Snow) [Recorded by “Egg under a Red Flag” Band]. On 十年精选

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http://www.people.com.cn/GB/channel6/34/20000510/60146.html


Never, Ever Break Up a Family∗

Steven William Schaufele

Soochow University, Taipei, Taiwan

Speculative-fiction stories, in print, often depict families being wrenched apart by overwhelming new forces to

which the children are better able to adapt then older generations. In making speculative-fiction movies, however,

Hollywood typically offers a more hopeful, comforting image of a family, at the beginning somewhat less than

perfect, being restored as a result of those same forces. This paper concentrates on The Spiderwick Chronicles

(2003-2004) by Tony DiTerlizzi and Holly Black, Susan Cooper’s novel The Dark is Rising (1973), and Lewis

Padgett’s story “Mimsy were the Borogoves” and the recent movies based (more or less loosely) thereon, Mark

Waters’ The Spiderwick Chronicles (2007), David Cunningham’s The Seeker (2007), and Bob Shaye’s The Last

Mimzy (2007), showing how the differences between the movies and the print-stories they are based on reflect an

attempt on the part of the movie-makers to reaffirm and reinforce the family bonds that are to some extent sundered

in the original stories.

Keywords: speculative fiction, printed matter, movies, movies based on printed matter, damaged families,

adaptation to screen

Introduction

Childhood’s End In Clarke’s novel Childhood’s End (1953), the human race is subjected to subtle encouragement to evolve past

the level of individual existence into a communal level where what had heretofore been separate individuals

become merely parts of a larger whole. The title refers at once to the end of human childhood in the traditional

sense and to the end of the “childhood” of the human species, as that species—in and through its

children—evolves onward to which some might consider a “higher” form of life, though it is very much an open

question as to whether the author so regards it. It is perhaps worth noting that throughout the novel, children are

shown as more ready to accept radically new things and ideas; for instance, they are more willing to accept the

“Overseers”, in spite of their “diabolical” appearance.

In the last part of the novel, the adults watch helplessly as their children take this route, in the process

abandoning them and, seemingly, everything that in terms of patterns of thought, etc., had heretofore been

considered “human”. It is implied that, in the end, the “family” as it has traditionally been regarded—as a suitable

context in which to carry on the species—has outlived its usefulness, and must now die a natural death.

∗ An earlier version of this paper was presented 17 November, 2012 at the Children in the Book TCLRA Conference at Soochow University in Taipei.

Steven William Schaufele, Ph.D., assistant professor, Department of English Language and Literature, Soochow University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

NEVER, EVER BREAK UP A FAMILY 385

E.T. In Spielberg’s movie E.T.: The Extraterrestrial (1982), we are presented with a family unit consisting of a

single mother and three children, ranging in age from adolescence to kindergarten; it is undoubtedly of some at

least subliminal significance that this is a damaged family—the father has left them, run off with his secretary, in

the process violating at least one of the mother’s supposedly well-founded beliefs about him (“He hates Mexico!”).

Of the four members of this family, the movie concentrates on Elliott, the middle child, who is able to build a

poignantly close relationship with the stranded alien explorer who is the title character. In the process, Elliott

encounters some initial friction with his siblings Michael and Gertie, but this is overcome fairly quickly; much

greater friction occurs between the children and their mother, who learns of E.T.’s existence only minutes before

their home is invaded by a different sort of alien: adults from outside the Family who seem to be intent only on

wresting as much scientific and technological data as possible from E.T. before hann dies—and, if possible, from

Elliott as well.

In the end, however, E.T. is reunited with his own people, and likewise Elliott and his siblings manage to

make an ally of their mother—and, along the way, connect also with Keys, a male member of the “invading”

research team, who confesses to Elliott a great deal of sympathy with his situation; it is at least implied that Keys

may eventually become a new father to Elliott and his siblings.

In short, in the printed novel Childhood’s End, the “traditional” family, having outlived its usefulness, dies a

natural death. In the movie E. T., on the other hand, the family is repaired; just as the title alien at the end is

restored to hanns own kind and is able to “go home”, so Elliott’s family is stronger and healthier in the end than at

the beginning.

The main point of this paper is that the demise, the falling apart of a family is more easily presented in a printed

story or book than in a Hollywood movie. The Hollywood movie industry is geared much more heavily towards

the strengthening, the restoration, and the reparation of family bonds. While in a printed story, we are more likely

to encounter a family that at least on the surface seems strong and healthy at first, but from which the protagonist,

in various ways, must in the course of the story take flight, in a Hollywood movie we are apt to find a family that,

at the beginning of the story, is defective in some way, but during the course of the movie is healed, resored,

strengthened, and the protagonist’s growth is represented by hanns return to the family from which hanns

originally came.

This paper will focus on three recent speculative-fiction movies1, Mark Waters’ The Spiderwick Chronicles

(2007), David Cunningham’s The Seeker: the Dark is Rising (2007), and Bob Shaye’s The Last Mimzy (2007), that

differ to varying degrees in this regard (among others) from their respective print-sources, Tony DiTerlizzi and

Holly Black’s book The Spiderwick Chronicles (2003-2004),2 Susan Cooper’s novel The Dark is Rising (1973)

and Lewis Padgett’s short story “Mimsy Were the Borogoves” (1943).

1 “Speculative fiction” is being used here as a sort of umbrella-term that includes both “fantasy” and “science fiction” in its reference, obviating any need to choose between those two labels. 2 The “book” is actually marketed as five small volumes, each just a little over 100 pages long, and furthermore heavily illustrated—DiTerlizzi, whose name is given on the title pages ahead of Black’s, is actually the illustrator, while Black is the author—but it is quite clear to anyone who bothers to read them that these five volumes represent a single story.


Spiderwick Chronicles

As presented in DiTerlizzi and Black’s (2003-2004) book, the Graces are a family with problems. For one

thing, the parents, Helen and Richard, are divorced, and indeed Richard never really appears at all in the story.3

For another, Jared, the point-of-view character, one of a pair of twins who together are the younger of the three

Grace children, has “anger issues”, a temper that, at the age of nine, he has a great deal of difficulty controlling

and that frequently gets him into trouble.

In Waters’ movie, some of these problems are actually exaggerated. While, at a couple of focal points, Jared

expresses great anger at one or another of the other characters, his “anger issues” are to a great extent played

down; unlike in the book, the viewer of the movie has little sense of a deep pit of anger simmering more or less

constantly under Jared’s surface. However, the divorce between Helen and Richard brings with it—in the

movie—a fair amount of tension, leading in some cases to open arguments and fights, between the children and

their mother, and perhaps also between the children and each other. Jared in particular longs for his father to

return and “rescue” him from his current situation, and seems to be more or less deliberately resisting any

complete understanding of what the divorce really means. Whereas, in the book, the divorce is established quite

early as a fait accompli that all parties, including the nine-year-old twins, merely accept as an unfortunate fact, in

the movie Jared has to have it “broken” to him fairly late in the story, by his 13-year-old sister, that Daddy is not,

repeat not, coming back.

These details provide the essential background leading up to the climax (quite different in many details from

what is presented in the book) in which Helen and her three children have to battle side-by-side to protect

themselves, their house, and Helen’s great-uncle Arthur Spiderwick’s field guide to the fantastical world around

you from the ogre Mulgarath. In the book, the battle against Mulgarath is carried out primarily by Jared; in the

movie, the battle in which Helen and the children struggle side-by-side binds the four of them together powerfully,

so that, by the end of the movie, the viewer has a very strong sense that the family, as damaged as it has been, is

prepared to make a serious go of it. Although the book ends with some hopeful assurances that things are going to

work out, such a strong sense of renewed mutual commitment is lacking.

A relatively minor detail that seems relevant to the issue central to this paper concerns Hogsqueal the

hobgoblin. In the movie, Hogsqueal explains his vengeful ire against Mulgarath by saying that Mulgarath is

responsible for the annihilation of Hogsqueal’s family. Granted, Hogsqueal is by nature a boastful preener most

of whose statements have to be doubted at least to some extent; on the other hand, nowhere in the movie are we

offered any evidence contradicting his claim that in resolutely opposing Mulgarath he is seeking to avenge his

family. This family motivation seems to have been brought in for the movie; there is nothing about it in the book.

Meanwhile, in the book Helen’s aunt Lucinda Spiderwick expresses grave doubts about her father Arthur’s

love for her, and is extremely surprised to find the portraits of her that he has drawn and painted; as far as she

could tell, he just wandered away, some 80 years earlier, selfishly intented upon his research and completely

forgetting about his family, and has never returned. Whereas in the movie it is clear that Arthur Spiderwick, at the

time he is “taken away”, is desperately fighting to protect his daughter’s life—in her presence, so it seems to be

clear to her as well as to the viewer. At the very end of the book, Arthur Spiderwick dies in his daughter’s arms. At

3 He is at one point “impersonated” by the villain, Mulgarath.


the end of the movie, however, he does not die; still supported physically by the fairies who protect him from his

own mortality, he “walks away”, hand in hand with his daughter—who has herself been restored to the age of an

elementary-school-age girl, as she was the last time she saw him.

Seeker

In Susan Cooper’s Newbery-Honor-winning novel The Dark is Rising4, Will Stanton is the youngest of 10

children born into a family that has apparently been living in Huntingdonshire, England, for generations; the story

takes place around Will’s 11th birthday, which occurs in December, just a few days before Christmas. In the

course of the book, Will learns of the existence of the “Old Ones”, a group of godlike beings who are the “good

guys” in this story, and that he is in fact the last of the ‘Old Ones’ to be born and to come into his powers, along

the way recovering six “Signs” that together give the Old Ones the means of overcoming the threat of “Darkness”

= Evil taking over the world. At a certain level, the story is primarily about Will’s maturation, over the course of

a few weeks, from a fairly ordinary pre-adolescent into someone with at least the raw potential to become a

godlike being.

It was mentioned above that, in the book, Will is the youngest of 10 children. During the course of the story,

however, he learns that there was, in a sense, an 11th—Tom, the first son of Roger and Alice Stanton, who died

young of a respiratory ailment. In David Cunningham’s movie The Seeker: the Dark is Rising, there is also a

“missing” son,5 but in this case the missing brother (also named Tom) is Will’s twin. Perhaps more importantly,

in the movie Tom is still living; he has merely been kidnapped by the “Dark”, the Forces of Evil; his recovery &

restoration to his family at the end of the movie is the ultimate sign of that family's own recovery and restoration.6

Strife Within Stanton Family in Movie

In the book, the Stantons have been living in this area of Huntingdonshire for generations. In the movie, they

are American expats, recently arrived, struggling to settle in.7 In the book, Will’s father Roger is a jeweler; in the

movie, his name is “John”, and he is an academic—a scientist and college professor; moreover, it is indicated that

he's in some professional/financial trouble, that his current (short-term?) appointment to a British university is,

from his point of view, a desperate gamble to save his career.

In the book, the Stantons are presented as a fairly normal, healthy family; there is a certain amount of the kind

of teasing that goes on in such a family, but underneath that very thin surface friction there is a very strong bond of

love binding the family together, providing Will with the wholesome background from which he has to graduate.

In the movie, there is quite a bit more tension; Robin and Paul pick on Will a lot more than anybody does in the

4 Actually the second volume of a series of five books, for which “The Dark is Rising” also serves as a kind of general umbrella-title. 5 In both book and movie, it is apparently of some importance that Will be a “7th son”, but that he should be unaware of the fact until sometime in the midst of the actual story. 6 Probably to underline the point further, when Will at the end of the movie returns home with Tom, it is spring—even though it's winter just a little bit earlier. 7 There seems to be no reason for the Stantons being redefined as a family of American expats who have recently moved to England; is the story somehow more believable, or more accessible, when told of such expats than it would be of plain old English people who have been living in the same area for generations? Did Cunningham imagine that he could not get real British actors to play the relevant parts, or, if he was absolutely wedded to a certain American actor or group of actors, was he unwilling to hire a “dialect coach” to get those American actors to speak with decent, believable English accents? The people responsible for the Twilight (2008) movies and Remember Me (2010) seem to have had no problem hiring a dialect coach to get Robert Pattinson to sound like a Yank onscreen.


book; Max, struggling to hide the manifold difficulties he is having in college, is rather belligerent; and John, the

father, is rather distant, apparently to some extent consumed with guilt over the loss of Will’s twin brother Tom.

In short, in the movie the Stantons are a family very much in need of healing, and Will effects that healing, partly

by pressing his brother Max towards a healthier perspective on his problems, most importantly by bringing his

new-found twin brother back to the bosom of the family.

Maggie Barnes

Early in the story—a few days before Christmas—Will has a birthday. In the book, it is explicitly stated that

this is his 11th birthday; in the movie, it is equally explicitly stated that this is his 14th. Why this (apparently

gratuitous) is different? The only apparent rationale for it is Maggie Barnes, a stooge of the Dark. In the book,

Maggie is a very minor character: She is the dairymaid for the Dawsons, a neighbouring family, and is sweet on

Will’s brother Max (who does not return the feeling, being romantically involved with one his college

classmates). Although such a minor character would be easily expendable in the movie,8 in fact, it is beefed up;

in the movie, Maggie is a student at the same school Will is attending; she is “going out” with Will’s brother

James, while doing her best to seduce Will. Making Will a 14-year-old adolescent presumably makes it possible for

him to have at least an incipient erotic interest in Maggie—more so than would be the case for Cooper’s

11-year-old Will. Which in turn provides opportunities for Will to display the usual sorts of adolescent angst,

which would be totally out of place in Cooper’s conception but which presumably, by providing a handle of

commonality makes the whole story more accessible to the ordinary, run-of-the-mill audience.

Godlike “Old One” or Adolescent Superhero

“Mental” vs. “Showy” Powers

In the book, a lot more emphasis is placed on Will’s purely mental powers. At one point, he wipes an

incident from another person’s memory; more importantly, while in the movie Will is full of questions, with

which he pesters Merriman and Miss Greythorne, in the book he frequently guesses at the answers—and guesses

correctly. He evinces a nearly godlike, or at least metahuman, intuition.

Such pure mental powers are probably easier to depict in a book, something meant to be read; the “showier”

powers that Cunningham’s Will manifests are doubtless more satisfyingly presented in the visual medium of a

movie. But—as is evidenced by, among other things, certain scenes in The Last Mimzy9—more “mental” powers

can be satisfyingly presented in this visual medium.

Which Is More Important

Which is more important, Will Stanton or the Signs that he has to collect? In the movie, the focus tends to be

on the Signs themselves—the physical objects,10 and Will’s importance seems to be primarily that he is the one

person who can find all of them. This may be at least part of the reason for the change in title: In the movie, Will 8 Like three of Will’s sisters. While for someone writing a story that is to be read adding extra characters costs only a little bit extra ink, actors cost money, and extra actors cost extra money, so, since Will’s four sisters are not essential to the plot, it makes sense that in the movie they are reduced to one—and that one is redefined as being younger than Will, thereby making it feasible for him to adopt a protective attitude toward her. 9 For instance, at one point Scott with just his mind moves a can of soda from the porch on which he is sitting to a table out on the lawn; at another, we see him, as if in a dream, building a sort of interplanetary bridge. 10 Well, most of them are physical objects. In the movie, the Sixth and Last Sign is explicitly described as “the Sign that cannot be found because it was never hidden”, and identified as Will’s own soul.


is explicitly defined as “the Seeker”, important primarily for the purpose of finding the six Signs which, once they

are brought together, will assure the Old Ones’ victory over the Dark. In the book, the Signs are important, but

represent only a (small) part of the total importance that is vested in the person of Will Stanton. At a fairly early

stage in the story—in the book—one of the Old Ones says to Will, “He is chasing you. I’m afraid the guess that is

in your mind is right, Will. It isn’t the sign they want most of all. It’s you” (Cooper, 1973, p. 37).

The Signs are not quite the same in the book and the movie. The order in which Will gains possession of the

Signs, and the details of where he does so, differ significantly between the two sources. Perhaps more importantly,

while in the book each Sign comes from a different era,11 in the movie they were all crafted at one time, by one

person—Will’s mediæval ancestor Thomas Stanton.

Immortal or Superhero

Which leads to the last, and perhaps most important, question raised in this paper in connection with

Cunningham’s adaptation of Cooper’s story. In the book, the “Old Ones”—the good guys, the leaders of the

struggle to save the world from the powers of darkness, the gang whom Will joins—are explicitly defined as being

immortal. Merriman Lyon, who is sort of Will’s tutor throughout the story, is identified with the Arthurian figure

of Merlin, meaning among other things that he has lived well over 1,000 years.12 But in the movie, we are told that

this mediæval ancestor of Will’s, Thomas Stanton, who fashioned the Signs, was himself an Old One—yet he has,

apparently, died in the normal way, and at a certain point Miss Greythorne exhibits his grave to the (modern)

Stantons.

So what are the Old Ones? What is it, exactly, that Will is turning into? In the movie, it is essentially a

superhero13—a person with a few significantly unusual abilities,14 but basically just a human being—a human

being an important part of whose triumph, at the end, is to be able to restore his long-lost twin brother to his family.

In the book, it is rather more than that. As an “Old One”, he is effectively immortal—he will, presumably,

continue to advance to adulthood, but once he gets there, if he ages at all it will be extremely slowly; with his

god-like intuition, he has what appears to be nearly unlimited direct access to information; and, as an immortal,

his family becomes in the end little more than the wholesome background that, like a good school, he may cherish

but from which he must eventually graduate.

There are plenty of depictions, in movies and in other media, of adolescent boys; there are quite a few

depictions of superheroes, and of adolescents turning into superheroes. There are far fewer depictions of

newly-born gods, of humans turning into gods. Which do we need more of?

Cinematic Opportunities Ignored

The book contains several scenes that are told better through the use of “language” in the usual sense of the word,

while the movie instead contains scenes that are presented more effectively via a visual medium. But it is not as

11 Furthermore, the Sign of Wood needs to be ritually refashioned roughly every 100 years, since it's made of rowan-wood that will not last through the ages the way, say, oak will. 12 And, since the Old Ones are routinely able to travel freely through time, it is at least strongly implied that Merriman has lived through at least some of those intervening centuries more than once. 13 Although at one point Will explicitly denies this label, presumably because at least at that moment—in which he is experiencing a certain amount of frustration—he does not see himself as fitting his adolescent image of what a superhero is supposed to be. 14 He is able, whenever necessary, to “summon great physical strength”; to command fire and light; to move objects with his mind; to travel freely through time.


simple as that; Cooper was a writer, not a movie-maker, and there are times in her story when she seems to be

struggling to describe with words what, perhaps, could be more satisfyingly presented visually. Early in the story,

there is one such sequence that takes up two whole chapters. Allow a few sentences to be quoted:

He was woken by music. It beckoned him, lilting and insistent; delicate music, played by delicate instruments that he could not identify, with one rippling, bell-like phrase running through it in a gold thread of delight. There was in this music so much of the deepest enchantment of all his dreams and imaginings that he woke smiling in pure happiness at this sound. …In that flash, everything had changed. The snow was there as it had been a moment before, but not piled now on roofs or stretching flat over lawns and fields. There were no roofs, there were no fields. There were only trees. Will was looking over a great white forest: a forest of massive trees, sturdy as towers and ancient as rock. They were bare of leaves, clad only in the deep snow that lay untouched along every branch, each smallest twig. …He was crystal-clear awake, in a Midwinter Day that had been waiting for him to wake into it since the day he had been born, and, he somehow know, for centuries before that. Tomorrow will be beyond imagining. (Cooper, 1973, pp. 20–22)

There are several scenes in the book that, in the author’s opinion, are crying out for cinematic treatment—yet

Cunningham includes none of them in his movie. The movie does include some rather eerie scenes, but none of

them are anywhere near as strikingly supernatural as are several of the scenes in the book. In short, the

Cunningham movie is a disappointment. It is OK as it stands—it is fun, if you have not read the book. But if you

have, then you know that there are so many ways in which it could have been a much better movie.

Mimszy

In Lewis Padgett’s15 story “Mimsy were the Borogoves”, Scott Paradine, aged seven, gains access to a

bunch of “educational toys”, which he shares with his two-year-old sister Emma. These “educational toys” teach

the children a variety of skills, relating among other things to the ability to travel through some higher dimension that

our unaided human senses cannot naturally perceive. It is clearly stated in the story that Scott and Emma are able

to learn these skills because they, their minds are young, flexible, malleable—they have not “been conditioned to

Euclid”, as the story puts it—and furthermore, that Emma is more successful at this than Scott, presumably

because she is younger; there are some things that Scott is able to learn only with Emma’s help. The story is told

mostly from the point of view of the father, who, after being introduced with the given name “Dennis”, is

identified only by his family name “Paradine”; several times during the story, he admits that he is completely

stumped by the toys, and the associated concepts, that his children find so fascinating.

At a certain point, Scott brings up the subject of salmon, who after being born in mountain streams swam down

to the ocean where they spend their whole lives, returning to their origins only at the very end, to spawn and die.

In discussing this with his father, Scott enthusiastically declares that this is the “right” way to live, and

expectantly raises the question: Where is the “ocean” to which he, Scott, can go to live out his life, and how can

he get there? Dennis, of course, cannot answer this question—humans, after all, are not salmon—but Scott and

Emma eventually manage to find the answer for themselves and, by outgrabing the momeraths,16 enthusiastically

15 The name “Lewis Padgett” is used here for short-hand convenience. “Lewis Padgett” is a pseudonym, and unlike “Mark Twain” it is not a pseudonym for a single person; “Lewis Padgett” is a married couple, Henry Kuttner and Catherine L. Moore, each of whom was a talented author of speculative fiction in hanns own right, but who, after they got married in 1940, often wrote stories together; many of those stories were then published under the name ‘Lewis Padgett’. 16 The story declares that the opening stanza of Lewis Carroll’s “Jabberwocky” is, in fact, a detailed description of the process whereby it is possible to travel through the 4th or 5th or whatever dimension—but that, in order to correctly read and understand that description, one has to be able to apprehend it with a truly open mind, a mind that has not been “conditioned to Euclid”.


walk away in a direction which Dennis cannot even see, let alone follow, although they do it right before his eyes.

It was mentioned earlier that the main POV character (Dennis Paradine) character in this story is the father;

part of what this means is that we, the readers, at the end of the story are confronted with the full force of his

distress at the sight of his own young children joyfully walking away from him in a direction he can neither see

nor understand:

Emma’s faint voice squealed with excitement. Paradine grimaced. What the devil was going on upstairs? Scott shrieked, “Look out! This way!” Paradine, his mouth working, his nerves ridiculously tense, raced up the stairs. The door of Scott’s room was open. The children were vanishing. They went in fragments, like thick smoke in a wind, or like movement in a distorting mirror. Hand in hand they went,

in a direction Paradine could not understand, and as he blinked there on the threshold, they were gone. “Emma!” he said, dry-throated. “Scotty!” On the carpet lay a pattern of markers, pebbles, an iron ring—junk. A random pattern. A crumpled sheet of paper

blew toward Paradine. He picked it up automatically. “Kids. Where are you? Don’t hide—Emma! SCOTTY!” Paradine looked at the paper he held. It was a leaf torn from a book. There were interlineations and marginal notes, in Emma’s meaningless scrawl. A

stanza of verse had been so underlined and scribbled over that it was almost illegible, but Paradine was thoroughly familiar with Through the Looking Glass. His memory gave him the words—

‘Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimbel in the wabe. All mimsy were the borogoves, And the mome raths outgrabe. Idiotically he thought: Humpty Dumpty explained it. A wabe is the plot of grass around a sundial. A sundial. Time

— It has something to do with time. A long time ago Scotty asked me what a wabe was. Symbolism. ‘Twas brillig— A perfect mathematical formula, giving all the conditions, in symbolism the children had finally understood. The

junk on the floor. The toves had to be made slithy […] and they had to be placed in a certain relationship, so that they’d gyre and gimbel.

Lunacy! But it had not been lunacy to Emma and Scott. They thought differently. Those notes Emma had made on the page

— she’d translated Carroll’s words into symbols both she and Scott could understand. The random factor had made sense to the children. They had fulfilled the conditions of the time-space equation. And

the mome raths outgrabe— Paradine made a rather ghastly little sound, deep in his throat. He looked at the crazy pattern on the carpet. If he

could follow it, as the kids had done—But he couldn’t. The pattern was senseless. The random factor defeated him. He was conditioned to Euclid. (Padgett, 1943, pp. 258-259)

It is, perhaps, significant that after being introduced early in the story the father is referred to only by his

family name; after all, it is his family that is being torn apart; it is his children who are so joyfully walking away,

presumably never to return. Like the parents in Childhood’s End, all he can do is stand on the shore, watching

uncomprehendingly as his children blithely go off into this Brave New World into which he cannot follow them.

It is a powerful story, and, over the years, several filmmakers have considered trying to make a movie out of

it. But it is significant that, when one finally succeeded in doing so, the story went through a lot of changes;

Shaye’s movie went through 12 years of preparation, and its script went through several rewrites, by several

different people. In the end, the title was changed; the children were aged three-four years; this change is probably


related to a great extent the realities of casting; it is undoubtedly quite a bit easier to get a six-year-old than a

two-year-old to play the part of Emma. It is also worth noting, however, that whereas in the Padgett story the

children actually run away—and, in order for that to happen, it must be young enough not to be “conditioned to

Euclid”—in Shaye’s movie no such element is present; in the movie, it is also important that Emma be able to

express herself in decently-articulated English.17 Almost all the character’s names were changed (the little girl,

Emma, keeps her given name, but the family name is changed to “Wilder”, her brother is renamed “Noah”, and

the parents are renamed “David” and “Jo” instead of “Dennis” and “Jane”—it may be noteworthy that they keep

the same first initials); Dr. Holloway, the child psychologist in the Padgett story, has been split into two

characters in the movie, Larry White the science teacher and Ernie Rose the neurologist; several characters are

added who are not in the Padgett story at all.18 Most importantly, the plot is radically changed.

In the Padgett story, the Paradines are presented as a fairly conventional mid-20th-century middle-class

American family; apart from the parents’ (understandable) failure to understand what the strange toys from the

far future are teaching their children and their consequent anxiety about their presence in their lives, there seems

to be nothing remarkable about them; the implication is that Kuttner and Moore intended them to a kind of

“Everyman” couple, in their ordinariness representative of whatever their readers regarded as Ordinary.19 In Bob

Shaye’s The Last Mimzy, it is at least implied that the Wilders are a family with some problems; in particular, there

is some friction between the father’s job and his concern about his family, and some consequent friction between

him and his wife; at a certain point in the movie, he takes an extended leave from his job in order to be able to

spend more time with his family, and his wife expresses strong gratitude for this decision.

The movie also, more than the story, dramatizes the children’s discoveries. In the movie, Emma at one point

demonstrates one of these for her baby-sitter (a character completely absent from Padgett’s story), who freaks out.

Eventually, the entire family is taken into custody by the FBI because of a regional power-failure directly related

to the shenanigans of some of the “toys”, with the result that the kids now have to struggle to explain things to

the Authorities.

One of the leading differences between the print and movie versions of this story is the treatment of the

far-future scientist Unthahorsten. In the Padgett story, the “educational toys” that teach Scott and Emma the

wonderful skills that they then exploit at the end are, at the beginning of the story, little more than “junk”.

Unthahorsten is a scientist in the far future who has developed a time-machine, and wishes to test it; in order to do

so, he grabs some random stuff out of a cupboard—toys that belonged to his son, but which the son has long since

outgrown—and throws them into the machine; it is not important to him what they are, only that they are matter,

with mass, that can be put in the machine and sent to whatever other time he has in mind. He does this twice; in

one case, the “toys” end up in 19th-century England, in the hands of Alice Pleasance Liddell, and through her of

her family’s friend Charles Dodgson, known to the world as “Lewis Carroll”, the author, most importantly, of

“Jabberwocky”; in the other case, they end up in the USA in the 20th century, in the hands of Scott and Emma

Paradine. 17 Such considerations cannot, however, apply to The Dark is Rising. 18 While in many cases they may seem trivial, the changes in names, cast-list, etc. must have involved some deliberate decisions on the part of the people responsible; though explanations thereof are so far not forthcoming. 19 Although the surname “Paradine” is definitely unusual, and perhaps deserving of an explanation.


In Bob Shaye’s movie, on the other hand, the (unnamed) far-future scientist is not particularly interested in

testing a time-travel machine; instead, he is desperately trying to recover, from a significantly earlier era, some

samples of human DNA, uncorrupted by the pollutants that have so thoroughly infected his own time, in order to

repair the DNA of his contemporaries. Therefore, he very carefully designs the items he sends back, in order that

they may collect these samples and bring them back to him.20 At a crucial point in the story, the bunny-rabbit

which Emma calls “Mimzy” absorbs some of her tears, thereby acquiring the needed DNA samples; meanwhile,

the other “toys” have gradually morphed themselves into a machine that—hopefully—will send “Mimzy” back

to its time of origin. The crisis comes when the system designed to send “Mimzy” back inadvertently also “grabs

hold” of Emma, and almost sends her also into the far future (or rips her to atomic shreds; it is a little unclear

which is liable to happen to her, under the circumstances); at this point, it is necessary for her brother and her

parents, working together, to pull her back. In the end, Unthahorsten21 gets the samples that he so desperately

needs, and his world is saved; meanwhile, all four of the Wilders manage to stay on Puget Sound, at the dawn of

the 21st century (though Emma experiences some grief over the loss of her beloved Mimzy).

While the movie is told primarily from the children’s point of view, the Padgett story focuses much more on

the father. With the result, among other things, that at the end we feel the full force of the father’s distress/despair at

the sight of his children literally walking out on him—in a direction he cannot even see, cannot understand, much

less follow.

Another, rather substantive difference has to do with agenda: In the Padgett story, the main point is

discovery of super-Euclidean skills by children whose minds have not been “conditioned to Euclid”, and the

necessary contrast with their parents’ inability to even comprehend these skills. In the movie, it is poisoning by

pollutants and resultant mutation and damage to DNA.

It is of some importance that in both the Padgett story and the Shaye movie young children are involved, but

the significance is different. In the Padgett story, what is critical is that the children be young enough not to have

been “conditioned to Euclid”, i.e., have their minds, their imaginations limited to what our own civilization takes

for granted as “normal”, and are therefore intellectually flexible enough to learn the skills necessary to e.g. walk

through the fourth dimension. In Shaye’s movie, what’s critical is the assumption that children—young

children—are “innocent”, in particular that their DNA is “pure”, have not been “tampered with” by the pollutants

present in our environment.

In short, whereas in the Padgett story the focus is on the difference between the children and their parents, in

the movie the focus is on something that all humans (are supposed to) have in common—and the rescue of that

commonality, which in the end requires some heroic acts on the part of several people, most importantly the

children.

In the end, it seems to be more correct to say that Shaye’s movie is “inspired by” rather than “based on” the Padgett

story; Shaye’s movie is telling a fundamentally different story that merely has a few (granted, important) points in

common with the one told by Kuttner and Moore. Which in and of itself is a good reason for the change in title. 20 It is asserted that he has tried to do something like this on several previous occasions, all of which so far have failed. This one, the one featured in this story, represents his last, desperate attempt; hence the word ‘last’ in the title of the movie. 21 Although, as indicated, the character in the Shaye movie is unnamed, since he corresponds to Unthahorsten in the Padgett story i'll take the liberty of referring to him by the same name.


Conclusions

DiTerlizzi and Black’s Spiderwick Chronicles depicts a family that has problems, but—except insofar as

those problems (the divorce between Helen and Richard, Jared’s “anger issues”) are essential to the plot—not

much is made of them; they are treated more as background, establishing the Graces as a fairly “ordinary” family.

In Mark Waters’ movie, on the other hand, they are magnified; there is much greater friction between Helen and her

children, and among the children themselves—while, at the climax, the four of them must fight side-by-side, in the

process greatly strengthening the bonds between them. Meanwhile, the breach between Arthur and Lucile

Spiderwick is healed to a much greater extent in the movie than in the book(s).

In Susan Cooper’s book The Dark is Rising, the Stantons are presented as a sturdy, wholesome family that

provides Will, their youngest member, with a reliable, loving base from which he is able to take wing. As the

story progresses, they fade into the background, the plot focussing more and more specifically on Will. In David

Cunningham’s movie The Seeker, on the other hand, the Stantons are presented as a fundamentally troubled

family, and it is a significant part of Will’s heroic achievement that he is able, in some fashion, to some extent, to

heal and restore this troubled family of his.

In Moore & Kuttner’s printed story “Mimsy Were the Borogoves”, Scott and Emma Paradine essentially run

away from home—run joyfully, enthusiastically away from everything they or (more importantly) their parents

have ever known. Their parents are left behind, broken-hearted and bewildered; there is no indication that Scott

or Emma feels the slightest pang of remorse; there is very little reason to hope that their parents will ever see them

again.22 In Bob Shaye’s movie The Last Mimzy, the Wilders are a family visibly troubled by the stresses common

to many families in these modern times; but Noah and Emma Wilder love their parents (although, as a reflection

of those above-mentioned stresses, Noah occasionally expresses irritation to/at his father) and exhibit no desire to

leave them.23 Towards the end of the movie, Emma is trapped in the field of force designed to return Mimzy to its

point of origin, far in the future; she is rescued by the concerted, loving action of her parents and her brother, and

in the end the Wilders are a stronger family as a result of the trials they have withstood together.

Speculative-fiction stories in print sometimes involve the wrenching-apart of families, in many cases

focussing on the differing perspectives of different generations and the assumption that children are more flexible

or malleable than adults, including their parents. But major movies are (necessarily, for economic reasons) aimed

at a broader audience, and especially if they are based on speculative-fiction stories and therefore include

characters, props, and/or concepts that are significantly out of the ordinary, in order to nevertheless be maximally

comfortable (and comforting) to such an audience typically include as a theme the reinforcing and reassertion of

family ties. As shown in this paper, this is one of the changes typically made in the adaptation of a

speculative-fiction story from a print-source to the screen.

22 Scott’s comments with regard to the salmon life-cycle carry some hint of the possibility that he and Emma will someday return to their original environment. But salmon only do this at the very end of their lives; if Scott and/or Emma should follow this example, their parents will probably be long since dead. 23 Cf. Emma’s statement to Mimzy: “I don’t want the world to end. Ever. I love the world. …I know … i know … with all my heart”. Shaye’s Emma has no wish to leave her parents or the world; instead, she does all in her power to save the world.


References

Canton, M. (Producer), & Waters, M. (Director). (2007). The Spiderwick chronicles [motion picture]. Hollywood: Paramount/Nickelodeon.

Clarke, A. C. (1953). Childhood’s end. New York: Del Ray. Cooper, S. (1973). The dark is rising. New York: Aladdin. DiTerlizzi, T., & Black, H. (2003-2004). The Spiderwick chronicles. New York: Simon and Schuster. Padgett, L. (1943). Mimsy Were the Borogoves. In R. Silverberg (Ed., 1970), The science fiction hall of fame (Vol. I) (pp.

226-260). New York: Avon. Phillips, M. (Producer), & Shaye, B. (Director). (2007). The last Mimzy [motion picture]. Los Angeles: New Line Cinema. Platt, M. (Producer), & Cunningham, D. (Director). (2007). The seeker: The dark is rising [motion picture]. Los Angeles: 20th

Century Fox/Walden. Spielberg, S. & Kennedy, K. (Producers), & Spielberg, S. (Director). (1982). E. T.: The extraterrestrial [motion picture]. Los

Angeles: Universal/Amblin.


Revisiting Contemporary Judaism in Modern Israel

Uri Zur

Ariel University, Ariel, Israel

Today’s society in Israel is divided and torn on many issues, including religion, and Jewish and Israeli identity, yet

occasionally, a single event emerges which combines several divisions. One such issue is the “identity crisis” also

known as the question of “Who is a Jew?”. This is a thorny complex problem, and one which has not yet been

awarded a clear-cut constitutional solution. For example, it continues to be debated whether the religious definition

should be the decisive factor, that is, should a Jew defined as an individual born to a mother who is Jewish or has

been converted according to halacha, or whether Israeli identity is the more critical element and whether any

individual born in or immigrated to Israel who served in the army, works and pays taxes in Israel, and identifies

with the state’s values should be identified as a Jew? In this paper, the author wishes to focus on equally

complicated issue, although one has attracted less attention. This is the issue of halachic polarization or extremism

that characterizes Judaism in modern Israel. Following a brief historical explanation, the author defines the

problem at hand, and propose a solution.

Keywords: Jews, contemporary Judaism, modern Israel

The Problem of Being Jewish Today

Setting aside the issue of defining Who is a Jew? which is beyond the scope of the present discussion,

leading a Jewish lifestyle requires the individual to address issues that involve many facets of life including

politics, military service, education, employment, and the public sphere.

The main problem today is that modern Israeli society does not subscribe to a homogenous worldview on

Judaism. Haredi (Ultra-orthodox) Jews typically form an isolated community characterized by halachic

extremism. Orthodox Jewsare is also known as “Crocheted Yarmulka Wearers” (Cohn, 2009, pp. 710-716), a

term used stigmatically by Haredi Jews to symbolize their supposedly more lax observance Jewish laws. While

traditional Jews typically tend to “pick and choose” out of the enormous range of options available in Judaism,

secular Jews consciously reject a life based on Jewish traditions or laws almost completely.

The author has no problems with the two poles at the extreme: Haredi Jews and secular Jews conduct their

lives within settings that provide for all their needs, and neither group finds any need to concern itself with the

other’s business. The author’s main concern involves Orthodox and Traditional Jews. In many cases, the

members of these groups are inclined to increasing strictness and extremism on all topics related to Judaism, out

of ignorance. This stands in complete contrast to the situation in the distant past, and in glaring contradiction to

the example set by Beit Hillel.

Uri Zur, Ph.D., Israel Heritage Department, Ariel University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

REVISITING CONTEMPORARY JUDAISM IN MODERN ISRAEL 397

In breaking down the main problem of the Orthodox and Traditional Jews into more specific issues, let us

first focus on the absence of individual discretion. Today’s Orthodox or Traditional Jews tend to refrain from

applying unbiased objective reasoning to issues of Judaism. They prefer to adopt to one specific approach or

adhere to the decisions of a single public figure almost exclusively, with absolute devotion, as if following the

maxim: “Appoint for thyself a teacher” (Avot 1:6) or “See like this and then sanctify” (Rosh-HaShana 20a).

However, these maxims, originally designed to guide individuals with regard to the determination of halacha, are

not applicable to individual lifestyle choices. Nonetheless, a large number of the religious Jews apply these

maxims with fervor to their own individual lifestyle choices.

We should not be surprised that they do so. It is a very convenient attitude to take because it removes any

assumption of individual responsibility. This approach allows one to rely on an authority figure who directs the

entire course of life of his Orthodox or Traditional followers. This approach releases the individual from the risk

of an imposing sense of guilt. The problem is that such individuals who rely on an authority in this manner also

forgo the use of their own individual discretion in reasoning that might lead them to different conclusions and an

entirely different course of life.

Another problem related to the main issue is that some Orthodox and Traditional Jews may also suffer from

a lack of mastery and understanding of various Jewish sources texts, and not necessarily complex texts. Others

who have the appropriate level of understanding of the sources prefer not to deviate from the normative Orthodox

way of thinking. In other words, these individuals are not open-minded and are unwilling to consider other views,

even if such views are not contradictory to Judaism. An example of their inflexibility is their opposition to the

application of comparative analysis or literary criticism to Jewish source texts. The problem is that their approach

leads to intellectual stagnation, has a stagnating effect on the development and dynamics of Judaism, and is

inconsistent with today’s reality.

Another problem is caused when individuals accept interpretations or accounts that originate in the Aggadah

(third-12th century A.C.) as imperatives, or embrace various customs originating in Kabbalah (12th-13th

century A.C.). Orthodox and Traditional Jews typically fail to distinguish between these two fields of Aggadah

and Kabbalah—which are not truly binding—and the codex of halachic law grounded in the Talmud Bavli

(third-sixth century A.C.) or Talmud Yerushalmi (third-fourth century A.C.), which is truly obligatory after

having been perfected over centuries through the interpretive criticism by Mishna and Talmud scholars.

A related issue concerns the adoption of new customs, or the transformation of customs originating in the

numerous sects of the Jewish Diaspora. As is well known, contemporary Orthodox Jewry in Israel is not

homogeneous and comprises a broad range of sects, each of which maintains customs from various more or less

recent historic periods. The problem is that some Orthodox and Traditional Jews do not tend to recognize the

unique significance of the traditions of their own sect. As a result, in Israel today we see cross-sectarian adoption

of customs, such as adopting prayers from other sects. In this way, the authentic customs of each sect are lost, and

the ancient traditions of each sect are lost: It is doubtful that they will ever be recovered.

These issues prompt important questions. Jews in contemporary Israel who view these developments are

justified in asking—What, then, is contemporary Judaism? What should the patterns of behavior of Orthodox

Jews in Israel be? Is it merely a question of Orthodox and Traditional Jews? Should we all adopt this

contemporary modus vivendi?


A Proposed Solution

From an objective standpoint, the solution appears to be rather simple: What we need are persons of

invigorating Jewish reasoning, persons of courage and critical thinking, able to eradicate any trace of behavior

and customs that are not grounded in Jewish sources; impartial individuals who are not afraid to state the

objective truth; individuals who will lead Judaism today as it was led in the past—as a tolerant lifestyle and no

more; Judaism free of any financial, political, social, or status interests. Only in this way will the majority of the

Jewish people today be able to become closer to Judaism, as they did in the past, when the majority of the nation

followed the Jewish lifestyle advocated by Hillel.

In fact, such a solution may have already evolved among us, for example, among the Sephardic Jewry: By

virtue of his extensive Torah knowledge, R. Ovadia Yossef of blessed memory, successfully unified all or most

of the different Sephardic groups. One of this most decisive decisions was that halacha in Israel today should

follow the rules of the great Sephardic halachist who lived in 16th century Zefat, R. Yossef Karo—for two

reasons: One, it is conventional that halacha follows the most recent Poskim, and two, R. Karo lived and was

active in the Land of Israel. The entire Sephardic community accepted R. Ovadia Yossef’s view, on the basis of

his halachic authority. R. Ovadia Yossef more of less conforms to the description in our proposal—a spiritual

unbiased leader who fearlessly points to the halachic path even if it is not convenient. This is the reason that the

members of the Sephardic community are his loyal followers and he is currently considered by Sephardic Jews as

the generation’s greatest halachic Posek, and his rules are recognized as the supreme authority.

The Solution Challenged

However, a crack occurred in which appeared to be a solution to the problem discussed above. R. Ovadia

Yossef’s leadership and authority were recently challenged by what was reported on October 12, 2008, in

Ma’ariv, an Israeli daily newspaper, as a “Yemenite Rebellion”. The story under this headline opened as follows:

“Eminent Yemenite rabbis challenge R. Ovadia Yossef’s halachic leadership”.

This challenge originated in a dispute on the following halachic question: Should the candles be blessed on a

holiday or not? R. Ovadia Yossef ruled that blessing the holiday candles is mandatory. One of the reasons he cited

for his rule was his determination that everyone in Israel should follow R. Yossef Karo’s rules (Yossef, 1986,

pp. 58-59), by virtue of his eminence in halacha, because he was the last illustrious halachic Posek in Israel, and

because he lived and was active in Israel. For this reason, his rulings should supersede any customs that Jews

from the Diaspora brought to Israel. In contrast, three of the most important rabbis of the Yemenite sect (R. Y. Ratzabi, R. A. Bassis, and R. P.

Korah) stated that the candles should not be blessed on holidays (Ben Maimon, 1954, Shabbat 5:1), thereby

implying that it is not mandatory to follow R. Yossef Karo’s rulings. According to the three Yemenite rabbis, the

original ancient tradition was not to bless the candles on holidays. They stated that this was the custom in Yemen,

and not only should this custom not be cancelled in Israel, but it should be retained. Moreover, these rabbis believed that by imposing R. Karo’s halachic rulings, R. Ovadia Yossef was

effectively eradicating all the ancient customs of the Yemenite Jews. This is a situation to which they remain

strongly opposed. The dispute between R. Ovadia Yossef and the three Yemenite rabbis makes our question even

more pointed for every Yemenite Jew born or raised in Israel: Should he embrace the authority of the leader R.


Ovadia Yossef, adopt his decision, or follow the Yemenite rabbis? How can this crisis be resolved?

The following proposal is pertinent for Jews of Yemenite descent, and is also relevant for Jews who

deliberate whether to follow an Orthodox or Traditional Jewish lifestyle.

Resolving the Crisis

A resolution to this crisis should be based on an understanding of the division of labor between rabbinical

leaders and between Orthodox or Traditional Jewish individuals. Today’s Jew should accept the authority of

rabbis solely for halachic issues, and each Jew, whatever his descent or sect, Sephardic, Ashkenazi, or Yemenite,

should follow the rabbi solely for the rabbi’s halachic rulings. In terms of lifestyle, however, the individual Jew

should assume full responsibility for his own actions. This does not imply that a rabbi cannot be consulted, but the

final responsibility lies with the individual. This “relilogical” Jew is the new type of Jew that should develop in

Israel today.

The relilogical Jew should study diligently and become familiar with the Jewish sources. He should

maintain an open-mind and the ability to learn from other ways of reasoning, even if they are critical or oppose

his own worldview, and he should learn to address them in a proper manner. He should be knowledgeable in

halacha, and creative. He should address contemporary issues independently before submitting any question to

the rabbi for ruling, if he decides to do so. He should have the ability to distinguish between what is halachically

obligatory and what is not. He should distinguish between early and recent traditions and customs, and should be

familiar with the customs of the various Jewish sects. He should strive to preserve ancient traditions and customs,

and if he decides to deviate from these traditions, he should do so after an informed, reasoned decision making

process based on his learning and historical knowledge. Most importantly, he should use his discretion on all

matters, including matters of religion and Judaism.

The Current Situation

Earlier the author stated that a type of Jew should develop in Israel today—a “relilogical” Jew. Although the

author originally thought that theory and practice were not proceeding at the same pace, the author believes that

the first buds of a relilogical stance are evident in today’s reality of Israel.

What does the author mean? Let the author illustrates. On December 4, 2008, morning radio host Ilana

Dayan, interviewed Mr. Uri Elizur, one of the Yesha Movement leaders (Yesha is a movement advocating Jewish

settlement in Judea and Samaria). Elizur was questioned on the recent Supreme Court decision to evacuate a

house purchased by Jews in Hebron (also known as the “Beit Meriva” or “Beit HaShalom”, depending on the

perspective of the speaker) and on the violent opposition to the evacuation by Jewish youngsters against police

officers and soldiers who carried out the evacuation.

Ilana Dayan posed the following question to the interviewee: “Would the youngsters in Hebron follow

instructions by their rabbis or their leaders?” Dayan wished to discover whether the youngsters would cease their

actions if so instructed by their leaders or rabbis.

Elizur’s response was surprising. He said, “They act according to their own conscience”, implying that on

certain issues there is no justification for intervention by rabbis or leaders. Rather, each and every one of the

youngsters thought about the issue and decided to act according to his or her own conscience, as relilogical

Jews should.


Parenthetically, the author would like to emphasize that the new relilogical Jew, who does not rely on

spiritual or political leaders but rather on his own judgment, may arrive at a decision that is right or a decision that

has negative, illegal, or immoral repercussions.

The Relationship Between the Jewish Individual and Modern Society in Israel

The relationship of the individual and modern society is a complicated and painful issue. the author will not

address Jewish society as a whole, but will concentrate on the relationship between the Jewish individual and

modern Jewish society in Israel. Various theses on this issue exist, but here the author discusses several of the

more problematic aspects of this relationship, which enfolds many issues, including whether the Jewish

individual has a unique expression in modern society, and if so, what the Jewish expression in the modern society

in which he exists is (Halbertal, n.d., Retrieved from http://

www.adifoundation.co.il/...%20articles/Moshe%20Halbertal). How should a relilogical Jew conduct himself in

today’s modern society? What kind of expression should be given to the positions of Jewish individuals on

current religious issues? What is the attitude of the religious establishment to non-conforming individual

approaches to issues pertaining to Judaism?

The general answer to all these questions is what the potential maximum degree of mutual tolerance between

the individual and modern society in Israel is. In other words, the individual’s ability to express himself in

modern society is achievable only under mutual tolerance between the individual and modern society. This

should also be the position of the relilogical Jew to modern society: He must conduct himself within the

boundaries of the accepted norms of modern society in Israel, while modern society must allow him the proper

and appropriate scope of freedom of action. This approach should also be applied to the worldview and

judgments of relilogical Jews, and to current religious issues that emerge in various areas. The religious Jew

needs unlimited freedom of thought to allow him to use his own judgments. According to this approach, the

religious establishment should also exhibit tolerance, openness, and progress by encouraging freedom of thought

and by supporting individuals’ freedom of thought and ability to use their own judgment to express their opinions

and put their decisions or conclusions into practice, even if an individual’s perspective differs from the accepted

norm, as long as it is within the extended boundaries that Judaism defines for individuals.

Redesigning the Identity of the Relilogical Jew

Resolution of the issue of the individual in modern society in Israel is a task imposed on various entities

including the government, society, and culture, but it is also on obligation of the individual himself. The

individual himself must undergo a thorough, personal transformation to reshape his identity so that he ultimately

attains the level of the relilogical Jew.

The process might be long and tiring, paved with internal conflicts and crises, but it is expedient and

important, because it is the means to remove the various cognitive and practical “obstacles” and “binds” in

various areas, mainly in issues pertaining to Judaism which, until now, were frequently dependent on a process of

questions to rabbis and their answers.

The new identity of the relilogical Jew on issues of Judaism (Meyer, 2006, pp. 127-128) should be manifest,

first and foremost, in a more intense and thorough knowledge of the canonical sources of the Jewish people. The

basic resources including the bible, the various traditions of oral law in halacha and Aggada, the moral literature,


Hebrew law, and the traditions of prayer and liturgy (Schweid, 2001-2002, pp. 132-133), as well as Jewish

traditions that served as the basis of education at home.

Knowledge and application of all the above is the basic foundation of reshaping the individual’s identity in

Israeli society, to attain the level of “relilogic” that is necessary in Israel’s modern society today (Ben-Yosef,

2003, pp. 110-113).

Failure to assimilate or apply this requirement to reshape individual identity according to the standard of

relilogical is currently perceived in Israeli society as a step backward in a society that is quickly progressing in a

different direction, as immersion into an antiquated past, and as something obsolete that should be abandoned

in entirety.

The Sources of the New Relilogical Identity

Already in the Middle Ages, Jewish philosophers expressed clear opinions on “thinking individuals”, or in

modern terms, “the thinking observant individual”. For example, in his volume Chovot HaLevavot, R. Bahye ben

R. Yossef ibn Faqudah (1050-1120, Spain) likens those individuals who do not think independently or form their

own opinions but rather are dependent on instructions of superior authorities, as blind men led by seeing men. He

describes people who believe in the singularity of God based merely on tradition, without having arrived at such

a conclusion on the basis of their own reasoning and understanding, as:

A group of blind men who each place their hand on their shoulder of the companion in front of them, until reaching the healthy leader … if he ignores them and does not warn them, an obstacle will hinder them all and they will lose their way, and may fall into a pit. (ibn Faqudah, 1973, p. 49)

He continues to ask, “Must we investigate the singularity in an academic manner or not” (ibn Faqudah, 1973,

p. 50). His response is the foundation for the religious dimension of the new identity, and for the relilogical

dimension, the “thinking” dimension of that new identity, whose fields of reasoning and research might also

encompass religious and divine matters, such as the singularity of God.

He continues:

Whoever is able to investigate this issue [the uniqueness of the divine] and everything else similar to it, through intellectual consideration … he is obligated to investigate it to the extent of his attainment and power of understanding … and anyone who does not investigate the issues and their truth, is act faithlessly in his Creator. (ibn Faqudah, 1973, p. 50)

This has been interpreted as follows:

Whoever has been blessed by God with common sense, the ability of discrimination, and curiosity, and has the intelligence to investigate and inquire into his environment, what is missing in it, and even into the existence and merits of God himself, owes a duty to God to make the broadest and deepest possible use of his intelligence and talents, because they were created and given to him for this purpose, and a person who does not think or contemplate as much as he can is betraying the faith of his Creator. (Cohn, 2009, p. 200)

From all this, the basis for the new “relilogical” identity can be clearly deduced. Any person endowed with

mental capacities with ability for objective discernment, understanding, intellectual curiosity, and mental

capability, is obliged to apply these to all of the subjects of this research. This is the obligatory aspect of the

“thinking” component of the new identity. Exploration of all things religious and spiritual, and even concerning

God’s existence and qualities, is an affirmation of the religious component of the identity. In other words, we


have before us the fundamental essence of the new “relilogical” man already stated in the Middle Ages, but in

different wording.

The source and authority of that objective intellectual obligation stems from that same source, that is, God,

who granted the individual his mental capabilities. Otherwise, for what purpose was his intelligence granted to

him? If God did not wish for man to think or make use of his mental faculties, he would have limited him from the

onset, from creation, just as He did not want Man to live forever and therefore limited his lifespan and decreed

death for Man at the end of his days (Gen. 3:19). In light of all the aforesaid, one who does not utilize his abilities and faculties granted him by God but

instead relies upon the opinions of others who do his thinking for him or in his stead, without bothering to learn

and think for himself in order to form or express his own opinion, is likened to a blind man and a blind man is

comparable to a dead man (Nedarim 64b). The Jewish philosopher, R. Joseph Albo (Spain, 1380–444) wrote in a similar manner in his book Sefer

HaIqarim (1951) as follows:

And I was obligated to write all this as I saw that there were frivolous people … lacking knowledge or understanding. From this, derives the permission for every wise person to inquire into the principles of religion and elucidate the verses in a manner that concurs with the truth according to his opinion. And even though he does believe in some of the statements set down by early Masters—principles such as the coming of the messiah, renewal of the world, and so forth, but they are not fundamentals … he is not to be considered, Heaven forbid, as denying the Torah or its fundamentals. (pp. 52-53)

From Albo’s statements the basis for a new identity of the “relilogical” man can also be deduced. He

“permits” any “wise person” (that is to say, man’s “thinking” aspect) “to inquire into the principles of the

religion” in all religious matters as research objectives or researchable subjects. This is man’s “religious” aspect

of the new identity, which is permitted to investigate all issues of the religion.

That is to say, if a person “thinks” upon a certain “religious topic” (e.g., the coming of the messiah, which is

the example Albo uses) that it is not one of the principles of the faith (in contrast to the opinion of Rambam, who

believes that it is one of the Thirteen Principles of the Faith (Ben Maimon, 1954, Sanhedrin 10:1), he is not to be

considered an apostate). In light of all that was previously said, from this one can also deduce the basis for the perception of the new

“relilogical” identity.

Are There Limits to the Topics for Contemplation by the “Relilogical Man”?

In principle, any subject that the Torah has not forbidden for reflection is permitted for thinking and

mediating, even if such contemplation entails evil thoughts. We learn this from the Torah’s words, You shall not

hate your brother in your heart (Lev. 19:17). The Torah forbids one to silently hate his brethren, that is to say, to

think evil thoughts about your neighbor. From this we conclude that thinking evil thoughts is not a transgression

of the Law and is certainly not subject to punishment, so long as the Torah did not forbid it (nonetheless, evil

thoughts indicate that such a person should be more virtuous, and study the ethical literature to correct his ways). The Academy of Hillel also thought so in their difference of opinion with Academy of Shammai concerning

the verse from the Torah, “to see whether he has put his hand to his neighbor’s goods. For every word of trespass”

(Ex. 22:7-8). The Academy of Shammai explains: “This is to intimate liability for [expressed] intention as for


actual deed”. The Academy of Hillel explains: “He is not responsible unless he actually misappropriates it”

(Kiddushin 42b). Their disagreement concerns the boundaries of topics of contemplation. According to Bet

Shammai, an evil thought is just like an evil act and is forbidden. According to Bet Hillel, an evil thought is not an

evil act until a person actually performs some action. The following discussion between the Sages of the Tannaitic period found in the Babylonian Talmud

concerning the drafting of the final eight verses of the Torah (Deut. 34:5-12), takes this issue of defining the

limits of absolute freedom of topics of contemplation. The Master has said: Joshua wrote the book which bears his name and the last eight verses of the Pentateuch.

This statement is in agreement with the authority who says that eight verses in the Torah were written by Joshua,

as it has been taught: [It is written], So Moses the servant of the Lord died there [Deut. 34:5]. Now is it possible

that Moses being dead could have written the words, “Moses died there?” The truth is, however, that up to this

point Moses wrote, from this point Joshua wrote. This is the opinion of R. Judah, or, according to others, of R.

Nehemiah. Said R. Simeon to him: Can [we imagine the] scroll of the Law being short of one word, and is it not

written, Take this book of the Law? [Deut. 31:26] No; what we must say is that up to this point the Holy One,

blessed be He, dictated and Moses repeated and wrote, and from this point God dictated and Moses wrote with

tears (Bava Bathra 15a).

The disagreement between R. Judah and R. Simeon illustrates the point until which one can stretch the limits

of the topics of contemplation on religious matters. According to R. Judah, there almost no limits at all. R. Judah

entirely negates the possibility that the final eight verses were written by Moses, based on the following rationale

that he presents: How can one explain the fact that he wrote that he died although he had already died?! Since that

is impossible, R. Judah (Bava Bathra 15a) (2nd century A.C.) concludes that Moses did not write the final eight

verses of the Torah but it was Joshua who completed the Torah’s final eight verses describing the death of Moses.

At this point of the Talmudic debate it does not record anyone from among the Sages vehemently protesting

against R. Judah’s statement. None of the Sages admonished R. Judah for being a denier of the Torah; there were

no provocations, sanctions, or violence of any kind. On the contrary, the discussion represents a legitimate

difference of opinion between those Sages, with each one holding a different opinion concerning those final eight

verses of the Torah.

Indeed, further along the discussion, an opinion opposing R. Judah’s opinion, is presented. According to R.

Simeon (Bava Bathra 15a) (2nd century A.C.), his opponent’s point of view, the entire Torah, from God, was

written by Moses, including the final eight verses. He is unwilling to accept the fact that the entire Torah was not

written by Moses from God. On the other hand, he overcomes the impossible facts by developing his own

description of the process: In this way he distinguishes between Moses’ situation when writing the Torah

(“Moses repeated and wrote”) and his situation when he is requested by the Holy One Blessed be He to write

about his death (“Moses wrote with tears”). This tolerance for differences of opinions between the Sages without admonishing R. Judah for his unique

opinion that so significantly differs from conventional thinking on such a sensitive topic as Moses' writing of the

Torah dictated to him by God, symbolizes the extent of the permitted limits of thought on any religious subject,

that already existed in the Tannaitic period. Another example of stretching the limits of contemplation linked to the text of the Torah can be found in the


Babylonian Talmud where it states: “One taught: There was an assiduous student at Jamnia [f. 6: “Or Jabneh”]

who by a hundred and fifty reasons proved that a [dead] creeping thing was clean” (Eruvin 13b). The Sages were puzzled (Tossafot, Eruvin 13b, s.v: “Sh’yodea”): “It is puzzling, what was the sharp

mindedness it took to render the reptile pure when the Torah has already rendered impure”. That is to say, what

was the sharp mindedness, what was the wisdom, in striving to render a reptile pure using 155 excuses when the

Torah (force majeure) had already explicitly stated that the reptile was impure? Was that senior disciple disputing

the Torah not a single one of Yavne’s Sages bothered even to remark on that to him? This passage may be viewed as further evidence from the Tannaitic times about the limits of contemplation,

including even subject that clearly appear in the Torah, which were ostensibly clear and should not have incited

any differences of opinions, yet it is possible to stretch the limit of contemplation even if such contemplation is

unconventional, such as the opinions of the above “assiduous learner”.

However, one must note that in later times, such as for example, in Rambam’ time, the topics for thought for

the contemplative person were already limited, at least with regard to religious subjects, due to the fear of

people’s limited capabilities. And so Rambam determines:

Any thought that causes a person to uproot any one of the principles of the Torah, we are warned not to raise, and not to cogitate upon it, or follow the dictates of our hearts, because people’s minds are limited, and not all minds can perfectly encompass the truth, and thus enters into apostasy. (Ben Maimon, 1954, Avodah Zara 2:4)

Rambam presents examples of prohibited thoughts, including thoughts about the Creator’s unity (“perhaps

he is or perhaps he is not”), or about prophecy (“perhaps it is true or perhaps it is not”), or the Torah (“perhaps it

is from Heaven or perhaps it is not”) (Ben Maimon, 1954, Avodah Zara 2:5). However, as stated before, others

including Albo in Sefer HaIqarim, did not accept Rambam’s opinion on this point.

Illegitimate Relilogical Decisions

In the relilogical person’s decision-making system, it is not legitimate to oppose the commandments of the

Written or Oral Torah, or the rulings of previous sages. This is an accepted principle and so there is no reason to

expand on this topic. However, there are other topics where the “relilogical” individual may make illegitimate

decisions, for example, decisions on all the universal issues. Let us focus on ethics, for example. There is

universal, elementary ethics which is a natural imperative, and one that is accepted by the majority of intelligent

people everywhere and in all times (Shafran, 1969, p. 215). Any decision by the “relilogical” person that goes

against universal ethics would be an illegitimate one. The same holds for universal justice, virtuous behavior, and

so forth. It should be emphasized that all these tenets preceded the Torah, which underscores their universality as

well their mandatory nature. Universal ethics and universal justice are known by the well-known phrase, “the

Seven Noahide Laws” (Sanhedrin 56a) which predate the Torah. That good manners predate the Torah is

concluded the Mishnah: “Where is no good manners there is no Torah” (Avot 3:17), which means that good

manners existed before the Torah, and even existed in the prolonged period of the twenty-six generations before

the Torah was given to Israel (VaYiqrah Rabbah, Tzav 9:3, p. 92, Mirkin Ed.). Other issues are mandated by common sense. For example, if one borrows money or an object from a friend,

he is obliged to return it to him. There are other topics that naturally obligate the individual, such as, for example,

honoring one’s father and mother; the duty would exist even if it was not one of the Torah’s commandments. A


person naturally respects his parents. This is also true for other topics linked to mercy or compassion that are

natural for a person to perform: Even animals act in that manner, such as animal mothers who have compassion

for their offspring. Therefore, any decision against such principles would be considered illegitimate.

The Essence of the Argument Underlying the “Relilogical” Identity

Everybody is required to study the Torah since that is the instruction handed down to Joshua, Moses’

successor:

This Book of the Torah shall not depart from your mouth; but you shall meditate on it day and night, that you may observe to do according to all that is written on it; for then you shall make your way prosperous, and then you shall have good success. (Jos. 1:8)

The object of studying the Torah is for learning’s sake as a commandment that must be observed and

fulfilled, as stated in that verse. As a person studies extensively, and advances in his study, he then “shall have

good success”, or literally, becomes wise. He can then attain a higher level of skills in instruction and teaching

others. And naturally, he can make decisions on various religious matters by himself and for himself. Here is a simple example: A rabbi can decide on religious matters independently. He is not required to go to

another rabbi to consult with him on the topic of his deliberation, although he certainly may do so if he wishes.

His individual capacity to make a decision on a specific topic stems from his great store of knowledge. Therefore,

we can conclude that this also applies to the “relilogical” man who is an intellectual and studies extensively, and

is knowledgeable on religious and Judaic matters. Similarly to the rabbi, he, too, can make a decision. He is

likewise not obliged to consult with a rabbi if he does not feel any need to do so.

This is a basic insight that Ezra the Scribe quickly developed as early as the middle of the fifth century B.C.,

after he came to the Land of Israel from Babylon and observed that the Israelites in Israel were negligent in

observing the commandments (Neh. 1:7; Ez. 9:2-3), they failed to observe the commandments relating to Temple

service (Ez. 4:24), and after the exile of “the carpenters and metal workers” (Kings 2, 24:14). Ezra the Scribe hastened to rectify these digressions by transferring the authority of teaching from the

pedigreed theocratic elite (the priests) and from the seers (the prophets), who had the authority to demand

obedience, to the knowledgeable people (the wise men) who studied and knew the Torah. And so it is written:

“ …and the Levites, helped the people to understand the Torah … So they read in the book in the Torah of God

clearly, and gave the interpretation, so that they understood the reading” (Neh. 8:7-8). The Levites who know the

Torah are those who read and teach the Torah, based on their knowledge of the Torah and their ability to interpret

and explain the Torah to the people in an intelligent manner so that the people could understand the words of

the Torah.

Although Ezra learned from his rabbis, he was an autodidact. And so it is written about him: “For Ezra had

set his heart to study the Torah of the Lord, and to do it, and to teach in Israel his statutes and judgments” (Ez. 7:10). Credentials or qualifications are insufficient because learning and knowledge are what conferred upon a

person the title of a learned Sage. This was the case until the last student of Hillel the Elder: From Rabban

Johanan ben Zakkai (Sukkah 28a), all the renown sages were called by their personal names, such as Shimeon the

Just (Avot 1:2) Shemaia and Avtalion (Avot 1:10) without noting any rabbinical title whatsoever (“Rabi is greater

than Rav, Raban is greater than Rabi, and his name alone is greater than Raban”) (Halevi, 1970, p. 9).


At some stage it was even determined that a sage had precedence over a prophet. This is based upon the

verse “that we may gain a heart of wisdom” [lit., a prophet is one who has a heart of wisdom] (Ps. 90:12), which

implies that knowledge gained through learning and study is more important than prophecy. In practice, since

Ezra, there were no prophets, and the period of the Sages began and has lasted until our own age, which is based

on the importance of study that confers knowledge. This was also what the Sages had determined: “Study is

greater. For it leads to action” (Kiddushin 40b). If somebody learns something he will probably put it into practice,

and thereby gain not only study but benefit from the action as well. A person who merely performs the act, does

not profit from the study of the matter. All the aforesaid constitutes the foundation of “relilogical” identity that should materialize in our times.

With such a higher level of the “Relilogical” man’s stature, comes the obligation to utilize his abilities in

inquiring into all matters, even those concerning the divine, as determined by R. Joseph Albo in Sefer Ha’iqarim,

which we mentioned before.

Additional Examples of the “Relilogical” Practical Method

Examples of practical thinking can be found in the Babylonian Talmud from that period. From it we can also

infer a practical method for the “relilogical” man that applies to our own period. One of the accepted conventions of the Talmud’s rules is that no sage from the Amoraic period (3rd-6th

century A.C.) should contest the sages from the previous Tannaitic period. If such a situation nonetheless arises,

the Amoraic sage is permitted to disagree only of he presents support for his opinion by referring to earlier

sources or earlier sages from the Tannaitic period who appear to agree with his opinion. Such a situation is

described in the Talmud as “Tannai Hie” (Sirilio, 1972, p. 147) or “Tania Kevateih DePloni” (Sirilio, 1972, p. 145).

Borrowing from the field of logic, such circumstances are known as argumentum ad verecundiam, or in Hebrew

(literally) “hanging from tall trees”.

The analogy to this situation in our times is manifest in the “relilogical” man’s practical conduct, which are

also based on an appeal to authority. One option is to pose a “question” to a rabbi, which is the easiest method that

absolves him from learning the material or taking responsibility for his personal decisions. The second option is

preferable, since it obliges one to thoroughly study the subject and assume personal responsibility for its

implications. That is to say, in order to address any problem, one needs to thoroughly study the material on the

topic that can be found in all the relevant and reliable sources, which will ultimately expand the learner's

knowledge base. In this manner, the inquisitive intellectual can independently make an appropriate decision on

the topic of his interest, without needing or relying on the decisions of others, and assuming responsibility for the

consequences of his decision. From his perspective, those reliable sources constitute “the authority”. As noted

above, one example is the difference of opinion concerning the blessing over the holiday candles, between the

three Yemenite rabbis and R. OvadiaYossef, in their reliance upon tradition and Rambam rulings.

Another example of “relilogical” practice concerns topical questions on religion that emerge in a certain

place, such as the construction of a synagogue in the heart of a residential neighborhood. To resolve the problem,

two different and opposing points of view are presented. The first relied upon “putting a question to the rabbi”

who determined that one cannot oppose the construction of a synagogue in the heart of a residential neighborhood.

The second position, representing the approach of the “relilogical” man, concluded, after having studied and


examined the subject and the sources, that the community should be compelled to accept the construction of a

synagogue only if no other synagogue exists there (Ben Maimon, 1954, Laws of prayer 11:1). The implication of

this was that if other synagogues already exist in the area then a [another] synagogue should not to be built within

the heart of a residential neighborhood.

The “relilogical” man’s practical method can also rely upon a logical method or normative supposition since

they too were acceptable among the Sages and can also be applied today. A logical method that was already used

by the Sages in decision making was the a fortiori rule. One classic example from the Sages is based on the story

of Hillel and B’nei Beterah. They did not know if bringing the Paschal sacrifice on the Sabbath overrides Sabbath

prohibitions or not. Hillel answered them that the Paschal sacrifice did defer the Sabbath, and he based his

statement on the learning method of analogy (G’zerah Shavah). This method requires knowledge of the

theoretical study material—just as Hillel had learned from his teachers who were the great authorities in their

generation, and application of this logical form of argument based on a fortiori (Kal VaChomer) (Peschim 66a). We found an example of normative supposition about citations from the Sages in a statement by R. Johanan

(3rd century A.C) who said: “If the Torah had not been given we could have learnt modesty from a cat, honesty

[f.6: “Lit., ‘(objection to) robbery’”] from the ant, chastity [f.7: “Lit., ‘forbidden intercourse’”] from the dove,

and good manners from the cock” (Eruvin 100b).

In light of all of the aforesaid, it is true today as it was in the past: A person may reach decisions on religious

matters relying upon the logical method of a fortiori, on the condition that there are no contradicting statements,

or decisions may be based on normative assumptions that meet a fixed logical standard and do not contradict

statements that were discussed in the past and on which obligatory conclusions were reached. An example that is

as relevant today as it was in the past is all the matters related to the issue of whether life-saving defers, or

overrides, the Sabbath.

Conclusions

This paper opened with a short description of the problem of Israeli society, and its implications in terms of

the Halachic radicalization that Judaism is currently experiencing, in comparison with the past, focusing mainly

on the religious and traditional sector, which accounts a considerable portion of Israeli society. The source of the

problems in this sector is the loss of individual discretion in the religious and traditional sector; the absence of

learning and the lack of learning ability; failure to assume personal responsibility, and an unwillingness to bear

the practical consequences of such responsibility. One solution proposed for all these problems was to promote

the public to call on an objective leader who would outline a proper course of action in Judaism, thereby resolving

or avoiding some of the problems. Apparently, a practical opportunity for this option now exists, although this solution remains academic

because of differences of opinion and lack of agreement for the path outlined on the aforementioned issue of

holiday candle lighting, which illustrates the danger in a lack of consensus on the practice of Judaism. A second

opportunity that was created as a result, is based on a division between rabbinical authorities whose task is to

teach Jewish law (halacha), and the “relilogical” individual who studies, is calculated, responsible, and is able to

reach decisions independently, even decisions on religious matters, based on his own knowledge.

Thus two distinct types of religious people developed: The first, and perhaps as in the past, appeals to


rabbinical authority on all matters, including matters that do not involve halachic instruction; The second, the

studious one, reasoned, responsible, who is capable of making his own decisions even on religious matters in

light of his knowledge. This is whom we called the “relilogical Jew”. He appeals to rabbinical authority but only

on issues that he initiates and raises which are related to halachic rulings (Ben-Rafael, 2009, pp. 430-431).

The buds of this second type have already begun to sprout and exist in certain places in Israel. The question

is, will such a trend continue to develop or not? Will there be sufficient tolerance between the solitary individual

and the religious framework in Israel or will this phenomenon be terminated prematurely? Time will tell, since it

is dependent on restructuring of “relilogical” identity and on the socio-religious framework that he confronts. The

second type of religious individual is not created ex nihilo. It is a legitimate concept: The Sages have already

referred to this type, as have Jewish philosophers from various periods, who have encouraged the perception of

man “thinking” for himself.

It is impossible to prevent differences of opinion and deliberations on this concept, and on topic of whether

we should define limits or not, and if we do, what limits should be defined. Still, all this is not new. Differences of

opinion were common even among the Sages, as well as among their commentator, on the limits of freedom of

thought. Should it also include matters of God or does this constitute evil thoughts or denial of the Torah? There

are related deliberations, such as whether there are decisions that are illegitimate decisions, and if so, on what

matters? Deliberations should not undermine the essence of the argument that speaks of the need for such a new

identity today. This argument remains firm and indispensable. From a practical perspective, this concept is

already in practice among a small number of religious people in Israel, who apply “relilogical” practices to

various religious matters.

References

Albo, Y. (1951). Sefer HaIqarim. Tel Aviv: Mossad HaRav Kook. Ben Maimon, M. (1954). HaYad HaHazakah (Maimonides’ deuteronomy). Jerusalem: El HaMekoroth Press. Ben-Rafael, E. (2009). Jewishness in a Multicultural Era. In E. Ben-Rafael, A. Bareli, M. Chazan, & O. Shiff (Eds.), The Jewish

people today: Ingathering and dispersion essays in honor of Yosef Gorny (pp. 430-431). Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi Press. Ben-Yosef, S. (2003). Restoring Jewish communalism. Akdamot, 13, 103-130. Cohn, H. (2009). Law and religion. Or Yehuda: Kinneret, Zmora-Bitan, Dvir Publishing House Ltd.. Halbertal, M. (n.d.). Otonomya VeSamchut BaMachshavah HaYehudit HaModernit (Autonomy and Authority in Modern Jewish

Thought). Retrieved from http://www.adifoundation.co.il/...%20articles/Moshe%20Halbertal Halevi, Y. (1970). Halicot Olam. Tel Aviv: Shilo Press. ibn Faquda, B. (1973). Chovot HaLevavot (The duty of hearts). Jerusalem: Akiva Yossef Press. Meyer, M. A. (2006). Judaism within modernity essays on Judaism history and religion. Tel Aviv: Am Oved Publishing Ltd.. Schweid, E. (2001-2002). Tarbut, Kehilah VeHemshechechut HaAm HaHayehudi Bezmanenu (Culture, community and the

continuity of Jewish people Nowadays). In S. D. Pergola, & A. Yovel (Eds.), The president’s study on world Jewish affairs (pp. 132-133). Jerusalem: HaSifria HaTziyonit Publishing House of the World Zionist Organization.

Shafran, A. (1969). Mussar VeChevrah BaIdan HaModerni (Morality and society in modern era). In M. Zohori, & A. Tartakover (Eds.), Hagut Ivrit Be’Eyropa (Hebrew cogitation in Europe) (p. 215). Tel Aviv: Yavneh Publishing House.

Sirilio, S. (1972). Klalei Shmuel (Shmuel’s rules). Jerusalem: Divrei Sofrim Press. Yossef, O. (1986). Yabi‘a Omer responsa (Uttereth speech rsponsa) (Vol. II). Jerusalem: Ovadiah Yossef Press.


From Sex Objects to Heroines—A Tough Road for

Female Characters in Video Games∗

Adam Flamma University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland

Female character in video games is the one of the most controversial topic in game studies and nowadays women’s

anthropology. From the beginning of role in games’ plot to sexualized graphical representation, woman in virtual

world were (and sometimes still are) a point of discussion about characters sexualisation and role of female sex in

virtual industry. The main aim of this paper is to present analysis of female representation in video games and how

in last 30 years it has changed. In other words, how female characters were ennobled from sex object to main

protagonist status. In presented research, there were used mostly the examples of popular video games with

extended plot and world which can be explored by protagonists. Video game historiography, textual analysis

(which helped to treat video game character as a protagonist), and thematic analysis of video games were used as a

main research method. The main conclusion of this paper is that female characters can overcome all gender or

sexual stereotypes and even eventually became an icon of popular culture.

Keywords: video games, female characters, women in video games, sex object, Lara Croft

Introduction

Video games have constituted a basis for professional and scientific investigative analysis for some time now, becoming a subject of interest for engineers and all sorts of scientists as well as humanist scholars. The later have especially transformed the perception of video games and began to regard them as an alternative form of narrative. Espen Aarseth1 and Carlos Alberto Scolari2 have written widely on this subject. However even they, describing the occurrence of trans-media storytelling or the phenomenon of cyber text, placed more emphasis on the story, and the way transposition to another medium influences it and its dissemination, than its main characters. The complexity of main characters in video games—their psychology, text analysis, or the method (comparable to a literary one) of interpreting and defining a main character as an entity—only recently has constituted a subject for scientific inquiry. The female character has been placed in an interesting manner in this subject matter. In video games, she has undergone a true evolution. Although today their presence in video games

∗ Adam Flamma is a beneficiary of the scholarship programme „Rozwój potencjału i oferty edukacyjnej Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego szansą zwiększenia konkurencyjności uczelni” co-financed by European Social Founds.

Adam Flamma, Ph.D. candidate, master, Faculty of Philology, University of Wroclaw. 1 Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature (1997). 2 Transmedia Storytelling: Implicit Consumers, Narrative Worlds, and Branding in Contemporary Media Production (2009). International Journal of Communication (nr. 3, 586-606).

DAVID PUBLISHING

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A TOUGH ROAD FOR FEMALE CHARACTERS IN VIDEO GAMES 410

is no longer anything unusual, in fact lack thereof is startling and may prompt players’ outrage (like in Battlefield

4 game), it is important to note that it has not always been as such. The matter of the origins of female characters’ presence in video games is closely related to the idea of the

main character/hero itself. Initial video games, such as even the now “legendary” Pong (Atari Inc., Allan Alcorn, 1972) or other inspired by it, did not actually tackle the topic of a main character. This role was fulfilled by the player himself, who through elements such as a joystick carried out different actions, which in effect altered occurrences in the game that were visible on a monitor. This does not mean that a hero as a feature figure (or simply an element of the plot) did not exist. Certainly, the appearance of a hero surfaced, although not in games with graphics. Those, at least in the onset, presented relatively simple sport simulations. The main character appeared in textual games, however, it was almost always a male. Consequently, earliest female characters had to emerge in textual games. That was dictated basically due to a simple technological restriction—arcade video games or other early mechanical and electronic console video games were not graphically (technologically) able to depict female characters or the characters’ gender in general3.

First Steps

When it comes to the evolution of video games, initial arrival of female characters of significant role in the world of games, was fairly symptomatic. Namely, it was linked to the emerging, and rapidly flourishing development of a multimedia branch of industry, known as erotic video games. It was in these erotic and later pornographic video games, that female characters were originally being presented. The earliest of these games (and without a doubt a critical one), was Softporn Adventures Adventures (On-line Systems, Chuck Benton, 1981) intended for Apple II. There, the player became a waiter, who was to serve attractive women and attend to their needs and desires, in hopes of being able to spend pleasurable moments with one of them (most likely physical contact was part of the goal, yet it was not actually shown; merely implied, leaving it to the player's assumption). This particular game turned out to be incredibly popular and it initiated a large trend of erotic themed video games. In the years 1982-1984, around the time of Benton’s video game premier, Bachelor Party, Gigallo, and Jungle Fever or X-man also appeared. All the more, a studio named Playaround, specializing solely in erotic themed video games, was created for the Atari 2,600 platform. As a result, thanks to Playaround and the aforementioned games, women became synonymous with eroticism and sex in video games. Despite the fact that the story-lines were presented in a humorous manner, it is impossible to deny that the sexual implications were obvious. Still, unlike On-Line Systems productions, in these games we could see first visual representations of women; usually naked with clearly emphasized breasts and buttocks. This tendency spread with the arrival of the Commodore 64 computer, and in turn trickled into first strip poker simulators. In games such as Animated Strip

Poker or Artwork Strip Poker, the player’s opponent was a woman, who after a loss, unveiled a following element of her body. Usually however, the object of these games was to rid the opponent (the female character) of her blouse and bra. Rarely was there a possibility of revealing any other part of the woman’s body. Subsequently the woman became a sexual object and a quest for the player. Despite increasing interest, her image, though more and more frequent, was very typical and oriented around erotic motives. Similar was the case with the representation

3 In the case of textual games, (though it was not the rule) images of heroes usually appeared on the front covers of games.


of women in video games created in Japan. There, fairly quickly, women became sexual objects in games. A best example of this is Night life, a game from the KOEI studio, where despite deficient graphics (woman is presented only as a white shape on black background), a woman’s presence is limited to physical erotic contact with a man steered by the player. It is worth mentioning that the female characters were sometimes victims of humiliation because of their sexuality. An example of this is a onetime very popular game Sex games (Landisoft, 1985), in which a woman, depicted visually in a very humorous and sometimes even embarrassing way (ugly face, disproportional figure, dopey facial expressions, etc.) becomes an element of a sexual puzzle, in which the objective is to arrange a line of men with erections, with women, in any desired, domino-like fashion. Additionally, what sets Sex games apart from Night life, there are specific sexual positions that can be played out, incorporating oral and anal sex?

The Beginnings of Emancipation

A change in the context in which women were presented in video games, produced by Amiga, a platform that delivered games such as Fascination or more specifically a Leisure Suit Larry series (which later became compatible with PC and eventually converted to that format) where the female character underwent a significant improvement. She continued to be associated with eroticism, however she gained considerable autonomy, acquired more function within the game and her character expanded as a whole. As much as the afore-named Fascination showed women as sexual instigators or victims, the game series about Larry Laffer’s adventures (especially in later installments) significantly broadened their portrayal. It is noteworthy that although both games are highly eroticized, the scope and influence of Leisure Suit Larry reached a significantly greater group of recipients, than those of previously mentioned games; becoming a classic in its own right. This Al Lowe series had its premier in 1987 (Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards by Sierra On-Line) whereas the last part (Leisure Suit Larry: Love for Sail! By Sierra On-Line) was launched in 19964.

The main character of the series is Larry Laffer, a 40 year old man, whose biggest passion and meaning in life is seducing women and finding the love of his life. Because he is not too handsome, he must rely on his personal charm. This often creates many amusing situations. In his adventures, women were initially depicted in a very stereotypical and highly sexualized manner: They wear skimpy and tight clothing, often partially naked. They are usually full of sex appeal, pretty, with large breasts and nice figures. However, aside from being an “enhancement”, they are quite commonly just providers of a quest for the main male character. His aim is to fulfill each woman’s request and desire, in order to finally persuade them into physical contact with him. This is not that simple, in view of the fact that Larry notoriously falls victim to jokes and tricks from the women, who often treat him like a naïve loser. This way they create the main character’s fate and determine his and often their further actions. Additionally, they sometimes accompany him in his adventures. Namely, to assist him in his assignments or explore further places with him; places where the storyline unveils. Therefore, their status has undergone serious changes and although they were still peripheral characters, looking at it from a “backdrop” point of view, or frankly speaking, from a strictly sexual standpoint, they became supporting characters, heroines, or even companions or partners. Still, they were mostly sources of a challenge (which we see in Softporn 4 The series also contains a 2004 Leisure Suit Larry: Magna Cum Lade (High Voltage Software, Sierra Entertainment Inc., yet not as popular with fans. Perhaps because Al Lowe was no longer the producer.


Adventures) or their mere presence was related to some sort of erotic themes. As characters, they did encompass certain specific elements, such as interests, particular sayings, or fears (such as fear of spiders).

It is significant to bring up an example from the last installment of the game Larry: Love for Sail! in which all the female characters shown are intelligent , pretty, and sexy as well as having an extended and rich personal history, on which they expand. They also hold higher degrees and have experience linked to a specific trade which they learned, as well as certain character traits. An amplification of this mechanism is no doubt the most significant (and rightfully so) heroine in the game, Captain Thygh, Larry’s love interest. Not only do we encounter her quite often in the game (incidentally, we tend to see female characters more frequently throughout the length of the game), we also learn of her rich personal history as well as of her ability to do more than just manipulate the main character. Above all, she plays an important role—she is the captain of a ship, displaying an enormous amount of responsibility. This is an entirely new concept, since previously women were not shown in professions of great responsibility, requiring certain predispositions, experience, and knowledge. Moreover, they were not portrayed as having a profession or trade of any kind.

The Thrill Seeker

In the history of the video game industry, without a doubt, the most significant influence on the perception of women was the character of Lara Croft, a heroine of the Tomb Raider series. Today, quite the legend, often labeled an icon of pop culture and a symbol of emancipation for women in multimedia, Croft debuted on the monitors of video games in 1996. These were times where players mostly did not have the capacity to control and navigate female characters, and video game plots were rather masculine. Miraculously, a British developers studio Core Design, achieved a true turnaround in this matter, creating a video game heroine who was not only a beautiful lady, but an archeologist turned thrill seeker, ready for any adventure. Beautiful, curvaceous, initially having large breasts, dressed in tight shorts and blouse—that was the introductory image of Lara Croft. Additionally, she was a skilled weapons handler, using a shotgun, an Uzi rifle, or two beretta pistols simultaneously, all of which she expertly used in battle against wild animals (bats, bears, dinosaurs) or evil humans. Thus, the Tomb Raider heroine, though initially comparable to Indiana Jones, became an independent and an unique character that encompassed all the traits required to become an ideal protagonist (Kennedy, 2002) of the entire series: She was brave, in great physical shape, intelligent, inquisitive, challenged men (usually winning), and had a sense of humor and a pretty face, which incidentally, allowed her creators to use her image in marketing campaigns. It is this last matter that at some point took control over Lara’s initial identity which we can observe in game. Within a short period of time, Croft was visible in all sorts of commercials everywhere. Furthermore, these commercials used her physical attributes—depicting her nude or in sexually insinuating situations. At the same time, her image, nonetheless, is painted as that of someone who is strongly connected with her own sexuality (Anderson & Levene, 2012). Paradoxically, it is she, who according to many researchers (Kennedy, 2002; Schleiner 2001), epitomizes the emancipation of women in video games. In certain ways, changes in her appearance support such notion. Certainly, it should be noted that despite an extremely quick technological progress, Lara Croft’s image did not significantly encounter a noticeable alteration until Tomb

Raider Legend (Crystal Dynamics, Eidos Interactive, 2006). It is in this particular installment that her physical features and perhaps her level of sexuality are revised, since her breasts are much smaller than in the first portions


of the series. Moreover, her outfit seems even more skimpier, though her overall figure is more realistic. In some ways, this amounts to two realizations regarding change: an emancipation in relation to a man’s world (visible from the very beginning); and a gradual (but consistent) freeing from the stereotype of a sex symbol. A pinnacle point, especially in this last mentioned matter, turns out to be the last series installment, Tomb Raider (Crystal Dynamics, Square Enix, 2013), in which the protagonist is a young lady (she is barely eighteen years old) with a proportional figure. Her body is not exaggerated by disproportions between her large breasts and slim waistline, as was the case in the initial games. Again, a key to her sexuality is the size of her breasts, which this time is small. In turn, when it comes to her attire, throughout most of the game Lara wears long, tight-fitting pants, which replace her shorts.

Nonetheless, Lara Croft does not only represent the physicality or sexuality of female characters in video games. She is also, if not above all, a fully-fledged heroine with an extremely abundant and heart-rending personal history, which the player discovers over time while playing through all the series. We find that her personal history consists of elements such as her background (one of nobility, which is a first for female characters in video games), personal traumas (due to the loss of her parents), conflicts, ambitions and many talents (such as her fluency in many languages), all of which are supported by many anecdotes. Of course, despite these many elements, generally speaking, Lara Croft still usually functions as a sex symbol (although, paradoxically, she is less connected to that image than female characters in earlier video games), though it is more of an effect of an installed and established stereotype, than the actual case.

Regardless, this heroine of Tomb Raider became an inspiration for placing women as main characters in video games. Unlike men, Lara Croft showed functionality of a female as a protagonist: her personal charm and undoubtedly greater plot and character expansions. She also revealed an interesting mechanism—a woman-heroine actually became interesting to men (mainly from an aesthetic standpoint) as well as women, who could now identify with her. As a result, subsequent distinctive heroines emerged on the video game market fairly quickly. This tendency blossomed mainly in the world of adventure type video games and is the case to this day. Best examples of this are games such as Gray Matter (Wizarbox, dtp AG/Anaconda, 2010), Remember me (Dontnod & Capcom, 2013), the Secret Files series or bona fide classics along the lines of The Longest Journey

(Funcom, 1999) and Dreamfall: The Longest Journey (Funcom, Aspyr Media, 2006). In this paper, the rearmost two will be examined, owing to the fact that their significance on video game history as a whole, as well as their influence on other games of this genre, is important enough, that these two particular games established the norms for adventure type video games. It is these two games that most other ones are compared to.

The main character in both The Longest Journey (Funcom, 1999) and Dreamfall: The Longest Journey

(Funcom, Aspyr Media, 2006) is April Ryan, an Arts Academy student, who lives in an apartment-house with other students. Humble, quiet and initially shy—such is the impression the player gets of her in the beginning. From the time she is introduced, in terms of her physical appearance, certainly she is not presented strictly as a sexual being. Long pants, traditional round-neck t-shit—which is a typical outfit we see Ryan in. During the course of the game we have an opportunity to discover her personal history, completely purged of any erotic context (although we see a theme of her reserved feelings toward one of her male friends). Instead, we see an array of her problems with self-acceptance and similar issues (no doubt a cause of which was her childhood abuse


by her father). Additionally, April is depicted as a person who is constantly short on money, is neither athletic nor physically strong, and her innate timidness leads to her numerous problems with assimilating into society (such as with other students), acclimating to new places and meeting new people. What is interesting is that in the second installment of the game—Dreamfall: The Longest Journey—Ryan seems to transform into a completely different person. There, she is a critical part of a particular social group (she leads those fighting for freedom of an alternative world called Arcadia), she is physically stronger and handles weapons such as a sword and a cane. Just the same, this change in her persona appears to have an effect on her psyche, which is manifested by her withdrawal from any and all female attributes, such as feelings for any man, or minding her physical appearance. In Dreamfall: The Longest Journey, April is usually shown wearing a broad, dark coat, holding a cane in her hand. From the onset, her main objective in the game is completing her given task, which is freeing the people of Arcadia. Incidentally, there is no sexualization of her character to be mentioned, simply because no aspects of such are present to even qualify for commentary (Hatton & Trauter, 2011). Even so, she is a character, who in light of her personal history, is regarded as intriguing, although this notion is not linked to any physical characteristics or attributes related to sexuality (Sharkey, 2008; Mcconnell, 2011).

Another incredibly interesting example of a female character in video games is a protagonist in Dreamfall:

The Longest Journey, Zoe Castillo. It can be said that in order to create her image, certain character traits of both Lara Croft and April Ryan were compiled. Specifically, she is pretty, even sexy, wearing crop tops (exposing her stomach and shoulders), unveiling a large cleavage5. Aside from that, she habitually wears make-up, which emphasizes her full lips and big eyes. She herself admits that she cares about her appearance. Zoe often flits with boys. She is very open-minded and at times very straightforward in terms of interpersonal relations. She does not suffer from insecurities and did not have a failed childhood, as did April Ryan. Nonetheless, one of her most important personal traumas becomes a justification for her actions and her biggest motivation: the disappearance of her boyfriend, whom she still is in love with. In order to find him, she carries out all sorts of dangerous assignments that bring out in her, characteristics more associated with Ryan. These are: determination, imagination and ambition, which often enable her to triumph over physically stronger opponents (mainly men). Like Ryan, Castillo is not presented in any erotic situations, although she continues to have strong feelings for one person and sometimes carries on conversations about boys (with her girlfriends).

The examples mentioned in this article, as well as other ones of the adventure-type video games, are proof of continuing changes in the way women are depicted in video games. They cease to be displayed as simply sexual objects, and grow to equal their male counterparts. The situation is similar with regard to the computer Role-Playing video games (cRPG), yet it should be noted that in the classic versions of these types of games (for example the Baldur’s Gate series or Icewind Dale) eroticism is highly marginalized or almost nonexistent, because it does not have any significant impact on the gender of the characters. Likewise, the gender of the character (who is navigated by the player) alone, did not have any meaningful affect on the plot6. It did have an effect in classic games, however, in newer ones such as The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (Bethesda Game Studios, 5 Castillo’s attire is very significant from the very beginning, because we see her wearing pajamas in the initial scenes, which was not the case with Ryan at all. 6 Surely, an exception is Baldur’s Gate II: Throne of Bhaal, where a romantic theme unravels. There the female character as a romantic partner has significant meaning.


Bethesda Softworks, 2011), for example, the female character is not connected with sexuality, since in effect eroticism rarely surfaces in such games. Here, the female character is equal to the male one—she may be a warrior, a magician, or a thief. The difference is in the physical appearance (outfit emphasizing the figure, breasts, long legs and thighs), yet when it comes to their identity and personal history, regardless of gender, same template applies to the main character. Such templates also include possibilities of navigating the male or female character through romantic endeavors with characters or both sexes (homosexual romances are also feasible). In other words, the female character has no limitations on the plot or her function in the games’ world.

This notion is confirmed by current RPG action type video games. It is especially relevant in the infamous Mass Effect or Witcher series. Women are rather particular characters in these games, as in both examples their status is quite high-level. In the Mass Effect series, the woman appears as both a lead and supporting character. The player has the ability to choose the gender of the commander named Shepard and decide to keep him as such or alter him to become Jane Shepard, a female variant. Incidentally, Jane Shepard’s character traits are no different than those of her male counterpart’s.

Perhaps it is because during the course of the game, it is the player who controls the female protagonist that decides as to her attributes, actions, and conduct. Subsequently, all this is directly linked to specific consequences. Such dilemmas, as the selection of possible courses of action and their potential ramifications, are transferred on the male equivalent of the female commander. Thus, her gender makes no difference. In analyzing female characters in video games, it is unsuitable to take into account Mass Effect’s protagonist, since her gender in this case is irrelevant. The issue of her social status, which is one of a liberator of humankind, military commander, and a person responsible for a mission to save all life in the universe, is undoubtedly significant (Jørgensen, 2010). As a protagonist (a prominent person in the story-line), her function in the world of the game is crucial. Female characters are notably more interesting in the whole scope of the game. In contrast to other games, they serve greater roles. They are often physicians, politicians, and base managers, supervisors of research projects, secret agents, biologists, soldiers, commandos, murderers, or even leaders of revolts or crime-worlds. This applies to female characters of humankind as well as those of other races, such as asarians, krogans, or salarians. In the world created by the BioWare studio, even courtesans are influential and play an important role in the parameters of the game. On the other hand, the component of sexuality applies not to attire (though women’s outfits are precisely matched to their proportional bodies), but rather to interpersonal relationships that may end in a romance between commander John Shepard and a woman (with one of the female members of the team, thereby one of the members of the player’s squad) or a romance between commander Jane Shepard and a woman (or a man). In the game, we may also observe romances among various crew members of less importance; specifically a relationship between a man (Garrus Vakarian) and a woman (Tali).

Regardless of the fact whether the player has the ability to romance with female characters, all the individuals in the game (including women) possess captivating personal histories that are elaborated, interestingly presented and often transformed into quests for the player.

Having said that, in the Witcher series, and especially in its second installment—Witcher 2: Assassins of

Kings (CD Project RED, Namco Bandai Games, 2011)—women, (aside from significances mentioned in


previous instances), mainly play the role of manipulators (Flamma, 2013). These are typically witches7 that fight for their primarily political objectives, all the while manipulating the protagonist Geralt; in hopes of achieving a goal, obtaining an artifact, or grabbing Geralt’s attention away from some incident. Furthermore, these witches are ruthless, hypocritical, and willing to sacrifice other peoples’ lives, just to accomplish their objective. To attain that, they hold numerous possibilities, since as magicians they are customarily respected in society and play a significant part in realm of the game—they are very often kings’ advisors, thanks to which they have influence on the turn of political and historical events playing out during the course of the game.

Conclusions

The “journey” of female characters in video games, from a status of sexual objects to heroines, as presented in this paper, was relatively long and rather complicated. It represents the process of women’s emancipation in the realm of video games, as well as freeing from the shackles of stereotypes related to gender and women’s sexuality as a whole. It predominantly concerns cRPG, action RPG or adventure-type games. In addition, it is important to keep in mind that even now, erotic video games are being created, in which women (although, in many respects, more and more equal to the male characters) are still depicted as sexual objects. Although, aside from those types of occurrences, women are currently depicted as characters with elaborate personalities, abundant personal histories and having pertinent roles in the world of video games.

However, it is impossible to ignore that women’s sexualization in earlier games, was more of a link between the first female character shown in video games (sexual object) and an increased significance of women in story-lines. No doubt it was (and still is) possible to thank to the growth and expansion of female characters; the introduction of new aspects of their characteristics (family situations or psychological problems). It was this growth that became the element, as a result of which female characters could undergo this long journey.

References

Aarseth, E. (1997). Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic literature. Baltimore & London: John Hopkins University Press. Anderson M., & Levene R. (2012). Grand thieves & Tomb Raiders: How British video games conquered the world. London: Aurum

Press Ltd.. Flamma, A. (2013). Virtual relationships. The „Witcher’s” video game universe as an example of introducing male-female

relationships into virtual world. GV—Proceedings in GV—the 1st Global Virtual Conference, 345-348. Hatton, E., & Trautner, M. N. (2011). Equal opportunity objectification? The sexualization of men and women on the cover of

„Rolling Stone”. Sexuality & Culture, 15, 256–278. Jørgensen, K. (2010). Game characters as narrative devices. A comparative analysis of “Dragon Age: Origins” and “Mass Effect 2”.

Eludamos. Journal for Computer Game Culture, 4(2), 315-331. Kennedy, H. W. (2002). Lara Croft: feminist icon or cyberbimbo? On the limits of textual analysis. Game Studies: International

Journal of Computer Games Research, 2(2), Retrived from http://www.gamestudies.org/0202/kennedy/ Mcconnell, E. (2011). Top 10 positively portrayed female game characters. Retrieved from

http://listverse.com/2011/05/21/top-10-positively-portrayed-female-game-characters/ Schleiner. A.-M. (2001). Does Lara Croft wear fake polygons? Gender and gender-role subversion in computer adventure games.

Leonardo, 34(3), 221-226. 7 Games involving Geralt should be looked at in a particular manner, as they are based on a realm created and presented in Andrzej Sapkowski’s prose. Therefore, the way his world functions, as well as his characters' traits, are predominantly a reflection of literary vision.


Scolari, C. A. (2009). Transmedia storytelling: Implicit consumers, narrative worlds, and branding in contemporary media production. International Journal of Communication, 3, 586-606.

Sharkey, S. (2008). Top 5 most attracitive non-sexualized women in video games. Retrieved from http://www.1up.com/features/top-5-attractive-nonsexualized-women


Argentina and Brazil: Laws as Mediators of Social Identities

Yussef Daibert Salomão de Campos

Juiz de Fora Federal University, Juiz de Fora;

Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPel), Pelotas, Brazil

The research is a brief analysis of recent legislation in Argentina about the intangible heritage and its relationship

with Brazilian instruments. This is a study about links between the two laws and their touch points and their

differences. It will be seen that the legislative actions follow a common sense but are targeted for different acts of

management of cultural heritage. We will be able to observe how legislation, whether it is Argentine or Brazilian,

works as a mediator between the reclaiming of heritage (as in the acknowledgement of cultural practices) and the

government actions towards cultural heritage. This shows that Argentina, despite not creating specific federal

legislation regarding intangible cultural heritage, is aware of the need to preserve the cultural events that belong in

this category of heritage.

Keywords: law, intangible heritage, Brazil and Argentina

Introduction

Through the partnership established between Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPel) and Universidad

de Buenos Aires (UBA)1, the author was able to take part in a research internship from June 2010 to September

of the same year in Argentina’s capital, Buenos Aires. The postgraduate programs involved in this internship

were the posgrado en Economia Politica de la Cultura—Estudios sobre Producciones Culturales y Patrimonio

de La Facultad de Filosofia y Letras (ICA/FFyL), from the Universidad de Buenos Aires, and the master’s

degree program in Social Memory and Cultural Heritage from the Universidade Federal de Pelotas/Brazil. We

were able to observe how legislation, whether it is Argentine or Brazilian, works as a mediator between the

reclaiming of heritage (as in the acknowledgement of cultural practices) and the government actions towards

cultural heritage.

Before we can assess the laws from the Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires (CABA), it is appropriate here

to make a short analysis of Argentine laws, following legal hierarchy, since Argentina’s federative structure is

similar to Brazil’s.

Laws and Acts

Argentina’s constitution, from 1994, introduced a chapter that brought to light rights and guarantees

nonexistent up until then. The second chapter, named Nuevos derechos y garantias, establishes through its

Yussef Daibert Salomão de Campos, Ph.D. candidate, Institute of Human Sciences, Juiz de Fora Federal University; master in

Social Memory and Cultural Heritage, Institute of Human Sciences, Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPel); CAPES scholarship student. 1 Programa de cooperación internacional asociado para el fortalecimento de La posgrado–Brasil/Argentina (CAFP/BA), CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior).

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article 41 that every resident must enjoy the right to a balanced environment, suited for human development,

being the government’s responsibility to provide this right, as well as to use natural resources rationally and

protect natural e cultural heritage.

We highlight the title of the chapter in which the mentioned article falls. However, it is possible to see

that the constituent left to the common legislator the duty to develop instruments and legal concepts

appropriate to the protection of Argentina’s cultural heritage (even including some of UNESCO’s (United

Nations Organization for Education, Science and Culture) guidelines). This legislative technique proves to be

somehow different from the one in Brazil, which has a more comprehensive article (article 2162) about the

concept of Brazilian cultural heritage and the legal instruments used to ensure its safeguard, protection and

promotion.

The federal legislation in Argentina that best describes the intangible cultural heritage is ley 26118, from

20063. It is this law that brings to Argentina’s legal system UNESCO’s 2003 convention on the protection of

intangible cultural heritage. There is no specific law on this matter, like the 3,551 Brazilian decree from year

2000: While Brazilian constitution builds instruments—such as the inventory and registry of intangible cultural

resources, the national plan of intangible heritage and the obligation of regular reevaluation every 10 years,

Argentina’s federal law only incorporates UNESCO’s convention, a move also made by Brazil, which has

edited its law on intangible heritage even before the 2003 convention. It is possible to observe, as we study the

CABA legislation, that each law will result in specific action over heritage management, since federal

legislation will not do so. But, by adding the 2003 convention to its legal system, Argentina falls under certain

regulations, such as the interdependence of tangible and intangible heritage and the need to protect intangible

heritage through its proper identification, documentation, investigation, preservation, protection, promotion and

appreciation. The country also accepts UNESCO’s definition of intangible heritage, described in paragraph one

of the 2003 convention:

The “intangible cultural heritage” means the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, and skills—as well as the instruments, objects, artifacts, and cultural spaces associated therewith—that communities, groups, and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage. (UNESCO, 2003, Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00022#part1)

This shows that Argentina, despite not creating specific federal legislation regarding intangible cultural

heritage, is aware of the need to preserve the cultural events that belong in this category of heritage4. As

presented earlier, the country leaves to the common legislator the duty of developing management

instruments.

At regional level, we can see that Argentina’s determinations are also presented in a less specific way, 2 “Article 216. The Brazilian cultural heritage consists of the assets of a material and immaterial nature, taken individually or as a whole, which bear reference to the identity, action and memory of the various groups that form the Brazilian society, therein included: I—forms of expression; II—ways of creating, making and living; III—scientific, artistic and technological creations; IV —works, objects, documents, buildings and other spaces intended for artistic and cultural expressions; V—urban complexes and sites of historical, natural, artistic, archaeological, paleontological, ecological and scientific value”.(Retrieved from http://www.stf.jus.br/repositorio/cms/portalStfInternacional/portalStfSobreCorte_en_us/anexo/constituicao_ingles_3ed2010.pdf) 3 Other laws are more specific, such as the one that declares Tango a part of Argentina’s cultural heritage (Ley 24684/año de 1996), or the one about the cataloging system of cultural heritage (Ley 25197/año de1999). 4 The “intangible cultural heritage”, as defined in paragraph one above, is manifested inter alia in the following domains: (a) oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage; (b) performing arts; (c) social practices, rituals and festive events; (d) knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; (e) traditional craftsmanship. (Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage, UNESCO 2003, paragraph two).


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whilst the Constitution of Minas Gerais establishes, following the guidelines of the Brazilian Constitution, legal

concepts and instruments in its article 208. The Constitution of CABA, in its article 32, only determines that the

Buenos Aires’ government must guarantee preservation, restoration and promotion of cultural heritage,

regardless of its legal regime and ownership5.

At CABA’s common law level, it is possible to see more distinct public actions that work towards seeking

effectiveness in the practice of the general determinations ruled by the federal and Ciudad Autonoma’s

constitutions. The laws chosen to be analyzed are these: ley 130/1999, ley 1227/2004, and 1535/2005. They

were selected by a time criterion (all of them were edited after the 1994 constitutional reform and the revision

of CABA’s constitution in 1996).

The first one of them is known as ley de tango, which acknowledges tango as part of the cultural heritage

of Buenos Aires6. This law not only promotes the safeguarding, promotion and restoration of cultural assets but

also the promotion and encouragement of every artistic, cultural, academic, educational and urban activity

related to tango. This is possible because of the partnerships established between the Buenos Aires’ government

and other institutions, which promote activities involving education and research, such as exhibitions and

presentations, both locally and internationally. The mentioned law also rules on creating a general file that

gathers all artistic and cultural expressions related to tango, and providing government sponsorship to nonprofit

organizations that have similar goals to the ones specified by the law.

The law proves to be in accordance to the international demands raised in the 90s. The 1999 law is the

result of many debates regarding the safeguarding of intangible heritage, some of which are the Carta de Mar

del Plata and the Carta de Fortaleza, both from 1997; these debates, among others, have had as their most

significative outcome the 2003 UNESCO convention. The safeguarding of intangible heritage and its

interdependence with tangible heritage were recurrent subjects in the Cartas Patrimoniais and academic

discussions. The article eight of the ley de tango is a reflection of it:

The city’s government must guarantee the inviolability of the cultural heritage of tango, in regards to symbolic architectural and urban sites. It must also provide the appropriate means for the completion of events and activities that take place in the city’s public spaces, in order to shape a particular urban aesthetic based on the imagery of tango.7

Meanwhile, the 2004 law number 1,227, known as ley de marco, works as a reference for all the

legislation in CABA that aims to create instruments for the management of city’s heritage. This law intends to

define the range of intangible heritage and conceptualize it. Article four describes which categories are part of

CABA’s cultural heritage. Among them there is (point “j”):

Intangible expressions and manifestations: the civic culture, which is shaped by the traditions, customs, and habits of the community, as well as spaces or forms of expression of popular and traditional culture of historical, artistic,

5 “Art 32 The city distinguishes and promotes all creative activities. (…) This Constitution guarantees the preservation, recuperation and dissemination of cultural heritage memory and history of the city and its neighborhoods, whatever their legal status and ownership are” (Retrieved from http://www.cedom.gov.ar/es/legislacion/institucional/constbsas/index2.html#ll1). 6 Tango is recognized as CABA’s cultural heritage (ley 130 from 1999), Argentina’s cultural heritage (ley 24,684 from 1996) and has recently been considered by UNESCO an intangible cultural heritage of mankind (2009). 7 El Gobierno de La Ciudad debe garantizar la intangibilidad Del patrimonio cultural del tango, em lo que respecta a emplazamientos arquitectónicos y urbanísticos emblemáticos. Asimismo contribuirá por los médios apropiados a tareas y actividades tendientes a ambientar espacios públicos de La Ciudad, a fin de plasmar una estética urbana propia a través Del imaginário del Tango (CABA, 1999, Retrieved from www.buenosaires.gov.ar/areas/cultura/cpphc/legislacion.php).


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anthropological or linguistic value, current and/or at risk of disappearing8.

This definition is aligned with the concept created by the UNESCO convention. Furthermore, it brings a

definition noticeably influenced by the UNESCO’s experience with the “Living human treasures” program,

which proposes that the government should support people or groups that, by themselves, embody culture.

Article five determines that the Living Cultural Heritage must be recognized as Patrimonio Cultural de la

Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires (PCCABA).

Article 5 Living Cultural Heritage: in a particular category are those people or social groups that, because of their contribution to tradition, in the various manifestations of popular culture, deserve to be considered members of the PCCABA.9

Finally, ley 1535/2005 demands the creation of an atlas of CABA’s intangible heritage, where

safeguarding instruments such as inspection, registration (only as a form of cataloging and not like the

Brazilian registration) and inventory. The law also imposes that there should be regular assessments at least

every five years, similarly to what the Brazilian decree 355110 suggests.

Conclusions

We may see that there is nothing as specific as the Robin Hood law, from Minas Gerais, that verses about

redirecting financial resources gathered from tax collection from the state to its cities. Naturally, we are here

observing a sui generis situation, since CABA’s condition is comparable to Minas Gerais’ in terms of

legislation, but not in its condition of state, as part of a federal union. Therefore, there is no point in talking

about redirecting funds from CABA to other cities, since CABA is not a state.

However, an analysis on how legislation works as a mediator between social identities and public policies

is needed. We notice how Argentina’s hierarchically superior laws leave to the “local” lawmakers (CABA’s

lawmakers) the duty of creating legal instruments which are, in Brazil, created and managed by superior

political groups. We may notice as well that the previously analyzed Argentina legislation characterizes

heritage, in almost all cases, as “cultural”, and not as “tangible” or “intangible”.

This shows a lot more coherence with the international guidelines (UNESCO) of heritage safeguarding,

from the lawmaker’s part, while in Brazil there is a constant division of heritage in categories, not only at the

moment of creating concepts and classifications (which is acceptable and even necessary to some specific

management decisions), but also when it comes to writing laws (that should approach cultural heritage as a

whole).

Certainly, Brazil acknowledges the need to preserve the tangible aspects of intangible heritage (as we may

see in some of the National Institute of Historical and Artistic Heritage—IPHAN actions, both in the National

8 Expresiones y Manifestaciones Intangibles: de la cultura ciudadana, que estén conformadas por lãs tradiciones, lãs costumbres y los hábitos de La comunidad, así como espacios o formas de expresión de la cultura popular y tradicional de valor histórico, artístico, antropológico o lingüístico, vigentes y/o em riesgo de desaparición (CABA, 2004, Retrieved from www.buenosaires.gov.ar/areas/cultura/cpphc/legislacion.php). 9 “Artículo 5º Patrimonio Cultural Viviente: Constituyen también una particular categoría, aquellas personas ó grupos sociales que por su aporte a las tradiciones, em las diversas manifestaciones de la cultura popular, ameriten ser consideradas como integrantes del PCCABA” (CABA, 2004, Retrieved from www.buenosaires.gov.ar/areas/cultura/cpphc/legislacion.php). 10 “Article 7—IPHAN shall procceed to the re-assessment of the registered cultural assets, at least every ten years, and shall refer such assessments to the Advisory Board for the Cultural Heritage for decision as to the revalidation of the title of “Cultural Heritage of Brazil” (Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/culture/natlaws/media/pdf/bresil/brazil_decreto_3551_04_08_2000_eng_tno.pdf)


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Inventory of Cultural Reference—INRC, developed by the Intangible Heritage agents, and in resolutions such

as 127, that discusses the interdependence of tangible and intangible heritage connected to the concept of

cultural landscape11), but legislation is still insensitive to these debates.

The point is to not only recognize the tangible aspects of intangible heritage (and vice versa), as it is done

in the INRCs, but to also see in these demands to recognize heritage, tangible or intangible, a possibility to

shine a light on the many social identities there are inside of it. We are dealing with a conflict zone, where a

number of different identities battle themselves; with a land where being protected by public policies on the

preservation of cultural heritage decide whether something will be remembered or forgotten.

References Anderson, B. (2008). Comunidades Imaginadas (Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism).

São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. Argentina. Constitution of Argentina. (1994). Retrieved from www.senado.gov.ar. Brazil. Federal Constitution. (1988). Retrieved from www.senado.gov.br Brazil. Minas Gerais. Constituição estadual. (1989). Retrieved from www.almg.gov.br Brown, M. F. (2005). Heritage trouble: Recent work on the protection of intangible cultural property. International Journal of

Cultural Property, 12, 40-61. Campos, Y. D. S. de. (2013). Percepção do Intangível: entre genealogias e apropriações do patrimônio cultural imaterial

(Perception of the Intangible: between genealogies and appropriation of intangible cultural heritage). Belo Horizonte: Arraes Editores.

Campos, Y. D. S. de. (2014). Proposições para o patrimônio cultural (Propositions to cultural heritage). Juiz de Fora: Funalfa. Clavir, M. (1996). Reflections on changes in museums and the conservation of collections from indigenous peoples. Journal of

the American Institute for Conservation, 35(2), 99-107. Harding, S. (2005). Bonnischsen v. United States: Time, place and the search for identity. International Journal of Cultural

Property, 12, 249-263. Lowenthal, D. (1988). The past is a foreign country. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lowenthal, D. (1998). The heritage crusade and the spoils of history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

11 “Considering the provisions of Decree-Law No. 25, dated November 1937, which organizes the protection of historical and artistic heritage, (…), and Decree No. 3,551, of August 4, 2000, which establishes the registration of cultural assets of an intangible nature, (…), considering that the existing legal instruments that deal with cultural and natural heritage, taken individually, do not completely cover the set of implicit factors in cultural landscapes (…) , resolves: to establish the seal of the Brazilian Cultural Landscape, applicable to portions of the national territory” (section of the IPHAN’s 127 ordinance).

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2014.5 journal of literature and art studies