20140905104103_Topic 1 - Measurement

INTRODUCTION

ÂGood education can be measuredÊ (Dr. Jamil Adimin, 2006). From these words, we can deduce that good education must have certain indicators or yardsticks as benchmarks. Thus, we recognise the importance of having measurement in education. In this topic, we begin with a discussion on the concept of measurement by looking at itÊs various definitions. Next, we focus on the development of testing and evaluation practices in Malaysia especially the various forms of examinations. The role of Examination Board of Malaysia and Malaysian Examination Council in the development of testing and evaluation of education in our country will also be touched. Last but not least, we will discuss the four measurement scales that are used in education, namely the nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.

TTooppiicc

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Measurement

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of measurement in education;

2. Explain in detail the history of educational evaluation in Malaysia;

3. Describe the role of the Examination Board of Malaysia and the Malaysian Examination Council;

4. Explain in detail the four types of measurement tools appropriate for corresponding purposes; and

5. Differentiate the four measurements tools.

TOPIC 1 MEASUREMENT 2

DEFINITIONS OF MEASUREMENT

In our daily life, we cannot escape from being tested, measured and evaluated. For instance as human beings, we are often tested by God as to our faith in Him. In the educational context, we also cannot escape from being tested, measured and evaluated. Tests are conducted by schools to make available information about studentÊs performance to the students themselves, parents, teachers and administrators. Tests taken by students are able to measure studentÊs achievement. This statement is supported by Ng See Ngean (1991), who pointed out that tests had been used by the Spartans and also during SocratesÊ era to evaluate childrenÊs learning.

History of measurement The unit of Measurement is the first measurement tool created by man. Ancient civilisation in Egypt, Babylon, Indus Valley and Elam (Iran) were already using uniform measurement systems around 4000-3000 BC. Meanwhile, the Indus Valley civilisation had excelled in measurement, precision in length, weight and time. Their measurements were precise to the tiniest size of approximately 1.704mm. This measurement has been found on the Ivory Scale in Lothal. This was the smallest measurement ever recorded by a Bronze Age scale. The decimal system was then used by Harappan Engineers for every practical use including weight measurement as shown in Âhexahedron weightÊ. Weight based on unit of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500, where each weight unit of approximately 28 grams, was equivalent to English ounce or Roman auncia and the weight of its small object was equivalent in ratio to 0.871 unit.

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TOPIC 1 MEASUREMENT ! 3

In the concept of education, measurement is a continuous process to ensure that the planned teaching and learning activities are conducted accordingly. However, the measurement to be made must be planned beforehand. This requires knowledge and skill in order to achieve good, meticulous and great results.

For example, as a Physical Education teacher, you need to measure the weight and height of your students at the start and at the end of the year. You also need to evaluate their progress in learning. Before any measurement is made, you need to prepare a set of monthly and daily teaching plan in the teaching record book by writing the objectives of the lessons, the activities that will take place and the tools to be used. Now that we have discussed measurement in the context of education, let us next take a look at a few definitions of measurement by experts in the field to get a better understanding of the concept of measurement. The followings are some of the definitions: Bhasah Abu Bakar (2003) stated that measurement is the assignment of numbers on certain objects or items by following a set of pre-determined rules. Measurements can be in the form of tests, rating scales or checklist. For example, a score of 79 out of 100 marks for a test is a form of measurement. According to Esah Sulaiman (2004), measurement is an effort to ascertain a level or quantity to determine how far and how many events had happened based on certain pre-determined standards. Data-collecting measurement tools are quantitative in nature and will not determine whether some things are weak, good etc. Cruishan (1995) of as quoted in Esah Sulaiman (2004) sees measurement as a data-collecting process on studentÊs performance. Meanwhile, Gronlund (1985), which was also quoted by Esah Sulaiman (2004) explained measurement as a process to get data in a numerical form that show the level at which an individual possess certain characteristics. This measurement is descriptive in nature, which means its data is in number or score form but does not indicate whether it is good or bad. Azizi Ahmad and Mohd Isha Awang (2007), meanwhile, are of the opinion that measurement is a process to get information in numeric way (through numbers) about how many individuals/students have certain characteristics, which can be measured using certain tools. In other words, measurement is a process to determine the extent to which an individual possess certain characteristics. Measurement can also be done without using any test. For example, drawing skills of a student can be measured by observation, while his knowledge and


attitude can be measured through interviews. So, measurement can be seen as a process to get certain score using certain methods. Atan Long (1980), stated that measurement is an effort to determine a quantitative value of certain things or conditions and this quantitative value is being expressed in quantitative units which have definite and constant values. Ahmad Mahdzan Ayob (1985), meanwhile, defines measurement as putting certain numbers (or code in the form of numbers) on a cases variables or characteristics. Lee Shok Mee (1993), stated that measurement is an effort to ascertain quantitative value of an object or situation. This quantitative value is usually derived from measuring, by using a tool and stated in a constant number unit. In education, measurement is a process to derive quantitative value to ascertain the level of achievement and studentÊs status in the learning process. Mokhtar Ismail (1995), said that measurement in education is actually a step taken to ascertain how far an individual possess certain characteristics. Usually, we will allocate a number index to an individualÊs performance in order to ensure that would precisely indicate the individualÊs status in terms of the specific characteristics. Yap Yee Khiong, et al. (1987), defined measurement as a number allocated to an object or an event based on that specific rules with a predetermined scale of measure. In general, measurement in education is a process to ascertain quantitative value, which is number allocation to an object, human and events using a pre-determined scale of measures. Ascertaining of a value quantitative value is usually derived from measuring methods by using certain tools. Measurement can also be done based on observation on an individualÊs attitude, when it cannot be measured quantitatively. For example, childrenÊs ability to jump, roll their tongues, etc.

1. What are the similarities in the various definitions of measurementdiscussed above?

2. Relate your experience of the evaluation process in schools.

ACTIVITY 1.1


HISTORY OF MEASUREMENT IN MALAYSIAN EDUCATION

History has shown that education has always been associated with tests and measurement. The Greeks during SocratesÊ era (400 BC) practised intellectual testing to enrich and broaden childrenÊs education (Ng See Ngean, 1991). During that time, tests were common in teaching and were not seen as a special function separated from teaching. Nowadays, tests are regarded as important to measure studentÊs performance.

The History of Measurement Length The measurement of length as a unit in most countries is always associated with the human body. Inch is measured by thumb. Yard is associated with humanÊs step and also equivalent as two hasta (a mesurement from the elbow to the tip of finger). The unit ÂmileÊ originated from RomanÊs concept of Âmille passusÊ i.e. one thousand steps, which is roughly a mile in distance.

Weight A grain of wheat was used as the standard for measuring size. Cupak and gantang are measurement units used for weight in most of the states in the Malay archipelago. Weight can also be measured by the degree of precision in the context of the number of wheat. This measurement is still being used by goldsmiths.

Volume Volume is used by merchants and tax collectors. A reliable standard is very difficult to achieve. Goat skin, basket, gunny sacks and ceramic vase are widely used as measurement units in daily transactions.

Time Days and weeks are easy to recognise and recorded but a precise calendar for a year is difficult to achieve. Mornings are easy to differentiate from evenings, based on the suns rays and the position of the sun.

From these tests or examinations, we can measure and gauge the outcomes and effectiveness of the teaching delivered by teachers through the studentÊs learning. Thus, whether we like it or not, we have to look at the history of evaluation in education in Malaysia, which had been done mainly through the examination system. Before we go further into this process, we should take a global look at the history of education of evaluation in the form of examinations. China has been recorded

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as the first country that made use of formal tests and examinations more than 3,000 years ago. Then, during the Middle Ages, universities in Europe started to use formal examinations, especially oral examinations for the award of degrees. Among those universities were Paris University, France 1215, Bologna University, Italy in 1219 and Oxford University, England in 1635. In England, written examinations were introduced in 1760 and the United States started in 1830. Beginning from 1845, written tests for a few subjects in schools were introduced. This development persisted and today we can see that measurement in the form of examinations is widely conducted to gauge the teaching and learning effectiveness. We all know that testing and measurement will continue to be used to solve different problems in the coming years. In Malaysia, the development of formal evaluation and testing in education started after Independence. From historical point of view, there are four phases of development in our countryÊs examination system (refer Figure 1.1), and these are:

Pre-Independence phase.

Implementation of the Razak Report phase.

Implementation of the Rahman Talib Report phase.

Implementation of the Cabinet Report phase. On the recommendation of the Razak Report (1956), the Examination Syndicate was created on 3 May 1956 as the Examination Unit in Ministry of Education. It was later changed to the Examination Syndicate in the following year. The creation of the Examination Syndicate was to fulfil one of the Razak ReportÊs recommendations which was to create a common examination system for all schools in the country.


Figure 1.1: The development of educational evaluation in Malaysia Source : Malaysia Examination Board

http://apps.emoe.gov.my/lpm/maklumatam.htm


In general, the role of Malaysia Examination Board (LPM) is to complete the implementation of the national education policy. Among its successes are:

Figure 1.2: Malaysia Examination SyndicateÊs successes

1. Describe the phases involved in the development of educational evaluation in Malaysia.

2. Explain briefly the use of evaluation in education at the global stage.

SELF-CHECK 1.1


The Examination Syndicate of the Ministry of Education had always been directly involved every time there occurs an education reformation in this country. This has led to the changes of concept, approach and testing and measuring methods to suit to the KBSR and KBSMÊs programme features the syndicateÊs roles are as follows:

Figure 1.3: The roles of Malaysian Examination Syndicate


However, in recent years new areas are being pursued in measurement and testing. Table 1.1 outlines these recent developments.

Table 1.1: Developments Testing and Measurement in Malaysia

Activities Explanation

Element-based Evaluation

The integrated needs in KBSR and KBSM required a paradigm shift towards certain subjects.

Measuring Outcomes and Process

The National Education Philosophy requires that students be supplied with skills as well as knowledge. Therefore, evaluation on the process of learning must also be emphasised in the examination system.

Criterion-based Evaluation

The curriculum and the syllabus are normally associated with behavioural objectives. Outcomes based on marks only will not be able to determine whether certain objectives have been met. Therefore, criterion-based evaluation is used to measure studentÊs behaviour.

New Dimensions in Internal Evaluation

New dimensions are given to the previous rules and guidelines on the evaluation of assignments. Teachers are provided with knowledge and skills to enable them to generate information from identified elements to ensure compatibility to teaching and learning.

Positive Reporting Failure is a dilemma which parents/guardians of student are afraid of. Therefore, positive reporting is introduced to ensure that students who score low marks are not recorded as failures.

Separate Reporting The purpose of evaluation on assignments is to evaluate constructs, which are needed to be nurtured but cannot be evaluated by using normal measuring tools used in examination. Combining the score of assignments with the score of final exam of the students will result in the loss of informal valuable constructs information. This is why separate reporting is introduced.


Table 1.2 shows important dates in the introduction of various types of examinations in Malaysia.

Table 1.2: The Development of Examination in Malaysia Source: Examination Board of Malaysia

http://apps.emoe.gov.my/lpm/maklumatam.htm

Year Examination Name

1956 The establishment of the Examination Unit.

The Overseas Senior Cambridge (OSC) examinations were phased out.

1957 The Malayan Secondary School Entrance Examination (MSSEE) was introduced.

The Lower Certificate of Education (LCE) was introduced.

The School Certificate (SC)/Federation of Malaya Certificate (FMC) were introduced.

1960 The Lower Certificate of Education or Sijil Rendah Pelajaran (SRP) was introduced.

1962 The Federation of Malaya Education Certificate or Sijil Pelajaran Persekutuan Tanah Melayu (SPPTM) was introduced.

1963 Malayan Secondary School Entrance Examination (MSSEE) was phased out.

1964 The Malaysia Certificate of Education (MCE) replaced the Federation of Malaya Certificate (FMC).

The Malaysian Education Certificate or Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia replaced SPPTM examination.

1967 The Standard Five Evaluation or Penilaian Darjah Lima (PDL) was introduced.

1968 Sole paper of Bahasa Melayu /Malay was introduced in Sijil Rendah Pelajaran (SRP)/Lower Certificate Education (LCE) examination and Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) / Malaysia Certificate Education (MCE).

1969 Sijil Pelajaran Vokasional Malaysia (SPVM)/ Malaysia Certificate of Vocational Education were introduced. Bahasa Melayu/ Malay was changed to Bahasa Malaysia in Sijil Rendah Pelajaran (SRP)/Lower Certificate of Education (LCE) examinations.

1970 The Bahasa Melayu/Malay paper was changed to Bahasa Malaysia in the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM)/Malaysia Certificate Education (MCE) examinations.

1972 Bahasa Malaysia Oral Test for LCE was introduced.

English Oral Test for SRP was introduced.

Sijil Perdagangan Malaysia (SPDM)/Malaysia Commercial Certificate Examination (MCCE) were introduced.

1973 Standard Three Test or Ujian Darjah Tiga (UDT) was introduced.

Bahasa Malaysia Oral Test for SPM/MCE was introduced.


1976 Bahasa Malaysia was offered as a July paper.

1980 The Standard Three Tests or Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) replaced MCE.

1981 Sijil Pelajaran Vokasional Malaysia (SPVM) was introduced to replace the Malaysia Vocational Education Certificate (MVEC).

1982 Ujian Darjah Tiga (UDT) phased out.

1983 Bahasa Malaysia Oral Test for LCE and English Oral Test for SRP phased out.

1985 SRP totally replaced LCE.

1986 Standard Five Evaluation or Penilaian Darjah Lima (PDL) phased out.

SPM totally replaced MCE.

1988 The Primary School Achievement Tests or Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR) was introduced.

Sijil Pelajaran Vokasional Malaysia (SPVM) was changed to Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia Vokasional (SPMV).

1992 The Bahasa Malaysia paper was reverted to Bahasa Melayu paper in SRP and SPM examinations.

1993 The Lower Secondary Evaluation or Penilaian Menengah Rendah (PMR) replaced SRP in line with the new Secondary School Integrated Curriculum.

1995 SPM examination (July) for Mathematics subject was introduced.

1996 Year One Evaluation or Penilaian Tahap Satu (PTS) was introduced.

1997 A written Science paper and evaluation of practical work in the Evaluation of Primary School Tests were introduced.

1998 Practical Examination for Pure Science subjects in SPM was replaced with written Science Paper and Evaluation of Practical work.

1999 SPDM examination phased out.

2000 Open certificate system was introduced at the SPM level.

SPM (July) Examination was changed into Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia Ulangan (SPMU(U)).

2001 PTS was phased out.

2002 School based oral tests or Ujian Lisan Berdasarkan Sekolah (ULBS) for Bahasa Melayu and the English Language for SPM were introduced.

2003 Vocational subjects (MPV) were introduced in the SPM Examinations.

Mathematics, Science and Technical subjects for UPSR, PMR and SPM examinations were presented in dual languages, Bahasa Melayu and English.

2006 The vocational stream was introduced for Form 4 students.


1. Explain the relationship of the Examination Syndicate of Malaysia to educational evaluation.

2. Apart from the Examination Syndicate, which other agency is involved in the evaluation of education in Malaysia?

Apart from Examination Syndicate which is responsible for the implementation of the national education policy in the context of educational testing and evaluation, another statutory body under Ministry of Education which is involved in testing is the Examination Council of Malaysia (ECM). The ECM is responsible for organising certain examinations and associated tasks. The examinations offered are Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia (STPM) or Malaysian Higher Educational Certificate and the Malaysian University English Test (MUET). The MHEC or the STPM examinations were started in 1982 to replace the Higher School Certificate (HSC) / Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan (STP) examination organised by University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). In December 1999, MUET was made compulsory to all students who want to enter public or private universities to begin their first degree programmes.

Figure 1.4: Examination outcomes are used as indicators of students program Photo courtesy from: http://kusess.fotopages.com/?entry=440887

SELF-CHECK 1.2

1. What is the role of Malaysia Examination Syndicate in the development of educational evaluation in Malaysia?

2. Discuss the development of the examination system in Malaysia since 1956.

SELF-CHECK 1.3


TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

In education, the two types of basic variables in measurement are:

(a) Quantitative; and

(b) Categorical.

These two types of variables can be measured by using four types of scales, namely the nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales (see Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5: Measurement scales

1.3.1 Nominal Scale

Nominal scale is the easiest measuring scale. It has the least level of measurement precision. In a nominal scale, numbers are used to represent different categories. Different number represent different categories; the number used is just a label (Ahmad Mahdzan Ayob, 1985). In other words, nominal scale categorises a variable based on similarities and then that variable will be given a name. As an example, you as a teacher want to divide your students in your class into a few categories based on racial origins. Here, you need to assign certain values to variables that represent various groups. Let say number 1 represent the Malays, number 2 for the Chinese, number 3 for the Indians and number 4 to represent Others. The purpose for giving these numbers is to make computer analysis easier and does not mean that number 1 indicate small group and number 2, 3 and 4 show mean bigger sized groups. Every number just represents a group within the variable of racial origin. We also use nominal scale if we want to divide the class based on gender. Let say number 1 represents boys and number 2 for girls. Therefore, male students will be under number 1 and female students will be under number 2. Number 1 does

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not mean it is better than number 2 and vice versa. The numbers given are only to represent groups in the variable which in this case is gender. When we are using numbers to represents people or subjects, and these numbers do not have any internal relationship between one another in terms of their values, then this type of measurement is called nominal scale. Below are the examples of variables that are usually measured using the nominal scale:

From our discussion above, three main characteristics of nominal scale can be identified. (Azizi Ahmad & Mohd Isha Awang, 2007): Those characteristics are: (i) Each data can only be represented by just one category. As an example, a

person who belongs to the male category cannot also be in the female category. The same goes to a person who is in Malay category; cannot also be in the Chinese, Indian or others categories.

(ii) Numbers that represent each category do not enjoy any order of importance. These numbers only denote as names of categories.

1.3.2 Ordinal Scale

Ordinal scale refers to the ordering of data from the lowest to the highest or the weakest to the excellent. This means that ordinal scale value represent a hierarchy of values (Bhasah Abu Bakar, 2003). The categories that we used for measuring reflects a measurement of the variables according to an order from the weakestÊ category to the category of the excellent. The same applies to number as well; it must be arranged in increasing order. In other words, ordinal type of measures denotes incremental values.


The easiest example is a studentsÊ position in class based on examinations or tests results. A student who gets the highest overall marks will get the first place and the student who scores the lowest will be in the last place. In a class performance list, students will be arranged according to their overall marks in an examination. Here, number 1 is better than number 2, 3, 4 and so on. This is because ordinal scale can differentiate categories and value in an incremental order. From the above example, we can see that a nominal scale arrangement is also hierarchy-based. The arrangement represents the difference in the position of individuals relative to other individuals. Ahmad Mahdzan Ayob (1985) says that a variable that can be arranged based on positions is measured on the ordinal scale. As an example of the type of variable, is the determination of the socioeconomic status of an individual into:

1. Working class

2. Middle class

3. Upper class

In the example above, socioeconomic status in categorised into three: working class, middle class and upper class. The higher the class of the person, the bigger the number given to denote his socioeconomic status. (Ahmad Mahdzan Ayob, 1985) Another example of ordinal scale is Likert scale which focuses on answers to questions or statements. For example; „What is your opinion on the action of Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka in using mixed words in its dictionary?‰

1. Strongly disagree

2. Disagree

3. Neutral

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree. From the example above, a respondentÊs opinion can be arranged into 5 levels from strongly agree, which has the highest, to strongly disagree. Based on the above explanation, we can conclude that ordinal scale has a number of characteristics as: (Azizi Ahmad & Mohd Isha Awang, 2007)

1. Ordinal scale data are exclusive (different from each other);

2. The measurement units used show logical increment; and


3. The measurement units are given different weightage, meaning that a category can be more or less compared to the others.

1.3.3 Interval Scale

Interval scale refers to a measure which does not have an absolute zero point. This interval scale has all the characteristics of nominal and ordinal scales. Furthermore, every interval points in this scale have the same distance. Interval scale gives the same interval from an arbitrary points of origin (Bhasah Abu Bakar, 2003). The distance in an interval scale reflects the same internal distance on the characteristic that is being measured. For example, a measure of heat in degrees Celcius (ÀC) on the thermometer: the difference between temperature of 30!C and 40ÀC is the same as the difference between 25ÀC and 35ÀC where the difference is 10ÀC. However, we cannot say that the heat at 100!C is two times the heat at the temperature of 50ÀC. In an interval scale, it is not the quantity or volume but the intervals or distances that are of important. Another example is the time difference between the years 1966 and 1968 is the same as the time difference between 2003 and 2005 which is 2 years. However, in an interval scale, the zero value does not mean that there is no measurement of the relevant characteristics. This is what we mean of no absolute zero point. For example, water will be freeze at 0ºC, this does not mean that at 0ºC water has no temperature. We can also take a look at the calculation of the Hijrah calendar that is used by Muslims all over the world. The first day of the first year of Hijrah is set on the day Prophet Muhammad migrated to Medina from Mecca. Here, if we say that is year zero Hijrah that does not mean time is stopped at that moment or there is no calculation done at that time.

1. State other variables that can be used in a nominal scale apart from those stated in the text.

2. Compare and contrast nominal scale to the ordinal scale.

ACTIVITY 1.2


From the above explanation, we can conclude that interval scale has the following characteristics: (Azizi Ahmad & Mohd Isha Awang, 2007)

(i) The categories used classifying for interval data classifications are exclusive of one another. (totally different)

(ii) The measurement units used shows logical increment.

(iii) Weightage is assigned to the measurement units, which means a measurement unit is either smaller or bigger than the others.

(iv) The values measured in interval scales are arbitrary and are not absolute. Even the zero value is arbitrary.

(v) The difference of one unit of measurement is of the same value throughout the entire measurement.

1.3.4 Ratio Scale

The ratio scale measurement is the most informative scale. This scale has all the characteristics of an interval scale and it also has absolute value where the zero value (0) is nil (absolute zero). The numbers on the scale shows true value or character of the subject measured. Here we can say that if student A scored 100 marks and student B scored 50 marks, then student AÊs achievement is two times the achievement of student B.

What is absolute zero?

Certain measurement scales have absolute zero while others do not. The example of measurement scales that have absolute zero are height and weight, where at value zero there are no weight or height. We can also say that 2 metres is longer than 1 metre. These two are ratio scale variables.

Meanwhile, year and temperature (°C) does not have absolute zeros. Year 0 is arbitrary and therefore it is illogical to say that year 2000 is two times older than year 1000. The same goes to temperature. 0°C is arbitrary and it is not right to say that 20°C is two times hotter than 10°C. These two variables are interval scale.

In a ratio scale, the ratio numbers can be meaningful interpreted. For example, weight as a variable can be measured in a ratio scale. Let us say YukiÊs weight is 90 kilograms and Mira is 45 kilograms. Therefore, Yuki is two times heavier than Mira. Apart from that, if an object has zero weight that means that object does not have any weight. The same goes with money, if someone has no money that means the


value of that money is nil or absolute zero. Variables that can be measured using ratio scales are height, weight, energy, money, age and others. From the above explanation, we can summarise on the characteristics of the four measurement scales as follows:

Table 1.3: Characteristic of Four Measurement Scales

Scale Characteristics

Nominal scale Classification

Ordinal scale Classification and incremental value of data

Interval scale Classification, incremental value of data and the similarity of unit in the scale.

Ratio scale Classification, incremental value of data, the similarity of unit in the scale and the existence of absolute zero.

Measurement can be defined as a process to determine quantitative values i.e. numerical allocation to specific objects, individuals and events on a pre-determined scale.

Tests and examinations can measure the efficiency of the teaching and learning process.

The development of educational evaluation in this country began in earnest after Independence.

There are four phases of development of the examination system in our country. These are the Pre-independence phase, the Razak Report phase, the Rahman Talib phase and the Cabinet Report phase.

1. What are other variables, other than those mentioned in Table 1.3,can be used for ratio scales?

2. Compare the characteristics of the four measurement scales discussed in this topic.

3. What type of measurement scale can be used to measureearthquakes and tsunamis?

SELF-CHECK 1.4


The Examination Syndicate of Malaysia and the Malaysia Examination Council are involved directly with educational testing and evaluation in this country.

Various milestone had been achievement in the development of examinations in this country 1956 until 2006.

There are four scales of measurement that are usually used; the nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale.

Nominal scale is the simplest measurement scale where it categorises variables based on similar characteristics.

Ordinal scale is data arrangement in incremental order from the lowest to the highest or the weakest to the excellent.

Interval scale refers to the measurement that does not have an absolute zero point.

Ratio scale is the most informative scale where it has all the characteristics of interval scale and in addition also has absolute zero.

Arbitrary

Malaysia Examination Syndicate

The Examination Council of Malaysia

Measurement

Examination

Absolute zero

Nominal scale

Ratio scale

Ordinal scale

Interval scale

Atan Long. (1980). Pedagogi, kaedah am mengajar. Petaling Jaya: Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn Bhd.

Ahmad Mahdzan Ayob. (1985). Kaedah penyelidikan sosioekonomi-suatu

pengenalan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Azizi Ahmad & Mohd Isha Awang. (2007). Pengukuran dan penilaian dalam

pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Terbuka Malaysia.


Bhasah Abu Bakar. (2003). Asas pengukuran bilik darjah. Tanjong Malim: Quantum Books.

Esah Sulaiman. (2004). Pengenalan PEDAGOGI. Skudai: Universiti Teknologi

Malaysia Gronlund, N. E. (1981). Measurement and evaluation in teaching ( 5th ed.). New

York: Macmillan. Lee Shok Mee. (1993). Pengujian dan penilaian dalam pendidikan. Kuala

Lumpur: Kumpulan Budiman Sdn Bhd. Majlis Peperiksaan Malaysia. from the website of Examination Council of

Malaysia http://www.mpm.edu.my/main.php accessed on 22 November 2007.

Nawi Ismail. (2007). Kepentingan peperiksaan di Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Pelita

Bahasa. Ng See Ngean.(1991). Pengukuran dan penilaian dalam pendidikan. Petaling

Jaya: Penerbitan Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd. Perkembangan peperiksaan, Lembaga Peperiksaan Malaysia. from Malaysian

Examination BoardÊs website: http://apps.emoe.gov.my/lpm/maklumatam.htm accessed on 22 November 2007.

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20140905104103_Topic 1 - Measurement