20140225043324_Topic 3 Job Analysis and Design

INTRODUCTION

Job analysis and job design are two important elements that form the foundation for effective human resource planning. Job analysis determines the requirements in a job. Job design helps employees achieve organisation objectives and at the same time gives satisfaction to employees performing their jobs. The main purpose for an organisation to conduct job analysis is to improve its performance and productivity. It is necessary to identify the skills, knowledge, experience and other requirements necessary to do a job. Job analysis helps organisations to fulfil the legal needs and regulations set by the government. Usually, the human resource department is responsible for conducting job analysis.

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Job Analysis and Design

LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Describe the steps involved in job analysis;

2. Explain the key issues in job description and specification;

3. Discuss the relationship between job requirements and human resource management functions; and

4. Examine the factors that need to be taken into account when designing a job.

TOPIC 3 JOB ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 44

JOB ANALYSIS

Job analysis should be executed by following a systematic approach as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: The six important steps to job analysis

Source: Adapted from Bohlander, Snell & Sherman. (2009). Managing human resources (15th ed.). Ohio: South-western College Publishing

The outcome of the analysis is used to develop job description and specification. Before carrying out a job analysis, the requirements for a particular job must be determined.Questions such as the following should be asked so that a more accurate job requirement can be determined:

(a) What kind of work will be done by the employee?

Job analysis is the process of obtaining information about a particular job by determining the responsibilities, duties, skills and experiences of the prospective employee.

3.1

TOPIC 3 JOB ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

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(b) How is the employee going to perform the job?

(c) Why is the employee be performing the job? Figure 3.2 briefly explains how a job analysis can be used to produce job description and specification.

Figure 3.2: Job analysis, job description and job specification



(a) Job Analysis It is important for HR department to analyse, reanalyse and document

information about a job. It is used during the hiring process and also for training and performance appraisal.

Job analysis is thus, necessary and it is a procedure or method that examine

the skills, knowledge, experience and other requirement necessary to do a job well.

The outcomes of the job analysis will be the job description and the job

specification. (b) Job Description It is a document that outlines a job. According to Maimunah (2008) a

typical caption is as follows:

(i) Job title, location and grading;

(ii) Relationships – organisational hierarchy;

(iii) Brief statements on the purpose of the job;

(iv) List of duties and responsibilities;

(v) Terms and conditions of employment to be given to the job-holder; and

(vi) Negative aspects of the job. (c) Job Specification Sometimes it is known as person description. A document that explains

how an individual fits into a job. It also assists the HR personnel to recruit a qualified candidate for a position.

According to Maimunah (2008), job specification should include the

following:

(i) Knowledge, skills and abilities required to do the job;

(ii) Educational qualifications and work experiences required;

(iii) Physical requirements of the job, if any;

(iv) Personality requirements, where relevant; and

(v) Career path.


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Next, refer to Figure 3.3 for the job analysis process.

Figure 3.3: Job analysis process


Before we engage in further discussion on job analysis, we must first understand some terms that are closely related to job analysis. The terms are shown in Table 3.1.


Table 3.1: Basic Job Terms

Term Description

Job A number of activities and duties that are inter-related. Position Different duties and responsibilities performed by an

employee. Job group A group of different jobs with similar characteristics. Duties A group of job elements coordinated and combined to produce

results. Element The smallest unit of a job or task. Job specification Statement on the knowledge, skills and capabilities needed by

an employee to perform a job. Job description Statement on the duties, obligations and responsibilities

needed to perform a job.

3.1.1 Job Analysis Approach

We can use various methods to obtain data or information on a job. These methods can be categorised as qualitative or quantitative methods.

(a) Qualitative Methods The following are some of the qualitative methods often used:

(i) Interview A job analyst will question employees, supervisors and managers individually regarding the work that is being analysed.

(ii) Survey A job analyst will distribute to every employee a questionnaire on the work that is being analysed. Each employee must fill up the questionnaire. The data gathered is on employeesÊ duties and responsibilities, work goals, suitability of workplace, requirements to perform work (skills, education, experience, physical and mental needs), equipment and materials needed, and requirements on employeesÊ health and safety.

ACTIVITY 3.1

Working with a group of three or four students, collect at least three different job descriptions from organisations of your choice. Compare the descriptions, highlight similarities and differences.


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(iii) Observation A job analyst can obtain information on jobs by observing employees of particular positions while they are performing their tasks. Observation is based on standard work activities. The result of the observation will be recorded in an observation form.

(iv) Journal and Record The employer will be requested by the analyst to record all activities in a journal throughout the employeeÊs work cycle. Usually, the notes are made in 30 minutes or one hour intervals for each cycle or work shift, and the time frame is usually between two and four weeks.

Apart from the methods above, there are other methods or approaches in data collecting that are quantitative in nature.

(b) Quantitative Methods Among the popular quantitative approaches in job analyses are as follows:

(i) Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

FJA assumes that every job involves the execution of a specific employeeÊs functions, i.e. functions related to data, humans and things. Each function has a difficulty level that has been relatively set. The total value of difficulty level will determine a jobÊs content and help to prepare the job description and specification. Table 3.2 shows an example of a FJA application.

FJA is a quantitative approach to job analysis. It utilises the inventory of a jobÊs activities or functions.


Table 3.2: Sample of a Functional Job Analysis Application

Level of Difficulty of EmployeesÊ Functions

Data Humans Things

0 Synthesising 1 Coordinating 2 Analysing 3 Arranging 4 Calculating 5 Copying 6 Comparing

0 Mentoring 1 Negotiating 2 Giving instructions 3 Supervising 4 Diverting attention 5 Persuading 6 Talking in signs 7 Servicing 8 Receiving orders helping

0 Starting 1 Working efficiently and and thoroughly 2 Operating controlling 3 Steering operating 4 Manipulating 5 Attending 6 Feeding off bearing 7 Handling

Source: Adapted from Revised Handbook for Analysing Jobs, Washington DC: US Gov. Printing Office, 1991

Based on the example presented in Table 3.2, if a clerk needs to copy data, talk to customers and lift things, the difficulty levels of his or her functions are 5, 6 and 7, respectively. This means that the total difficulty level for the clerk is 18. If the difficulty levels for an assistant psychiatrist in a hospital in terms of handling data, humans and things are 1, 7 and 5, respectively, then, the total level of difficulty is 13. The lower the score of the difficulty level, the higher the difficulty level function. Therefore, jobs that have the same score are grouped together and paid the same salary rate.

(ii) Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

This technique uses a scale of 0 to 5 to determine the degree of work duties or elements that need to be carried out in a job. The 194 items are classified in six groups, i.e:

Information input Information input refers to the way employees acquire information on a job.

PAQ is a quantitative survey method that covers 194 items on employee oriented duties.


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Mental process Mental process refers to the process of reasoning, decision making and planning applied to perform a job.

Work result Work result refers to the types of equipment and physical activities utilised to perform a job.

Relationship with others Relationship with others refers to the types of relationship expected in order to perform a job.

Work contexts Work contexts refer to the physical and social contexts where the job is performed.

Other work characteristics Other work characteristics refer to activities, occurrences or other characteristics aside from the five characteristics listed above.

The score from respondentsÊ answers will be analysed by a computer and the result will be used to determine the characteristics of a job.

(iii) Critical Incident Method Through this method, important work duties are identified to determine the success of a job. Information on critical duties can be obtained through interviews with employees and managers or through written reports by the position holder. Data obtained will be analysed. The result is a clearer or more understandable report on the important tasks in a job.

(iv) Computer Job Analysis Human resource information system helps a lot in the job analysis process. Now, there are many software designed specifically to analyse jobs and come up with job descriptions and specifications based on the analysis. Managers and employees have to only choose statements on duties related to the job being analysed to determine the importance level of the duties.


Visit http://www.job-analysis.net and get information on the approaches in a job analysis (apart from those already mentioned).

3.1.2 Job Description and Specification

Data on a job obtained from a job analysis will be used to develop the job description and specification.

(a) Job Description

Most job descriptions contain at least three parts, namely, position, work introduction and work duties and obligations. Table 3.3 presents the important areas of a job description.

A job description is a written description of a job and it covers the duties that need to be performed.

EXERCISE 3.1

TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements

1. Job analysis is the process of obtaining information on a job by determining the obligations, duties or activities of the job.

2. The responsibility of carrying out a job analysis is the main responsibility of a line manager.

3. The usual methods of gathering information for a job analysis are interviews, questionnaires, observations and journals.

4. The functional job analysis approach is an inventory of a jobÊs various functions and work activities.

5. The main objective of the critical incident method approach when performing a job analysis is to identify the 194 items in the position analysis questionnaire list.


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Table 3.3: The Important Parts of a Job Description

Job Description Term

Description

Position Name Represents the duties and level of the post in an organisation.

Psychologically, the position name can represent a jobÊs status.

The position name should also explain the duties that need to be performed in a job.

Work Introduction

Differentiates a job from another job.

Items that need to be included in a work introduction include work location in an organisation, to whom the position holder should report, and when was the last time the job description was revised.

Duties or Obligations

A statement on the job obligations and duties is often arranged according to its significance.

A job statement should show the weight or value of a task in a particular job. Often, the total time utilised to perform a task will become the main weight.

A job statement covers responsibilities in performing duties and results that should be achieved. It also covers the equipment or tools needed by employees to perform the job.

The management must ensure that job duties and obligations do not go against laws and regulations.

A job description is important to employees because it helps them to learn their duties and obligations in a particular job and reminds them of the result they must achieve. On the managementÊs side, a job description becomes a base to reduce any misunderstanding between employers and employees in the job requirements. It is also a basis for the management to take corrective actions when a task or obligation is not performed well.

(b) Job Specification A job specification is a certain eligibility needed to perform tasks and fulfil the responsibilities of a job. A job specification usually consists of two things, i.e.:


(i) Skill requirements in performing a job. This includes education or experiences, specialised training, personal characteristics or abilities and manipulative abilities.

(ii) Physical requirements in performing a job. Physical requirements include requirements to walk, stand up, reach, lift or speak while performing a job. Physical requirements also take into consideration an employeeÊs endurance towards the physical environment of the workplace and the hazards that need to be faced.

3.1.3 Uses of a Job Analysis

The result of the job analysis process helps the human resource manager to carry out human resource management functions (refer to Figure 3.2). These functions are recruitment, selection, training and development, performance evaluation and compensation management.

(a) Recruitment The recruiter must have knowledge of the job specification before hiring an employee to fill the post.

(b) Selection The manager and supervisor will use the job description and job specification to select and orientate the employees.

(c) Training and development Training equips employees with the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary to perform their tasks.

(d) Performance evaluation The requirements contained in a job description can be used as the criteria to evaluate the post holderÊs performance.

(e) Compensation management The management must consider requirements in terms of the employeeÊs skills, efforts and responsibilities, as well as workplace environment and hazards in determining the payment rate for workers so that it is equal to the work performed.

ACTIVITY 3.2

Based on your experience in the workplace, what are the problems that may be faced by the management and employees in the process of preparing a job description report?


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JOB DESIGN

Before you proceed with the discussion on job design, make sure you are not confused between job design and job analysis. A job analysis involves a study on a job that is being performed by an employee. A job design is an expansion of the job analysis aiming at improving a job through people and technology, so that the organisationÊs efficiency and job satisfaction can be achieved. A job design involves job structuring, including job enlargement, reengineering and job enrichment. Job design involves the emerging of five factors (Bohlander, 2001):

(a) Organisational objectives;

(b) Matters relating to behaviour;

(c) Matters relating to industrial engineering;

(d) Ergonomic matters; and

(e) Employee contribution.

3.2

EXERCISE 3.2

TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements 1. In preparing a job description report, the selection of a job title

is important in determining the employeeÊs status.

2. When writing a job description report, it is logical to use terms that are loose, unclear and comprehensive.

3. When there is a gap between knowledge, skills and abilities and the requirements needed to fulfil the job description and specification, then the position holder must be given training.

4. The requirements in a job description can be used as the criteria to evaluate the position holderÊs performance. It is known as job evaluation.

5. In determining the payment rate of a job, the relative value of the job does not hold much importance.


3.2.1 Behavioural Matters

There are two approaches that influence employee behaviour when performing a job. They are job enrichment and job characteristics.

(a) Job Enrichment Job enrichment is to stimulate a job by increasing meaningful tasks and obligations to give more satisfaction to employees.

Job enrichment for employees can be done through these methods:

(i) Increasing the difficulty level and the responsibilities of a job;

(ii) Giving employees opportunities to maintain authority and empowerment of their work;

(iii) Conducting a one-on-one work performance report with the employee;

(iv) Increasing new tasks that require training and development; and

(v) Assigning particular tasks individually so that employees become experts.

Job enrichment is only effective for certain jobs. There are employees who are unhappy when their job descriptions are changed, but there are also others who see it as a challenge and something stimulating.

(b) Job Characteristics A job characteristics model states that there are three psychological states where an employee shows an improvement in his or her work performance, internal motivation, decrease in absenteeism and turnover. The three psychological circumstances are:

(i) Feeling a sense of meaningfulness towards the work performed;

(ii) Feeling responsible for work results; and

(iii) Knowing or understanding the work that has been done. If there is a decrease in one of the three psychological circumstances, it will affect the internal motivation of an employee. According to Hackman and Oldham (1976), there are five job characteristics that influence these three psychological circumstances. They are skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback.

(i) Skill Variety Explains the range of skills and activities necessary to complete the job. The more an employee is challenged to use a wide variety of skills, the more satisfying the job is likely to be.


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(ii) Task Identity Measures the degree to which a person can complete an activity or job in full. Employees who are able to take an activity from start to finish are usually more satisfied.

(iii) Task Significance Focuses on the impact and influence of a job. Jobs are more satisfying if employees believe that they make a difference, and are adding real value to colleagues, the organisation, or the larger community.

(iv) Autonomy Describes the amount of individual choice and discretion involved in a job. More autonomy leads to more satisfaction.

(v) Feedback Measures the amount of information an employee receives about his or her performance, and the extent to which he or she can see the impact of the work. The more that people are told about their performance, the more interested they will be in doing a good job.

Figure 3.4 shows Hackman and OldhamÊs job characteristics model.

Figure 3.4: Hackman and OldhamÊs job characteristics model

Source: Adapted from Hackman & Oldham (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory


3.2.2 Industrial Engineering Matters

Through industrial engineering, the standard work duration for each work element is merged and matched by taking into account employeeÊs skills and efforts when performing the particular job. The time duration on matters that interrupt employees when working is also considered. Therefore, the total time that has been changed is considered the standard time to perform a work cycle. Industrial engineering involves a disciplined and objective approach. However, employeesÊ behavioural matters must be considered. This is because a job design that is only seen from the industrial engineeringÊs point of view as being efficient and organised may not be psychologically suitable for the employee.

Industrial engineering is a field that is closely related to analysing work methods and determining the standard work duration. It involves a study on the work process cycle and determines the work elements that need to be changed, merged, rearranged or eliminated so that the work duration needed to complete the work process cycle can be lessened.

ACTIVITY 3.3

In your opinion, what will happen if an employeeÊs duties and responsibilities are increased but he or she is not psychologically ready to accept the job enrichment?

ACTIVITY 3.4

Think about the industrial engineeringÊs strengths and weaknesses in terms of work process and employees. Based on your working environment, list the strengths and weaknesses of industrial engineering.


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3.2.3 Ergonomic Matters

The overall system is suited to the characteristics that are present in humans. Factors such as job types, work environment, machines, equipment and processes must be suitable for the employees that are performing the particular job. Briefly, we try to fit machine to man, and not fit the man to the machine. In other words, ergonomics tries to lessen negative impacts such as carelessness, negligence and other weaknesses that can cause defects to products and damages to the equipment. Most importantly, it is to avoid employee injuries and accidents as well as fatalities when performing work. See Figure 3.5 for an example. In designing equipment, the employeesÊ physical abilities as well as their reaction towards stimulation must be considered. An employeeÊs ability to react by way of seeing, hearing, touching and discovering equipment is important. Apart from being appropriate for the workplace, the equipment or machine must be suitable for employees, specifically female employees.

Figure 3.5: Sample of Ergonomics Checklist at a ClerkÊs Work Station


Ergonomics is a disciplinary approach in designing equipment with a system that can be used easily and effectively by employees.


3.2.4 Job Design to Increase Employee Contributions

All techniques used to increase employee contributions in an organisation have two similarities, namely, to increase cooperation and standardisation among group members. Research shows that working in a group promotes a sense of responsibility towards achieving organisational goals. It also increases employeesÊ acceptance towards decisions made, and encourages a cooperative approach in performing tasks in the workplace.

ACTIVITY 3.5

In this developing era, females are able to perform tasks that were formerly monopolised by men. However, there are parties who feel that jobs such as labourers are only suitable for men. Give your views. If you agree, do you think you are discriminating against female employees?

EXERCISE 3.3

TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements 1. There are two methods in job design, namely, job enrichment

and job characteristics. Both methods combine employee behavioural needs when they are performing their jobs.

2. Richard HackmanÊs and Greg OldhamÊs job characteristics model suggests that there are three employee psychological circumstances that will improve work performance and internal motivation, and decrease employee non-attendance and dismissal.

3. The result of industrial engineering scientific management is a work method analysis to determine a standard work time.

4. Ergonomics is about designing equipment that considers the operatorÊs mental ability to operate the equipment, as well as react through sight, hearing and touch towards the information from the equipment.


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Among the cooperation techniques that increase employeesÊ involvement in the organisation are employee involvement groups and employee teams.

(a) Employee Involvement Groups An employee involvement group is a group of employees that often meet to solve problems or to give suggestions for the process of organisation improvement. Each group may consist of five to ten employees and each employee has similar or related duties or tasks in the organisation. In general, employee involvement groups give suggestions to the management, and the management decides whether or not to execute the suggestion. If the suggestion is accepted, the result will be measured and the group members will be rewarded for their contribution. An employee involvement group usually meets four or five hours a month and is chaired by a head. The head has no power but only acts as a facilitator. Figure 3.6 shows the employee involvement group process.

Figure 3.6: Employee involvement group process

(b) Employee Teams

An employee team is a technique where work functions are delegated to groups and not to individuals. Members of a group are given the freedom to use their own intelligence in managing working in a team and individually. Each team member is responsible for improving the work environment in the organisation. The team also assumes that each member is responsible for the performance of their group. The management sees each group as a unit that reacts to solve problems related to the organisation.


Employee teams can operate in different forms or structures, and each structure has its own strategy.

(i) Cross-functional Teams A cross-functional team is a team that consists of multiple expertise and is established to achieve a specific objective. Membership in the cross-functional team is upon appointment and not voluntary.

(ii) Project Teams A project team is a team that is established to design a new product or service. Membership is upon appointment by the management based on the ability of the employee to contribute to the achievement of a project. The team will be disbanded when all tasks are completed.

(iii) Self-directed Teams A self-directed team consists of those who are trained to perform tasks related to the work unit. Group members opt for the majorityÊs agreement in carrying out each of their obligations, such as problem solving and liaising with customers from inside or outside the organisation.

(iv) Task Force Teams A task force team is a team that is established by the management to solve major problems immediately. This team is responsible for developing a long-term plan in the solving of major problems, including carrying out the solutions.

(v) Process-improvement Teams A process-improvement team comprises employees who are experienced in various departments or functions. They are in charge of improving quality, reducing wastage, or increasing productivity in the processes that involve all related departments or functions. Team members are usually appointed by the management.

(vi) Virtual Teams A virtual team is a team where its members are far away from each other and communicate through computers and other communication technology.


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Employee teams will change the way the management and employees communicate with each other. The manager faces problems in acting as a head whereby traditionally managers have always acted as supervisors. The manager will feel threatened by the empowerment given to employee teams, which indirectly lessens the managementÊs power.

On the other hand, employees face problems in adapting to the new supervisory role. To prevent these problems, members in employee teams have to be trained throughout the four stages of team formation. These stages are: formation, conflict, standards, and execution. The complete training includes important skills in:

Team leadership.

Formation of the mission or objective.

Chairing a meeting.

Team decision making.

Conflict resolutions.

Effective communication.

Awareness of team diversity.

SELF-CHECK 3.1

What are the similar characteristics present in the techniques to increase employee contribution in an organisation?


3.2.5 Suitability of Work Timetable

The suitability of work timetable is not actually a part of job design. This is because employeesÊ duties and responsibilities are not changed. However, the suitability of work timetable will change employeesÊ normal working time. Among the usual work timetable options are compressed workweek, flexi time, job sharing, and telecommuting.

(a) Compressed Workweek In compressed workweek, the total work days a week are reduced but the total work hours a day are increased. This maintains the total work hours per week.

(b) Flexi Time Flexi time enables employees to choose the start and end of work time that is suitable for them, as long as the total work time per day or per week is maintained. However, it is compulsory for all employees to be at the workplace at a certain period of time, such as between 10am and 3.30pm.

(c) Job Sharing Job sharing refers to two temporary workers performing one job which is supposedly manned by one full-time employee. They acquire a fee equal to the total number of hours they work.

(d) Telecommuting Telecommuting is the utilisation of micro computers, networks, and other communication technologies such as facsimile machines when working at home, whereby these tasks were previously done in the office or at the workplace.


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EXERCISE 3.4

TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) Statements

1. Cooperation and standardisation techniques are among the techniques in job design that aim at increasing group or employee productivity.

2. Permanent groups that consist of five to ten employees who perform the same task and often meet to identify, analyse, and propose solutions for problems are known as task force teams.

3. Employee teams can operate in different organisational structures, each with a specific strategy and goal.

4. Flexi time allows employees to choose their own start and end of work time as long as they work for a certain total number of hours per day or per week.

5. Telecommuting utilises micro computers, networks and different communication technologies such as facsimile machines to work at home, instead of doing it at the workplace.

Match the concepts to the suitable statements (a) Job (d) Job design

(b) Job analysis (e) Job specification

(c) Job description (f) Position

1. A statement on the need for oneÊs knowledge, skills and

abilities in order to perform a job.

2. Extension and expansion of job analysis that improve a job, and is related to job structure to increase organisation efficiency and an employeeÊs job satisfaction.

3. Different tasks and responsibilities carried out by an employee.

4. The process to obtain information on a particular job by determining the obligations, tasks or activities in the particular job.

5. A group of related activities and tasks.

6. A statement on the tasks, obligations and responsibilities of a particular job.


Multiple Choice Questions

1. A job specification determines the qualification needed for an applicant. It plays an important role in _______________. A. Recruitment functions B. The functions of a job analysis C. A job characteristics model D. Selection function

2. Human resource management uses the data from the job analysis to develop ____________________. A. An attitude and behaviour survey B. A job description and specification C. A job analysis function and ergonomic issues D. Employee agreement and workersÊ union

3. In a job description, the area that gives information on the location of a certain job and to whom the work result should be reported is known as __________________. A. Task identity B. Skill variety C. Position title D. Job specification

4. Below are the characteristics present in the job characteristics model EXCEPT _____________________. A. Skill variety B. Task identity C. Task significance D. Group decision making

5. Those involved in the employee involvement groups must receive

training in identifying problems, analysing problems and identifying various decision-making tools such as __________________. A. Planned or unplanned decisions B. Quality groups and self-managed teams C. Centralised and decentralised power D. Statistical analysis and cause and effect diagrams


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Job analysis and job design play an important role in the development of an

organisation.

In relation to that, organisations give specific importance to both aspects.

Through job analysis, job description and specification are developed. A wrong analysis will produce an inaccurate description and specification.

This in turn gives a bad effect to the organisationÊs performance.

Ergonomics

Functional job analysis (FJA)

Industrial engineering

Job analysis

Job characteristics model

Job description

Job design

Job specification

Position analysis questionnaire (PAQ)

6. On behalf of the employers, flexi time is really helpful in _________________. A. Forecasting employee dismissal rate B. Recruiting and retaining employees C. Developing job sharing D. Developing a flexible timetable that is easy to follow

Essay Questions 1. Imagine that you are a manager in the service department. How

does the employee requirement, which has been formerly documented, help in managing your unit?

2. Clarify how industrial engineering and ergonomics can relate to their own advantages, and at the same time suit each other in designing a certain job.

Documents

20140225043324_Topic 3 Job Analysis and Design