2009- Heated Injector for Cold Startar

8/13/2019 2009- Heated Injector for Cold Startar

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ABSTRACT

Ethanol is commonly employed as a transportation fuel in

flex-fuel vehicles marketed in Brazil are currentlyequipped with a redundant fuel system which delivers

these low temperatures are infrequently experienced in

Brazil, gasoline in the auxiliary fuel tank may evaporateand/or varnish during extended dormant periods,resulting in poor quality or no-starts. It is thereforedesirable to eliminate the gasoline system by vaporizinga sufficient quantity of ethanol to enable cold starts at lowambient temperatures.

A port fuel injector capable of rapidly heating ethanolabove its flash point has been developed whicheliminates the need for the redundant fuel system.During cold-start conditions, the vehicles controllercommands power to an electrical heater contained withineach injector. The injector heaters raise the temperatureof the delivered ethanol during the engine crank andinitial run.

When these heated injectors are employed inconjunction with engine management systemenhancements, ethanol cold start performance is similarto that of gasoline. In addition, heating ethanol fuel

has shown to reduce both engine-out and FTP bagemissions.

Heated injector flow temperature data, low ambienttemperature engine cold start performance and vehicleFTP emission results are presented and discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Worldwide oil rationing in the 1970s fostered the beliefwithin Brazil that it should become energy self-sufficient.Since at that time (and still is), the extraction of domesticoil was lower than the demand, it was thought that analternative fuel should be developed.

Consequently, in 1974 the Brazilian government issued astrategic plan named National Development Plan - PlanoNacional de Desenvolvimento. As part of this nationalstrategy, supported by sugar cane producers, analternative fuel incentive plan, Pr-lcool, was issued in1975. This plan specified that ethanol would not only besold blended with gasoline, but also as a pure ethanolfuel. E22 (a blend of approximately 22% ethanol and78% gasoline) and E100 (~ 94% ethanol, 6% water)were produced for the Brazilian market. Consumerscould purchase vehicles either fueled exclusively by E22or fueled exclusively by E100. The market expanded andin 1986 approximately 80% of the vehicles manufacturedin Brazil were powered by ethanol fuel.

In spite of a decline in consumer demand for ethanolvehicles during the 1990s and early 2000s, due to areduction in ethanol production and a poor distributionnetwork, ethanol is still considered a strategic energysource for Brazil since it reduces gasoline dependencefrom other countries. In addition, the Braziliangovernment does provide incentives by subsidizingethanol and levying lower tax rates.

The typical minimum engine cold start temperaturerequirement in Brazil is approximately -5C. Thisrequirement is of course, not as severe as the -20C or -30C ambient cold start requirements found in mostother countries, because Brazil is a sub-tropical country.

2009-01-0615

Heated Injectors for Ethanol Cold Starts

Daniel Kabasin, Kevin Hoyer and Joseph KazourDelphi Corporation Advanced Powertrain - USA

Rudolf Lamers and Tobias HurterDelphi Corporation EMS Development - Brazil

*9-2009-01-0615*

Brazil. However, since pure ethanols flash point is 12C,

gasoline during cold starts below [typically] 18C. Since

enables the leaning-out of 20C cold start fueling, which


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Figure 1 is a geographical view of the minimumtemperatures observed in Brazil during 2004 [1]. The cityCampus do Jordo (altitude 2000m) is known as one ofthe coldest places in Brazil.

Campos do JordoCampos do Jordo

Figure 1: Minimum temperatures observed in Brazilduring 2004

Figure 2 shows the maximum and minimumtemperatures which were observed in Campus doJordo SP Brazil during the coldest month, July of2004, within the last 10 years [2].

-5

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2-Jul 6-Jul 10-Jul 14-Jul 18-Jul 22-Jul 26-Jul 30-Jul

July 2004

A m

b i e n t

T e m p e r a

t u r e m

i n i m u m a n

d m a x

i m u m

( C

Figure 2: Maximum and minimum temperaturesobserved in Campus do Jordo SP in July 2004

Brazil is now the only country that does not limit theethanol percentage in transportation fuels; furthermore,E100 is normally marketed throughout the entire winter.Consequently, the -5C specification guarantees start-ability for the entire calendar year, even when fuelingwith E100 during the winter months.

In order to cold start E100 fueled vehicles at ambienttemperatures down to -5C, gasoline sub-tanks systemswhich inject gasoline during these cold starts, wereintroduced in the 70s on the first carburetor E100 mono-fuel vehicles. These systems continued to be utilized,virtually unmodified, on fuel injected vehicles, as well ason flex fuel vehicles, which were first introduced in 2003.

Development of the next generation of single-fuel coldstart enabling systems is underway. Heating ethanol fuel

just before injection into an engine appears to be anattractive means for engine cold starting as well asemission reduction.

GASOLINE SUB-TANK SYSTEM

Brazils auto manufacturers currently utilize an auxiliarygasoline cold-start system for cold starts which occur atambient temperatures of [typically] 18C and below. Thesystem (Figure 3) consists of a small tank containingapproximately 1 liter of gasoline, a small fuel pump, asolenoid valve and a calibrated orifice. The PowertrainControl Module (PCM) powers the fuel pump relay andmodulates the solenoid valve to deliver a quantity ofgasoline scheduled via engine coolant temperature. Thecalibrated orifice located either in the throttle bodybeneath the throttle plate or within the intake manifold,injects the metered fuel into either the plenum or theintake runners. After the engine starts, depending on

coolant temperature, gasoline may continue to beinjected in conjunction with ethanol delivered from themain injectors, in order to optimize warm-up drive-abilityand transient throttle response. Most systems have alow-gasoline-level indicator lamp to warn the driver thatrefilling of the sub-tank is required.

ECM

RelaySwitch

SolenoidPWM

Orifice

INTAKE

ENGINE

Fuel Pump

SUB-TANK

PCM

Figure 3: Gasoline sub-tank system

Maximum

Minimum


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MODELING

In order to determine heated injector requirements, StarCD, a finite volume solver for fluid problems (CFDcomputational fluid dynamics), was utilized [3]. Thismodel requires sectioning the 3D geometry of interestinto smaller elements and applying boundary conditionsbefore solving for flow parameters such as temperature,pressure and velocity everywhere within the domain. Forexample, Star CD can produce solutions for thetemperatures of solids as well as flowing or static fluids.The fluids are injected as liquid fuel at the injector exitand are able to vaporize. Two CFD models arediscussed next, a spray vapor port chamber model andan in-combustion chamber cylinder-mixing model.

SPRAY VAPOR GENERATION MODEL

A Star CD CFD computational fluid dynamics model wasdeveloped to predict what amount of vapor results fromvarious fuel conditions within a representative quiescentcold intake port.

A picture of the CFD model of the port chamber withspray is shown in Figure 4. Ethanol liquid droplets wereinjected into a quiescent volume in which the air andwalls were initially set to -10C. These drops were givenan initial temperature, velocity and size distribution[characterized by the Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD)) andinjected at a prescribed injection profile versus time. Theinjected ethanol liquid drops were able to evaporate tovapor, hit the walls and stick, rebound then evaporate, orremain suspended as droplets. The amount of vapor inthe port and the droplets were then measured at 1 msafter the single injection pulse was completed. Figure 4shows an output of the spray chamber model at the end

of the fuel injection pulse. The circles represent the fuelspray particles with the circle size corresponding to theliquid particle diameters (greatly exaggerated). Vaporconcentration contours are plotted in color on a planeslice thru the center of the chamber.

Figure 4: Spray vapor generation model representationshowing liquid fuel (circles) and vapor concentration

(color contours).

Test Conditions: One injection (0.28g pulse) of fuel Droplet diameter (SMD): 25, 50, 75 & 100 um Droplet velocity: 25, 50, 75 & 100 m/s Temperature of fuel injected: -10, 0, 10 & 20 oC

The modeling results summarized in Figure 5 indicatethat increasing fuel velocity (Vexit) and smaller particlesizes (SMD) are beneficial for increasing vapor

production, but are not nearly as effective as increasingthe fuels temperature (Tfuel). This figure shows that theamount of fuel vaporized roughly doubles as the SMD isvaried from 25 to 100 microns. The amount of vaporcreated from the injection decreases as the injectionvelocity increases from 25 m/s to 100 m/s because thespray has less time in the air before hitting the oppositechamber wall. When the fuel temperature is raised from-10C to 20C, the amount of vapor produced increasesabout four orders of magnitude. This comparison clearlyshows that the fuel temperature has the predominanteffect on fuel vaporization when compared to SMD andvelocity under these conditions.

0.00001

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SMD [u], Vexit [m/s]

% E

t h a n o

l V a p o r

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SMDVexitTfuel

75 m/s

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50 u SMD75 m/s

50 u SMD-10 oC

Tfuel [ C] -10 C 0C 10C 20C

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SMD [u], Vexit [m/s]

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SMDVexitTfuel

75 m/s

-10o

C

50 u SMD75 m/s

50 u SMD-10 oC

Tfuel [ C] -10 C 0C 10C 20C

Figure 5: % Vapor mass of the total fuel mass as afunction of injected fuel particle size, velocity and

temperature

CYLINDER MIXING MODEL

A Star CD CFD in-cylinder dynamic mixing model, Figure6, was developed to predict what quantity and

temperature of fuel is required to initiate combustion ofan ethanol-air mixture within a simplified representationof the engine cylinder, intake, exhaust ports and valvesand fuel injector.

This model was used to predict the quantity of vaporpresent at the spark plug during -10C crankingconditions.


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Intake Port & Valve:Ambient TemperatureAmbient Pressure

Injector (C2H6O at Tfuel)Exhaust Port & Valve:Ambient TemperatureAmbient Pressure

CFD Analysis Result:Fuel Vapor Fraction &TemperatureVs crank angle at sparkplug gap location

Cylinder Wall & Piston:Ambient TemperatureAmbient PressurePiston is moving at

cranking speed

Fuel Parameters:Fuel TemperatureDirector hole diameterMass flow rateInjection timing

Figure 6: Cylinder mixing model representation

In this dynamic model, Figure 7, the fuel enters thecombustion chamber when the intake valve is open. In-cylinder charge mixing occurs as the piston descendsduring the intake stroke and ascends duringcompression. The model predicts the amount of vaporpresent throughout the cylinder during the cycle.Especially important for combustion initiation is the vaporconcentration near the spark plug at TDC.

Spray beginsAt IVO

Fuel Vapor

Determine ignitabilitybased on fuel vaporfraction at cylinderTDC FiringMixture at TDC

Fuel Droplets

Droplets &Vapor mix

during Intakeand

compressionstroke

Figure 7: Fuel and vapor within the dynamic model

A minimum of 6% vapor, an amount slightly above thelower flammability limit of ethanol [4], is required to bepresent in the vicinity of the spark plug, in order toproduce an ignitable mixture. Figure 8 shows therelationship between fuel temperature and fuel flowrequired to produce 6% vapor in the combustionchamber. As an example, if 2.86 g/s of airflow is enteringthe cylinder and fuel particle sizes are 50, then 5.15g/s(3.43 g/cycle) of 25C ethanol are required. This is anextremely rich condition where wall wetting wouldproduce very high HC and smoke. Alternatively, if the

fuel temperature is raised to 76C, only 1.14g/s (0.76g/cycle) of fuel are required. This figure only representswhat is required to produce a combustible mixture duringengine cranking, and does not take into account the totalfuel quantity needed to keep the engine running.

Fuel Initially @ -10 oC, 2.86 g/s air flowWalls & Air @ -10 oC

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50

100

150

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250

300

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Delivered Fuel/Air Ratio

F u e

l T e m p e r a

t u r e ,

d e g

C ,

( i n

j e c

t o r e x

i t )

75 u SMD50 u SMD

Figure 8: Fuel temperature vs. Fuel/Air ratios required toproduce 6% vapor in a combustion chamber at TDC

The CFD model results presented clearly identify thebenefit of heating the fuel before it is injected to producemore fuel vapor. The model assumptions are that thefuel temperature is prescribed at the injector exit.Several concepts of how to achieve the heated fuelfollow.

HEATED FUEL RAILS

Initial investigations focused on heating the entire fuel railwith a single internal heating element, as well aspositioning multiple heaters to locally heat the fuelresident above each injector.

HEATED FUEL RAIL

This concept heated the entire fuel rail with an internalheater. A number of significant drawbacks precludedfurther development:

Significant electrical energy is required to heatthe entire quantity of fuel in a short amount oftime

Pre-crank warm-up times are approximately 60seconds at -5C

Large radiant heat loss area Heated fuel rises to the top of the rail First injections consist of ambient temperature

fuel Requires pre-crank PCM turn-on strategy and

starter control

LOCALIZED FUEL RAIL HEATERSThese concepts position an individual diesel glow plug inthe fuel rail, directly above each injector, to locallyheatthe fuel above each injector.

Again, these concepts suffer from a number ofsignificant drawbacks:

Pre-crank warm-up times are between 10 to 20 seconds at -5C


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Heated fuel rises to the top of the rail away fromthe injectors

First injections consist of ambient temperaturefuel

Requires pre-crank PCM turn-on strategy andstarter control

HEATED FUEL INJECTOR

A heated injector, the Delphi Multec 3.5 HT FuelInjector (Figure 9), based on the proven Multec 3.5 fuelinjector, has been developed to increase the temperatureof injected fuels. A heater integrated in the injector isenergized during engine cold starts. Electrical power isapplied through two pins of a 4-pin electrical connector;the remaining two pins provide a connection to the fuelcontrol solenoid.

Figure 9: Multec 3.5 HT Fuel Injector with 4-pinconnector and integrated heater production intent

STREAM TEMPERATURE PERFORMANCE

Ethanol injection can commence immediately uponapplication of heater power, or can be delayed to providepre-injection heating. Figure 10 shows the resultantincreases in the injectors outlet stream temperatures(measured with thermo couple located in the fuel stream)above ambient (20C for the following graphs) with static

ethanol flow (3.4g/s) and 100% heater power. The blackcurve is the temperature rise with 0 seconds of pre-injection heating (i.e. fuel flow also commences at time =0). The red curve represents the temperature rise after 1second of pre-injection heating and the blue curve, 2seconds. In all these cases, 100% heater power isapplied to the heater between 0 and 10 seconds.

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Test Time [Seconds]

S t r e a m

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t u r e

I n c r e a s e

A b o v e

A m

b i e n

t [ C ]

2 Seconds Pre-Injection Heating1 Second Pre-Injection Heating

0 Seconds Pre-Injection Heating

Figure 10: 0, 1 and 2 seconds pre-injection heating100% flow 100% power

Figures 11, 12 and 13 show injector outlet streamtemperature increases above ambient with 50% dutycycle fueling at a 1.45Hz frequency. This frequencycorresponds to 174 cranking RPM for a four-cylinder

engine which utilizes sequential port injection. The redcurves show the measurement of the injectors outletstream temperature increase above ambient. The blackcurve shows the voltage applied to the injectors fuel coil.Figure 11 corresponds to 0 seconds of pre-injectionheating, Figure 12, 1 second and Figure 13, 2 seconds.As in the previous case, 100% heater power is applied tothe heater between 0 and 10 seconds.

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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Test Time [Seconds]

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b i e n

t [ C ]

I n j e c t o r

F u e

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d [ V }

Stream Temperature Increase

Injector Fuel Command

Figure 11: 0 seconds pre-injection heating50% flow 100% heater power


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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Test Time [Seconds]

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t [ C ]

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t o r

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Figure 12: 1 second pre-injection heating50% flow 100% heater power

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Test Time [Seconds]

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Figure 13: 2 seconds pre-injection heating50% flow 100% heater power

HEATED INJECTOR CONTROL

Figure 14 is a diagram of the heater control system. Thevehicles PCM controls power to the injector heaters viaa protection relay and a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)module. The relay and PWM module provide redundantpower controls to ensure that, in the event of a failure ofone of the components, the PCM can turn off power tothe heaters using the functioning component. Heatervoltage is sensed by the PCM for diagnostic monitoring.

Heater power is regulated by the PCM by adjusting the %duty cycle, that is, the pulse width at a fixed frequency, ofthe voltage applied to the heater.

Relay Control

HeaterDiagnostic

Monitor

PWM HeaterCommand

PCM

Figure 14: Injector heater control diagram

ENGINE COLD START STRATEGY

Because of ethanols low Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP)and high flash point, fuel heating becomes a requirementto form an ignitable mixture at low temperatures. Inaddition, without heating, the fuel may cease to burn ifthe source of ignition is removed at low temperatures.Fuel heating has shown to be most effective whenemployed with other advanced technologies orstrategies, such as:

Coordinated combustion chamber heating withengine cranking while delaying fuel and spark.

Sequential fuel injection during crank. Fuel injection timed in relation to valve timing in

order to avoid heat loss or wetting spark plugs Higher fuel pressure designed to produce

smaller fuel droplets. Multiple spark ignitions during the cold start Spark plug design Intake manifold vacuum control with an

electronic throttle during cranking Alternator load control Increased engine cranking speed

Apart from increasing the fuel heating systemsrobustness and effectiveness, strategies such as smarttorque-based software algorithms, which control theengine via an electronic throttle, have great potential tofurther improve both ethanol fueled start-ability and drive-ability.

Tests were conducted with and without pre-crank heatingon a 1.8L 4-cylinder engine. Results may vary for otherengine applications.


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-5C COLD START ENGINE PERFORMANCE

Cold start performance was primarily evaluated withHydrated Ethanol (6% water) because it is the worst-case fuel for cold starting. It has been shown that blendswith even slight traces of gasoline, say 3%, greatlyenhance the ability to cold start.

As shown in Figure 15, during a cold start without pre-crank heating, the PCM first applies 100% duty cycle tothe heater when cranking commences in order to heatthe ethanol. As the engine fires and begins to run, thePCM reduces the fuel rate as well as the heaters dutycycle corresponding to its fueling command. As theengine settles into its cold idle, a minimal duty cyclemaintains an elevated stream temperature to improvewarm-up drive-ability.

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Heater Duty Cycle

Average HeaterSurface Temperature

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Start of Crank

500RPM

2.9 Seconds

H e a t er D

u t y C y c l e an

d H

e a t er T

em

p er a

t ur e

Figure 15: 1.8L L4 engine E-100 -5C cold startwithout pre-crank heating prototype injectors

Figure 16 shows a cold start with pre-crank heating. Inthis case the PCM applies 100% duty cycle to the heaterbefore cranking commences when a pre-set trigger, suchas the opening of the drivers door or insertion of the

ignition key, is detected. As in the no pre-heating case,the PCM reduces the fuel rate as well as the heatersduty cycle when the engine fires and begins to run.Similarly, as the engine settles into its cold idle, aminimal duty cycle maintains an elevated streamtemperature to improve warm-up drive-ability.

However, injector heating is terminated if the engine isnot cranked after the pre-heating time has elapsed.

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Heater Duty Cycle

Aver age HeaterSurface Temperature Engine RPM

Start of Crank

500RPM

Pre-heat 6.0 Seconds

H e a t er D

u t C

c l e

an d H

e a t er T

em

er a

t ur e

1.8 s

Figure 16: 1.8L L4 engine E-100 -5C cold startwith pre-crank heating prototype injectors

Care must be taken in the calibration of the crank to runtransition. Even with heated fuel, there is potential wall-wetting, which can build-up and cause over-fueling asthis fuel evaporates and is ingested during engine warm-up.

Heating the fuel also improves low temperature warm-updrive-ability. Many sub-tank systems require sustainedgasoline injection and throttle/torque limiting due to highfuel flow demands which exceed injector flow capacityduring initial transients and at WOT. Heating the fuelreduces the liquid fuel requirement by increasing thevaporized fuel fraction.

Figure 17 summarizes heated injector cold starts with(red curve) and without (blue curve) pre-crank heating asa function of start-up coolant temperature. The durationof pre-crank heating (black curve) is shown on thenegative time scale. For example, at -5C, the start-of-crank-to-500 RPM time was 3 seconds without pre-crankheating; with 6 seconds of pre-crank heating, the start-of-crank-to-500 RPM time was 1.8 seconds.

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-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25

Coolant temperature (C)

T i m e

( s )

pre-crank heat time crank time w/ pre-crank heat Crank time no pre-crank heating

Figure 17: 1.8L L4 engine E-100 cold start times with andwithout pre-crank heating prototype injectors

ENGINE EMISSION PERFORMANCE

The minimal ethanol vapor concentrations which occur atlow ambient temperatures (including emission test coldstart temperatures) require a very rich engine fuelingcalibration in order to start the engine and achieveacceptable warm-up drive-ability. This condition leads tohigh Hydro-carbon (HC) and Carbon-monoxide (CO)emissions as well as delayed catalytic converter light-off.

Heating the ethanol significantly reduces the ethanolfueling requirement for starting and warm-up whichpermits the use of a lean fuel calibration which reducesengine-out HC and CO and improves converter light offtimes.


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The data in Figure 18 was generated by a vehicleequipped with a 1.8 liter I4 SOHC 8-valve engine and aclose-coupled catalytic converter. Heat was applied forthe first 50 seconds of the test without pre-crank heatingthe injectors.

NMHC g/km

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THC g/km

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+ 8 %

Figure 18: EPA III total bag emission resultsHashed production base line

Solid prototype heated injector system

The approximate 40% reduction in HC and CO canpotentially help avoid an increase of catalyst loading tomeet the next level of regulatory emission standards.

Furthermore, there is potential to reduce HC emissionsby utilizing pre-crank heating or extending the enginecranking time in order to maximize the temperature ofthe ethanol first injected into the engine.

CONCLUSION

Heated injectors offer a practical means to increase thetemperature of injected ethanol. Engines equipped withprototype systems have exhibited robust and fast E100cold starts down to -5C ambient temperatures withoutgasoline assistance. In addition, prototype heatedinjector equipped vehicles have demonstrated a 40%reduction in HC and CO with little increase in NOx duringEPA 3 testing. Continuing injector and EMS developmentwill focus on replicating these results on a variety ofengines in the global automotive market.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge thecontribution of the Delphi Advanced Engineering Teamresponsible for the development of the heated injector atthe Rochester Technical Center in the United States, aswell as the Delphi EMS Development team at thePiracicaba Technical Center in Brazil. Without theirefforts, this work would not have been possible.

REFERENCES

1. Ministrio da Cincia e Tecnologia Centro dePreviso de Tempo e Estudos Climticoshttp://tempo1.cptec.inpe.br/

2. Ministrio da Cincia e Tecnologia Centro dePreviso de Tempo e Estudos Climticoshttp://tempo1.cptec.inpe.br/

3. Star-Cd Users Guide, V3.26, Cd-Adapco, 2005

4. API Technical Data Book Petroleum Refining,Volume I, Chapter I. Revised Chapter 1 to First,Second, Third and Fourth Editions, 1988

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2009- Heated Injector for Cold Startar