© 2008 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. ASM ... · PDF fileand the 9th Edition Metals Handbook Volume 15 (1988) on casting, ... (See Table 2 in the ﬁrst article “History

ASM HandbookW

Volume 15Casting

Prepared under the direction of theASM International Handbook Committee

Editorial Committee

Srinath Viswanathan, University of Alabama, ChairDiran Apelian, Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Raymond J. Donahue, Mercury MarineBabu DasGupta, National Science Foundation

Michael Gywn, ATI IncJohn L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc

Raymond W. Monroe, Steel Founders’ Society of AmericaMahi Sahoo, CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory

Thomas E. Prucha, American Foundry SocietyDaniel Twarog, North American Die Casting Association

Steve Lampman, Project EditorCharles Moosbrugger, Editor

Eileen DeGuire, EditorMadrid Tramble, Senior Production Coordinator

Ann Britton, Editorial AssistantDiane Whitelaw, Production CoordinatorKathryn Muldoon, Production AssistantScott D. Henry, Senior Product ManagerBonnie R. Sanders, Manager of Production

Editorial AssistanceElizabeth MarquardHeather Lampman

WPR Indexing Service

Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002www.asminternational.org

© 2008 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. ASM Handbook Volume 15: Casting (#05115G) www.asminternational.org

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ASM InternationalW

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner.

First printing, December 2008

This book is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. It brings together a wealth of information fromworldwide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range problems.

Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES,EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESSFOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information isbelieved to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publicationalone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditionsof product or material use are outside of ASM’s control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use ofthis information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based onnegligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages areclaimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND INNO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGESWHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material,evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actualconditions is recommended.

Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connectionwith any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, ortrademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent,copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement.

Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ASM International

ASM HandbookIncludes bibliographical references and indexes

Contents: v.1. Properties and selection—irons, steels, and high-performance alloys—v.2. Properties and selection—nonferrousalloys

and special-purpose materials—[etc.]—v.21. Composites

1. Metals—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Metal-work—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee. II.Metals Handbook.

TA459.M43 1990 620.1’6 90-115SAN: 204-7586

ISBN-13: 978-0-87170-711-6ISBN-10: 0-87170-711-X

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Printed in the United States of America

Multiple copy reprints of individual articles are available from Technical Department, ASM International.


Dedicated to the memory ofJOSEPH R. DAVIS

(1954–2007)Editor, Metals Handbook, 1982–1991


Foreword

In this revision of ASM HandbookW Volume 15 on casting, ASM International is indebted to thevolunteer efforts of the Volume 15 Editorial Committee and over 150 participants who helped asauthors or reviewers. Their professional commitment and efforts represent a continuing devotion to thepractice of metalcasting and the publication of peer consensus information on it.

Special thanks are extended to Srinath Viswanathan, University of Alabama, for recruiting anoutstanding Editorial Committee with Diran Apelian, Worcester Polytechnic Institute; Babu DasGupta,National Science Foundation, Raymond J. Donahue, Mercury Marine; Michael Gywn, ATI Inc.;John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc.; Raymond W. Monroe, Steel Founders’ Society of America;Thomas E. Prucha, American Foundry Society; Kumar Sadayappan and Mahi Sahoo, CANMETMaterials Technology Laboratory; Edward S. Szekeres, Casting Consultants Incorporated; andDaniel Twarog, North American Die Casting Association. We thank them and the other contributors forthis publication.

Dianne ChongPresident

ASM International

Stanley C. TheobaldManaging DirectorASM International

iv


Policy on Units of Measure

By a resolution of its Board of Trustees, ASM International hasadopted the practice of publishing data in both metric and customaryU.S. units of measure. In preparing this Handbook, the editors haveattempted to present data in metric units based primarily on SystemeInternational d’Unites (SI), with secondary mention of the correspondingvalues in customary U.S. units. The decision to use SI as the primary sys-tem of units was based on the aforementioned resolution of the Board ofTrustees and the widespread use of metric units throughout the world.For the most part, numerical engineering data in the text and in tables

are presented in SI-based units with the customary U.S. equivalents inparentheses (text) or adjoining columns (tables). For example, pressure,stress, and strength are shown both in SI units, which are pascals (Pa)with a suitable prefix, and in customary U.S. units, which are poundsper square inch (psi). To save space, large values of psi have been con-verted to kips per square inch (ksi), where 1 ksi = 1000 psi. The metrictonne (kg � 103) has sometimes been shown in megagrams (Mg). Somestrictly scientific data are presented in SI units only.To clarify some illustrations, only one set of units is presented on art-

work. References in the accompanying text to data in the illustrations arepresented in both SI-based and customary U.S. units. On graphs andcharts, grids corresponding to SI-based units usually appear along the leftand bottom edges. Where appropriate, corresponding customary U.S.units appear along the top and right edges.Data pertaining to a specification published by a specification-writing

group may be given in only the units used in that specification or in dualunits, depending on the nature of the data. For example, the typical yieldstrength of steel sheet made to a specification written in customary U.S.

units would be presented in dual units, but the sheet thickness specifiedthat specification might be presented only in inches.Data obtained according to standardized test methods for which the

standard recommends a particular system of units are presented in theunits of that system. Wherever feasible, equivalent units are also pre-sented. Some statistical data may also be presented in only the originalunits used in the analysis.Conversions and rounding have been done in accordance with IEE/

ASTM SI-10, with attention given to the number of significant digits inthe original data. For example, an annealing temperature of 1570 �F con-tains three significant digits. In this case, the equivalent temperaturewould be given as 855 �C; the exact conversion to 854.44 �C wouldnot be appropriate. For an invariant physical phenomenon that occurs ata precise temperature (such as the melting of pure silver), it would beappropriate to report the temperature as 961.93 �C or 1763.5 �F. In someinstances (especially in tables and data compilations), temperature valuesin �C and �F are alternatives rather than conversions.The policy of units of measure in this Handbook contains several

exceptions to strict conformance to IEEE/ASTM SI-10; in each instance,the exception has been made in an effort to improve the clarity of theHandbook. The most notable exception is the use of g/cm3 rather thankg/m3 as the unit of measure for density (mass per unit volume).SI practice requires that only one virgule (diagonal) appear in units

formed by combination of several basic units. Therefore, all of the unitspreceding the virgule are in the numerator and all units following the vir-gule are in the denominator of the expression; no parentheses are requiredto prevent ambiguity.

v


Preface

From the preceding Volume 5 (1970) of the 8th Edition Metals Handbookand the 9th Edition Metals Handbook Volume 15 (1988) on casting, thisHandbook provides an update on the continuing advances in castingtechnologies and applications. Casting, as both a science and practicaltool in art and technology, is enormously varied in scope. It isimpossible to capture the full scope of casting technology in one volume.

The main focus of this Volume is on the products and processes offoundry (shape) casting, although primary (ingot or continuous casting) ofsteel and aluminum are also covered. In addition, continuous casting ofcopper is described in an article, as copper continuous casting was aprecursor to steel and aluminum continuous casting in some respects.Some of the articles on melt processing, such as the articles on “ElectricArc Furnace Melting” and “Steel Melt Processing,” also briefly describeprimary production of cast metal.

Shape casting of metal is dominated by cast iron, which constitutesjust over 70% of the worldwide production of castings on a tonnagebasis (See Table 2 in the first article “History and Trends of MetalCasting”). This is followed by steel, copper-alloy, and aluminum-alloycastings, which make up about 25% on the worldwide tonnage ofcasting production. Magnesium and zinc are on the order of 1% or less.The dominance of just a few alloys in shape casting is due to the factthat successful and economic shape casting typically involves alloycompositions near a eutectic. The lower melting points and narrowerfreezing range of near-eutectic compositions promote better castability.

Since the 1988 edition of Volume15, several developments haveoccurred (see Table 5 in the first article “History and Trends of MetalCasting”). Of these developments, computer technology continues toshorten development time and help simulate the casting process.Automation and robotic technology also has improved the productivityand process control of casting. In terms of processes, semisolidprocessing, squeeze casting, lost-foam, vacuum molding, and variousdies casting technologies continue to improve and finds newapplications. These important topics are updated in this Volume. Fornonferrous alloys, high-pressure die casting of aluminum is a majorarea of expansion and update in this volume.

In addition, coverage on sand casting is expanded and consolidated inthis Volume with major articles on “Green Sand Molding,” No-BakeSand Molding,” and “Shell Molding and Shell Coremaking.” Bondedsand mold casting, although well-established for many years, is themost widely used method of casting on a tonnage basis. Improvementin methods and materials continue to provide better yields,productivity, and product quality. The sand system is also a majorfactor in the economics of large-volume, production casting. Coverage

on sand casting is expanded relative to the previous edition with theintention of providing a reference that may be helpful as acommunication tool between product designers and metalcasters indeveloping successful and economical products.

This Volume consists of 18 sections. The first section introduces thehistorical development of metal casting, as well as to the advantages ofcastings over parts produced by other manufacturing processes, theirapplications, and the current market size of the industry. This includesan article on “Metalcasting Technology and the Purchasing Process”written by Al Spada and the technical staff of the American FoundrySociety. Then, the principles and practice of melt processing aredescribed in the next three sections followed by a section on principlesof solidification including nucleation kinetics, fundamentals of growth,transformation behavior, and microstructure development. Solid-stateprocessing of casting, such as heat treat treatment and hot isostaticpressing, are also introduced. This is followed by a section on the“Modeling and Analysis of Casting Processes.”

Like the previous edition, traditional subjects such as patterns,molding and casting processes, foundry equipment, and processingconsiderations are extensively covered in the next sections. As noted,coverage on sand casting has been consolidated and expanded. Forexample, the major method of shell molding is described in anarticle—based on an update of a still largely valid 1970 handbook(Volume 5) article. New updates are also provided on processesgrowing in use, such as squeeze casting, lost-foam casting, semisolidmetal forming, and low-pressure casting. The latter is particularlyimportant in producing quality products, as described by JohnCampbell in the article “Filling and Feeding Concepts.”

Finally, the last five sections describe the major types of cast alloys interm of processing and the properties and characteristics of cast ferrousand nonferrous alloys. Emphasis is placed on cast iron, cast steel,aluminum, copper, and zinc. The last section covers the quality aspectsof cast products and the processing of castings.

It is hoped that this Handbook is a useful work of peer-consensusreference information for the producers, designers, and buyers ofcastings. Many thanks are extended to all the contributors and theeditors who worked on this Volume. This publication would not havebeen possible without their commitment and effort.

Srinath ViswanathanUniversity of Alabama

Chair, Volume 15 Editorial Committee

vi


Officers and Trustees of ASM International (2007–2008)

Dianne ChongPresident and TrusteeThe Boeing Company

Roger J. FabianVice President and TrusteeBodycote Thermal Processing

Lawrence C. WagnerImmediate Past President and TrusteeTexas Instruments Inc (retired)

Paul L. HuberTreasurer and TrusteeSeco/Warwick Corporation

Stanley C. TheobaldSecretary and Managing DirectorASM International

Members of the ASM Handbook Committee (2007–2008)

Larry D. Hanke(Chair 2006–; Member 1994–)Materials Evaluation and Engineering Inc.

Kent L. Johnson(Vice Chair 2006–; Member 1999–)Engineering Systems Inc.

Viola L. Acoff (2005–)University of Alabama

David E. Alman (2002–2008)National Energy Technology Laboratory

Tim Cheek (2004–)DELTA (v) Forensic Engineering

Lichun Leigh Chen (2002–)Technical Materials Incorporated

Sarup K. Chopra (2007–)Nook Industries

Craig Clauser (2005–)Craig Clauser Engineering Consulting Incorporated

Craig V. Darragh (1989–)

The Timken CompanyJon L. Dossett (2006–)Consultant

David U. Furrer (2006–)Rolls-Royce Corporation

Lee Gearhart (2005–2008)Moog Inc.

Ernest W. Klechka (2006–)Lloyd Register Capstone Inc.

Alan T. Male (2003–)University of Kentucky

William L. Mankins (1989–)Metallurgical Services Inc.

Dana J. Medlin (2005–2008)South Dakota School of Mines and Technology

Joseph W. Newkirk (2005–)University of Missouri-Rolla

Cory J. Padfield (2006–)Hyundai America Technical Center Inc.

Toby V. Padfield (2004–)ZF Sachs Automotive of America

Charles A. Parker (2007–)Honeywell Aerospace

Elwin L. Rooy (2007–)Elwin Rooy & Associates

Karl P. Staudhammer (1997–)Los Alamos National Laboratory

Kenneth B. Tator (1991–)KTA-Tator Inc.

George F. Vander Voort (1997–)Buehler Ltd.

TrusteesSue S. Baik-KromalicHonda of America

Christopher C. BerndtSwinburne University of Technology

Brady G. ButlerUniversity of Utah

Danniel P. DenniesThe Boeing Company

Leigh C. DurenWorcester Polytechnic Institute

Pradeep GoyalPradeep Metals Ltd.

Digby D. MacdonaldPenn State University

Subhash MahajanArizona State University

Charles A. ParkerHoneywell Aerospace

Megan M. ReynoldsWashington State University

Mark F. SmithSandia National Laboratories

Jon D. TirpakATI

Chairs of the ASM Handbook Committee

J.F. Harper(1923–1926) (Member 1923–1926)

W.J. Merten(1927–1930) (Member 1923–1933)

L.B. Case(1931–1933) (Member 1927–1933)

C.H. Herty, Jr.(1934–1936) (Member 1930–1936)

J.P. Gill(1937) (Member 1934–1937)

R.L. Dowdell(1938–1939) (Member 1935–1939)

G.V. Luerssen(1943–1947) (Member 1942–1947)

J.B. Johnson(1948–1951) (Member 1944–1951)

E.O. Dixon(1952–1954) (Member 1947–1955)

N.E. Promisel(1955–1961) (Member 1954–1963)

R.W.E. Leiter(1962–1963) (Member 1955–1958,

1960–1964)D.J. Wright(1964–1965) (Member 1959–1967)

J.D. Graham(1966–1968) (Member 1961–1970)

W.A. Stadtler(1969–1972) (Member 1962–1972)

G.J. Shubat(1973–1975) (Member 1966–1975)

R. Ward(1976–1978) (Member 1972–1978)

G.N. Maniar(1979–1980) (Member 1974–1980)

M.G.H. Wells(1981) (Member 1976–1981)

J.L. McCall(1982) (Member 1977–1982)

L.J. Korb(1983) (Member 1978–1983)

T.D. Cooper(1984–1986) (Member 1981–1986)

D.D. Huffman(1986–1990) (Member 1982–)

D.L. Olson(1990–1992) (Member 1982–1988,1989–1992)

R.J. Austin(1992–1994) (Member 1984–1985)

W.L. Mankins(1994–1997) (Member 1989–)

M.M. Gauthier(1997–1998) (Member 1990–2000)

C.V. Darragh(1999–2002) (Member 1989–)

Henry E. Fairman(2002–2004) (Member 1993–)

Jeffrey A. Hawk(2004–2006) (Member 1997–)

Larry D. Hanke(2006–2008) (Member 1994–)

vii


Authors and Contributors

Kevin R. AndersonMercury Marine

Princewill N. AnyalebechiPadnos College of Engineering & Computing,Grand Valley State University

Diran ApelianMetal Processing Institute, WorcesterPolytechnic Institute

Lars ArnbergNorwegian University Of Science &Technology

Henry BakemeyerDie Casting Design and Consulting

Bryan BakerVulcan Engineering Co.

Stewart A BallantyneAllvac Allegheny Technologies Company

Scott A. BalliettLatrobe Specialty Steel Company

Christoph BeckermannUniversity Of Iowa, The

Michel BelletEcole des Mines de Paris, Centre de Mise enForme des Materiaux (CEMEF)

Joe BigelowCONTECH U. S. LLC.

Ron BirdStainless Foundry & Engineering

Malcolm BlairSteel Founders Society of America

William BoettingerNIST

James A. Brock Sr.Alcoa

Harold D. BrodyUniversity Of Connecticut

Craig C. BrownStork Technimet, Inc.

Zach BrownCONTECH U.S. LLC

Andreas Buhrig-PolackzekGieberei-Institut, Germany

Willam A. ButlerGeneral Motors (Retired)

John Campbell

University of Birmingham, UK

Paul G CampbellMetaullics Systems Division Pyrotek, Inc.

Robert D CarnahanThixomat Inc.

Sujoy ChaudhuryHoneywell International, Inc.

K. K. ChawlaUniversity of Alabama At Birmingham

Leigh ChenTechnical Materials Incorporated

Yeou-Li ChuRyobi Die Casting

Craig D. ClauserCraig Clauser Engineering ConsultingIncorporated

Steve L. CockroftThe University of British Columbia

Chris CooperVulcan Engineering Co.

James D. CottonThe Boeing Co.

Randall CounselmanOldenburg Group Incorporated

Jonathan A. DantzigUniversity of Illinois-Urbana

Atef DaoudCentral Metallurgical Research andDevelopment Institute, Cairo, Egypt

Craig V. DarraghThe Timken Company

Babu DasGuptaNational Science Foundation

Bob DawsonHoneywell Aerospace MCOE

Raymond DeckerThixomat Incorporated

Raymond J DonahueMercury Marine

Daniel Dos SantosGießerei Institut der RWTH Aachen

Jon DossettMetallurgical Consultant

Jean Marie DrezetEcole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne

Alan P. DruschitzUniversity of Alabama at Birmingham

Cor van EttingerGieterij Doesburg

Henry “Ed” FairmanCincinnati Metallurgical Consultants

Edward W. FlynnGeneral Motors

Jim FrostACIPCO (American Cast Iron PipeCompany)

Richard FruehanCarnegie Mellon University

Rafael GalloFoseco Metallurgical

Charles-Andre GandinCentre de Mise en Forme des Materiaux(CEMEF)

George GilesMorganite Crucible Inc

Peter C. GlawsThe Timken Company

Martin E. GlicksmanUniversity of Florida

George GoodrichStork Climax Research Services

Frank E. GoodwinInternational Lead Zinc

Lee GouwensCMI Novacast Inc.

Ronald GrahamATI Wah Chang

Patrick GrantOxford University

Daniel E.GrotekeQ.C. Designs Inc.

Mustafa GucluStanley Associates Inc.

Richard GundlachStork Climax Research Services

Nikhil GuptaPolytechnic University

Mike GwynATI, Inc.

John Hall

viii


Hall Permanent Mold Machines

Qingyou HanPurdue University

Larry D. HankeMaterials Evaluation and Engineering Inc

Justin HeimschMadison Kipp Corporation

Juan Carlos HeinrichThe University of New Mexico

Gregg HolmanWah Chang

Robert A. HortonPrecision Metalsmiths Incorporated

Donald J. HurtukH.C. Starck Inc.

Alain JacotLaboratoire de Simulation des Materiaux

John L. JorstadJ.L.J. Technologies, Inc.

Ursula R. KattnerN I S T/Metallurgy Division

Seymour KatzS. Katz Associates

Jay S. KeistWorcester Polytechnic Institute

Graham KeoughConsarc Corporation

Matthew KranePurdue University

Mary Beth KrusiakSand Technology Co. LLC

T.A. KuhnAlcoa Primary Metals

Wilfried KurzEcole Polytechnique Federale De Lausanne(EPFL) Switzerland

Selcuk KuyucakCANMET Materials Technology Laboratory

Vic La FayHill & Griffith Company

Robin A. LampsonRetech Systems LLC

David LeeHowmet Corp.

Ben Q. LiUniversity of Michigan Dearborn

Alan LuoGeneral Motors R&D Center

Dan MaasEx-One

James F. MajorAlcan International Ltd

Makhlouf M. MakhloufMetal Processing Institute, WorcesterPolytechnic Institute

William L. MankinsMetallurgical Services Incorporated

Stephen J. MashlBodycote HIP Andover

Ragnvald H. MathiesenNorwegian University of Science andTechnology

Robert J. McInerneyBuhlerPrince

Scott McIntyreGrede Foundrie

Brad McKeeDeloro Stellite Inc.

Harold T. MichelsCopper Development Association

Tony MideaFoseco Metallurgical Inc.

Paul H MikkolaMetal Casting Technology Incorporated

Asbj�rn MoSINTEF Materials and Chemistry

Raymond W. MonroeSteel Founders’ Society of America

Y.V. MurtyCellular Materials International, Inc.

Laurentiu NastacConcurrent Technologies Corporation

David V. NeffMetaullics Systems Division Pyrotek, Inc.

Charles NelsonMorris Bean and Company

Itsuo OhnakaOsaka Sangyo University, Japan

Cory PadfieldAmerican Axle & Manufacturing

Qingyue PanSPX Corporation

Charles A. ParkerHoneywell Aerospace

Kent PeasleeMissouri University of Science and Technology(Missouri S&T)

Pehlke, Robert D.Univ of Michigan

John H. PerepezkoUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison

Ralph PerkulFoundry Solutions and Design LLC

Gordon H. Peters

Intermet-PCPC

Robert PischelFOSECO Metallurgical Inc.

David R. PoirierUniversity of Arizona

David PoweleitSteel Founders’ Society of America

William L. PowellThyssenKrupp-Waupaca (Retired)

Thomas E. PruchaAmerican Foundry Society

Peter QuestedIndustry and Innovation Division, NationalPhysical Laboratory, UK

Wayne RasmussenConsultant

Martin ReevesStriko-Dynarad

Allen RichardsonSPX Corporation

Pradeep RohatgiUniversity of Wisconsin-Milwaukee

Elwin L. RooyElwin Rooy and Associates

Gary RuffSMW Automotive Corporation

Kumar (Muthukumarasamy) SadayappanCANMET Materials Technology Laboratory

Mahi SahooCANMET Materials Technology Laboratory

Kenneth SavageMagnesium Elektron

Gary SchollMetal Casting Technology Incorporated

Ted SchornEnkei America, Inc.

Benjamin F. SchultzUniversity of Wisconsin-Milwakee

David SchwamCase Werstern Reserve University

William D. ScottAAA Alchemy

John SerraCarpenter Brothers Inc.

Sumanth ShankarMcMaster University

Geoffrey K. SigworthAlcoa Primary Metals

Steve SikkengaCannon-Muskegon Corporation

Brian V. Smith

ix


General Motors Corporation, PowertrainDivision

Jerry SokolowskiUniversity of Windsor

Al SpadaAmerican Foundry Society

Karl StaudhammerLos Alamos National Laboratory

Doru M. StefanescuThe Ohio State University

Ingo SteinbachRWTH-Aachen, ACCESS e. V.

Karthik SubbiahSPX Product Solutions Group

Erin H. SunseriIowa State University

Tony SuschilFoseco Inc

Richard SutherlinATI Wah Chang

Edward S.SzekeresCasting Consultants Incorporated

Brian G. Thomas

University of Illinois

Michael L TimsConcurrent Technologies Corporation

David W. TrippTIMET

Rohit TrivediAMES Laboratory

Paul TrojanUniversity of Michigan-Dearborn

John TroxlerRolls Royce

Nao TsumagariAmerican Showa, Inc.

Daniel TwarogNorth American Die Casting Association

Derek E. TylerOlin Metals Thin Strip (retired)

Don TylerGeneral Aluminum Manufacturing Company

Stephen UdvardyNorth American Die Casting Association

Juan J. ValenciaConcurrent Technologies Corporation

Srinath ViswanathanUniversity of Alabama Birmingham

Robert C. VoigtPenn State University

Vaughan R. VollerUniversity of Minnesota

Tom WaringME Elecmetal

Sufei WeiCentrifugal Casting Machine CompanyIncorporated

David WhiteSchaefer Furnace

Lawrence WhitingCANMET Materials Technology Laboratory

Richard WilliamsFOSECO Metallurgical Inc.

Greg G.WoycikWoycik Consulting

Oscar YuRTI International Metals, Inc.

Keith ZhangTeck Cominco Metals Ltd.

x


Contents

Applications and Specification Guidelines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Raymond W. Monroe, Steel Founders’ Society of America;Thomas E. Prucha, American Foundry Society; Daniel Twarog,North American Die Casting Association

History and Trends of Metal Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3History of Metal Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Metal Casting Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Production Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Market Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Metalcasting Technology and the Purchasing Process . . . . . . . . . . . 16The Purchasing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Define Requirements and Develop a Purchasing Plan. . . . . . . . 17Requesting and Evaluating Quotations/Bids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Select a Supplier and Negotiate Contract Terms . . . . . . . . . . . 22Contract Fulfillment and Continuous Improvement . . . . . . . . . 22Considerations in Purchasing Metal Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Principles of Liquid Metal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Chemical Thermodynamics and Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Chemical Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Chemical Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Kinetics of Alloys Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Thermodynamic Properties of Iron-Base Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Purification of Ferrous Melts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Thermodynamics of Ferrous Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Multicomponent Iron-Carbon Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50Structural Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Thermodynamic Properties of Aluminum-Baseand Copper-Base Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56Activities and Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56Ineraction Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56Thermal Properties for Hypothetical Standard State . . . . . . . . . 58Phase Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Gases in Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Cast Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Aluminum and Its Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67Copper and Its Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Magnesium and Its Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71Overcoming Gas Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Inclusion-Forming Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Inclusion Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Physical Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Control of Inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76Inclusions in Ferrous Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77Inclusions in Nonferrous Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Melting and Remelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Electric Arc Furnace Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87Arc Furnace Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88Weighing and Chemical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91Scrap and Alloy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Acid Melting Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91Basic Melting Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95Newer Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Cupola Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99Progressive Refinements in Cupola Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 99Cupola Construction and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100Charge Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103Cupola Control Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106Control Tests and Analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106Specialized Cupolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Induction Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108Types of Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109Electromagnetic Stirring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Water Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Lining Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113Melting Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Vacuum Induction Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119VIM Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122Production of Nonferrous Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Electroslag Remelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125ESR Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128Ingot Solidification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129Process Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129Steel ESR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131Superalloy ESR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Vacuum Arc Remelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135Process Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137Superalloy VAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137Titanium VAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Skull Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Vacuum Arc Skull Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140Induction Skull Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Electron Beam Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143Drip Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145Cold Hearth Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Plasma Melting and Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149Plasma Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149Furnace Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151Atmosphere Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151Melting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Crucible Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Furnace Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156Design and Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Reverberatory and Stack Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160Furnace Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161Reverberatory Furnace Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163Molten Metal Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

xi


Molten Metal Processing and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Transfer and Treatment of Molten Metal—An Introduction . . . . . . 173

Launders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174Tundishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174Molten-Metal Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175Pouring and Dosing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Degassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185Aluminum Foundry Degassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185Degassing of Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188Degassing of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Molten-Metal Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194Sources of Inclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194Removal of Inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196Filter Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197Types of Molten-Metal Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199In-Mold Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199In-Furnace Filtration of Molten Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201Filtered Metal Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Steel Melt Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206Furnaces and Refractories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206Converter Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208Ladle Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Aluminum Fluxes and Fluxing Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230Aluminum Fluxing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231Categories of Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233Foundry Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Modification of Aluminum-Silicon Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240Heat Treated Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241Porosity and Shrinkage Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242Modification Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243Eutectic Nucleation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244Eutectic Grain Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245Recommended Foundry Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247Growth of Silicon Eutectic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249Effect of Other Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

Grain Refinement of Aluminum Casting Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255Measurement of Grain Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255Mechanisms of Grain Refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255Boron as a Grain Refiner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257Best Practices for Grain Refinement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258Benefits of Grain Refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Refinement of the Primary Silicon Phase in HypereutecticAluminum-Silicon Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263Importance of Primary Silicon Refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263Accomplishing Primary Silicon Refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Principles of Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267Diran Apelian, Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Thermodynamics and Phase Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269Phase Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Nucleation Kinetics and Grain Refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276Thermodynamics of Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276Nucleation Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278Inoculation Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280Grain Refinement Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281Master Alloy Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Transport Phenomena During Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288Transport and Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

Plane Front Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293Transients and Steady State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294Morphological Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

Rapid Solidification Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296Solidification Microstructure Selection Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . 297Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Non-Plane Front Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299Cellular Microstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300Dendrite Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Nonplanar Eutectic Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

Eutectic Solidification—An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307Eutectic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

Solidification of Eutectic Alloys—Aluminum-Silicon . . . . . . . . . . 312The Aluminum-Silicon Equilibrium Phase Diagram. . . . . . . . 312Classification of the Aluminum-Silicon Eutectic Structure . . . 313Microstructure of the Aluminum-Silicon Eutectic . . . . . . . . . 313Theories of Solidification of the

Aluminum-Silicon Eutectic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313Theories of Chemical Modification of the

Aluminum-Silicon Eutectic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315Solidification of Eutectic Alloys—Cast Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

Structure of Liquid Iron-Carbon Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317Nucleation of Eutectic in Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317Nucleation of Primary Phases in Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320Growth of Eutectic in Cast Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320Cooling Curve Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

Peritectic Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330Peritectic Solidification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330Peritectic Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331Peritectic Transformation and Direct Precipitation . . . . . . . . . 332Primary Metastable Precipitation of Beta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333Peritectic Cascades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334Peritectic Transformations in Multicomponent Systems . . . . . 335

Microsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338Solidification Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338Binary Isomorphous Systems, k > 1:

Titanium-Molybdenum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339Binary Eutectic Systems, k > 1: Hypoeutectic

Aluminum-Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340Binary Eutectic Systems: Hypoeutectic

Aluminum-Silicon Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344Binary Peritectic Systems: Copper-Zinc a-Brass . . . . . . . . . . 344Multicomponent, Multiphase Eutectic Systems:Hypoeutectic Al-Si-Cu-Mg Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Multicomponent Multiphase Steel: Fe-C-Cr . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345Multicomponent, Multiphase Nickel-Base Superalloy. . . . . . . 345

Macrosegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348Macrosegregation Induced by Flow of the Liquid . . . . . . . . . 348Macrosegregation Induced by Movement of the Solid . . . . . . 351

Interpretation and use of Coolng Curves—Thermal Analysis . . . . . 353Quantitative Thermal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353Deviation from Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354Differential Thermal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354Determining Liquidus and Solidus Temperature . . . . . . . . . . 355

X-Ray Imaging of Solidification Processes and MicrostructureEvolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

X-Ray Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357In-House Laboratory X-Ray Imaging of

Solidification Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357X-Ray Imaging Studies of Solidification Processeswith Synchrotron Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

Further Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360The Oxide Film Defect—The Bifilm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

Bifilms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362Entrainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363Furling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364Unfurling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364Reliability and Reproducibility of Mechanical Properties . . . . 367

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Central Role of Bifilm Defects in Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368Shrinkage Porosity and Gas Porosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

Shrinkage Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370Gas Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372Factors Affecting Porosity Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

Castability—Fluidity and Hot Tearing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375Fluidity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375Hot Tearing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376

Semisolid Metal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379Flow Behavior of SSM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379Semisolid Microstructural Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380Semisolid Processes: Thixocasting versus Rheocasting . . . . . . 381

Spray Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382Atomization and the Droplet Spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383Deposition and Grain Mulitplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384Microsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385Macrosegregation and Coarsening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

Rapid Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386Microstructural Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

Solidification During Casting of Metal-Matrix Composites . . . . . . 390Incorporation of Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391Reinforcement-Metal Wettability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391Solidification Processing of MMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391Solidification Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392Modeling of Particle-Pushing Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394Nanocomposites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Solidification Research in Microgravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398Availability of Reduced Gavity: Past, Present, and Future . . . 398Solidification Research in Microgravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399Key Solidification Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399The Future of Microgravity Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

Homogenization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402Sources of Inhomogeneity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402Benefits of Homogenization Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402Characterization Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402Computational Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

Heat Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404Designations of Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404Solution Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404Quenching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405Emerginhg Heat Treating Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406Microstructural Changes due to Heat Treatmentof Cast Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

Hot Isostatic Pressing of Castings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408History of HIP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408Reasons for Using HIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409Overview of a HIP System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409Effect of HIP on Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411Effect of Inclusions on As-HIPed Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412Effect of HIP on the Shape and Structure of Castings . . . . . . 413Problems Encountered in HIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414Economics of HIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

Modeling and Analysis of Casting Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417Srinath Viswanathan, University of Alabama

Numerical Methods for Casting Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419Fundamentals of CFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419Numerical Solution of the Fluid-Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . 420Grid Generation for Complex Geometries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420Casting Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422

Modeling of Transport Phenomena and Electromagnetics . . . . . . . 425Conservation of Thermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425

Conservation of Solute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425Equations Cast in Advection-Diffusion Form . . . . . . . . . . . . 427Basic Equations for Mass and Momentum Conservation . . . . 427Modeling the Momentum in the Solid + LiquidMushy Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

Modeling Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428Phenomena Restraining or Driving Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429Dealing with Fronts and Free Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429Simulation of Electromagnetic Effects in Castings. . . . . . . . . 431Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432

Direct Modeling of Structure Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435Direct Microstructure Simulation Using the

Phase Field Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436Direct Grain Structure Simulation Using the

Cellular Automation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438Coupling of Direct Structure Simulation at

Macroscopic Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

Modeling of Microsegregation and Macrosegregation . . . . . . . . . . 445Microsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445Microsegregation with Diffusion in the Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . 445Continuum Model of Macrosegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Modeling of Stress, Distortion, and Hot Tearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449Thermomechanical Coupling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451Numerical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451Model Validation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453Example Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454Hot-Tearing Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

Practical Issues In Computer Simulation of Casting Processes . . . . 462Setting Simulation Objectives, Modeling, and Selection

of Simulation Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462Modeling of Shape and Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462Initial and Boundary Conditions and Physical Properties . . . . 463Enmeshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464Evaluation of Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465Estimation of Structure and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

Thermophysical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468Sources and Availability of Reliable Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468Limitations and Warning on the Use of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 468Methods to Determine Thermophysical Properties . . . . . . . . . 468Specific Heat Capacity and Enthalpy of Transformation . . . . . 470Enthalpy of Melting, Solidus, and Liquidus Temperatures . . . 470Coefficient of Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471Surface Tension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471Viscosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474Electrical and Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474Emissivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474Typical Themophysical Properties Ranges of

Some Cast Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

Principles and Practices of Shape Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483Shape Casting Processes—An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485Patterns and Patternmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

Types of Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488Additional Features of Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490Pattern Allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491Pattern Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492Selection of Pattern Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494Trends in Pattern Design and Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

Casting Practice—Guidelines for Effective Productionof Reliable Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

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Rule 1: Good-Quality Melt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497Rule 2: Liquid Front Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497Rule 3: Liquid Front Stop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499Rule 4: Bubble Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500Rule 5: Core Blows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501Rule 6: Shrinkage Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501Rule 7: Convection Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502Rule 8: Segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503Rule 9: Residual Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504Rule 10: Location Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

Filling and Feeding System Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506Entrainment Defects in Gravity-Poured Castings . . . . . . . . . . 506Traditional Filling Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506Prepriming Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507Naturally Pressurized Filling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511Performance of Alternative Filling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511Recommended Foundry Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512

Processing and Finishing of Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513Shakeout and Core Knockout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513Cleaning Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516Automating Gate Removal and Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517Flame Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519Blast Cleaning of Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

Expandable-Mold Casting Processes withPermanent Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc

Introduction—Expendable Mold Processeswith Permanent Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

Aggregates and Binders for Expendable Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528Mold Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528Foundry Sands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529Clays for Green Sand Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535Inorganic Binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538Organic Binders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539Other Expendable Mold Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

Green Sand Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549Sand Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549System Control and Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551Influence of Molding Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552Maintaining Sand System Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553Molding Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554Green Sand Media Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558Molding Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560Mold Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560Shakeout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561Sand/Casting Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562Sand Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564

No-Bake Sand Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567No-Bake Sand Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567CO2 -Cured Sodium Silicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569Air-Setting Sodium Silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572Air-Setting Organic Binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573Gas-Cured Organic Binders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576Sand Reclamation and Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

Coremaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581Binders for Sand Coremaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581Basic Principles of Coremaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582Core Sands and Additives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583Compaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584Curing of Compacted Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585Core Coatings (Core Washes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587Assembly and Core Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589Coring of Tortuous Passages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592

Green Sand versus Dry Sand Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593Cores in Permanent Mold Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593Cores in Investment Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594Designing to Eliminate Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595Coring versus Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596

Shell Molding and Shell Coremaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599Properties and Selection of Shell Sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600Preparation of Resin-Sand Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601Sand Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603Control Testing of Resin-Sand Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603Patterns and Core Boxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604Production of Molds and Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604Mold Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607Casting Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610Dimensional Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611Causes and Prevention of Casting Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614Comparisons with Green Sand Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

Slurry Molding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617Plaster Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617Plaster Mold Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617Patterns and Core Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618Mold-Drying Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618Metals Cast in Plaster Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618Conventional Plaster Mold Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619Match Plate Pattern Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620The Antioch Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620Foamed Plaster Molding Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621

Ceramic Molding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622Shaw Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622Unicast Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

No-Bond Sand Molding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628Magnetic Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628Vacuum (V-Process) Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628

Expandable-Mold Casting Processes withExpendable Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635

John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, IncIntroduction—Expendable Mold Processes with

Expendable Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637Lost Foam Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640

Process Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640Processing Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642Advantages of Lost Foam Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645Casting Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645

Investment Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646Pattern Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646Patternmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648Pattern and Cluster Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650Ceramic Shell Mold Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651Manufacture of Ceramic Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654Pattern Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654Mold Firing and Burnout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654Melting and Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655Postcasting Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656Inspection and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656Design Advantages of Investment Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657Design Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657Special Investment Casting Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657

Replicast Molding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662Process Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662Process Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663

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Centrifugal Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc

Centrifugal Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667Centrifugal Casting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669Molds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670Defects in Centrifugal Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671

Horizontal Centrifugal Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674Casting Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678

Vertical Centrifugal Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680Mold Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680Process Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684

Permanent Mold and SemipermanentMold Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc

Permanent Mold Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689Gravity Casting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691Casting Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691Mold Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692Mold Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693Mold Coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695Mold Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697Mold Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697Control of Mold Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698Dimensional Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699

Low-Pressure Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700Conventional Low-Pressure Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700Counterpressure Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704Vacuum Riserless/Pressure Riserless Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . 706

Low Pressure Counter Gravity Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709Mold Filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709

High-Pressure Die Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc

High-Pressure Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715Die Casting Alloys and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715Advantages of High-Pressure Die Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716Disadvantages of High-Pressure Die Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . 717Product Design for the Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717Metal Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717

Hot Chamber Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719Melting Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719Injection Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719Distinctions Between Hot and Cold Chamber Processes . . . . . 720Gate and Runner Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721Ejection and Postprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722

Cold Chamber Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724Machine Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724Process Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

Squeeze Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727Squeeze Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727Casting and Tooling Design for Squeeze Casting . . . . . . . . . 727Factors Affecting Squeeze-Cast Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728Squeeze-Cast Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729Commonly Used Alloys, Properties, and Microstructures . . . . 730

Vacuum High-Pressure Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732Conventional Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732Vacuum Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732High-Vacuum Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732

Die Casting Tooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734Die Casting Machines and Dies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734Product Design and the Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735Tooling and Metal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737Heat Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740Materials Selection for Tooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742

Automation in High-Pressure Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747Die Casting Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747Automatic Pouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748Injection Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749Solidification and Heat Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751Casting Extraction and Insert Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753Automatic Spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754Finishing Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755Die Casting Internal Quality Check Automation . . . . . . . . . . 757

Semisolid Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc

Semisolid Casting — Introduction and Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . 761Advantages of SSM Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761SSM Processing Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762

Thixocasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764Bar-Making Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764Billet Sawing and Volume Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766Reheating and Billet Handling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767Rheological Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768Basics of Semisolid Tooling Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769Casting Process and Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770

Rheocasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773

Thixomolding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777Emerging Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778Mechanical Properties and Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780

Cast Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783Thomas E. Prucha, American Foundry Society

Introduction to Cast Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785Classification of Cast Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785Composition of Cast Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788Solidification of Cast Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791Graphite Morphologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792Matrix Structure Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794Physical Properties of Cast Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794Thermal Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795Conductive Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797Magnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800Acoustic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802Welding of Cast Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805Machining and Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809Materials Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809

Cast Iron Foundry Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812Cast Iron Melting Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812Gray Iron Foundry Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815Ductile Iron Foundry Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820Compacted Graphite Iron Foundry Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826Malleable Iron Foundry Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829Foundry Practice for High-Nickel Ductile Irons . . . . . . . . . . 830Foundry Practice High-Silicon Ductile Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830Foundry Practice for High-Silicon Gray Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . 830Foundry Practice for High-Alloy White Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . 831

Gray Iron Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835Classes of Gray Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835Castability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835

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Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836Section Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837Prevailing Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838Test Bar Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841Fatigue Limit in Reversed Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843Pressure Tightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844Impact Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846Machinability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848Resistance to Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848Elevated-Temperature Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849Dimensional Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849Effect of Shakeout Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850Alloying to Modify As-Cast Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851Physical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853

Ductile Iron Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Classes and Grades of Ductile Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856Factors Affecting Mechanical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857Hardness Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859Tensile Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859Shear and Torsional Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861Compressive Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861Fatigue Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862Fracture Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865Physical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867Austempered Ducfile Iron (ADI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869

Compacted Graphite Iron Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872Graphite Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872Castability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873Mechanical Properties and Corrosion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . 874Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879

Malleable Iron Castings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884Melting Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885Current Production Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888Ferritic Malleable Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889Pearlitic and Martensitic Malleable Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890

White Iron and High-Alloyed Iron Castings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896Nickel-Chromium White Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896High-Chromium White Irons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899

High-Alloy Graphitic Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904High-Silicon Irons for High-Temperature Service . . . . . . . . . 904Austenitic Nickel-Alloyed Gray and Ductile Irons . . . . . . . . . 906High-Silicon Irons for Corrosion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907

Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909Raymond W. Monroe, Steel Founders’ Society of America;Thomas E. Prucha, American Foundry Society

Steel Ingot Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911Pouring Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911Ingot Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912Hot Tops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913Ingot Molds and Stools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913Ingot Solidification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914Ingot Stripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916Solidification Simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916

Steel Continuous Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918Historical Aspects of Continuous Casting of Steel . . . . . . . . . 918General Description of the Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918Plant Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919Near-Net Shape Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919Tundish Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920

Pouring Stream Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921Molds for Continuous Casting of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922Productivity Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923Quality Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924Horizontal Continuous Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924Future Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924

Shape Casting of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926Castability of Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926Melting Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928Metlting Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930Pouring Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933Foundry Factors in Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934Design Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936Avoidance of Hot Spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938Thin-Wall Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946Size of Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947Casting in Graphite Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948

Steel Castings Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949Carbon Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949Low-Alloy Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950Wear-Resistant Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950Corrosion-Resistant Steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951Heat-Resistant Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952Common Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953Carbon and Low-Alloy Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 953Mechanical Properties of Wear-Resisting Steels . . . . . . . . . . 960Mechanical Properties of Corrosion-Resisting Steels . . . . . . . 961Mechanical Properties of Heat-Resisting Steels . . . . . . . . . . . 966Ferrite in Cast Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968Carbon and Low-Alloy Heat Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970High-Alloy Heat Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971Corrosion-Resistant Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972Heat-Resistant Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973

Selection and Evaluation of Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980Nondestructive Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982Purchasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986Research and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986

Casting of Nonferrous Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987Nonferrous Casting — An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989

Nickel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989Titanium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989

Lead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990Dross, Melt Loss, and Fluxing of Light Alloy Melts. . . . . . . . . . . 992

Dross Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992Influence of Melter Type on Dross Generation . . . . . . . . . . . 993Influence of Charge Materials on Melt Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994Influence of Operating Practices on Melt Loss . . . . . . . . . . . 994Economic Implications of Dross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998In-Plant Enhancement or Recovery of Dross Metallics . . . . . . 998Ways to Reduce Dross Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999

Aluminum Alloy Ingot Casting and Continuous Processes. . . . . . 1001Ingot Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001Molten-Metal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001Ingot Casting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1002Continuous Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004Solidification in the DC Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006Postsolidification Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007

Aluminum Shape Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009Melting and Melt Handling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009Casting Process Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010Pressure Die Casting of Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013Premium Engineered Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016

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Copper Continuous Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019Vertical Continuous Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020Horizontal Continuous Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022Strip Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023Wheel Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024Ohno Continuous Casting Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024

Casting of Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026Castability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026Melting and Melt Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027Fluxing of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029Degassing of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032Deoxidation of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035Grain Refining of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037Filtration of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037Melt Treatments for Group I to III Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038Production of Copper Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039Casting Process Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040Gating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044

Casting of Zinc Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049Control of Alloy Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049Melt Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049Die Casting of Zinc Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051Other Casting Processes for Zinc Alloys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054

Nonferrous Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057Mahi Sahoo, CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory

Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059Chemical Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059Effects of Alloying and Impurity Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059Structure Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063Modification and Refinement of

Aluminum-Silicon Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066Foundry Alloys for Specific Casting Applications . . . . . . . . 1069Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077Properties of Aluminum Casting Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077

Copper and Copper Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085Alloying Additions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085Alloying Systems and Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087Physical Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088Types of Copper Castings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091Cupronickels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091

Zinc and Zinc Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095Alloying Additions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095Physical Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096Die Casting and Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097Specialty Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097Finishing of Die Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098Metalworking and Machining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098Joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099Applications for Zinc Die Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097

Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099Magnesium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100General Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102Melting Furnaces and Auxiliary Pouring Equipment . . . . . . 1102Melting Procedures and Process Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103Sand Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106Investment Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109Permanent Mold Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109

Direct Chill Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112High-Temperature Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112

Cobalt and Cobalt Alloy Castings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1114Physical Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1114Foundry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116Postcasting Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1117Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1117

Nickel and Nickel Alloy Castings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119Structure and Property Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121Melting Practice and Metal Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123Foundry Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124Pouring Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124Gating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124Risers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125Specific Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126

Titanium and Titanium Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1128Historical Perspective of Casting Technology . . . . . . . . . . . 1129Physical Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1129Alloy Ti-6Al-4V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1134Postcasting Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137Product Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1138

Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143Zirconium Reactivity Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143Melting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1144Casting Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1144Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145Physical Properties of Zirconium Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147Impact Properties of Zirconium Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147

Synthesis and Processing of Cast Metal-MatrixComposites and Their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149Classification of MMCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149Solidification Processing of MMCs and Possible

Effects of Reinforcement on Solidification. . . . . . . . . . 1150Property Motivation for Using MMCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155Components of MMCs Currently in Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156Development of Select Cast MMCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160Research Imperatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162

Quality Assurance, Nondestructive Evaluation,and Failure Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165

Babu DasGupta, National Science FoundationApproaches to Measurement of Metal Quality. . . . . . . . . . . 1167Metal Cleanliness Assessment Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167

Nondestructive Testing of Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174Liquid Penetrant Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174Radiographic Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174Fluoroscopic Inspection and Automated

Defect Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174Ultrasonic Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174Eddy Current Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175Process-Controlled Resonant Testing (Contributed by

Quasar International, Inc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175Leak Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177Electrical Conductivity Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177

Casting Fracture Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1178General Fracture Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1178Fracture Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179

Casting Failure Analysis Techniques and Case Studies . . . . . . . . 1183Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183Background Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183

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Planning and Sample Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184Preliminary Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184Material Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184Data Analysis and Report Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1187Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1187

Common Defects in Various Casting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199

Repair Welding of Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203Repair Welding of Ferrous Castings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203Repair Welding of Nonferrous Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205

Quality Planning Tools and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1207Advanced Product Quality Planning (APQP). . . . . . . . . . . . 1207

Maintenance, Repair, Alterations, and Storage of Patternsand Tooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213

Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213Maintenance Responsibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213Common Failure Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213Maintenance Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213Maintenance Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214Preventive Maintenance Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214Alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214Storage—Physical Protection, Cataloging, and Tracking. . . . 1215

Reference Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217Metric Conversion Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1219Abbrieviations & Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1222Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225

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Documents

© 2008 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. ASM ... · PDF fileand the 9th Edition Metals Handbook Volume 15 (1988) on casting, ... (See Table 2 in the ﬁrst article “History