Aquaculture

Aquaculture Farming Aquatic Animals and Plants

Second edition

Edited by

John S. Lucas Adjunct Professor in the Centre for Marine Studies

School of Biological Sciences University of Queensland

Brisbane, Australia

Paul C. Southgate Professor of Aquaculture

School of Marine & Tropical Biology James Cook University

Townsville, Australia

@WILEY-BLACKWELL A John Wiley &. Sons, Ltd., Public.1tion

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Library of Congress Caraloging-in-Publicafion Data Aquaculture: fanning aquatic animals and plants I ed ited by John S. Lucas Pau l C. Southgate. - 2nd ed.

p. crn. Includes bibl iog raphical references and index. ISBN~ 13: 978~ 1 ~40S I ~88S8~6 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN~ 1 0: I ~40S 1 ~88S8~8

I. Aquaculture. 2. Algae cu lture. I. Lucas. John S., 1940- ll. Soulhgate, Paul C.

SH135.A67352011 639.8~dc23

20 11022687

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20 12

Contents

Preface (0 fhe Second Editioll Preface ( 0 fhe First Edition List of COllfributors

Introduct ion

John S. Lucas 1.1 Whal is aquaculture? 1.2 Origins of aquaculture and agriculture 1.3 Aquaculture and capture fisheries production 1.4 The 'B lue Revolution' 1.5 An allegory 1.6 1.7

1.8 1.9

Di versi ty of aq uacuhure Stock enh ancement New developments in aquacult ure Conclusions

References

2 General Pri nciples Peter Appleford, John S. Lucas and Paul C. SOl/thgate

2. 1 Introduction 2.2 Structu res used for aquaculture 2.3 Intensity of aquaculture 2.4 Static, open, semi-closed and reci rculating (closed) systems 2.5 Pl umbing and pumps 2.6 Site selecti on and development 2.7 Hatchery syste ms 2.8 Selecting a new species for culture 2.9 Developing a new cultured species

References

3 Water Quality Cla//de Boyd

3. 1 Introduction 3.2 Water quality variables 3.3 Effects of water quality on culture species 3.4 Water quality management 3.5 Effl uents

v

Xlii

xi v xv

1 2 4 6

11 12 12 14

16 17

18

18 18 26 32 37 42 44 46 48 50

52

52 52 62 68 80

VI

4

5

3.6 Summary References

Environmental Aspects Marlin Klllllar and Simon Cripps 4.1 Public image 4.2 Impacts from land-based aquaculture

Contents

4.3 Impacts of aquaculture within large water bodies 4.4 General impacts on the environment 4.5 Impact assessment 4.6 Integrated wastewater treatment and aquaculture 4.7 Integrated resou rce management 4.8 Conclusions

References

Desert Aquacu lture II/land: Sagi", Kolkovski, Yitzhak Simo/J alld Gideon HI/lata Coastal: Sagi\! Kolkovski alld Nasser Ayaril 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The Israeli experience 5.3 Regional variation in Israel 5.4 Aquacuhure in geothermal water 5.5 Water-l imited aquaculture 5.6 Indoor aquacu lture facil ities 5.7 Desert coastal aquaculture technology - the Saudi Arabian experience 5.8 Brine shrimp (Artemia sp.) production in Western Australia 5.9 Species for water-limited aquaculture 5.10 Conclusions and future directions

References

6 Reproduction, Life Cycles and Growth John S. Lucas and Palll C. Southgate

7

6.1 Introduction 6.2 Reproductive physiology 6.3 Life cycles 6.4 Growth

References

Genetics Rex Dunham 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Basic genetics 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9

Domestication and strain evaluation Selection Inbreeding and maintenance of genetic quality Crossbreed ing and hybridization Chromosomal techniques Molecular and genomic techniques Future developments References

81 82

84

84 85 9 1 93 99

iOl 103 104

105

107

107 108 108 108 11 2 j 16 116 120 121 123 124

126

126 126 129 133 137

138

138 138 140 141 145 145 149 155 161

162

Contents

8 Nutrition Sella De Silva, Giovalllli Tllrchin; alld David Francis 8. 1 Introduction 8.2 Feed intake. digestion and nutrient absorption 8.3 Nutritional requirements 8.4 Types of feed 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8

Selecting feed ingredients and formulation Feed management Major feed-related issues confronting the aquaculture sector Conclusions References

9 Foods and Feeding Paul C. Southgare 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Foods for hatchery culture systems 9.3 Microalgae 9.4 Zooplankton 9.5 Feed ing strategy fo r larval culture 9.6 Compound hatchery feeds 9.7 Development of arti ficial diets for fi sh larvae 9.8 Harvesting natural plankton 9.9 Pond fertiJisation as a food source for aqu aculture 9.10 Compound feeds 9.11 Dispensing aquaculture feeds

References

10 Diseases Leigh Owens 10.1 Introduction 10.2 General princ iples of diseases in aquaculture 10.3 The phi losophy of disease control 10.4 Generalised disease management techniques 10.5 Major d iseases 10.6 Conclusions

References

I I Post-harvest Technology and Processing Aliall Bremner 11. 1 Introduction J 1.2 Basic characteristics 11.3 Safety and health 11.4 Nutritional aspects 11.5 The balance between safety and nutrition 11.6 Aquaculture and fi sheries products 11.7 Harvesting 11.8 Live transport 11.9 Muscle structure: rigor and texture 11.10 Stunning and post-mortem processing 11.1 1 Effects o f feed on the product

vii

164

164 165 166 177 180 181 182 186 186

188

188 188 188 194 199 200 201 202 202 204 210 212

214

214 214 2 16 2 17 220 228 228

229

229 229 230 23 1 23 1 23 1 232 232 234 236 237

vi ii

11.1 2 11.1 3 11.1 4 11.15 11. 16 11.17 11.18 11. 19 11.20 11.2 1 11.22 11.23

Specialised niche market products Aavours and taints Texture

Contents

Concepts: qual ity, freshness, shelf-l ife and quality index Microbiology, specific spoilage organism (5S0) and other spoilage processes Freezing and frozen storage Packaging Quality control. quality assurance, HACCP and risk assessment Traceabi lity, identification and origin Canning Smoking Concluding remarks References

12 Economics and Marketing Clem Tisdell 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Profitabi lity from a business viewpoint (farm models) 12.3 Markets and marketing 12.4 Economies of scale and similar factors 12.5 Allowing for and coping with business risk and uncertainty 12.6 Economic assessment from a social standpoint

References

13 Seaweed and Mkroalgae Seaweed: Nicholas A. Palll and C. K. Tseng Microalgae: Michael Borowitzka 13. 1 General introduction 13.2 Seaweed 13.3 Microalgae

References

14 Carps Sella De Silva 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Aspects of biology 14.3 Artificia l propagation 14.4 Nutrient requirements 14.5 Culture 14.6 Diseases 14.7 Genetic improvement 14.8 Economjc viability 14.9 Culture-based fisheries 14. 10 Recent developments in carp culture 14. 11 Conclusions

References

15 Salmonids 101111 Purser alld Nigel Fortearh 15. 1 Introduction 15.2 Biology

238 238 239 239 24 1 242 246 248 249 249 250 250 25 1

252

252 253 256 259 26 1 264 266

268

268 268 284 292

294

294 295 296 299 300 307 307 307 308 310 31 1 31 1

313

313 315

Con/ems IX

15.3 Freshwater farming 3 17

15.4 Marine farming 327

15.5 Feeds 33 1

15.6 Grading and stocking densities 333

15.7 Maturation, sex reversal and lriploidy 334

15.8 Fish health 335

15.9 Harvesting and products 336

References 336

16 Tilapias 338

Victor Suresh and Ram C. Bhuje/ 16.1 Introduction 338

16.2 Family, spec ies and genetic variation 339

16.3 Ecology and distri bution 343

16.4 Sex determination and reproduction 344

16.5 Control of reproduction 345

16.6 Seed production 348

16.7 Nutrition, feeds and feeding 350 16.8 Grow-out systems 354 16.9 Disease management 359 16.10 Harvest, processing and marketing 36 1

References 362

17 Channel Catfi sh 365 Craig Tucker 17.1 Introduction 365 17.2 Biology 365 17.3 Commercial culture 366 17.4 Culture fac ilities 367 17.5 Production practices 368 17.6 Water quality management 373 17.7 Nutrition, feeding and feed formulation 375 17.8 In fectious diseases 376 17.9 Harvesting and processing 380 17.10 The future of channel catfish fanning 38 1

References 382

18 Marine Fish 384 John Tricker 18.1 Introduction 384 18.2 Early development 384 18.3 Environmental conditions for culture 387 18.4 Reari ng systems 394 18.5 Fish for stocking 397 18.6 Nutrition of larvae 401 18.7 Larva l culture types 406 18.8 Juven ile and adu lt nutri tion 409 18.9 Health 413 18.10 Family accounts 417

References 443

x Colllents

19 Preventing Diseases in Fish by Vaccination 445

Andrew Barnes 19.1 Definition 445 19.2 History of fish vaccines 445

19.3 Fish Lmmunology in a nutshell 445

19.4 Vaccinating fish 449

19.5 Types of vaccine 449 19.6 Routes of delivery 452 19.7 Adjuvants 456

19.8 Vacc ination in practice 457

19.9 Research and development track for commercial fish vaccines 458 19.1 0 Conclusions 459

References 459

20 Soft-shelled Turtles 460 Qitlgjull SIma

20.1 lntroduction 460 20.2 Biological characteristics 462

20.3 Commercial culture 463 20.4 Cultu re methods and facil ities 464

20.5 Culturing the developmental stages 466 20.6 Water quality 469 20.7 Nutrit ion, feed ing and feed formul ation 469 20.8 Infectious diseases 471

20.9 Harvesting and processing 472 20. 10 The future of soft-shelled turtle farming 474

References 474

21 Marine Shrimp 476 Darryl lory and Tomas Cabrera 21.1 Introduction 476 2 1.2 Cultured species 478 2 1.3 Grow-out systems 481 21.4 Preparation of ponds 484 21.5 Reproduction and maturation 488 21.6 Hatchery des ign and larval cu ilure 491 2 1.7 Seedstock quality and stocking 494 21.8 Production managemen t and harvest 497 21.9 Nutrition, formulated diets and feed management 503 21.1 0 Emerging production technologies and issues 507 21.1 1 Responsible shrimp farm ing and the challenge of sustainabi lity 510

References 512

22 Other Decapod Crustaceans 514 Chaoshu Zeng, Yongxu Cheng, John S. Lucas and Paul C. Southgate 22.1 Introduction 514 22.2 Cultured species 516 22.3 The Chinese mitten crab 517 22.4 Freshwater prawns 522 22.5 Freshwater crayfish 527

22.6 Mud crabs 22.7 Spiny lobsters

References

23 Bivalve Molluscs John S. Lucas 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Aspects of biology 23 .3 Cultured bivalves 23 .4 Phases of bivalve aquaculture 23 .5 Culture problems

Contents

23.6 Introductions and other environmental issues 23.7 Industry reviews 23 .8 The future of bivalve aquaculture

References

24 Gastropod Molluscs Laura Castell 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Abalone 24.3 Conchs 24.4 Trochus 24.5 Stock enhancement 24.6 Conclusion

References

25 Ornamentals Dalliel Kllop (marine) and Jonathan Moorhead (freshwater) 25 .1 Introduction 25.2 The aquatic ornamental industry 25.3 Trade in ornamental fish 25.4 Comparing the freshwater and marine ornamental fish trades 25 .5 Tropical marine ornamentals 25.6 Aquaculture of coral reef fish 25.7 Aquaculture of marine invertebrates 25 .8 Aquaculture of live rock 25:9 Culture versus field collection of mari ne ornamentals 25.10 Tropical freshwater ornamentals 25. I I Commonly traded freshwater species 25.12 Aquaculture of freshwater ornamental species 25.13 Production and marketing goals 25.14 The future of the ornamental industry

References

26 The Next 20 Years Rohana Subw.illghe and Nathanael Hishamunda 26.1 Introduction 26.2 26.3 26.4

Recent trends in aquaculture development and major challenges Aquaculture development slows down, but it continues to grow Marine resources and aquafeeds

xi

533 538 539

541

541 541 545 547 554 558 559 564 565

567

567 569 576 577 579 580 581

583

583 583 583 585 585 586 588 592 593 594 595 597 603 603 603

606

606 606 609 611

xii ColltellfS

26.5 Environmental and social aspects 612 26.6 Diversification and expansion 613 26.7 Communication and networks 614 26.8 Aquaculture insurance 615 26.9 Unexplored opponunities 615 26.10 Conclusions 615

Index 617

Preface to the Second Edition

The rapid growth of aquaculture contin ues at a faster rate than pred icted a decade ago. Total global production by 2007 bad increased by two-thirds over the production reported in the firs t edition of this book. This has been possible because of new techn ical developments, rapid expansion of some new and existi ng industries, and diver­sification in the species utili sed by aquaculture. These eX,cit ing developments provide the basis for this second edition, which includes a major revis ion of production statistics and chapler contents, seven new chapters and a more diverse international authorship and coverage. There arc contributors from 12 countries, and aquacu lture in many more countries is considered. With the increasing imponance of Ch ina as the maj or source of aq uaculture products, there is greater consideration of aquaculture in lhat coun try. There are three new Chinese authors con-

XIII

tributtng to this edition. Sad ly, Professor C. K. Tseng, who contributed Macroalgae in the fi rst ed ition, is now deceased. He is considered to be the ' fa ther of Chinese mariculture' for his great achievements in marine science and outstandi ng leadership in that country over many years.

We express our sincere gratitude to the authors for their commitment in contri buting chapters and, in some cases, for their understanding and patience. We also express our gratitude to our wives, Helen and Dawn, fo r their contribu­tions and suppon . We trust that you will find this new ed ition both helpful and stimulating.

John S. Lucas Paul C. Sourhgate

June 2011

Preface to the First Edition

This textbook seeks 10 convey 10 ils readers the contribu ­tors' enthusiasm for aquaculture and their accumulated knowledge. The contributors are recognised internation­ally in their fi elds. Whi le it is not possible to comprehen­sivel y cover the ranges of aquaculture theory, practices and cultured organi sms in onc textbook, it is our earnest hope that this text will give readers a broad understanding of these topics.

The first part of the text introduces aquaculture with a series of 'theory and practice' topics, rangi ng from tradi­tional topics such as ponds and pumps to contemporary environmental issues, nutrition physiology and genetic engineering. The second part of the text consists of chap­ters dealing with specific organisms, or groups of organ­isms, which illustrate the variety of cu lture methods used in aquaculture. It also provides examples of biological and other factors that make these organisms suitable for culture. The aquatic animals and plan ts treated in the text are but a small proportion of the hundreds of commer-

xiv

cially cultured species; however, they consti tute the most significant commercial components of world aquaculture production . They include the four major groups of cu l­tured organ isms - fi sh, crustaceans, bivalve molluscs and seaweeds; the three broad categories of aquatic environ­ments - fresh, brackish and seawater; and the broad lati­tudinal zones - temperate, subtropical and tropical regions.

We express our sincere grati tude to the authors for their commitment in contri buting chapters and, in some cases, for their understand ing. Mr Michael New, President , European Aquaculture Society, Past-President, World Aquaculture Society. kindly assisted by rev iewing Chapters 1 and 23. We also wish to express our gratitude to our wives. Helen and Dawn, for their substantia l contributions.

l o/m Lucas Paul Southgate

April 2003

List of Contributors

Dr Peter Applcford Department of Sustainability and Environment Victoria Austral ia

Dr Nasser Ayaril Research and Development National Prawn Company Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Associate Professor Andrew Barnes Aquatic Animal Health University of Queensland AUSifai ia

Dr Ram C. Bhujcl Aquaculture and Aq uatic Resources Management Asian Insti tute of Technology Thailand

Professor Michael Borowitzka Biological Science and Biotechnology Murdoch University Australia

Professol' Claude Boyd Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures Auburn University USA

Dr Allan Bremner Allan Bremner and Associates Coolum Beach Australia

Dr Tomas Cabl'era Instituto de Investigaciones Cientificas Universidad de Oriente Venezuela

xv

Dr Laura Castell School of Marine and Tropical Biology James Cook Universi ty Austral ia

Professor Yongxu Cheng Key Laboratory of Aquatic Genetic Resources and Ecology

Shanghai Ocean University P. R. China

Dr Simon Cripps Dorset Wi ld li fe Trust Dorchester UK

Professor Sena De Silva Network of Aquacu lture Centres in Asia Pacific Bangkok

Thailand

Professor Rex Dunham Depa!1ment of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures Auburn Univers ity USA

Professor Nigel Forteath School of Human Li fe Sciences University of Tasman ia Australia

Dr David F rancis Australian Institute of Mari ne Science Townsville

Australia

XVI List of COl1tributors

Professor Gideon Hulata Agricul tural Research Organizat ion Institute o f Animal Science Israel

Dr Nathanael Hishamunda Development and Planni ng Service FAD Fisheries and Aquacuhure Italy

Dr Darryl Jory Divisions of Marine Biology and Fisheries Universi ty of Miami USA

M r Daniel Knop Chief editor ' KORALLE' Sinsheim Germany

Dr Sagiv Kolkovski Marine Aquaculture Western Australia Department of Fisheries Australia

Dr Marti n Kumar SARDI Aquatic Sciences South Australia Austral ia

Mr Jonathan Moorhead School of Marine and Tropical Biology James Cook University Australia

Professor Leigh Owens School of Biomedical and Molecular Sciences James Cook University Austral ia

Dr Nicholas A. Paul School of Marine and Tropical Biology James Cook University Australia

Associate Professor John Purse r Nati onal Centre for Marine Conservation and Resource Sustainabil ity Uni versi ty of Tasmania Australi a

Professor Qingjun Shao College of Animal Sciences Zhejiang University China

Mr Yitzhak S imon Mini stry of Agriculture and Rural Development

Lsrael

Dr Rohana Subasinghe FAO Fisheries and Aquacultu re Department Rome Italy

Dr Victor Suresh United Research (S ingapore) Ply Ltd.

Singapore

Professor Clem T isdell School of Econo mics University of Queensland Austral ia

Professor C. K. Tseng Chinese Academy of Science P. R. China (deceased)

Professor Craig Thcker Nalional Warmwater Aquacu lture Center Mississippi State Univers ity USA

Dr John Thcker Indian Ri ver Insti tu te, Inc. Florida USA

Dr Giovanni Thrchini

School of Life and Environmental Sciences Deakin Universi ty Austral ia

Dr Chaoshu Zeng School of Mari ne and Tropical Biology James Cook University Australia