Upload
nickolas-holland
View
214
Download
0
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
©2002 Prentice Hall
Memory
Chapter 10
©2002 Prentice Hall
Memory Reconstructing the past. Memory and the power of suggestion. In pursuit of memory. The three-box model of memory. How we remember. Why we forget. Autobiographical memories.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Reconstructing the Past The Manufacture of Memory. The Fading Flashbulb. The Conditions of Confabulation.
©2002 Prentice Hall
The Manufacture of Memory Memory
the capacity to retain and retrieve information Memory is a reconstructive process. Recovering a memory is not playing a videotape.
Memory involves inferences that fill in gaps in recall. We are often unaware we have made such inferences.
Source Amnesia The inability to distinguish what you originally
experienced from what you heard or were told later about an event.
©2002 Prentice Hall
The Fading Flashbulb Some unusual, shocking or tragic events
hold a special place in memory. These memories were called Flashbulb
memories because the term captures the surprise, illumination & photographic detail that characterize them.
Even flashbulb memories have errors.
©2002 Prentice Hall
The Conditions of Confabulation Confabulation
Confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you,
or a belief that you remember something when it never actually happened.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Confabulation is most likely when: You have thought about the event many
times. The image of the event contains many
details. The event is easy to imagine You focus on emotional reactions to the
event rather than what actually happened.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Memory and the Power of Suggestion
The eyewitness on trial. Children’s testimony. Memory under hypnosis.
©2002 Prentice Hall
The Eyewitness on Trial Eyewitnesses are not always reliable. Factors which influence accuracy
Cross race identification. Question wording.
Crashed versus hit.
Misleading information.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Children’s Testimony Under what conditions are children
more suggestible? Being very young. When interviewers expectations are clear. When other children’s memories for
events are accessible.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Children’s Testimony If asked if a visitor
committed acts that had not occurred, few 4-6 year olds said yes. 30% of 3-year olds said yes
When investigators used techniques taken from real child-abuse investigations, most children said yes.
Social Pressure, False Allegations
©2002 Prentice Hall
In Pursuit of Memory Measuring memory.
Explicit memory. Implicit memory.
Models of memory.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Explicit Memory Conscious, intentional recollection of an
event or of an item of information. Assessed through: Recall
The ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously learned material.
Recognition The ability to identify previously encountered
material.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Implicit Memory Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced
by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions. Assessed through: Priming
a person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see whether the information affects performance on another type of task.
Relearning compares the time required to relearn material with the
time used in the initial learning of the material.
©2002 Prentice Hall
The Three-Box Model of Memory
Sensory memory: Fleeting impressions. Short-term memory: Memory’s scratch pad. Long-term memory: Final destination.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Three-Box Model of Memory
©2002 Prentice Hall
Sensory Memory: Fleeting Impressions
A memory system that momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory information.
Pattern Recognition The identification of a stimulus on the basis of
information already contained in long-term memory.
Information that is not quickly passed to short term memory is gone forever.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Short-term :Memory’s Scratch Pad In the three-box model of memory, a limited capacity
memory system involved in the retention of information for brief periods; it is also used to hold information retrieved from long-term memory for temporary use.
Working memory A memory system which includes STM and mental processes
that control retrieval of information from LT memory and interpret that information appropriately for a given task.
Chunk Meaningful unit of information which may be composed of
smaller units.
©2002 Prentice Hall
The Value of Chunking You have 5 seconds
to memorize as much as you can
Then, draw an empty chess board and reproduce the arrangement of pieces
©2002 Prentice Hall
Long-term memory: Final Destination The memory system involved in the long
term storage of information One way information is organized is in
semantic categories (i.e., animals).
©2002 Prentice HallConceptual Grid
©2002 Prentice Hall
Contents of Long-Term Memory Procedural memories
Memories for performance of actions or skills. “Knowing how.”
Declarative memories Memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events;
includes semantic and episodic memory. “Knowing that.”
Examples include semantic and episodic memories.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Contents of Long-Term Memory
Semantic memories General knowledge, including facts, rules,
concepts, and propositions. Episodic memories
Personally experienced events and the contexts in which they occurred.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Serial-Position Effect The tendency for
recall of first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list.
©2002 Prentice Hall
The Biology of Memory Forming a memory involves chemical and
structural changes at the level of neurons. In short-term memory, changes within neurons
temporarily alter the neuron’s ability to release transmitters.
In long- term memory, long-term potentiation or a long-lasting increase in the strength of synaptic responsiveness occurs.
Most researchers believe this is the process underlying learning and memory yet exact biochemical and molecular changes still debated.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Consolidation Process by which a long term memory
becomes stable.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Locating Memories New brain imaging and testing shows us that:
During short-term memory tasks, areas of the frontal lobes show activity.
Long- term memory tasks, the hippocampus. Encoding of pictures and words, prefrontal
cortex and areas adjacent to the hippocampus. Procedural memories, specific changes to
cerebellum. Formation of long-term memories, cerebral
cortex.
©2002 Prentice Hall
How We Remember Effective Encoding. Rehearsal. Mnemonics.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal
Rote repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal Association of new information with already
stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorable.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Deep Processing In the encoding of information, the
processing of meaning rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulus.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Comparing Encoding Strategies
©2002 Prentice Hall
Mnemonics Strategies and tricks for improving
memory, such as the use of a verse or a formula. Examples include:
MDAS ROYGBIV Thirty days hath September…
©2002 Prentice Hall
Why We Forget Decay Replacement Interference Cue-dependent forgetting Psychogenic amnesia
©2002 Prentice Hall
Decay Decay Theory
The theory that information in memory eventually disappears if it is not accessed; it applies more to short-term than to long-term memory.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Forgetting Curve Herman Ebbinghaus
tested his own memory for nonsense syllables.
Forgetting was rapid at first and then tapered off.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Replacement The theory that new information entering
memory can wipe out old information. In one study, researchers showed subjects slides
of a traffic accident. The experimental group was mislead into thinking
there was a stop sign instead of a yield sign. Even after being debriefed on the purpose of the
study, subjects insisted that they really saw the stop sign (Loftus et al., 1978).
The new information which came from the researchers replaced what the subjects saw.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Interference Similar items interfere with one
another. Retroactive Interference
Forgetting that occurs when recently learned material interferes with the ability to remember similar material stored previously.
Proactive Interference Forgetting that occurs when
previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Cue-dependent Forgetting
The inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recall.
Physical state can be a memory cue. State-Dependent Memory
The tendency to remember something when the rememberer is in the same physical or mental state as during the original learning or experience.
Mood.
©2002 Prentice Hall
The Repression Controversy Psychogenic Amnesia
The partial or complete loss of memory (due to nonorganic causes) for threatening information or traumatic experiences.
Repression In psychoanalytic theory, the selective
involuntary pushing of threatening or upsetting information into the unconscious.
©2002 Prentice Hall
When should we question recovered memories? If person says he or she has memories of
first year or two of life. If over time the memories become more
and more implausible. If therapist used hypnosis.
©2002 Prentice Hall
Autobiographical Memories Childhood amnesia: The missing years
©2002 Prentice Hall
Childhood Amnesia: The Missing Years Childhood Amnesia
The inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of life.
Cognitive explanations Lack of sense of self. Impoverished encoding. A focus on the routine. Different ways of thinking about the world.