2.0 Fire Safety and Prevention

8/19/2019 2.0 Fire Safety and Prevention

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PSMZA Course Note (Chapter 2)

Ver. 1 (MSH-Jun213): CC608 Building Services 1

2.0 FIRE SAFETY AND PREVENTION SYSTEMFire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermic chemical process of combustion,

releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative processes like rusting ordigestion are not included by this definition.

The flame is the visible portion of the fire. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized

to produce plasma. Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the colorof the flame and the fire's intensity will be different.

Fire in its most common foam can result in conflagration, which has the potential to causephysical damage through burning. Fire is an important process that affects ecological systemsacross the globe. The positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintainingvarious ecological systems. Fire has been used by humans for cooking, generating heat,signaling, and propulsion purposes. The negative effects of fire include water contamination,soil erosion, atmospheric pollution and hazard to life and property.

2.1 Source of FireThe fire triangle or combustion triangle is a simple model for understanding the necessary

ingredients for most fires. The triangle illustrates the three elements a fire needs to ignite:

heat, fuel, and an oxidizing agent (usually oxygen). A fire naturally occurs when the elementsare present and combined in the right mixture, and a fire can be prevented or extinguished byremoving any one of the elements in the fire triangle. For example, covering a fire with a fireblanket removes the "oxygen" part of the triangle and can extinguish a fire.

Fires start when a flammable a combustible material, in combination with a sufficientquantity of an oxidizer such as oxygen gas or another oxygen-rich compound, is exposed to asource of heat or ambient temperature above the flash point for the fuel mix, and is able tosustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces a chain reaction. This is commonly called thefire tetrahedron.

Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions. Forexample, a flammable liquid will start burning only if the fuel and oxygen are in the rightproportions. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance that is not directlyinvolved in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants tocombust more readily.

Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heatby the further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate,provided there is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel.

If the oxidizer is oxygen from the surrounding air, the presence of a force of gravity, or ofsome similar force caused by acceleration, is necessary to produce convection, whichremoves combustion products and brings a supply of oxygen to the fire. Without gravity, a fire

rapidly surrounds itself with its own combustion products and non-oxidizing gases from theair, which exclude oxygen and extinguish it. Because of this, the risk of fire in a spacecraft is

Figure 2.2: Fire tetrahedronFigure 2.1: Fire triangle


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small when it is coasting in inertial f light. Of course, this does not apply if oxygen is suppliedto the fire by some process other than thermal convection.

Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron.Consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stovetop burner. The fire can be extinguishedby any of the following:

i. Turning off the gas supply, which removes the fuel source.ii. Covering the flame completely, which smothers the flame as the combustion both

uses the available oxidizer (the oxygen in the air) and displaces it from the areaaround the flame with CO2.

iii. Application of water, which removes heat from the fire faster than the fire can produceit.

iv. Application of a retardant chemical such as Halon to the flame, which retards thechemical reaction itself until the rate of combustion is too slow to maintain the chainreaction.

2.1.1 Stages of Fire Development

i. Pre-flashover StageFire remains limited in size initially, and can be easily extinguished using a portablefire extinguisher at first. Detection may not occur until flames become visible or whenheat is produced.

ii. Flashover StageHeat becomes intense and high enough to ignite common combustible materialswithin the room, leading to a fully developed fire. This can happen within minutes ofthe pre-flashover stage when the proper conditions are in place.

iii. Post-flashover StageFully developed phase of a fire, whereby all exposed combustibles in the room areinvolved. This may result in total loss of collections within the room; the entire building

is threatened. Flames may spread to other rooms through hallways and ceiling voids.Fire will eventually burn out when all combustibles are consumed. Because fire cangrow and spread rapidly, it is important to detect and extinguish it at the earliest stagepossible in order to reduce the risk of serious damage, injury or loss.

Figure 2.3: Fire development stages


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2.1.2 Source of Fire Fuel Anything that burns is fuel for a fire. To look for the things that will burn reasonably easily

and are in enough quantity to provide fuel for a fire or cause it to spread to another fuelsource.

Some of the most common 'fuels' found in factories and warehouses are:

i. Flammable liquid-based products, such as paints and varnishesii. Flammable chemicals, such as certain cleaning products and photocopier chemicalsiii. Flammable gases such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and flammable refrigerantsiv. Stored goods and high piled or racked storagev. Foodstuffs containing sugar and oils, such as sugar-coated cereal and buttervi. Plastics and rubber, such as video tapes, polyurethane foam-filled furniturevii. Paper products, such as stationery, advertising material and decorations;viii. Packaging materialsix. Plastic and timber storage aids both in use and idle, such as pallets and palletizersx. Combustible insulation, such as panels constructed with combustible cores;xi. Textiles and soft furnishings, such as hanging curtains and clothing displaysxii. Waste products, particularly finely divided items such as shredded paper and wood

shavings, offcuts, dust and litter/rubbish.

2.1.3 Source of Fire Ignition/HeatSome typical sources of ignition include:

i. Exterior and natural sources such as lightningii. Electrical sources such as faulty or overloaded wiring, electrical panels, electrical

equipment and appliances, and HVAC (heating/ventilation/air conditioning) systemsiii. Proximity of combustible materials to a heat source such as portable heatersiv. Open flames such as candles and food warmers used during catered eventsv. "interpretive fires" such as fireplaces, cook stoves, candles, blacksmith shopsvi. Construction and renovation activities such as hot work example welding and paint

removalvii. Improper use, storage, and/or disposal of flammable liquids such as paint thinnersviii. Smoking materials

ix. Gas leaks

2.2 The Spreading of The FireMost fires start in the contents of a

building. But if the flames are not quicklyextinguished while in the content phase; theywill extend to, and throughout the structure. Itspreads throughout concealed spaces, pokethrough walls, common roof or attic spaces.Sometimes even along the outside of thebuilding. Its cause of heat transfer.

Heat transfer is a major factor in theignition, growth, spread, decay and extinctionof a fire. It is important to note that heat isalways transferred from the hotter object tothe cooler object - heat energy transferred toand object increases the object'stemperature, and heat energy transferredfrom and object decreases the object'stemperature

Figure 2.4: Fire spreading


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Fires can spread by four method:

i. Direct ignitionThe ignition system for the fire combustion creates such as a lightning spark thatignites the fuel. Example of direct ignition was open flames, lightning, lighted cigarettebutts and hot ashes.

ii. RadiationRadiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves. It is the type of heat one feelswhen sitting in front of a fireplace or around a campfire. It travels in straight lines atthe speed of light. This is the reason that when facing the fire, only the front iswarmed. The backside is not warmed until the person turns around. The earth isheated by the sun through radiation. Sunburns are a “fact of life” when people areexposed to the sun very long. Most of the preheating of fuels ahead of a fire is byradiation of heat from the fire. As the fire front gets closer, the amount of radiant heatreceived is increased.

iii. ConvectionConvection is heat transfer by the movement of liquids or gasses. Convection is thetransfer of heat by the physical movement of hot masses of air. As air is heated, it

expands (as do all objects). As it expands, it becomes lighter than the surroundingair and it rises. This is why the air near the ceiling of a heated room is warmer thanthat near the floor. The cooler air rushes in from the sides. It is heated in turn and italso rises. Soon a convection column is foamed above the fire which can be seen bythe smoke that is carried aloft in it. This “in-draft” of cooler air from the side helps tosupply additional oxygen for the combustion process to continue.

Figure 2.5: The fire ignition

Figure 2.6: The fire radiation

Figure 2.7: The fire convection


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iv. ConductionConduction is heat transfer within solids material or between contacting solids. Mostmetals are good heat conductors. Wood is a very poor conductor so it transmits heatvery slowly. This can be illustrated by the fact that a wooden handle on a hot fryingpan remains cool enough to be held by the bare hands. Conduction is not animportant factor in the spread of forest fires. Example situation of that were heating

elements, hot metals

2.2.1 The Basic Concept of Fire ControlThe triangle illustrates the three elements a fire needs to ignite: heat, fuel, and an

oxidizing agent (usually oxygen). A fire naturally occurs when the elements are present andcombined in the right mixture and a fire can be prevented or extinguished by removing anyone of the elements in the fire triangle.

To stop a combustion reaction, one of the three elements of the fire-triangle has to beremoved. There are a few basic concepts used for fire control, it’s:

i. Removing HeatHeat can be removed by the application of a substance which reduces the amount ofheat available to the fire reaction. This is often water, which requires heat for phasechange from water to steam. Introducing sufficient quantities and types of powder or

gas in the flame reduces the amount of heat available for the fire reaction in the samemanner. Scraping embers from a burning structure also removes the heat source.Water can be used to lower the temperature of the fuel below the ignition point or toremove or disperse the fuel.

ii. Removing FuelWithout fuel, a fire will stop. Fuel can be removed naturally, as where the fire hasconsumed all the burnable fuel, or manually, by mechanically or chemically removingthe fuel from the fire. Fuel separation is an important factor in fire suppression, and isthe basis for most major tactics, such as controlled burns. The fire stops because alower concentration of fuel vapor in the flame leads to a decrease in energy releaseand a lower temperature. Removing the fuel thereby decreases the heat.

iii. Reducing OxygenWithout sufficient oxygen, a fire cannot begin, and it cannot continue. With adecreased oxygen concentration, the combustion process slows. Oxygen can bedenied to a fire using a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher or a fire blanket. For example,covering a fire with a fire blanket removes the "oxygen" part of the triangle and canextinguish a fire.

iv. Cut-off The Chain ReactionThe fire tetrahedron represents the addition of a component, the chemical chainreaction, to the three already present in the fire triangle. Once a fire has started, theresulting exothermic chain reaction sustains the fire and allows it to continue until orunless at least one of the elements of the fire is blocked. Combustion is the chemicalreaction that feeds a fire more heat and allows it to continue. Inert agents must be

used to break the chain reaction. In the same way, as soon as one of the fourelements of the tetrahedron is removed, combustion stops.

Figure 2.8: The fire conduction


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2.3 Fire Prevention System In A BuildingThe objective of fire prevention system in the building has to take precautions to prevent

potentially harmful fires, and be educated about surviving them. It is a proactive method ofreducing emergencies and the damage caused by them. There are two types of preventingsystem, it’s:

i. Active Fire Protection

ii. Passive Fire Protection

2.3.1 Active Fire Protection (AFP) Active fire protection (AFP) is an integral part of fire protection. AFP is characterized by

items and/or systems, which require a certain amount of motion and response in order towork, contrary to passive fire protection.

There are four categories of AFP, it’s: i. Fire Suppression

Fire can be controlled or extinguished, either manually (firefighting) or automatically.Manual includes the use of a fire extinguisher or a standpipe system. Automaticmeans can include a fire sprinkler system, a gaseous clean agent, or firefighting foamsystem. Automatic suppression systems would usually be found in large commercial

kitchens or other high-risk area. Types of fire suppression were:a. Fire Extinguisherb. Flame Extinguisherc. Fire Hydrantd. Fire Hose reele. Fire Bucketf. Firefighting Foam Systemg. Standpipe (Dry and Wet)h. Fire Blanket

ii. Sprinkler SystemsFire sprinkler systems are installed in all types of buildings, commercial and

residential. They are usually located at ceiling level and are connected to a reliable

water source, most commonly city water. A typical sprinkler system operates whenheat at the site of a fire causes a glass component in the sprinkler head to fail,thereby releasing the water from the sprinkler head. This means that only thesprinkler head at the fire location operates - not all the sprinklers on a floor or in abuilding. Sprinkler systems help to reduce the growth of a fire, thereby increasing lifesafety and limiting structural damage. The types of sprinkler system were:a. Quick Responseb. Standard Responsec. Control Mode Specific application (CMSA)d. Early Suppression Fast Response (ESFR)

iii. Fire DetectionFire is detected either by locating the smoke, flame or heat, and an alarm is

sounded to enable emergency evacuation as well as to dispatch the local firedepartment. An introduction to fire detection and suppression can be found here.Where a detection system is activated, it can be programmed to carry out otheractions. These include de-energizing magnetic hold open devices on fire doors andopening servo-actuated vents in stairways. Types of fire detection were:a. Smoke Detector Systemb. Heat Detector Systemc. Fire Alarm Systemd. Smash Glass


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iv. Hypoxic Air Fire PreventionFire can be prevented by hypoxic air. Hypoxic air fire prevention systems, also

known as oxygen reduction systems are new automatic fire prevention systems thatreduce permanently the oxygen concentration inside the protected volumes so thatignition or fire spreading cannot occur. Unlike traditional fire suppression systems thatusually extinguish fire after it is detected, hypoxic air is able to prevent fires.

a. Carbon Dioxide Gas System

2.3.2 Passive Fire Protection (PFP)Passive fire protection (PFP) is an integral component of the three components of

structural fire protection and fire safety in a building. PFP attempts to contain fires or slow thespread, through use of fire-resistant walls, floors, and doors (amongst other examples). PFPsystems must comply with the associated Listing and approval use and compliance in order toprovide the effectiveness expected by building codes. Examples of PFP component were:

i. Fire-Resistance Rated Wall/Doorii. Firewalliii. Fire-resistant glassiv. Fire-resistance rated floors

v. Occupancy separationsvi. Closuresvii. Fire stopsviii. Grease ductsix. Cable coatingx. Spray fireproofingxi. Fireproofingxii. Enclosures

2.4 Classes of The FireIn firefighting, fires are identified according to one or more fire classes. Each class

designates the fuel involved in the fire, and thus the most appropriate extinguishing agent.

The classifications allow selection of extinguishing agents along lines of effectiveness atputting the type of fire out, as well as avoiding unwanted side-effects. For example, non-conductive extinguishing agents are rated for electrical fires, so to avoid electrocuting thefirefighter. There are six classes of fire to refer in Asian country, it’s seeing on table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Class and types of fuel source

No. Classes Fuel/Heat source

1 A Ordinary combustibles

2 B Flammable liquids

3 C Flammable gases

4 D Combustible metals

5 E Electrical equipment

6 F Cooking oil or fat

2.5 The Fire Extinguisher A fire extinguisher, flame extinguisher, or simply an extinguisher, is an active fire

protection device used to extinguish or control small fires, often in emergency situations. It isnot intended for use on an out-of-control fire, such as one which has reached the ceiling,endangers the user example no escape route, smoke and explosion hazard or otherwiserequires the expertise of a fire department. Typically, a fire extinguisher consists of a hand-held cylindrical pressure vessel containing an agent which can be discharged to extinguish afire.

Portable fire extinguishers apply an extinguishing agent that will cool burning fuel,displace or remove oxygen, or stop the chemical reaction so a fire cannot continue to burn.When the handle of an extinguisher is compressed, agent is expelled out the nozzle. A fireextinguisher works much like a can of hair spray.


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There are two operation types of fire extinguishers:i. Stored pressureii. Cartridge-operated

2.5.1 Stored PressureIn stored pressure units, the expellant is stored in the same chamber as the firefighting

agent itself. Depending on the agent used, different propellants are used. With dry chemicalextinguishers, nitrogen is typically used; water and foam extinguishers typically use air.Stored pressure fire extinguishers are the most common type. These extinguishers usecompressed carbon dioxide instead of nitrogen, although nitrogen cartridges are used on lowtemperature (-60 rated) models.

2.5.2 Cartridge-operatedCartridge-operated extinguishers contain the expellant gas in a separate cartridge that is

punctured prior to discharge, exposing the propellant to the extinguishing agent. This type isnot as common, used primarily in areas such as industrial facilities, where they receivehigher-than-average use. They have the advantage of simple and prompt recharge, allowingan operator to discharge the extinguisher, recharge it, and return to the fire in a reasonableamount of time. Cartridge operated extinguishers are available in dry chemical and dry

powder types in the U.S. and in water, wetting agent, foam, dry chemical (classes ABC andB.C.), and dry powder (class D) types in the rest of the world.

2.5.3 Types of Agent Fire ExtinguishersHandheld extinguishers, which are commonly sold at hardware stores for use in the

kitchen or garage, are pressurized with nitrogen or carbon dioxide (CO2) to propel a stream offire-squelching agent to the fire. The active material may be a powder such as potassiumbicarbonate (KHCO3), liquid water, an evaporating fluorocarbon or the propelling agent itself.

Different types of fire extinguishers are designed to fight different types of fire. The threemost common types of fire extinguishers are: air pressurized water, CO2 (carbon dioxide),and dry chemical. It’s is:

Figure 2.9: The fire extinguishercomponent and operation


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i. Water Fire Extinguisher APW (Air pressurized water) cools burning material by absorbing heat from burningmaterial. Effective on class A fires, it has the advantage of being inexpensive,harmless, and relatively easy to clean up. APW units contain from 6 to 9 liters ofwater in a tall, stainless steel cylinder. Water mist uses a fine misting nozzle to breakup a stream of deionized water to the point of not conducting electricity back to the

operator. Class A and C rated. It is used widely in hospitals for the reason that, unlikeother clean-agent suppressants, it is harmless and non-contaminant.

ii. Foam Fire Extinguisher Applied to fuel fires as either an aspirated (mixed & expanded with air in a branchpipe) or non-aspirated foam to foam a frothy blanket or seal over the fuel, preventingoxygen reaching it. Unlike powder, foam can be used to progressively extinguish fireswithout flashback. More expensive than water, but more versatile. Use for class Aand B fires. Foam spray extinguishers are not recommended for fires involvingelectricity, but are safer than water if inadvertently sprayed onto live electricalapparatus. There are four types of foam used:

a. Aqueous Film Foaming Foam (AFFF)

Used on A and B fires and for vapor suppression. The most common type inportable foam extinguishers. It contains fluoro tensides which can beaccumulated in the human body. The long-term effects of this on the human bodyand environment are unclear at this time.

b. Alcohol-resistant Aqueous Film Foaming Foam ( AR-AFFF)Used on fuel fires containing alcohol. Foams a membrane between the fuel andthe foam preventing the alcohol from breaking down the foam blanket.

c. Film Foaming Fluoro Protein (FFFP)Contains naturally occurring proteins from animal by-products and synthetic film-foaming agents to create a foam blanket that is more heat resistant than thestrictly synthetic AFFF foams. FFFP works well on alcohol-based liquids and is

used widely in motorsports.

d. Compressed Air Foam System (CAFS)Extinguisher that is charged with a foam solution and pressurized withcompressed air. Generally used to extend a water supply in wild land operations.Used on class A fires and with very dry foam on class B for vapor suppression.

iii. Dry Powder Fire ExtinguisherThis is a powder based agent that extinguishes by separating the four parts of the firetetrahedron. It prevents the chemical reactions involving heat, fuel, and oxygen andhalts the production of fire sustaining "free-radicals", thus extinguishing the fire. Thereare seven types or dry powder agent:

a. Mono-ammonium Phosphate Also known as "tri-class", "multipurpose" or "ABC" dry chemical, used on class A,B, and C fires. It receives its class A rating from the agent's ability to melt andflow at 177 °C (350 °F) to smother the fire. More corrosive than other drychemical agents. Pale yellow in color.

b. Sodium Bicarbonate"regular" or "ordinary" used on class B and C fires, was the first of the drychemical agents developed. In the heat of a fire, it releases a cloud of carbondioxide that smothers the fire. That is, the gas drives oxygen away from the fire,thus stopping the chemical reaction. This agent is not generally effective on class

A fires because the agent is expended and the cloud of gas dissipates quickly,and if the fuel is still sufficiently hot, the fire starts up again. While liquid and gas

fires don't usually store much heat in their fuel source, solid fires do.


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c. Potassium Bicarbonate (Purple-K)Used on class B and C fires. About two times as effective on class B fires assodium bicarbonate, it is the preferred dry chemical agent of the oil and gasindustry. The only dry chemical agent certified for use in ARFF by the NFPA.Violet in color.

d. Potassium Bicarbonate & Urea Complex (Monnex/Powerex)Used on class B and C fires. More effective than all other powders due to itsability to decrepitate (where the powder breaks up into smaller particles) in theflame zone creating a larger surface area for free radical inhibition. Grey in color.

e. Potassium Chloride or Super-KDry chemical was developed in an effort to create a high efficiency, protein-foamcompatible dry chemical. Developed in the 60s, prior to Purple-K, it was never aspopular as other agents since, being a salt, it was quite corrosive. For B and Cfires, white in color.

f. Foam-CompatibleWhich is a sodium bicarbonate (BC) based dry chemical, was developed for use

with protein foams for fighting class B fires. Most dry chemicals contain metalstearates to waterproof them, but these will tend to destroy the foam blanketcreated by protein (animal) based foams. Foam compatible type uses silicone asa waterproofing agent, which does not harm foam. Effectiveness is identical toregular dry chemical, and it is light green in color. This agent is generally nolonger used since most modern dry chemicals are considered compatible withsynthetic foams such as AFFF.

g. MET-L-KYL / PYROKYLSpecialty variation of sodium bicarbonate for fighting pyrophoric liquid fires (igniteon contact with air). In addition to sodium bicarbonate, it also contains silica gelparticles. The sodium bicarbonate interrupts the chain reaction of the fuel and thesilica soaks up any unburned fuel, preventing contact with air. It is effective on

other class B fuels as well. Blue/Red in color.

iv. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Fire Extinguisher A clean gaseous agent which displaces oxygen. Not intended for class A fires, as thehigh-pressure cloud of gas can scatter burning materials. CO2 is not suitable for useon fires containing their own oxygen source, metals or cooking media. Although it canbe rather successful on a person on fire, its use should be avoided where possible asit can cause frostbite and is dangerous to use as it may displace the oxygen neededfor breathing, causing suffocation.

The following table provides information regarding the type of fire and which fireextinguisher should be used.


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Table 2.2: Types of extinguisher justificationClasses of

FireTypes of Fires Picture Symbol

Extinguisher Color/Label andExtinguishing Agent

A Wood, paper,textiles, etc

Water

Foam Spray ABC Dry Powder

Class F Wet Chemical

BFlammable

liquids

Foam Spray

ABC Dry Powder

C Flammablegases ABC Dry Powder

D Metal Class D Powder

E Electrical ABC Dry Powder

Carbon Dioxide

FCooking oil and

fat firesClass F Wet Chemical

2.6 Rules of The Fire Prevention By The Malaysian Fire Department and Building by LawIn Malaysia, the government organization that is responsible towards fire and life safety is

the Fire and Rescue Department Malaysia (FRDM). The fire safety standards implementedare in accordance with the regulations in the Uniform Building By-Law (UBBL) 1984, NFPAcodes and standards, Fire Services Act 1988 and the Hazardous Material (HAZMAT) codeand guide.

2.6.1 Uniform Building By-Law (UBBL) 1984UBBL is a published document, which is used as a required safety standard and is

emphasized by the government. The FRDM strives to discharge its responsibilities in itsprevention and safety programs, and also to increase its enforcement in relation toinspections of buildings and business licensing activities, in accordance to UBBL especially inrelation to Part 7 (Fire Requirements) and Part 8 (Fire Alarm, Fire Detection, FireExtinguishment and Fire Fighting Access).

2.6.2 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Codes and StandardsNFPA is an international non-profit organization which is authorized on fire, electrical and

building safety. The NFPA was established in 1896 and it serves as the world’s leadingadvocate in fire prevention and is an authoritative source for information on fire safety. TheBuilding Code and Regional Fire Code Development Committees provide representative inputto the NFPA’s codes and standards and have helped develop about 300 codes and standardswhich are used in every building, process, service, design and installation in many countries.It has earned accreditation from the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Apart fromthat, NFPA 1600, the National Standard on Disaster / Emergency Management and BusinessContinuity Programs provides a “total program approach” to the challenge of integratingdisaster and emergency management with business continuity planning.

2.6.3 Fire Services Act 1988

The Fire Services Act 1988 is implemented to make necessary provision for the effectiveand efficient functioning of the Fire Services Department, and also for the protection of


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persons and property from fire risks and other purposes connected therewith. Generally, this Act explains the duties of the Fire Service Department and consists of implementing fireprevention, fire safety inspection and fire hazard abatement, investigation and prosecution.

2.6.4 Hazardous material (HAZMZAT) Code and GuideHazardous Material (HAZMAT) code and guide is actually conforming to National Institute

for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) recommended standards.

2.6.5 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): Subpart F-Fire Protection andPrevention 1926.150: Fire Protectio n

i. 1926.150(a) General requirements. (1) “The employer shall be responsible for thedevelopment of a fire protection program to be followed throughout all phases of theconstruction and demolition work, and he shall provide for the firefighting equipmentas specified in this subpart. As fire hazards occur, there shall be no delay in providingthe necessary equipment.”

ii. 1926.150(a)(2) “Access to all available firefighting equipment shall be maintained atall times.”

iii. 1926.150(a)(3) “All firefighting equipment, provided by the employer, shall beconspicuously located.”

iv. 1926.150(c) Portable firefighting equipment-(1) Fire extinguishers and small hoselines. (i) “A fire extinguisher, rated not less than 2A, shall be provided for each 3,000square feet of the protected building area, or major fraction thereof. Travel distancefrom any point of the protected area to the nearest fire extinguisher shall not exceed100 feet.”

v. 1926.150(c)(1)(ii) “One 55-gallon open drum of water with two fire pails may besubstituted for a fire extinguisher having a 2A rating.”

vi. 1926.150(c)(1)(v) “Extinguishers and water drums, subject to freezing, shall beprotected from freezing.”

vii. 1926.150(c)(1)(vii) “Carbon tetrachloride and other toxic vaporizing liquid fireextinguishers are prohibited.”

viii. 1926.150(c)(1)(viii) “Portable fire extinguishers shall be inspected periodically andmaintained in accordance with Maintenance and Use of Portable Fire Extinguishers,NFPA No. 10A-1970.”

ix. 1926.150(d)(2) Standpipes. “In all structures in which standpipes are required, orwhere standpipes exist in structures being altered, they shall be brought up as soonas applicable laws permit, and shall be maintained as construction progresses in

such a manner that they are always ready for fire protection use. The standpipesshall be provided with Siamese fire department connections on the outside of thestructure, at the street level, which shall be conspicuously marked. There shall be atleast one standard hose outlet at each floor.”

x. 1926.150(e) Fire alarm devices. (1) “An alarm system e.g., telephone system, siren,etc., shall be established by the employer whereby employees on the site and thelocal fire department can be alerted for an emergency.”


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2.8.1 Escape Route SignageFor an escape route signing system to be effective, it is recommended that from any

place within the building occupants should have sight of a sign or series of signs (Exit or FireExit), which leads them to a place of safety. This recommendation is laid down to fulfill theobligations of employers, managers or occupiers, to ensure that personnel and visitors areaware of their immediate escape route. This obligation is a requirement under Fire Precaution

and Health and Safety at Work Regulations and Legislation.

Table 2.3: Escape route sign and locationSign Meaning as viewed from in front of the sign Examples of location

1. Progress down to the right (indicating changeof level).

1. On wall or suspended at head ofstairs or ramp.

2. On half landing wall of stairs.3. Suspended at change of level.

1. Progress up to the right (indicating change oflevel).

2. Progress forward and across to the right fromhere (when suspended within an open area).

1. On wall or suspended at foot ofstairs or ramp.

2. On half landing wall of stairs.3. Suspended at change of level.4. Suspended in open areas.

1. Progress down to the left (indicating change oflevel).

1. On wall or suspended at head of

stairs.2. On half landing wall of stairs.3. Suspended at change of level.

1. Progress up to the left (indicating change oflevel).

2. Progress forward and across to the left fromhere (when suspended within an open area).

1. On wall or suspended at foot ofstairs or ramp.

2. On half landing wall of stairs.3. Suspended at change of level.4. Suspended in open areas.

1. Progress forward from here (indicatingdirection of travel).

2. Progress forward and through from here;when sign is sited above a door (indicatingdirection of travel).

3. Progress forward and up from here (indicatingchange of level).

1. Suspended in corridor leading todoor.

2. Suspended in front of door.3. Positioned above door.4. Suspended in open areas.5. Suspended at foot of stairs or

ramp.

1. Progress to the right from here (indicatingdirection of travel).

1. On corridor walls.

2. Suspended adjacent and left ofthe exit.

3. Suspended at change of direction.

1. Progress to the left from here (indicatingdirection of travel).

1. On corridor walls.2. Suspended adjacent and right of

the exit.3. Suspended at change of direction.

1. Progress down from here (indicating changeof level).

1. Suspended at head of stairs orramp.

2. Suspended at change of level.

A fire escape is a special kind of emergency exit, usually mounted to the outside of abuilding or occasionally inside but separate from the main areas of the building. It provides a

method of escape in the event of a fire or other emergency that makes the stairwells inside abuilding inaccessible.

When determining whether the premises have adequate escape routes, we need toconsider a number of factors, including:

i. The type and number of people using the premisesii. Escape timeiii. The age and construction of the premisesiv. The number and complexity of escape routes and exitsv. Whether lifts can or need to be usedvi. The use of phased or delayed alarm evacuationvii. Assisted means of escape/personal evacuation plans


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2.8.2 Fire Fighting Equipment and Location SignPart of a formal risk assessment is ensuring that all firefighting equipment can be easily

located, when required. The risk assessment should also ensure that the equipment located

displays the correct classes of fire for safe and effective use. The use of appropriatelydisplayed signs at the fire point will make a positive contribution to the framework of FireSafety Management.

Figure 2.10: Standardize size of escape route

Figure 2.11: Example of fire equipment sign


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2.8.3 Escape Equipment SignTo ensure a safe, efficient and effective escape from a building, it is recommended that all

doors within a means of escape containing emergency devices, are clearly marked with theappropriate operating instructions.

2.8.4 Mandatory Fire Action SignIt is recommended that the actions to be taken in the event of a fire are displayed inconspicuous locations throughout the building. An example of this is at fire alarm call points,as the primary action in the event of a fire is to raise the alarm and summon the Fire Brigade.

2.8.5 Mandatory Door Instruction Sign

The use of mandatory door instruction signs is recommended to support the principles ofgood fire safety management and emergency planning procedures. The protection of escaperoutes from the influx of smoke, or the spread of fire, is almost totally dependent upon thequality of confinement.

Figure 2.12: Example of escape equipment sign

Figure 2.13: Example ofmandatory fire action

Figure 2.14: Example ofmandatory door instruction


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2.8.6 Prohibition SignThe prevention of a fire, and the safety of personnel, is fundamental in supporting good firesafety management. The display of prohibition signs can assist in the prevention of anyactivity which is likely to cause risk or injury. It is recommended that these signs are displayedin conspicuous positions throughout the building.

2.8.7 Hazard Warning SignThe identification of risk to personnel is fundamental to the fire risk assessment. The

display of appropriate prohibition or mandatory signs will endorse the best practice in FireSafety Management.

2.8.8 Fire Escape Route A fire escape is a special kind of emergency exit, usually mounted to the outside of a

building or occasionally inside but separate from the main areas of the building. It provides amethod of escape in the event of a fire or other emergency that makes the stairwells inside abuilding inaccessible. Fire escapes are most often found on multiple-story residentialbuildings, such as apartment buildings. At one time, they were a very important aspect of firesafety for all new construction in urban areas; more recently, however, they have fallen out ofcommon use.

A fire escape consists of a number of horizontal platforms, one at each story of a building,with ladders or stairs connecting them. The platform and stairs are usually open steelgratings, to prevent the buildup of ice, snow, and leaves. Railings are usually provided oneach of the levels, but as fire escapes are designed for emergency use only, these railings

often do not need to meet the same standards as railings in other contexts. The ladder fromthe lowest level of the fire escape to the ground may be fixed, but more commonly it swingsdown on a hinge or slides down along a track. The moveable designs allow occupants tosafely reach the ground in the event of a fire but prevent persons from accessing the fireescape from the ground at other times (such as to perpetrate a burglary or vandalism).

Exit from the interior of a building to the fire escape may be provided by a fire exit door,but in some cases the only exit is through a window. When there is a door, it is often fittedwith a fire alarm to prevent other uses of the fire escape, and to prevent unauthorized entry.

As many fire escapes were built before the advent of electronic fire alarms, fire escapes inolder buildings have often needed to be retrofitted with alarms for this purpose.

Figure 2.16: Example of hazardwarning sign

Figure 2.15: Example of prohibitionsign


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Figure 2.17: Example of escape route map

Figure 2.18: Example of emergency evacuation map


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2.9 Losses Caused By FireThe positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological

systems. Fire has been used by humans for cooking, generating heat, signaling, andpropulsion purposes. The negative effects of fire include water contamination, soil erosion,atmospheric pollution and hazard to life and property. Fire is a significant impact on thevictims and the environment. It is directly affect the quality of life over a fire.

i. Effect Hazard to LifeMost fire deaths are not caused by burns, but by smoke inhalation. Often smokeincapacitates so quickly that people are overcome and can’t make it to an otherwiseaccessible exit. The synthetic materials commonplace in today’s homes producesespecially dangerous substances. As a fire grows inside a building, it will oftenconsume most of the available oxygen, slowing the burning process. This “incompletecombustion” results in toxic gases.

ii. Effect Fire to PropertyFires cause tremendous wastage of property. Malaysian Fire and Rescue Departmentto assess the losses due to fire and residential buildings during 2012 worth RM761million and involving 89 deaths. Loss is seen directly but in terms of economic loss

suffered is far greater as job loss, business, customer, injury, disability and death

iii. Atmosphere PollutionUnburned, partially burned, and completely burned substances can be so small theypenetrate the respiratory system’s protective filters, and lodge in the lungs. Some areactively toxic; others are irritating to the eyes and digestive system. Fog like dropletsof liquid can poison if inhaled or absorbed through the skin.

The most common, carbon monoxide (CO), can be deadly, even in small quantities,as it replaced oxygen in the bloodstream. Hydrogen cyanide results from the burningof plastics, such as PVC pipe, and interferes with cellular respiration. Phosgene isfoamed when household products, such as vinyl materials, are burned. At low levels,phosgene can cause itchy eyes and a sore throat; at higher levels it can cause

pulmonary edema and death.

iv. Effect of Fire Heat And Flame Air temperature has a direct influence on fire behavior because of the heatrequirements for ignition and continuing the combustion process. During fires,enormous amounts of heat are often liberated. The flame is the visible portion of thefire. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma. Depending onthe substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the fire'sintensity will be different. Heat also potential to cause physical damage throughburning.

A flame is a mixture of reacting gases and solids emitting visible, infrared, andsometimes ultraviolet light, the frequency spectrum of which depends on the chemical

composition of the burning material and intermediate reaction products. Burningchemical product can make a toxicity smoke. Following smoke inhalation, toxicitymay result either from thermal injury, or from the toxic effects of substances present.

v. Soil ErosionMany physical, chemical, mineralogical, and biological soil properties can be affectedby fires. The effects are chiefly a result of burn severity, which consists of peaktemperatures and duration of the fire. Climate, vegetation, and topography of theburnt area control the resilience of the soil system; some fire-induced changes caneven be permanent.

Low to moderate severity fires, such as most of those prescribed in management,promote renovation of the dominant vegetation through elimination of undesired

species and transient increase of pH and available nutrients. No irreversible


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ecosystem change occurs, but the enhancement of hydrophobicity can render the soilless able to soak up water and more prone to erosion.

Severe fires, such as wildfire, generally have several negative effects on soil. Theycause significant removal of organic matter, deterioration of both structure andporosity, considerable loss of nutrients through volatilization, ash entrapment in

smoke columns, leaching and erosion, and marked alteration of both quantity andspecific composition of microbial and soil-dwelling invertebrate communities.

vi. Water ContaminationIn many firefighting situations, large quantities of water remain after the fire has beenextinguished. The water contains materials present in the building and also containsdissolved and particulate materials from combustion processes and materialsgenerated through quenching. Fire water can be particularly polluting when thebuilding or site being extinguished itself contains potentially polluting materials suchas pesticides, organic and inorganic chemical reagents, fertilizers, etc.

Certain types of premises including farms and the chemical industry pose specialrisks because of the types of materials present. Premises containing quantities of

plastics can also cause severe problems because of the taste and odor imparted tothe fire water. Releasing contaminated fire water into a river or other water sourcesubsequently used to supply drinking water may render the untreated water supplyunsuitable for drinking or food preparation.

2.10 Fire Preventive Measurement By The SocietyPreventive management is defined as an agent or device intended to prevent conception.

Preventive management includes education and training, electrical inspection, renovationinspection, pest control programmed and good housekeeping practice, signage, operationand maintenance of fire equipment and fire drill procedures.

Fire safety to community is a process where a local authority and other organizations in

partnership plan, provide and promote the wellbeing of their communities. It allows the activeinvolvement of communities in the decisions on local services, which affect people's livespublic fire safety education. It becomes part of the interest against fire safety awareness inthe community. The program includes:

i. Education and Trainingii. Inspection of Electrical Installationiii. Renovation Precaution and Inspectioniv. Pest Control program and Good Housekeeping Practicesv. Fire Signagevi. Inspection, Operation and Maintenance of Fire Safety Equipmentvii. Fire and Evacuation Drill Procedureviii. Building Emergency Procedure Manualix. Emergency Response Team

x. Fire Identification and Notificationxi. Emergency Evacuation and Relocationxii. House Hazardous

All programs tend to mix messages of general injury prevention, safety, fire prevention,and escape in case of fire. In most cases the fire department representative is regarded asthe expert and is expected to present information in a manner that is appropriate for each agegroup.


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2.11 References

BooksEgan M David (1986). The Building Fire Safety Concept. University Technology Malaysia,

Skudai.

Fullerton R. L. (1979). Building Construction in Warm Climates. Volume 1, 2, 3. OxfordUniversity Press, United Kingdom.

Hall F. (2000). Building Services & Equipment. Pearson Limited, England.

MS EN 81-1:2012. Malaysian Standard. Safety Rules for the Construction and Installation ofLift- Part1: electric Lifts (first revision). Department of Standards Malaysia.

Nor Rizman (2010). Risk Assessment for Demolition Works In Malaysia. Faculy of CivilEngineering and Earth Resources, Universiti Malaysia Pahang. Undergraduatethesis.

Prashant A/L Tharmarajan (2007(. The Essential Aspects of Fire Safety Management In Hihg-

Rise Buildings. University Teknologi Malaysia. Degree of master science thesis.

Riger W. Haines, Douglas C. Hittle (2006). Control System for Heating, Ventilating and AirConditioning. Springer-Verlag, New York.

Stein, Benjamin, Reynolds, John S., Grondzik, Walter T., and Alison G. Kwok, (2006).Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings. 10th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey:John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2006.

Tan, C. W. and Hiew, B.K., (2004), “Effective Management of Fire Safety in a High-RiseBuilding”, Buletin Ingenieur vol. 204, 12-19.

Journals

N.H. Salleh and A.G. Ahmad. (2009). Fire Safety Management In Heritage Buildings: TheCurrent Scenario In Malaysia. CIPA Symposium Kyoto Japan. UIAM and USM.

Code of Practices Approved Code Of Practice For Demolition: Health And Safety In Employment Act 1992.

Issued And Approved By The Minister Of Labour September 1994.

Code of Practice for Lift Works and Escalator Works. (2002 ed).

Code Of Practice For Demolition Of Buildings 2004. Published by the Building Department.

Printed by Taiwan Government Logistics Department.

Code Of Practice For Demolition Of Buildings (2009). Malaysia Standard Supersede Ms 282Part 1: 1975. Technical Committee For Construction Practices Under TheSupervision Of Construction Industry Development Board, Malaysia.

Demolition Work Code Of Practice (July 2012). Australian Government.

Work Health and Safety (Demolition Work Code of Practice) Approval 2012. AustralianCapital Territory. By Dr Chris Bourke, Minister for Industrial Relations.


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Others Publishing

Coby Frampton. Benchmarking World-class maintenance. CMC Charles Brooks Associates,Inc.

Electrical Installation and Systems (2006). Training Package UEE06. Industry Skills Council,

Australia.

Fire Safety Manual (2002). Florida Atlantic University USA.

Garis panduan Pendawaian Elektrik di bangunan Kediaman (2008). Suruhanjaya TenagaMalaysia. Jabatan Keselamatan Elektrik.

Laws of Malaysia. Act 341: Fire Services Act 1988. Publish by The Commissioner Of LawRevision, Malaysia Under The Authority Of The Revision Of Laws Act 1968 InCollaboration With Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Bhd 2006.

Operations & Maintenance Best Practices: A Guide to Achieving Operational Efficiency.(August 2010). Release 3.0.

Principles of Home Inspection: Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps. (2010). Educational CourseNote.

Routine Maintenance Modules. Part II.

Uniform Building By Law 1984. (1996). MDC Legal Advisers: MDC Publishers Printers

Guidelines For Applicants For A Demolition Licence Issued Under The Occupational Safety And Health Regulations 1996. Occupational Safety And Health Act 198. TheGovernment of Commerce, Western Autralia.

Websites

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity

http://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_generation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_safety

http://www.usfa.fema.gov/citizens/home_fire_prev/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maintenance,_repair,_and_operations

http://academia.edu/406774/Demolition_Work_in_Malaysia_The_Safety_Provisions

http://www.mbam.org.my/mbam/doc/news/010-05Oct09-COP%20Demolition%20Works-corrected%20on%20%2030th%20sept%202009-1.doc

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demolition

http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/700/Demolition%20Work.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_conditioning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_generationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_safetyhttp://www.usfa.fema.gov/citizens/home_fire_prev/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maintenance,_repair,_and_operationshttp://academia.edu/406774/Demolition_Work_in_Malaysia_The_Safety_Provisionshttp://www.mbam.org.my/mbam/doc/news/010-05Oct09-COP%20Demolition%20Works-corrected%20on%20%2030th%20sept%202009-1.dochttp://www.mbam.org.my/mbam/doc/news/010-05Oct09-COP%20Demolition%20Works-corrected%20on%20%2030th%20sept%202009-1.dochttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demolitionhttp://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/700/Demolition%20Work.pdfhttp://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/700/Demolition%20Work.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_conditioninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_conditioninghttp://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/700/Demolition%20Work.pdfhttp://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/700/Demolition%20Work.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demolitionhttp://www.mbam.org.my/mbam/doc/news/010-05Oct09-COP%20Demolition%20Works-corrected%20on%20%2030th%20sept%202009-1.dochttp://www.mbam.org.my/mbam/doc/news/010-05Oct09-COP%20Demolition%20Works-corrected%20on%20%2030th%20sept%202009-1.dochttp://academia.edu/406774/Demolition_Work_in_Malaysia_The_Safety_Provisionshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maintenance,_repair,_and_operationshttp://www.usfa.fema.gov/citizens/home_fire_prev/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity_generationhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity


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http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/heat-island-sprawl.html

http://www.projectnoah.org/education

http://unfccc.int/files/methods_and_science/other_methodological_issues/interactions_with_ozone_layer/application/pdf/subgene.pdf

http://www.cibse.org/Docs/barney2.doc

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Building_Services/Vertical_Transportation
http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/heat-island-sprawl.htmlhttp://www.projectnoah.org/educationhttp://unfccc.int/files/methods_and_science/other_methodological_issues/interactions_with_ozone_layer/application/pdf/subgene.pdfhttp://unfccc.int/files/methods_and_science/other_methodological_issues/interactions_with_ozone_layer/application/pdf/subgene.pdfhttp://www.cibse.org/Docs/barney2.dochttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Building_Services/Vertical_Transportationhttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Building_Services/Vertical_Transportationhttp://www.cibse.org/Docs/barney2.dochttp://unfccc.int/files/methods_and_science/other_methodological_issues/interactions_with_ozone_layer/application/pdf/subgene.pdfhttp://unfccc.int/files/methods_and_science/other_methodological_issues/interactions_with_ozone_layer/application/pdf/subgene.pdfhttp://www.projectnoah.org/educationhttp://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/heat-island-sprawl.html